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= Exponentiation =
Exponentiation is a mathematical operation , written as bn , involving two numbers , the base b and the exponent n . When n is a positive integer , exponentiation corresponds to repeated multiplication of the base : that is , bn is the product of multiplying n bases :
<formula>
In that case , bn is called the n @-@ th power of b , or b raised to the power n .
The exponent is usually shown as a superscript to the right of the base . Some common exponents have their own names : the exponent 2 ( or 2nd power ) is called the square of b ( b2 ) or b squared ; the exponent 3 ( or 3rd power ) is called the cube of b ( b3 ) or b cubed . The exponent − 1 of b , or 1 / b , is called the reciprocal of b .
When n is a negative integer and b is not zero , bn is naturally defined as 1 / b − n , preserving the property bn × bm = bn + m .
The definition of exponentiation can be extended to allow any real or complex exponent . Exponentiation by integer exponents can also be defined for a wide variety of algebraic structures , including matrices .
Exponentiation is used extensively in many fields , including economics , biology , chemistry , physics , and computer science , with applications such as compound interest , population growth , chemical reaction kinetics , wave behavior , and public @-@ key cryptography .
= = History of the notation = =
The term power was used by the Greek mathematician Euclid for the square of a line . Archimedes discovered and proved the law of exponents , 10a 10b
= 10a + b , necessary to manipulate powers of 10 . In the 9th century , the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Mūsā al @-@ Khwārizmī used the terms mal for a square and kahb for a cube , which later Islamic mathematicians represented in mathematical notation as m and k , respectively , by the 15th century , as seen in the work of Abū al @-@ Hasan ibn Alī al @-@ Qalasādī .
In the late 16th century , Jost Bürgi used Roman numerals for exponents .
Early in the 17th century , the first form of our modern exponential notation was introduced by Rene Descartes in his text titled La Géométrie ; there , the notation is introduced in Book I.
Nicolas Chuquet used a form of exponential notation in the 15th century , which was later used by Henricus Grammateus and Michael Stifel in the 16th century . The word " exponent " was coined in 1544 by Michael Stifel . Samuel Jeake introduced the term indices in 1696 . In the 16th century Robert Recorde used the terms square , cube , zenzizenzic ( fourth power ) , sursolid ( fifth ) , zenzicube ( sixth ) , second sursolid ( seventh ) , and zenzizenzizenzic ( eighth ) . Biquadrate has been used to refer to the fourth power as well .
Some mathematicians ( e.g. , Isaac Newton ) used exponents only for powers greater than two , preferring to represent squares as repeated multiplication . Thus they would write polynomials , for example , as ax + bxx + cx3 + d .
Another historical synonym , involution , is now rare and should not be confused with its more common meaning .
In 1748 Leonhard Euler wrote " consider exponentials or powers in which the exponent itself is a variable . It is clear that quantities of this kind are not algebraic functions , since in those the exponents must be constant . " With this introduction of transcendental functions , Euler laid the foundation for the modern introduction of natural logarithm as the inverse function for y =
ex .
= = Terminology = =
The expression b2
= b ⋅ b is called the square of b because the area of a square with side @-@ length b is b2 . It is pronounced " b squared " .
The expression b3 =
b ⋅ b ⋅ b is called the cube of b because the volume of a cube with side @-@ length b is b3 . It is pronounced " b cubed " .
The exponent indicates how many copies of the base are multiplied together . For example , 35 |
= 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 =
243 . The base 3 appears 5 times in the repeated multiplication , because the exponent is 5 . Here , 3 is the base , 5 is the exponent , and 243 is the power or , more specifically , the fifth power of 3 , 3 raised to the fifth power , or 3 to the power of 5 .
The word " raised " is usually omitted , and very often " power " as well , so 35 is typically pronounced " three to the fifth " or " three to the five " . The exponentiation bn can be read as b raised to the n @-@ th power , or b raised to the power of n , or b raised by the exponent of n , or most briefly as b to the n .
Exponentiation may be generalized from integer exponents to more general types of numbers .
= = Integer exponents = =
The exponentiation operation with integer exponents requires only elementary algebra .
= = = Positive integer exponents = = =
Formally , powers with positive integer exponents may be defined by the initial condition
<formula>
and the recurrence relation
<formula>
From the associativity of multiplication , it follows that for any positive integers m and n ,
<formula>
= = = Zero exponent = = =
Any nonzero number raised by the exponent 0 is 1 ; one interpretation of such a power is as an empty product . The case of 00 is discussed below .
= = = Negative exponents = = =
The following identity holds for an arbitrary integer n and nonzero b :
<formula>
Raising 0 by a negative exponent is left undefined .
The identity above may be derived through a definition aimed at extending the range of exponents to negative integers .
For non @-@ zero b and positive n , the recurrence relation from the previous subsection can be rewritten as
<formula>
By defining this relation as valid for all integer n and nonzero b , it follows that
<formula>
and more generally for any nonzero b and any nonnegative integer n ,
<formula>
This is then readily shown to be true for every integer n .
= = = Combinatorial interpretation = = =
For nonnegative integers n and m , the power nm is the number of functions from a set of m elements to a set of n elements ( see cardinal exponentiation ) . Such functions can be represented as m @-@ tuples from an n @-@ element set ( or as m @-@ letter words from an n @-@ letter alphabet ) .
= = = Identities and properties = = =
The following identities hold for all integer exponents , provided that the base is non @-@ zero :
<formula>
Exponentiation is not commutative . This contrasts with addition and multiplication , which are . For example , 2 + 3 |
= 3 + 2 =
5 and 2 ⋅ 3 |
= 3 ⋅ 2 =
6 , but 23 |
= 8 , whereas 32 =
9 .
Exponentiation is not associative either . Addition and multiplication are . For example , ( 2 + 3 ) + 4 |
= 2 + ( 3 + 4 ) =
9 and ( 2 ⋅ 3 ) ⋅ 4 |
= 2 ⋅ ( 3 ⋅ 4 ) =
24 , but 23 to the 4 is 84 or 4096 , whereas 2 to the 34 is 281 or 2417851639229258349412352 . Without parentheses to modify the order of calculation , by convention the order is top @-@ down , not bottom @-@ up :
<formula>
While Google and WolframAlpha follow the above convention , note that some computer programs such as Microsoft Office Excel or Matlab associate to the left instead , i.e. a ^ b ^ c is evaluated as ( a ^ b ) ^ c .
= = = Particular bases = = =
= = = = Powers of ten = = = =
In the base ten ( decimal ) number system , integer powers of 10 are written as the digit 1 followed or preceded by a number of zeroes determined by the sign and magnitude of the exponent . For example , 103 |
= 1000 and 10 − 4 =
0 @.@ 0001 .
Exponentiation with base 10 is used in scientific notation to denote large or small numbers . For instance , 299792458 m / s ( the speed of light in vacuum , in metres per second ) can be written as 2 @.@ 99792458 × 108 m / s and then approximated as 2 @.@ 998 × 108 m / s .
SI prefixes based on powers of 10 are also used to describe small or large quantities . For example , the prefix kilo means 103 = 1000 , so a kilometre is 1000 m .
= = = = Powers of two = = = =
The positive powers of 2 are important in computer science because there are 2n possible values for an n @-@ bit binary register .
Powers of 2 are important in set theory since a set with n members has a power set , or set of all subsets of the original set , with 2n members .
The negative powers of 2 are commonly used , and the first two have special names : half , and quarter .
In the base 2 ( binary ) number system , integer powers of 2 are written as 1 followed or preceded by a number of zeroes determined by the sign and magnitude of the exponent . For example , two to the power of three is written as 1000 in binary .
= = = = Powers of one = = = =
The powers of one are all one : 1n = 1 .
= = = = Powers of zero = = = =
If the exponent is positive , the power of zero is zero : 0n
= 0 , where n > 0 .
If the exponent is negative , the power of zero ( 0n , where n < 0 ) is undefined , because division by zero is implied .
If the exponent is zero , some authors define 00 =
1 , whereas others leave it undefined , as discussed below under § Zero to the power of zero .
= = = = Powers of minus one = = = =
If n is an even integer , then ( − 1 ) n
= 1 .
If n is an odd integer , then ( − 1 ) n =
− 1 .
Because of this , powers of − 1 are useful for expressing alternating sequences . For a similar discussion of powers of the complex number i , see § Powers of complex numbers .
= = = Large exponents = = =
The limit of a sequence of powers of a number greater than one diverges ; in other words , the sequence grows without bound :
bn → ∞ as n → ∞ when b > 1
This can be read as " b to the power of n tends to + ∞ as n tends to infinity when b is greater than one " .
Powers of a number with absolute value less than one tend to zero :
bn → 0 as n → ∞ when | b | < 1
Any power of one is always one :
bn |
= 1 for all n if b =
1
If the number b varies tending to 1 as the exponent tends to infinity then the limit is not necessarily one of those above . A particularly important case is
( 1 + 1 / n ) n → e as n → ∞
See § The exponential function below .
Other limits , in particular of those that take on an indeterminate form , are described in § Limits of powers below .
= = Rational exponents = =
An nth root of a number b is a number x such that xn
= b .
If b is a positive real number and n is a positive integer , then there is exactly one positive real solution to xn =
b . This solution is called the principal nth root of b . It is denoted n √ b , where √ is the radical symbol ; alternatively , the principal root may be written b1 / n . For example : 41 / 2 |
= 2 , 81 / 3 =
2 .
The fact that <formula> solves <formula> follows from noting that
<formula>
If n is even , then xn
= b has two real solutions if b is positive , which are the positive and negative nth roots ( the positive one being denoted <formula> ) . If b is negative , the equation has no solution in real numbers for even n .
If n is odd , then xn =
b has one real solution . The solution is positive if b is positive and negative if b is negative .
The principal root of a positive real number b with a rational exponent u / v in lowest terms satisfies
<formula>
where u is an integer and v is a positive integer .
Rational powers u / v , where u / v is in lowest terms , are positive if u is even ( and hence v is odd ) ( because then bu is positive ) , and negative for negative b if u and v are odd ( because then bu is negative ) . There are two roots , one of each sign , if b is positive and v is even ( as exemplified by the case in which u |
= 1 and v =
2 , whereby a positive b has two square roots ) ; in this case the principal root is defined to be the positive one .
Thus we have ( − 27 ) 1 / 3 |
= − 3 and ( − 27 ) 2 / 3 =
9 . The number 4 has two 3 / 2th roots , namely 8 and − 8 ; however , by convention 43 / 2 denotes the principal root , which is 8 . Since there is no real number x such that x2
= − 1 , the definition of bu / v when b is negative and v is even must use the imaginary unit i , as described more fully in the section § Powers of complex numbers .
Care needs to be taken when applying the power identities with negative nth roots . For instance , − 27 =
( − 27 ) ( ( 2 / 3 ) ⋅ ( 3 / 2 ) ) |
= ( ( − 27 ) 2 / 3 ) 3 / 2 =
93 / 2 = 27 is clearly wrong . The problem here occurs in taking the positive square root rather than the negative one at the last step , but in general the same sorts of problems occur as described for complex numbers in the section § Failure of power and logarithm identities .
= = Real exponents = =
The identities and properties shown above for integer exponents are true for positive real numbers with non @-@ integer exponents as well . However the identity
<formula>
cannot be extended consistently to cases where b is a negative real number ( see § Real exponents with negative bases ) . The failure of this identity is the basis for the problems with complex number powers detailed under § Failure of power and logarithm identities .
Exponentiation to real powers of positive real numbers can be defined either by extending the rational powers to reals by continuity , or more usually as given in § Powers via logarithms below .
= = = Limits of rational exponents = = =
Since any irrational number can be expressed as the limit of a sequence of rational numbers , exponentiation of a positive real number b with an arbitrary real exponent x can be defined by continuity with the rule
<formula>
where the limit as r gets close to x is taken only over rational values of r . This limit only exists for positive b . The ( ε , δ ) -definition of limit is used , this involves showing that for any desired accuracy of the result bx one can choose a sufficiently small interval around x so all the rational powers in the interval are within the desired accuracy .
For example , if x |
= π , the nonterminating decimal representation π =
3 @.@ 14159 ... can be used ( based on strict monotonicity of the rational power ) to obtain the intervals bounded by rational powers
<formula> , <formula> , <formula> , <formula> , <formula> , <formula> , ...
The bounded intervals converge to a unique real number , denoted by <formula> . This technique can be used to obtain the power of a positive real number b for any irrational exponent . The function fb ( x ) = bx is thus defined for any real number x .
= = = The exponential function = = =
The important mathematical constant e , sometimes called Euler 's number , is approximately equal to 2 @.@ 718 and is the base of the natural logarithm . Although exponentiation of e could , in principle , be treated the same as exponentiation of any other real number , such exponentials turn out to have particularly elegant and useful properties . Among other things , these properties allow exponentials of e to be generalized in a natural way to other types of exponents , such as complex numbers or even matrices , while coinciding with the familiar meaning of exponentiation with rational exponents .
As a consequence , the notation ex usually denotes a generalized exponentiation definition called the exponential function , exp ( x ) , which can be defined in many equivalent ways , for example by :
<formula>
Among other properties , exp satisfies the exponential identity
<formula>
The exponential function is defined for all integer , fractional , real , and complex values of x . In fact , the matrix exponential is well @-@ defined for square matrices ( in which case this exponential identity only holds when x and y commute ) , and is useful for solving systems of linear differential equations .
Since exp ( 1 ) is equal to e and exp ( x ) satisfies this exponential identity , it immediately follows that exp ( x ) coincides with the repeated @-@ multiplication definition of ex for integer x , and it also follows that rational powers denote ( positive ) roots as usual , so exp ( x ) coincides with the ex definitions in the previous section for all real x by continuity .
= = = Powers via logarithms = = =
The natural logarithm ln ( x ) is the inverse of the exponential function ex . It is defined for b > 0 , and satisfies
<formula>
If bx is to preserve the logarithm and exponent rules , then one must have
<formula>
for each real number x .
This can be used as an alternative definition of the real number power bx and agrees with the definition given above using rational exponents and continuity . The definition of exponentiation using logarithms is more common in the context of complex numbers , as discussed below .
= = = Real exponents with negative bases = = =
Powers of a positive real number are always positive real numbers . The solution of x2
= 4 , however , can be either 2 or − 2 . The principal value of 41 / 2 is 2 , but − 2 is also a valid square root . If the definition of exponentiation of real numbers is extended to allow negative results then the result is no longer well @-@ behaved .
Neither the logarithm method nor the rational exponent method can be used to define br as a real number for a negative real number b and an arbitrary real number r . Indeed , er is positive for every real number r , so ln ( b ) is not defined as a real number for b ≤ 0 .
The rational exponent method cannot be used for negative values of b because it relies on continuity . The function f ( r ) =
br has a unique continuous extension from the rational numbers to the real numbers for each b > 0 . But when b < 0 , the function f is not even continuous on the set of rational numbers r for which it is defined .
For example , consider b |
= − 1 . The nth root of − 1 is − 1 for every odd natural number n . So if n is an odd positive integer , ( − 1 ) ( m / n ) =
− 1 if m is odd , and ( − 1 ) ( m / n ) |
= 1 if m is even . Thus the set of rational numbers q for which ( − 1 ) q =
1 is dense in the rational numbers , as is the set of q for which ( − 1 ) q = − 1 . This means that the function ( − 1 ) q is not continuous at any rational number q where it is defined .
On the other hand , arbitrary complex powers of negative numbers b can be defined by choosing a complex logarithm of b .
= = = Irrational exponents = = =
If a is a positive algebraic number , and b is a rational number , it has been shown above that ab is algebraic . This remains true even if one accepts any algebraic number for a , with the only difference that ab may take several values ( see below ) , all algebraic . Gelfond – Schneider theorem provides some information on the nature of ab when b is irrational ( that is not rational ) . It states :
If a is an algebraic number different from 0 and 1 , and b an irrational algebraic number , then all the values of ab are transcendental numbers ( that is , not algebraic ) .
= = Complex exponents with positive real bases = =
= = = Imaginary exponents with base e = = =
A complex number is an expression of the form <formula> , where x and y are real numbers , and i is the so @-@ called imaginary unit , a number that satisfies the rule <formula> . A complex number can be visualized as a point in the ( x , y ) plane . The polar coordinates of a point in the ( x , y ) plane consist of a non @-@ negative real number r and angle θ such that x |
= r cos θ and y =
r sin θ . So
<formula>
The product of two complex numbers z1 |
= x1 + iy1 , z2 =
x2 + iy2 is obtained by expanding out the product of the binomials and simplifying using the rule <formula> :
<formula>
As a consequence of the angle sum formulas of trigonometry , if z1 and z2 have polar coordinates ( r1 , θ1 ) , ( r2 , θ2 ) , then their product z1z2 has polar coordinates equal to ( r1r2 , θ1 + θ2 ) .
Consider the right triangle in the complex plane which has 0 , 1 , 1 + ix / n as vertices . For large values of n , the triangle is almost a circular sector with a radius of 1 and a small central angle equal to x / n radians . 1 + ix / n may then be approximated by the number with polar coordinates ( 1 , x / n ) . So , in the limit as n approaches infinity , ( 1 + ix / n ) n approaches ( 1 , x / n ) n |
= ( 1n , nx / n ) =
( 1 , x ) , the point on the unit circle whose angle from the positive real axis is x radians . The cartesian coordinates of this point are ( cos x , sin x ) . So e ix
= cos x + isin x ; this is Euler 's formula , connecting algebra to trigonometry by means of complex numbers .
The solutions to the equation ez =
1 are the integer multiples of 2πi :
<formula>
More generally , if ev |
= w , then every solution to ez =
w can be obtained by adding an integer multiple of 2πi to v :
<formula>
Thus the complex exponential function is a periodic function with period 2πi .
More simply : eiπ |
= − 1 ; ex + iy =
ex ( cos y + i sin y ) .
= = = Trigonometric functions = = =
It follows from Euler 's formula stated above that the trigonometric functions cosine and sine are
<formula>
Before the invention of complex numbers , cosine and sine were defined geometrically . The above formula reduces the complicated formulas for trigonometric functions of a sum into the simple exponentiation formula
<formula>
Using exponentiation with complex exponents may reduce problems in trigonometry to algebra .
= = = Complex exponents with base e = = =
The power z = ex + iy can be computed as ex ⋅ eiy . The real factor ex is the absolute value of z and the complex factor eiy identifies the direction of z .
= = = Complex exponents with positive real bases = = =
If b is a positive real number , and z is any complex number , the power bz is defined as ez ⋅ ln ( b ) , where x |
= ln ( b ) is the unique real solution to the equation ex =
b . So the same method working for real exponents also works for complex exponents .
For example :
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
The identity ( bz ) u = bzu is not generally valid for complex powers . The power bz is a complex number and any power of it has to follow the rules for powers of complex numbers below . A simple counterexample is given by :
<formula>
The identity is , however , valid for arbitrary complex <formula> when <formula> is an integer .
= = Powers of complex numbers = =
Integer powers of nonzero complex numbers are defined by repeated multiplication or division as above . If i is the imaginary unit and n is an integer , then in equals 1 , i , − 1 , or − i , according to whether the integer n is congruent to 0 , 1 , 2 , or 3 modulo 4 . Because of this , the powers of i are useful for expressing sequences of period 4 .
Complex powers of positive reals are defined via ex as in section Complex exponents with positive real bases above . These are continuous functions .
Trying to extend these functions to the general case of noninteger powers of complex numbers that are not positive reals leads to difficulties . Either we define discontinuous functions or multivalued functions . Neither of these options is entirely satisfactory .
The rational power of a complex number must be the solution to an algebraic equation . Therefore , it always has a finite number of possible values . For example , w |
= z1 / 2 must be a solution to the equation w2 =
z . But if w is a solution , then so is − w , because ( − 1 ) 2 = 1 . A unique but somewhat arbitrary solution called the principal value can be chosen using a general rule which also applies for nonrational powers .
Complex powers and logarithms are more naturally handled as single valued functions on a Riemann surface . Single valued versions are defined by choosing a sheet . The value has a discontinuity along a branch cut . Choosing one out of many solutions as the principal value leaves us with functions that are not continuous , and the usual rules for manipulating powers can lead us astray .
Any nonrational power of a complex number has an infinite number of possible values because of the multi @-@ valued nature of the complex logarithm . The principal value is a single value chosen from these by a rule which , amongst its other properties , ensures powers of complex numbers with a positive real part and zero imaginary part give the same value as does the rule defined above for the corresponding real base .
Exponentiating a real number to a complex power is formally a different operation from that for the corresponding complex number . However , in the common case of a positive real number the principal value is the same .
The powers of negative real numbers are not always defined and are discontinuous even where defined . In fact , they are only defined when the exponent is a rational number with the denominator being an odd integer . When dealing with complex numbers the complex number operation is normally used instead .
= = = Complex exponents with complex bases = = =
For complex numbers w and z with w ≠ 0 , the notation wz is ambiguous in the same sense that log w is .
To obtain a value of wz , first choose a logarithm of w ; call it log w . Such a choice may be the principal value Log w ( the default , if no other specification is given ) , or perhaps a value given by some other branch of log w fixed in advance . Then , using the complex exponential function one defines
<formula>
because this agrees with the earlier definition in the case where w is a positive real number and the ( real ) principal value of log w is used .
If z is an integer , then the value of wz is independent of the choice of log w , and it agrees with the earlier definition of exponentiation with an integer exponent .
If z is a rational number m / n in lowest terms with z > 0 , then the countably infinitely many choices of log w yield only n different values for wz ; these values are the n complex solutions s to the equation sn = wm .
If z is an irrational number , then the countably infinitely many choices of log w lead to infinitely many distinct values for wz .
The computation of complex powers is facilitated by converting the base w to polar form , as described in detail below .
A similar construction is employed in quaternions .
= = = Complex roots of unity = = =
A complex number w such that wn
= 1 for a positive integer n is an nth root of unity . Geometrically , the nth roots of unity lie on the unit circle of the complex plane at the vertices of a regular n @-@ gon with one vertex on the real number 1 .
If wn =
1 but wk ≠ 1 for all natural numbers k such that 0 < k < n , then w is called a primitive nth root of unity . The negative unit − 1 is the only primitive square root of unity . The imaginary unit i is one of the two primitive 4th roots of unity ; the other one is − i .
The number e2πi / n is the primitive nth root of unity with the smallest positive argument . ( It is sometimes called the principal nth root of unity , although this terminology is not universal and should not be confused with the principal value of n √ 1 , which is 1 . )
The other nth roots of unity are given by
<formula>
for 2 ≤ k ≤ n .
= = = Roots of arbitrary complex numbers = = =
Although there are infinitely many possible values for a general complex logarithm , there are only a finite number of values for the power wq in the important special case where q |
= 1 / n and n is a positive integer . These are the nth roots of w ; they are solutions of the equation zn =
w . As with real roots , a second root is also called a square root and a third root is also called a cube root .
It is conventional in mathematics to define w1 / n as the principal value of the root . If w is a positive real number , it is also conventional to select a positive real number as the principal value of the root w1 / n . For general complex numbers , the nth root with the smallest argument is often selected as the principal value of the nth root operation , as with principal values of roots of unity .
The set of nth roots of a complex number w is obtained by multiplying the principal value w1 / n by each of the nth roots of unity . For example , the fourth roots of 16 are 2 , − 2 , 2i , and − 2i , because the principal value of the fourth root of 16 is 2 and the fourth roots of unity are 1 , − 1 , i , and − i .
= = = Computing complex powers = = =
It is often easier to compute complex powers by writing the number to be exponentiated in polar form . Every complex number z can be written in the polar form
<formula>
where r is a nonnegative real number and θ is the ( real ) argument of z . The polar form has a simple geometric interpretation : if a complex number u + iv is thought of as representing a point ( u , v ) in the complex plane using Cartesian coordinates , then ( r , θ ) is the same point in polar coordinates . That is , r is the " radius " r2 |
= u2 + v2 and θ is the " angle " θ =
atan2 ( v , u ) . The polar angle θ is ambiguous since any integer multiple of 2π could be added to θ without changing the location of the point . Each choice of θ gives in general a different possible value of the power . A branch cut can be used to choose a specific value . The principal value ( the most common branch cut ) , corresponds to θ chosen in the interval ( − π , π ] . For complex numbers with a positive real part and zero imaginary part using the principal value gives the same result as using the corresponding real number .
In order to compute the complex power wz , write w in polar form :
<formula>
Then
<formula>
and thus
<formula>
If z is decomposed as c + di , then the formula for wz can be written more explicitly as
<formula>
This final formula allows complex powers to be computed easily from decompositions of the base into polar form and the exponent into Cartesian form . It is shown here both in polar form and in Cartesian form ( via Euler 's identity ) .
The following examples use the principal value , the branch cut which causes θ to be in the interval ( − π , π ] . To compute ii , write i in polar and Cartesian forms :
<formula>
Then the formula above , with r |
= 1 , θ =
π / 2 , c |
= 0 , and d =
1 , yields :
<formula>
Similarly , to find ( − 2 ) 3 + 4i , compute the polar form of − 2 @,@
<formula>
and use the formula above to compute
<formula>
The value of a complex power depends on the branch used . For example , if the polar form i = 1e5πi / 2 is used to compute ii , the power is found to be e − 5π / 2 ; the principal value of ii , computed above , is e − π / 2 . The set of all possible values for ii is given by :
<formula>
So there is an infinity of values which are possible candidates for the value of ii , one for each integer k . All of them have a zero imaginary part so one can say ii has an infinity of valid real values .
= = = Failure of power and logarithm identities = = =
Some identities for powers and logarithms for positive real numbers will fail for complex numbers , no matter how complex powers and complex logarithms are defined as single @-@ valued functions . For example :
The identity log ( bx )
= x ⋅ log b holds whenever b is a positive real number and x is a real number . But for the principal branch of the complex logarithm one has
<formula>
Regardless of which branch of the logarithm is used , a similar failure of the identity will exist . The best that can be said ( if only using this result ) is that :
<formula>
This identity does not hold even when considering log as a multivalued function . The possible values of log ( wz ) contain those of z ⋅ log w as a subset . Using Log ( w ) for the principal value of log ( w ) and m , n as any integers the possible values of both sides are :
<formula>
The identities ( bc ) x =
bxcx and ( b / c ) x
= bx / cx are valid when b and c are positive real numbers and x is a real number . But a calculation using principal branches shows that
<formula>
and
<formula>
On the other hand , when x is an integer , the identities are valid for all nonzero complex numbers .
If exponentiation is considered as a multivalued function then the possible values of ( − 1 × − 1 ) 1 / 2 are { 1 , − 1 } . The identity holds but saying { 1 } =
{ ( − 1 × − 1 ) 1 / 2 } is wrong .
The identity ( ex ) y = exy holds for real numbers x and y , but assuming its truth for complex numbers leads to the following paradox , discovered in 1827 by Clausen : For any integer n , we have :
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
but this is false when the integer n is nonzero .
There are a number of problems in the reasoning :
The major error is that changing the order of exponentiation in going from line two to three changes what the principal value chosen will be .
From the multi @-@ valued point of view , the first error occurs even sooner . Implicit in the first line is that e is a real number , whereas the result of e1 + 2πin is a complex number better represented as e + 0i . Substituting the complex number for the real on the second line makes the power have multiple possible values . Changing the order of exponentiation from lines two to three also affects how many possible values the result can have . <formula> , but rather <formula> multivalued over integers n .
= = Generalizations = =
= = = Monoids = = =
Exponentiation can be defined in any monoid . A monoid is an algebraic structure consisting of a set X together with a rule for composition ( " multiplication " ) satisfying an associative law and a multiplicative identity , denoted by 1 . Exponentiation is defined inductively by :
<formula> for all <formula>
<formula> for all <formula> and non @-@ negative integers n
Monoids include many structures of importance in mathematics , including groups and rings ( under multiplication ) , with more specific examples of the latter being matrix rings and fields .
= = = Matrices and linear operators = = =
If A is a square matrix , then the product of A with itself n times is called the matrix power . Also <formula> is defined to be the identity matrix , and if A is invertible , then <formula> .
Matrix powers appear often in the context of discrete dynamical systems , where the matrix A expresses a transition from a state vector x of some system to the next state Ax of the system . This is the standard interpretation of a Markov chain , for example . Then <formula> is the state of the system after two time steps , and so forth : <formula> is the state of the system after n time steps . The matrix power <formula> is the transition matrix between the state now and the state at a time n steps in the future . So computing matrix powers is equivalent to solving the evolution of the dynamical system . In many cases , matrix powers can be expediently computed by using eigenvalues and eigenvectors .
Apart from matrices , more general linear operators can also be exponentiated . An example is the derivative operator of calculus , <formula> , which is a linear operator acting on functions <formula> to give a new function <formula> . The n @-@ th power of the differentiation operator is the n @-@ th derivative :
<formula>
These examples are for discrete exponents of linear operators , but in many circumstances it is also desirable to define powers of such operators with continuous exponents . This is the starting point of the mathematical theory of semigroups . Just as computing matrix powers with discrete exponents solves discrete dynamical systems , so does computing matrix powers with continuous exponents solve systems with continuous dynamics . Examples include approaches to solving the heat equation , Schrödinger equation , wave equation , and other partial differential equations including a time evolution . The special case of exponentiating the derivative operator to a non @-@ integer power is called the fractional derivative which , together with the fractional integral , is one of the basic operations of the fractional calculus .
= = = Finite fields = = =
A field is an algebraic structure in which multiplication , addition , subtraction , and division are all well @-@ defined and satisfy their familiar properties . The real numbers , for example , form a field , as do the complex numbers and rational numbers . Unlike these familiar examples of fields , which are all infinite sets , some fields have only finitely many elements . The simplest example is the field with two elements <formula> with addition defined by <formula> and <formula> , and multiplication <formula> and <formula> .
Exponentiation in finite fields has applications in public key cryptography . For example , the Diffie – Hellman key exchange uses the fact that exponentiation is computationally inexpensive in finite fields , whereas the discrete logarithm ( the inverse of exponentiation ) is computationally expensive .
Any finite field F has the property that there is a unique prime number p such that <formula> for all x in F ; that is , x added to itself p times is zero . For example , in <formula> , the prime number p = 2 has this property . This prime number is called the characteristic of the field . Suppose that F is a field of characteristic p , and consider the function <formula> that raises each element of F to the power p . This is called the Frobenius automorphism of F. It is an automorphism of the field because of the Freshman 's dream identity <formula> . The Frobenius automorphism is important in number theory because it generates the Galois group of F over its prime subfield .
= = = In abstract algebra = = =
Exponentiation for integer exponents can be defined for quite general structures in abstract algebra .
Let X be a set with a power @-@ associative binary operation which is written multiplicatively . Then xn is defined for any element x of X and any nonzero natural number n as the product of n copies of x , which is recursively defined by
<formula>
One has the following properties
<formula>
If the operation has a two @-@ sided identity element 1 , then x0 is defined to be equal to 1 for any x .
<formula>
If the operation also has two @-@ sided inverses and is associative , then the magma is a group . The inverse of x can be denoted by x − 1 and follows all the usual rules for exponents .
<formula>
If the multiplication operation is commutative ( as for instance in abelian groups ) , then the following holds :
<formula>
If the binary operation is written additively , as it often is for abelian groups , then " exponentiation is repeated multiplication " can be reinterpreted as " multiplication is repeated addition " . Thus , each of the laws of exponentiation above has an analogue among laws of multiplication .
When there are several power @-@ associative binary operations defined on a set , any of which might be iterated , it is common to indicate which operation is being repeated by placing its symbol in the superscript . Thus , x ∗ n is x ∗ ... ∗ x , while x # n is x # ... # x , whatever the operations ∗ and # might be .
Superscript notation is also used , especially in group theory , to indicate conjugation . That is , gh = h − 1gh , where g and h are elements of some group . Although conjugation obeys some of the same laws as exponentiation , it is not an example of repeated multiplication in any sense . A quandle is an algebraic structure in which these laws of conjugation play a central role .
= = = Over sets = = =
If n is a natural number and A is an arbitrary set , the expression An is often used to denote the set of ordered n @-@ tuples of elements of A. This is equivalent to letting An denote the set of functions from the set { 0 , 1 , 2 , ... , n − 1 } to the set A ; the n @-@ tuple ( a0 , a1 , a2 , ... , an − 1 ) represents the function that sends i to ai .
For an infinite cardinal number κ and a set A , the notation Aκ is also used to denote the set of all functions from a set of size κ to A. This is sometimes written κA to distinguish it from cardinal exponentiation , defined below .
This generalized exponential can also be defined for operations on sets or for sets with extra structure . For example , in linear algebra , it makes sense to index direct sums of vector spaces over arbitrary index sets . That is , we can speak of
<formula>
where each Vi is a vector space .
Then if Vi
= V for each i , the resulting direct sum can be written in exponential notation as V ⊕ N , or simply VN with the understanding that the direct sum is the default . We can again replace the set N with a cardinal number n to get Vn , although without choosing a specific standard set with cardinality n , this is defined only up to isomorphism . Taking V to be the field R of real numbers ( thought of as a vector space over itself ) and n to be some natural number , we get the vector space that is most commonly studied in linear algebra , the real vector space Rn .
If the base of the exponentiation operation is a set , the exponentiation operation is the Cartesian product unless otherwise stated . Since multiple Cartesian products produce an n @-@ tuple , which can be represented by a function on a set of appropriate cardinality , SN becomes simply the set of all functions from N to S in this case :
<formula>
This fits in with the exponentiation of cardinal numbers , in the sense that | SN | =
| S | | N | , where | X | is the cardinality of X. When " 2 " is defined as { 0 , 1 } , we have | 2X | = 2 | X | , where 2X , usually denoted by P ( X ) , is the power set of X ; each subset Y of X corresponds uniquely to a function on X taking the value 1 for x ∈ Y and 0 for x ∉ Y.
= = = In category theory = = =
In a Cartesian closed category , the exponential operation can be used to raise an arbitrary object to the power of another object . This generalizes the Cartesian product in the category of sets . If 0 is an initial object in a Cartesian closed category , then the exponential object 00 is isomorphic to any terminal object 1 .
= = = Of cardinal and ordinal numbers = = =
In set theory , there are exponential operations for cardinal and ordinal numbers .
If κ and λ are cardinal numbers , the expression κλ represents the cardinality of the set of functions from any set of cardinality λ to any set of cardinality κ . If κ and λ are finite , then this agrees with the ordinary arithmetic exponential operation . For example , the set of 3 @-@ tuples of elements from a 2 @-@ element set has cardinality 8 = 23 . In cardinal arithmetic , κ0 is always 1 ( even if κ is an infinite cardinal or zero ) .
Exponentiation of cardinal numbers is distinct from exponentiation of ordinal numbers , which is defined by a limit process involving transfinite induction .
= = Repeated exponentiation = =
Just as exponentiation of natural numbers is motivated by repeated multiplication , it is possible to define an operation based on repeated exponentiation ; this operation is sometimes called hyper @-@ 4 or tetration . Iterating tetration leads to another operation , and so on , a concept named hyperoperation . This sequence of operations is expressed by the Ackermann function and Knuth 's up @-@ arrow notation . Just as exponentiation grows faster than multiplication , which is faster @-@ growing than addition , tetration is faster @-@ growing than exponentiation . Evaluated at ( 3 , 3 ) , the functions addition , multiplication , exponentiation , and tetration yield 6 , 9 , 27 , and 7625597484987 ( |
= 327 =
333 = 33 ) respectively .
= = Zero to the power of zero = =
= = = Discrete exponents = = =
There are many widely used formulas having terms involving natural @-@ number exponents that require 00 to be evaluated to 1 . For example , regarding b0 as an empty product assigns it the value 1 , even when b |
= 0 . Alternatively , the combinatorial interpretation of b0 is the number of empty tuples of elements from a set with b elements ; there is exactly one empty tuple , even if b =
0 . Equivalently , the set @-@ theoretic interpretation of 00 is the number of functions from the empty set to the empty set ; there is exactly one such function , the empty function .
= = = Polynomials and power series = = =
Likewise , when working with polynomials , it is often necessary to assign <formula> the value 1 . A polynomial is an expression of the form <formula> where x is an indeterminate , and the coefficients <formula> are real numbers ( or , more generally , elements of some ring ) . The set of all real polynomials in x is denoted by <formula> . Polynomials are added termwise , and multiplied by the applying the usual rules for exponents in the indeterminate x ( see Cauchy product ) . With these algebraic rules for manipulation , polynomials form a polynomial ring . The polynomial <formula> is the identity element of the polynomial ring , meaning that it is the ( unique ) element such that the product of <formula> with any polynomial <formula> is just <formula> . Polynomials can be evaluated by specializing the indeterminate x to be a real number . More precisely , for any given real number <formula> there is a unique unital ring homomorphism <formula> such that <formula> . This is called the evaluation homomorphism . Because it is a unital homomorphism , we have <formula> That is , <formula> for all specializations of x to a real number ( including zero ) .
This perspective is significant for many polynomial identities appearing in combinatorics . For example , the binomial theorem <formula> is not valid for x |
= 0 unless 00 =
1 . Similarly , rings of power series require <formula> to be true for all specializations of x . Thus identities like <formula> and <formula> are only true as functional identities ( including at x |
= 0 ) if 00 =
1 .
In differential calculus , the power rule <formula> is not valid for n |
= 1 at x =
0 unless 00 = 1 .
= = = Continuous exponents = = =
Limits involving algebraic operations can often be evaluated by replacing subexpressions by their limits ; if the resulting expression does not determine the original limit , the expression is known as an indeterminate form . In fact , when f ( t ) and g ( t ) are real @-@ valued functions both approaching 0 ( as t approaches a real number or ± ∞ ) , with f ( t ) > 0 , the function f ( t ) g ( t ) need not approach 1 ; depending on f and g , the limit of f ( t ) g ( t ) can be any nonnegative real number or + ∞ , or it can diverge . For example , the functions below are of the form f ( t ) g ( t ) with f ( t ) , g ( t ) → 0 as t → 0 + , but the limits are different :
<formula> .
Thus , the two @-@ variable function xy , though continuous on the set { ( x , y ) : x > 0 } , cannot be extended to a continuous function on any set containing ( 0 , 0 ) , no matter how one chooses to define 00 . However , under certain conditions , such as when f and g are both analytic functions and f is positive on the open interval ( 0 , b ) for some positive b , the limit approaching from the right is always 1 .
= = = Complex exponents = = =
In the complex domain , the function zw may be defined for nonzero z by choosing a branch of log z and defining zw as ew log z . This does not define 0w since there is no branch of log z defined at z = 0 , let alone in a neighborhood of 0 .
= = = History of differing points of view = = =
The debate over the definition of <formula> has been going on at least since the early 19th century . At that time , most mathematicians agreed that <formula> , until in 1821 Cauchy listed <formula> along with expressions like <formula> in a table of indeterminate forms . In the 1830s Libri published an unconvincing argument for <formula> , and Möbius sided with him , erroneously claiming that <formula> whenever <formula> . A commentator who signed his name simply as " S " provided the counterexample of <formula> , and this quieted the debate for some time . More historical details can be found in Knuth ( 1992 ) .
More recent authors interpret the situation above in different ways :
Some argue that the best value for <formula> depends on context , and hence that defining it once and for all is problematic . According to Benson ( 1999 ) , " The choice whether to define <formula> is based on convenience , not on correctness . If we refrain from defining <formula> then certain assertions become unnecessarily awkward . The consensus is to use the definition <formula> , although there are textbooks that refrain from defining <formula> . "
Others argue that <formula> should be defined as 1 . Knuth ( 1992 ) contends strongly that <formula> " has to be 1 " , drawing a distinction between the value <formula> , which should equal 1 as advocated by Libri , and the limiting form <formula> ( an abbreviation for a limit of <formula> where <formula> ) , which is necessarily an indeterminate form as listed by Cauchy : " Both Cauchy and Libri were right , but Libri and his defenders did not understand why truth was on their side . "
= = = Treatment on computers = = =
= = = = IEEE floating point standard = = = =
The IEEE 754 @-@ 2008 floating point standard is used in the design of most floating point libraries . It recommends a number of functions for computing a power :
pow treats 00 as 1 . This is the oldest defined version . If the power is an exact integer the result is the same as for pown , otherwise the result is as for powr ( except for some exceptional cases ) .
pown treats 00 as 1 . The power must be an exact integer . The value is defined for negative bases ; e.g. , pown ( − 3 @,@ 5 ) is − 243 .
powr treats 00 as NaN ( Not @-@ a @-@ Number – undefined ) . The value is also NaN for cases like powr ( − 3 @,@ 2 ) where the base is less than zero . The value is defined by epower × log ( base ) .
= = = = Programming languages = = = =
Most programming language with a power function are implemented using the IEEE pow function and therefore evaluate 00 as 1 . The later C and C + + standards describe this as the normative behaviour . The Java standard mandates this behavior . The .NET Framework method System.Math.Pow also treats 00 as 1 .
= = = = Mathematics software = = = =
Sage simplifies b0 to 1 , even if no constraints are placed on b . It takes 00 to be 1 , but does not simplify 0x for other x .
Maple distinguishes between integers 0 , 1 , ... and the corresponding floats 0 @.@ 0 , 1 @.@ 0 , ... ( usually denoted 0 . , 1 . , ... ) . If x does not evaluates to a number , then x0 and x0.0 are respectively evaluated to 1 ( integer ) and 1 @.@ 0 ( float ) ; on the other hand , 0x is evaluated to the integer 0 , while 0.0x is evaluated as 0.x. If both the base and the exponent are zero ( or are evaluated to zero ) , the result is Float ( undefined ) if the exponent is the float 0 @.@ 0 ; with an integer as exponent , the evaluation of 00 results in the integer 1 , while that of 0 @.@ 0 results in the float 1 @.@ 0 .
Macsyma also simplifies b0 to 1 even if no constraints are placed on b , but issues an error for 00 . For x > 0 , it simplifies 0x to 0 .
Mathematica and Wolfram Alpha simplify b0 into 1 , even if no constraints are placed on b . While Mathematica does not simplify 0x , Wolfram Alpha returns two results , 0 for x > 0 , and " indeterminate " for real x . Both Mathematica and Wolfram Alpha take 00 to be " ( indeterminate ) " .
Matlab , Python , Magma , GAP , singular , PARI / GP and the Google and iPhone calculators evaluate 00 as 1 .
= = Limits of powers = =
The section § Zero to the power of zero gives a number of examples of limits that are of the indeterminate form 00 . The limits in these examples exist , but have different values , showing that the two @-@ variable function xy has no limit at the point ( 0 , 0 ) . One may consider at what points this function does have a limit .
More precisely , consider the function f ( x , y ) |
= xy defined on D =
{ ( x , y ) ∈ R2 : x > 0 } . Then D can be viewed as a subset of R2 ( that is , the set of all pairs ( x , y ) with x , y belonging to the extended real number line R
= [ − ∞ , + ∞ ] , endowed with the product topology ) , which will contain the points at which the function f has a limit .
In fact , f has a limit at all accumulation points of D , except for ( 0 , 0 ) , ( + ∞ , 0 ) , ( 1 , + ∞ ) and ( 1 , − ∞ ) . Accordingly , this allows one to define the powers xy by continuity whenever 0 ≤ x ≤ + ∞ , − ∞ ≤ y ≤ + ∞ , except for 00 , ( + ∞ ) 0 , 1 + ∞ and 1 − ∞ , which remain indeterminate forms .
Under this definition by continuity , we obtain :
x + ∞ =
+ ∞ and x − ∞
= 0 , when 1 < x ≤ + ∞ .
x + ∞ =
0 and x − ∞
= + ∞ , when 0 ≤ x < 1 .
0y =
0 and ( + ∞ ) y
= + ∞ , when 0 < y ≤ + ∞ .
0y =
+ ∞ and ( + ∞ ) y
= 0 , when − ∞ ≤ y < 0 .
These powers are obtained by taking limits of xy for positive values of x . This method does not permit a definition of xy when x < 0 , since pairs ( x , y ) with x < 0 are not accumulation points of D.
On the other hand , when n is an integer , the power xn is already meaningful for all values of x , including negative ones . This may make the definition 0n =
+ ∞ obtained above for negative n problematic when n is odd , since in this case xn → + ∞ as x tends to 0 through positive values , but not negative ones .
= = Efficient computation with integer exponents = =
Computing bn using iterated multiplication requires n − 1 multiplication operations , but it can be computed more efficiently than that , as illustrated by the following example . To compute 2100 , note that 100
= 64 + 32 + 4 . Compute the following in order :
22 =
4
( 22 ) 2 |
= 24 =
16
( 24 ) 2 |
= 28 =
256
( 28 ) 2 |
= 216 =
65 @,@ 536
( 216 ) 2 |
= 232 =
4 @,@ 294 @,@ 967 @,@ 296
( 232 ) 2 |
= 264 =
18 @,@ 446 @,@ 744 @,@ 073 @,@ 709 @,@ 551 @,@ 616
264 232 24 |
= 2100 =
1 @,@ 267 @,@ 650 @,@ 600 @,@ 228 @,@ 229 @,@ 401 @,@ 496 @,@ 703 @,@ 205 @,@ 376
This series of steps only requires 8 multiplication operations instead of 99 ( since the last product above takes 2 multiplications ) .
In general , the number of multiplication operations required to compute bn can be reduced to Θ ( log n ) by using exponentiation by squaring or ( more generally ) addition @-@ chain exponentiation . Finding the minimal sequence of multiplications ( the minimal @-@ length addition chain for the exponent ) for bn is a difficult problem for which no efficient algorithms are currently known ( see Subset sum problem ) , but many reasonably efficient heuristic algorithms are available .
= = Exponential notation for function names = =
Placing an integer superscript after the name or symbol of a function , as if the function were being raised to a power , commonly refers to repeated function composition rather than repeated multiplication . Thus , f 3 ( x ) may mean f ( f ( f ( x ) ) ) ; in particular , f − 1 ( x ) usually denotes the inverse function of f . Iterated functions are of interest in the study of fractals and dynamical systems . Babbage was the first to study the problem of finding a functional square root f 1 / 2 ( x ) .
For historical reasons , this notation applied to the trigonometric and hyperbolic functions has a specific and diverse interpretation : a positive exponent applied to the function 's abbreviation means that the result is raised to that power , while an exponent of − 1 denotes the inverse function . That is , sin2 x is just a shorthand way to write ( sin x ) 2 without using parentheses , whereas sin − 1 x refers to the inverse function of the sine , also called arcsin x . Each trigonometric and hyperbolic has its own name and abbreviation both for the reciprocal ; for example , 1 / ( sin x ) |
= ( sin x ) − 1 =
csc x , as well as for its inverse , for example cosh − 1 x = arcosh x . A similar convention applies to logarithms , where log2 x usually means ( log x ) 2 , not log log x .
= = In programming languages = =
The superscript notation xy is convenient in handwriting but inconvenient for typewriters and computer terminals that align the baselines of all characters on each line . Many programming languages have alternate ways of expressing exponentiation that do not use superscripts :
x ↑ y : Algol , Commodore BASIC
x ^ y : BASIC , J , MATLAB , R , Microsoft Excel , Analytica , TeX ( and its derivatives ) , TI @-@ BASIC , bc ( for integer exponents ) , Haskell ( for nonnegative integer exponents ) , Lua and most computer algebra systems
x ^ ^ y : Haskell ( for fractional base , integer exponents ) , D
x * * y : Ada , Bash , COBOL , CoffeeScript , Fortran , FoxPro , Gnuplot , OCaml , F # , Perl , PHP , PL / I , Python , Rexx , Ruby , SAS , Seed7 , Tcl , ABAP , Mercury , Haskell ( for floating @-@ point exponents ) , Turing , VHDL
pown x y : F # ( for integer base , integer exponent )
x ⋆ y : APL
Many programming languages lack syntactic support for exponentiation , but provide library functions .
In Bash , C , C + + , C # , D , Go , Java , JavaScript , Perl , PHP , Python and Ruby , the symbol ^ represents bitwise XOR . In Pascal , it represents indirection . In OCaml and Standard ML , it represents string concatenation .
= = List of whole @-@ number powers = =
|
= Fellows v. Blacksmith =
Fellows v. Blacksmith , 60 U.S. ( 19 How . ) 366 ( 1857 ) , is a United States Supreme Court decision involving Native American law . John Blacksmith , a Tonawanda Seneca , sued agents of the Ogden Land Company for common law claims of trespass , assault , and battery after he was forcibly evicted from his sawmill by the Company 's agents . The Court affirmed a judgement in Blacksmith 's favor , notwithstanding the fact that the Seneca had executed an Indian removal treaty and the Company held the exclusive right to purchase to the land by virtue of an interstate compact ratified by Congress .
Citing the trust relationship between the federal government and the tribes , the Court held that removal treaties could only be enforced against the tribes by the federal government , not private parties ( whether through self @-@ help or through the courts ) . In other words , the federal government retained the discretion not to enforce such treaties . At the same time , the Court held that enrolled treaties are conclusively valid , and refused to consider the plaintiffs claim that the Treaty of Buffalo Creek ( 1838 ) was fraudulent .
Fellows was one of several encounters of the Taney Court with the aboriginal title . It was the first litigation of aboriginal title in the United States in the Court by an indigenous plaintiff since Cherokee Nation v. Georgia ( 1831 ) . According to a contemporary New York Times article : " The questions involved are of great magnitude , and affect more or less the title to a large portion of the State of New York . " In Fellows , the court found " its first opportunity to consider the power of the federal government over Indian lands in New York . " Following the precedents of the Marshall Court , Fellows was " decided at a time when the government was still dealing with Indian tribes as if they were semi @-@ sovereign nations . "
The plaintiffs ' lawyer John H. Martindale ( future New York Attorney General ) also represented the interests of the Tonawanda Band of Seneca Indians in three companion cases in the New York state courts . The third such case , New York ex rel . Cutler v. Dibble ( 1858 ) , also reached the Supreme Court , which held that state nonintercourse acts ( U.S. state laws prohibiting non @-@ Indians from acquiring Indian lands ) are not preempted by the Commerce Clause , the federal Nonintercourse Act , or federal treaties . Ely S. Parker , one of the administrators of the Blacksmith estate , went on to draft the surrender at Appomattox and to become the first indigenous Commissioner of Indian Affairs .
= = Background = =
= = = Precedent = = =
The Marshall Court ( 1801 — 1835 ) had repeatedly taken up the issue of aboriginal title in the United States . However , with the exception of Cherokee Nation v. Georgia ( 1831 ) , which was dismissed for lack of original jurisdiction , all the disputes had been between non @-@ Indians — typically between those who derived their title from the government and those who derived their title from private purchases from Indians . The uniform rule of these cases , enunciated most clearly in Johnson v. M 'Intosh ( 1823 ) , was that non @-@ Indians could not acquire valid land title from such private purchases . However , the purchase at issue in Fellows , the Treaty of Buffalo Creek ( 1838 ) , had been ratified by the federal government .
The Court had not yet encountered a party claiming to actually possess aboriginal title in a case in which it had jurisdiction , so it had not yet definitively resolved the question of whether the holders of aboriginal title could avail themselves of the common law causes of action of trespass or ejectment . At the end of his opinion in Fletcher v. Peck ( 1810 ) , Marshall had stated that ejectment could not be obtained against the holder of aboriginal title . The Taney Court ( 1836 — 1864 ) , in Marsh v. Brooks ( 1850 ) , went further in declaring that the holder of aboriginal title could obtain ejectment , stating : " That an action of ejectment could be maintained on an Indian right to occupancy and use , is not open to question . " In the oral arguments of that case , Cherokee Nation had been cited as authority for the argument that " Indians cannot sue on their aboriginal title in court of the United States . " The plaintiffs in Fellows had sued under the related cause of action of trespass .
An 1821 opinion of U.S. Attorney General William Wirt , interpreting Fletcher and Johnson , argued that : " The Seneca Indians must be protected in the enjoyment of exclusive possession of their lands , as defined and bounded in the Treaty of Canandaigua , until they have voluntarily relinquished it . "
= = = Dispute = = =
Both the sovereignty over and land title to modern @-@ day western New York was disputed between the colonies , and then states , of New York and Massachusetts , both claiming the lands by virtue of their colonial charters . This dispute was resolved on December 16 , 1786 by the Treaty of Hartford , an interstate compact providing that the lands would be part of the territory of New York , but Massachusetts would retain the pre @-@ emption rights , the exclusive right to purchase the Indian lands . The compact was approved by the Congress of the Confederation on October 8 , 1787 .
Oliver Phelps and Nathaniel Gorham acquired the right of pre @-@ emption to the lands at issue in Fellows v. Blacksmith from Massachusetts in 1788 as part of the Phelps and Gorham Purchase . However , Phelps and Gorham only consummated the right of pre @-@ emption for a tract east of the Genesee River in 1788 . Phelps and Gorham defaulted on their payments to Massachusetts in 1790 , causing the pre @-@ emption rights to return to the state . Massachusetts then conveyed the pre @-@ emption rights to Samuel Ogden on behalf of Robert Morris on May 12 , 1791 . Morris retained the pre @-@ emptive right to the Morris Reserve for himself , but sold the pre @-@ emptive right to the lands in question to the Holland Land Company on July 20 , 1793 ( the Holland Purchase ) .
The Holland Land Company consummated much of its pre @-@ emptive right in the Treaty of Big Tree ( 1797 ) , extinguishing all Seneca aboriginal title west of the Genesee River except in ten reservations . The dispute concerned one of those reservations . The Treaty of Buffalo Creek ( 1838 ) had provided for the relocation of the Seneca people from New York to present @-@ day Kansas , with the exception of four reservations : the Buffalo Creek Reservation , the Cattaraugus Reservation , the Allegany Reservation , and the Tonawanda Reservation . However , the Seneca refused to be relocated . Another treaty with the Senecas from 1842 modified the prior treaty : the Senecas were to keep Cattaraugus and Allegany , but still cede Buffalo Creek and Tonawanda . The Seneca Nation of New York was established in 1848 . The Tonawanda Band of Seneca Indians seceded from the Seneca Nation and achieved independent federal recognition ( after the decision ) in 1857 .
= = = Prior history = = =
Facts
John Blacksmith was a member of the Tonawanda Band of Seneca Indians and the sachem of the Wolf Clan . Blacksmith had constructed a " Indian sawmill and yard " on his enclosed tract within the Tonawanda Reservation in Pembroke , Genesee County , New York circa 1826 . Blacksmith had not received compensation for the value of his improvements ( the sawmill and yard ) , as provided for by the 1838 and 1842 treaties , because he forcibly refused to let the treaty arbitrators onto his property for the survey . The Ogden Land Company claimed title to the Tonawanda Reservation by virtue of its right of pre @-@ emption , consummated by the treaties . Agents of the company " expelled and dispossessed " Blacksmith " with force of arms . "
Supreme Court ( trial court )
The suit was originally brought by John Blacksmith in 1846 . Represented by lawyer John H. Martindale , Blacksmith sued Joseph Fellows and Robert Kendle , agents of the Land Company , for the torts of assault and battery and trespass , quare clausum fregit , with the sawmill as the locus in quo . Blacksmith 's wife and Ely S. Parker ( Blacksmith 's successor as sachem of the Wolf Clan ) , together the administrators of Blacksmith 's estate , succeeded Blacksmith as plaintiffs .
After a jury trial , the New York Supreme Court held for Blacksmith .
Supreme Court , General Term
The New York Supreme Court General Term ( " circuit court " ) denied a new trial , holding that the payment of the appraisal value of the improvements determined by the arbitrator was a condition precedent to the conveyance in the treaty .
Court of Appeals
Before the New York Court of Appeals , Fellows was represented by J. C. Spencer , who made three arguments . First , he argued that the right to bring an action for trespass based on aboriginal title accrued only to an Indian nation , not an individual Indian . As Spencer noted , the Seneca Nation itself was prohibited by law from bringing an action " by a private attorney . " Second , he argued that Fellows ' title was valid . Third , he argued that the Seneca 's rights under the treaty were only enforceable against the federal government , and did not affect the defendant 's title as a condition precedent . The court reporter did not publish Martindale 's responses .
The Court of Appeals , 6 @-@ 1 , sided with Blacksmith . Judge John Worth Edmonds delivered the majority opinion , joined by Chief Judge Charles H. Ruggles and Judges Addison Gardiner , Freeborn G. Jewett , Alexander S. Johnson , and Watson . Judge Welles dissented and Judge Gridley was absent .
The Court of Appeals held that Blacksmith could independently bring the claim for trespass , for which he need only show a right to possession . The Court of Appeals also held that Fellows ' title was invalid , because the payment of compensation was a condition precedent . Welles , in dissent , agreed that Blacksmith could individually sue for trespass , but disagreed that the appraisal was a condition precedent ; he would have reversed and granted a new trial , with costs . The Court of Appeals remanded back to the Supreme Court , after which a writ of error was granted by the U.S. Supreme Court .
U.S. Supreme Court oral argument
John H. Martindale argued the case for the Tonawanda Senecas before the Court . Commissioner R.H. Gillet and J.L. Brown of the Ogden Land Company argued for the defendants . Arguments started on January 15 , 1857 and were adjourned until January 17 .
One of the plaintiffs , Ely S. Parker personally attended the oral arguments before the U.S. Supreme Court in Washington , D.C. According to the New York Times :
All who heard their cases argued before the Supreme Court of the United States , a few months since , will recollect seeing this same Indian , and that he was well posted on the points he desired his counsel to press upon the attention of the Court .
A letter to the editor of the New York Times — which criticizes a previous article for creating the " impression that the Indians at Tonawanda are very nearly the equal in agriculture , general intelligence , and in the customs of civilized life , of their white neighbors " — concurs with this assessment of Parker 's role :
I have not a word to say in the disparagement of the intellectual ability of Ely S. Parker , their head chief , and cheerfully unite with " W.H.P. " in awarding him the credit for making valuable suggestions to his counsel on the argument of the case in the Supreme Court of the United States [ . ] Indeed , I am inclined to the belief , that to him is due the credit of originating and suggesting to his counsel the only available point in the case , and the one on which it was there decided , for the case had been ten years in the Courts of this State , and this point was never before made , nor was it made in the Supreme Court of the United States , in the original brief of counsel for the Indians , filed pursuant to the rules of the Court . It was first made in a supplementary brief printed after the opening argument of counsel on the other side had been commenced , and not handed in until the second day , just previous to its conclusion .
Opinion announcement
Chief Justice Roger Taney was not present at the opinion announcement for Fellows because he was at home working on the opinion in Dred Scott v. Sandford , which was announced the next day . The Taney court had inherited from the preceding Marshall Court voluminous decisions on the status of aboriginal title in the United States . None of those decisions was cited in either opinion . Dred Scott , in dicta , opined the following on aboriginal title :
The situation of [ blacks ] was altogether unlike that of the Indian race . The latter . . . were situated in territories to which the white race claimed the ultimate right of dominion . But that claim was acknowledged to be subject to the right of the Indians to occupy it as long as they thought proper , and neither the English nor colonial Governments claimed or exercised any dominion over the tribe or nation by whom it was occupied , nor claimed the right to the possession of the territory , until the tribe or nation consented to cede it .
Justice John Catron , concurring in Dred Scott , also noted in dicta that :
[ B ] ecause Congress has express power to regulate commerce among the Indian tribes and to prohibit intercourse with the Indians , that therefore Dr. Emerson 's title might be defeated within the country ceded by the Indians to the United States as early as 1805 . . . .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
Justice Samuel Nelson delivered the unanimous opinion of the Court , affirming the judgment of the New York Court of Appeals .
Effect of the Treaty
The Court observed :
Neither treaty made any provision as to the mode or manner in which the removal of the Indians or surrender of the reservations was to take place . The grantees have assumed that they were authorized to take forcible possession of the two reservations , or of the four , as the case would have been under the first treaty . The plaintiff in this case was expelled by force ; and unless this mode of removal can be sustained , the recovery against the defendants for the trespass was right , and must be affirmed .
The Court noted that previous removals of Indians had been undertaken by the federal government " according to the usage and practice of the Government , by its authority and under its care and superintendence . " " [ A ] ny other mode of a forcible removal , " the Court argued , would not " be consistent with the peace of the country , or with the duty of the Government to these dependent people , who have been influenced by its counsel and authority to change their habitations . "
Because the treaty had been negotiated " with them as a quasi nation , possessing some of the attributes of an independent people , and to be dealt with accordingly , " the Court held that " unless otherwise expressly stipulated " only the federal government had the " authority or power " to execute the agreement . The Court remarked that the Senecas were " in a state of pupilage , and hold the relation to the Government as a ward to his guardian . " The nature of that relationship between the Seneca and the federal government was incompatible with the Seneca being expelled by " irregular force and violence , " or even " through the intervention of the courts of justice . " Thus , the court held that the private beneficiaries of Native American treaties could neither expel tribes by force or by a cause of action for ejectment . The court observed that " this interpretation is in accordance with the usages and practice of the Government in providing for the removal of Indian tribes from their ancient possessions , with the fitness and propriety of the thing itself , " and with the text of the treaty .
The Court concluded : " We hold that the performance was not a duty that belonged to the grantees , but for the Government under the treaty . "
Validity of the Treaty
The Court did not accept the plaintiffs ' arguments that the treaty was invalid because it was not signed by tribal leaders with the authority to cede the relevant lands or because the signatories were fraudulently induced to sign . Analogizing to the enrolled bill rule ( the only citation of case law in the opinion ) , the Court held that " the treaty , after executed and ratified by the proper authorities of the Government , becomes the supreme law of the land , and the courts can no more go behind it for the purpose of annulling its effect and operation . "
Conditions Precedent
Because its aforementioned holdings required affirmance , the Court did not reach the alternate ground for decision of the trial court that the appraisal and the payments were conditions precedent .
= = Companion cases = =
Lawyer John H. Martindale , of Verplank & Martindale , also represented Tonawanda Seneca plaintiffs in three other contemporary suits against the Land Company and its grantees : People ex rel . Blacksmith v. Tracy ( N.Y. Sup . 1845 ) ; People ex rel . Waldron v. Soper ( N.Y. 1852 ) ; and New York ex rel . Cutler v. Dibble ( U.S. 1858 ) . At the time , Martindale ( the future New York Attorney General ) was well known for litigating personal injury torts against railroads , especially New York Central Railroad .
Whereas Fellows was brought in the New York Supreme Court under the common law cause of action of trespass , these three suits were brought ( as required by statute ) in the Genesee County Court under a state statute prohibiting non @-@ Indians from residing on Indian lands . That statute provided :
[ I ] t shall be unlawful for any person or persons , other than Indians , to settle or reside upon any lands belonging to or occupied by any nation or tribe of Indians within this state ; and that all leases , contracts and agreements made by any Indians , whereby any person or persons , other than Indians , shall be permitted to reside upon such lands , shall be absolutely void ; and if any person or persons shall settle or reside on any such lands , contrary to this act , it shall be the duty of any judge of any court of Common Pleas of the county within which such lands shall be situated , on complaint made to him , and on due proof of the fact of such settlement or residence , to issue his warrant , under his hand and seal , directed to the sheriff of such county , commanding him , within ten days after the receipt thereof , to remove such person or persons so settling or residing , with his , her or their families , from such lands .
The statute further provided :
that it shall be the duty of the district attorneys respectively of the several counties in this state in which any lands belonging to any Indian tribe shall be situated , ( among other things ) to make complaint of all intrusions upon Indian lands , forbidden by the act ; and from time to time to make inquiries whether any persons other than Indians are settled upon such lands , and to cause them to be removed in the manner therein prescribed .
From 1821 – 1846 , the district attorney would have been appointed ; thereafter , the office was elected . Martindale was the district attorney of Genesee County from 1842 – 1844 and again from 1847 – 1849 . Thus , Martindale himself filed the complaints in People ex rel . Blacksmith v. Tracy and People ex rel . Waldron v. Soper , and his successor , Seth Wakeman ( 1850 – 1855 ) filed the complaint in New York ex rel . Cutler v. Dibble . Although Martindale was district attorney when the complaint in Tracy was filed , he lost the election and attempted to litigate the mandamus issue as a private attorney .
The results of the three suits were mixed . Martindale was defeated in the New York Supreme Court and New York Court of Appeals , respectively , in the first two , but had prevailed in the Court of Appeals and , ultimately , the U.S. Supreme Court in the third .
= = = People ex rel . Blacksmith v. Tracy = = =
Martindale ( in his final days as district attorney ) filed the complaint on January 8 , 1845 . Evidence , including the testimony of Ely S. Parker , was presented on January 11 . Judge Phineas L. Tracy , of the Genesee County Court ( 1841 – 1845 ) , declined to issue a warrant to the Genesee County Sheriff to remove the Ogden grantees .
Still in January , Martindale applied to the Supreme Court for mandamus , and the court issued an alternative mandamus ( essentially , an order to show cause why peremptory mandamus should not issue ) on March 6 , 1845 , which was served March 25 . On April 19 , the deadline was extended to the first Tuesday in June . Before the Supreme Court , Martindale was joined by New York Attorney General John Van Buren and opposed by A. Taber and J. L. Brown .
That June , Judge Jewett granted Tracy 's motion to quash , without costs . The court held that only the district attorney could bring such an action to enforce the statute :
I am of opinion that by the terms and spirit of the statute under which this proceeding has been had , no other than the district attorney of the county of Genesee ( in which the lands intruded upon are situated ) could regularly be a relator . The remedy for the act complained of is provided by the statute , as well as the officers to carry it into execution . It is made the duty of the district attorney to make complaint of all intrusions upon Indian lands forbidden by the act , and from time to time to make inquiries whether any persons other than Indians are settled upon such lands , and to cause them to be removed in the manner therein prescribed . Without the act , John Blacksmith or any other person could not claim such summary proceedings to remove intruders upon Indian lands ; and with the act , no other person is authorized by its provisions to make complaint of such intrusions , or to cause the intruders to be removed , but the district attorney of the county in which the lands are situated .
The court also found the affidavit of Parker to be insufficient as a factual matter to comply with the terms of the statute . However , even if the district attorney had brought the action and the affidavit had been sufficient , the Supreme Court still would have denied mandamus as a matter of law .
= = = People ex rel . Waldron v. Soper = = =
In the second suit , Martindale — in a second term , this time as an elected district attorney — filed the complaint under the same statute on January 3 , 1849 . Judge Horace U. Soper , of the Genesee County Court ( 1847 – 1850 ) , granted the writ of removal on January 9 , 1849 . The New York Supreme Court General Term ( Judges Mullet , Sill , and Marvin ) , sitting in Buffalo , New York , granted a writ of certiorari , and affirmed in March 1849 . " Waldron " is the only party subject to the writ of removal named in the Court of Appeals opinion ( the only reported opinion ) and only by last name .
The Court of Appeals reversed and annulled the writ in October 1852 . Judge John Worth Edmonds , for a unanimous court , gave two reasons . First , it held that the court had no power to proceed against the majority of the defendants because they were not properly summoned and caused to appear . Second , with respect to defendant Waldron ( who had voluntarily appeared ) , the court held that " it does not appear that these lands were owned by the Indians . "
= = = New York ex rel . Cutler v. Dibble = = =
In a third suit , Martindale 's successor as district attorney , Seth Wakeman ( 1845 – 1850 ) , filed a complaint against Asa Cutler , John Underhill , and Arza Underhill ( grantees of the Land Company ) under the same statute , on February 19 , 1853 . Thomas Black , a Seneca who had made some improvements and apparently been compensated for the same , allegedly consented to the Underhills presence . Judge Edgar C. Dibble , of the Genesee County Court ( 1846 , 1851 – 1854 ) and a one @-@ time partner of Martindale , granted the writ of removal . The Supreme Court granted certiorari and affirmed on September 4 , 1854 , holding that " the Seneca nation had not duly granted and conveyed the reserve in question to Ogden and Fellows . " The judgement of the Supreme Court was delivered by Judge Marvin , joined by judges Bowen and Green . Judge Mullet dissented without opinion .
The Court of Appeals — after the second argument — also affirmed in September 1857 . The majority opinion was authored by Judge Brown , joined by Judges Comstock , Paige , Shankland , and Bowen . The Court of Appeals held that the state statute did not violate the New York Constitution and that a jury trial was not required because the defendants had no property right . In closing , the Court of Appeals cited the U.S. Supreme Court 's recent decision in Fellows . Chief Judge Hiram Denio , joined by Judge Alexander S. Johnson , concurred on the constitutionality of the 1821 state statute , but dissented on the grounds that the treaties extinguished the aboriginal title , and thus the state statute either did not apply or violated the treaty . Judge Selden recused .
By the time Fellows was decided , Dibble had reached the U.S. Supreme Court but had not yet been argued . The Court eventually affirmed in 1858 , holding that the state statute did not violate the Indian Commerce Clause , the federal Nonintercourse Act , or the treaty .
= = Subsequent developments = =
= = = Enrolled treaty doctrine = = =
The key claim advanced by lawyer John H. Martindale in all four cases had been that the Treaty of Buffalo Creek ( 1838 ) was invalid because it was not signed by the Seneca leaders with the authority to cede the Tonawanda Reservation , and the signatures it did contain were obtained by coercion or fraud . This argument had not prevailed before the New York Courts or the Supreme Court . As Brown notes :
The principal point , however , on which the counsel relied , and which he hoped to establish , was that the Tonawandas were not bound by the Treaties , because the chiefs there protested against and refused to sign them . To this point his main argument has always , in all stages of the litigation been addressed , and he has pressed it upon the consideration of the Courts , with the utmost pertinacity . It was , however , decided against him in the Blacksmith case , argued last Winter at Washington and has never been decided in his favor by any Court .
Fellows is among the earliest cases where the Supreme Court applied treaties , including treaties between the United States and Native American tribes , as binding law . Fellows has been cited as authority for the enrolled treaty doctrine ; analogous to the enrolled bill rule for statutes , the enrolled treaty doctrine prevents inquiry into the legitimacy of the formation of treaties once ratified by the Senate . This doctrine was later used to deny relief ( or , to deny more relief ) to Native American tribes who claimed that treaties were entered into fraudulently or signed by persons without authority to bind the tribe . Fellows was also decided before the Supreme Court began distinguishing between self @-@ executing and non @-@ self executing treaties . Regardless , treaties between the United States and Native Americans continued to be regarded as self @-@ executing .
= = = Seneca land claims = = =
A contemporary New York Times article opined that : " The questions involved are of great magnitude , and affect more or less the title to a large portion of the State of New York . " Although the Seneca prevailed in the lawsuit , title to a large portion of the state was not called into question due to the court 's refusal to entertain the Seneca 's claims regarding the invalidity of the treaty . According to Armstrong , the result of the decision was mixed :
The decision was not all that the Indians had hoped for — it was a victory on narrow legal grounds rather than a vindication of their cause — but it was a victory . The Court 's ruling meant that as long as the federal government was determined to take no action to remove them from Tonawanda , the Ogden Company was powerless to do so .
Fellows was " decided at a time when the government was still dealing with Indian tribes as if they were semi @-@ sovereign nations . " The Tonawanda Seneca were never relocated to Kansas , and a new 1857 treaty confirmed their title to a 7 @,@ 549 @-@ acre reservation . This treaty ended 15 years of litigation between the Tonawanda Band and the Ogden Land Company .
The Seneca , again represented by Martindale , prevailed in New York ex rel . Cutler v. Dibble ( 1858 ) . Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy ( 1896 ) also involved a Seneca plaintiff represented by a Civil War general . There , the plaintiffs challenged the Phelps and Gorham Purchase under the Nonintercourse Act . Fellows was not cited . In 1899 , the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a $ 1 @,@ 967 @,@ 056 judgment of the Court of Claims ( pursuant to an enabling statute ) against the federal government based on the 1838 treaty . Fellows was cited by Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida ( 1974 ) for the proposition that " the possessory right claimed is a federal right to the lands at issue in this case . "
= = = Litigants = = =
Plaintiff Ely S. Parker went on to become a member of General Ulysses S. Grant 's staff during the American Civil War , drawing up the terms of the surrender at Appomattox Court House . After the war , President Grant appointed Parker as Commissioner of Indian Affairs , the first indigenous head of the Bureau of Indian Affairs . According to his New York Times obituary , Parker " negotiated the removal of his tribe from this State to the fertile and pleasant lands on Green Bay , Wisconsin . "
The Seneca 's lawyer , John H. Martindale , later appeared before the U.S. Supreme Court , as New York Attorney General , in In re New York Indians ( 1866 ) , arguing that the state had the right to tax the Senecas . The Court disagreed . In the case below , plaintiffs Joseph Fellows ( the defendant in Fellows ) , Louisa Troup , and George R. Babcock sought to recover a plot of land from Robert Denniston ( in his official capacity as New York State Comptroller ) and Thomas W. Olcott , the purchaser at the tax foreclosure sale . Fellows , Troup , and Babcock argued that the state had no power to tax the Seneca . In re New York Indians , agreeing , cited Fellows :
Until the Indians have sold their lands , and removed from them in pursuance of the treaty stipulations , they are to be regarded as still in their ancient possession , and are in under their original rights , and entitled to the undisturbed enjoyment of them . This was the effect of the decision in the case of Fellows v. Blacksmith . The time for the surrender of the possession , according to their consent given in the treaty , had not expired when these taxes were levied . The period within which the removal was to take place , under the treaty of 1838 , was five years from the time it went into effect . It was not proclaimed till 1840 , and under that of 1842 the time did not expire till 1846 . The taxation of the lands was premature and illegal .
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= Guitar Hero ( video game ) =
Guitar Hero is a music rhythm video game developed by Harmonix and published by RedOctane for the PlayStation 2 video game console . It is the first entry in the Guitar Hero series . Guitar Hero was released on November 8 , 2005 in North America , April 7 , 2006 in Europe and June 15 , 2006 in Australia . The game 's development was a result of collaboration between RedOctane and Harmonix to bring a Guitar Freaks @-@ like game to America .
The game features a guitar @-@ shaped controller ( resembling a miniature Gibson SG ) that the player uses to simulate playing rock music . The gameplay is similar to GuitarFreaks , in that the player presses buttons on the guitar controller in time with musical notes that scroll on the game screen . The game features covers of 30 popular rock songs spanning five decades of rock , from the 1960s up through 2005 , in addition to bonus tracks . Guitar Hero became a surprise hit , earning critical acclaim and winning many awards from major video game publications , and was considered one of the most influential games of the first decade of the 21st century . The game 's success launched the Guitar Hero franchise , which has earned more than $ 2 billion in sales , spawning several sequels , expansions , and other game @-@ related products .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay is similar to other music and rhythm video games , in that the player must press buttons on a game controller in time with scrolling notes on the game screen to complete a song . The basic mechanics are based on Konami 's Guitar Freaks . In the case of Guitar Hero , the player may use either the guitar peripheral ( a 3 / 4 @-@ scale reproduction of the Gibson SG guitar as bundled with the game , or a third @-@ party version ) or a standard controller to play the scrolling notes . The guitar peripheral has five different @-@ colored fret buttons near the nut of the guitar neck , and a strum bar and a whammy bar on the body of the guitar . The peripheral also has other buttons in order to navigate the game 's menus . Music is displayed on screen through a series of notes , matching in color and position to the fret buttons , that scroll down the screen on a fret board . To hit or play a note , the player must hold down the fret button corresponding to the note shown and toggle the strum bar at the same time as that note passes a marked area on the screen . Faster series of notes may be played on the guitar controller using hammer @-@ on and pull @-@ off techniques where the player does not need to strum each note . The game supports toggling the handedness of the guitar , allowing both left @-@ handed and right @-@ handed players to utilize the guitar controller . A player using the standard controller simply presses the buttons that correspond with the displayed notes as outlined in the game 's manual .
The player is awarded points for correctly hitting notes , chords and sustains . The player can also increase a score multiplier by playing a series of consecutive notes successfully . A " Rock Meter " tracks the player 's performance based on success or failure of hitting notes , and if the meter drops too low the song will prematurely end in failure for the player . The player can also earn " Star Power " by playing a series of glowing notes perfectly and using the whammy bar during sustains . Once the Star Power meter is filled at least halfway , Star Power can then be activated by briefly tilting the guitar controller vertically , or by pressing a specific button on a standard controller . Activating Star Power will double the scoring multiplier and makes it easier to increase the Rock Meter by playing correct notes . Thus , players can strategically use Star Power to play through difficult sections of a song they might have otherwise failed .
= = = Modes and other features = = =
Guitar Hero 's main mode of play is Career Mode , where the player and in @-@ game band travel between various fictional performance arenas and perform sets of four or five songs . Completing songs in this mode unlocks the songs for play within the other game modes . Players can choose their on @-@ stage character and their guitar ; these elements have no effect on gameplay but affect the visuals during the performance . In Career Mode , players can earn money from their performances that is redeemable at the in @-@ game store , where bonus content , such as additional songs , guitars and finishes , can be unlocked . Quick Play mode allows the player to play any unlocked track , selecting the difficulty , the character , venue and guitar . After successfully completing a song in either Career or Quick Play mode , the player is given a score and a rating between three @-@ five stars , depending on his or her overall performance .
Multiplayer mode offers two players the chance to compete against each other on the same song . Two fret boards will appear on screen , one for each player , as they alternate playing sections of the song in a dueling manner . The player with the highest score at the end of the song wins .
The four difficulty levels for each song afford the player a learning curve in order to help him or her progress in skill . The first difficulty level , Easy , only focuses on the first three fret buttons while displaying a significantly reduced amount of notes for the player to play . Medium introduces a fourth fret button while adding more notes , and Hard includes the final fret button while adding additional notes . Expert does not introduce any other frets to learn , but adds more notes in a manner designed to challenge the player .
= = Development = =
According to Rob Kay , the game 's Lead Designer , the idea of Guitar Hero was directly inspired by Konami 's Guitar Freaks arcade game , where the player used a guitar @-@ shaped controller to interact with the game . At the time , GuitarFreaks had not seen much exposure in North America . RedOctane was making dance pads for games like Dance Dance Revolution for home consoles and also operated an online video rental service similar to Netflix . RedOctane 's Kai and Charles Huang recognized the popularity of GuitarFreaks in Japan through their rental service , and planned to create guitar controllers to bring the game to North America . The Huangs raised $ 1 @.@ 75 million for the effort , despite being turned down by some investors who " thought [ the idea ] was too weird " . Greg Fischbach , one of the founders of Acclaim Entertainment , noted , regretfully several years later , they had passed on Guitar Hero , questioning " Who 's going to buy a peripheral like that ? " The Huangs approached Harmonix , who had previously made music video games such as Frequency , Amplitude and Karaoke Revolution about making a guitar @-@ based video game for those controllers . With a budget of about one million dollars ( which Kay noted was " pretty tiny for a video game " ) , the two companies worked together to develop Guitar Hero . Kay noted that " No one had any notions about it being a massive success ; we all just thought it would be fun to do . " Harmonix 's president Alex Rigopulos also claims that former Microsoft vice @-@ president of game publishing Ed Fries indirectly influenced the game 's creation , who had previously told Harmonix when they were pitching Frequency to Microsoft that no music @-@ rhythm game would succeed without custom hardware for it , prompting Rigopulos to investigate the Guitar Hero opportunity when it arose .
The team quickly recognized that " the controller really was the kind of magic sauce for what we wanted to do " . They identified three aspects of gameplay that they felt made the game stand out . These aspects included the note @-@ matching aspect and the showmanship created by the use of the whammy bar and tilting of the guitar within the game . The third key aspect was the use of Star Power " to provide a little more depth to the game — some replay value , some interest for people as they were playing beyond just hitting the notes " . Harmonix used third party controllers made for GuitarFreaks that were already on the market for development of the game until RedOctane had prepared prototypes for the Guitar Hero controller . The controller initially had pressure @-@ sensitive fret buttons to mimic the playing of a real guitar , but the idea was dropped as it made the gameplay too complex . The idea of using the whammy bar to boost Star Power , in addition to altering the pitch of sustained notes was only realized about a month before the completion of the game . The team had spent " precious development time and resources " into creating a free @-@ style model that would have allowed players to improvise during songs but ultimately cut it as they could not work the feature into the existing gameplay .
" Gem tracks " , the pattern of notes for a song , were developed by a team in Harmonix , taking usually a day to develop the tracks for one song . Tracks were designed to include key notes to " make [ the player ] feel as if [ he is ] a brilliant musician " . Software algorithms were used to assess the difficulty of the tracks , and the quality assurance team helped to rebalance the tracks for accuracy and difficulty . The software also allowed Harmonix to quickly make changes to the set list or to recreate the tracks for a song to make sure the overall difficulty of the game was appropriate .
At the onset of development , the team did not have any idea of what songs would be present in the final game . Kay noted that " We wanted 30 or 40 songs for the game and put a hundred on our wish list . " The game was to focus mostly on hard rock songs , but the team was limited by what could be licensed . The team also felt " morally obligated " to include older , classic rock songs like The Ramones ' " I Wanna Be Sedated " to the younger target audience of the game . Harmonix had to modify the track list throughout development as certain songs were introduced or removed based on licensing issues , requiring the team to repeatedly balance difficulty and popularity of the track list . WaveGroup Sound were used to create the covers of the licensed songs provided in the game . Marcus Henderson of the band Drist provided many of the lead guitar tracks for the covers . WaveGroup Sound also went to efforts to try to recreate effects for some songs . In the case of Black Sabbath 's " Iron Man " , the team learned that the vocal effects were created by having Ozzy Osbourne sing from behind a metal fan . The team sought out the same model of fan through Craigslist to generate the same effect in the game 's cover . Many of the bonus songs were from groups that Harmonix employees were part of or knew . Additionally , a " Be a Guitar Hero " contest was held allowing bands to submit their own song to be included in the game . The winning song was " Cheat on the Church " by Graveyard BBQ . Black Label Society 's song , " Fire it Up " , was included two weeks before the game was completed at the request of Zakk Wylde . The final song list was set very near to the shipping date .
Guitar Hero started with " super @-@ basic Pong @-@ style graphics " for the game display . The final game art was led by Ryan Lesser , using the art team 's involvement in the music scene . Based on the experience from Frequency and Amplitude , the team realized that " people don 't necessarily relate to really abstract visuals " , and included the depictions of live performances as previously used in Karaoke Revolution . House of Moves were used to assist in creation motion capture for the on @-@ screen animations . The appearance of Star Power was made to resemble electricity , both to reflect the use of the electric guitar as well to conceptually demonstrate the excitement of the performance and the virtual audience .
Guitar Hero was initially released to retail stores in a bundle that packaged the game disc and a Gibson SG guitar controller , priced at $ 69 @.@ 99 . Since its release , stand @-@ alone copies of the games and the guitar controller have been released , including both RedOctane and third @-@ party controllers from TAC and Nyko . MadCatz , another controller company that has produced guitar controllers , was set to initially be part of the game 's development , creating a version of the game for the Xbox , but had to pull out due to a lawsuit by Komani ; MadCatz 's Darrel Richardson stated they had to pay $ 300 @,@ 000 to get out of their contract with RedOctane .
= = Soundtrack = =
Guitar Hero features 47 playable songs , 30 of which are " main setlist " tracks that are covers of popular songs . Featured tracks include " Iron Man " by Black Sabbath , " Take Me Out " by Franz Ferdinand , " Spanish Castle Magic " by Jimi Hendrix , " Bark at the Moon " by Ozzy Osbourne , " Smoke on the Water " by Deep Purple , " Crossroads " by Cream , and " Fat Lip " by Sum 41 . All cover tracks are credited on screen with the phrase " as made famous by " ( e.g. , " ' I Wanna Be Sedated ' , as made famous by The Ramones " ) . The other 17 songs are master recordings selected from indie groups .
= = Reception = =
Guitar Hero received critical acclaim upon release . It received a score of 91 @.@ 96 % on GameRankings and 91 / 100 on Metacritic . IGN praised the " fantastic soundtrack " and " great peripheral " , further commenting that mini @-@ Gibson SG controller " is what makes Guitar Hero , rather than what breaks it " . GameSpot echoed these sentiments , stating Guitar Hero had a " great guitar controller " and " killer soundtrack " and was possibly the " best rhythm game ever made " . Many reviews praised the game 's gradual learning curve and difficulty approach through the song tier progression and the difficulty setting for each song . Play said the game " gives bedroom air guitarists a chance to live out their rock ' n ' roll fantasies " . GameSpy 's review commented on the length of the songs , in that " once you hit the three minute mark or so , things start to feel ' too long ' " . Eurogamer said , " the lack of international star quality about the roster of songs and the absence of the original artists is perhaps the only thing that may detract from the package from an importer 's perspective " and " it would have been truly amazing with a better track list " .
Shortly after release , Guitar Hero became an unexpected hit ; it was the second @-@ highest @-@ selling PlayStation 2 title in February 2006 according to the NPD Group . Game sales amounted to $ 45 million in 2005 . Since then , the game has sold about 1 @.@ 53 million copies through December 2007 . The success of the game has spawned a one billion dollar Guitar Hero franchise , including four sequels on several seventh generation consoles , seven expansions , a mobile phone @-@ based version , and a portable version for the Nintendo DS . Harmonix no longer is involved in development of the series , due to its acquisition by MTV . Harmonix has since developed Rock Band using designs similar to those that based Guitar Hero 's success .
The game and its sequels have created interest in young adults and children in learning how to play a real guitar , and has been considered as a " cultural phenomenon " that has created a significant cultural impact . At the end of 2009 , several journalists , including Wired , G4TV , CNN , the San Jose Mercury News , the Toronto Star , Inc . , The Guardian , and Advertising Age , considered Guitar Hero to be one of the most influential products of the first decade of the 21st century , attributing it as the spark leading to the growth of the rhythm game market , for boosting music sales for both new and old artists , for introducing more social gaming concepts to the video game market , and , in conjunction with the Wii , for improving interactivity with gaming consoles .
= = = Awards = = =
Guitar Hero has won several awards . In IGN 's " Best of 2005 " , the game was recognized for " Best Music Game " , " Best PlayStation 2 Music Game " , " Best Licensed Soundtrack " , " Best Licensed Soundtrack for PlayStation 2 " , " Best Offline Multiplayer Game " , " Best PlayStation 2 Offline Multiplayer Game " , and " Best Gaming Peripheral " ( for the Mini Gibson SG controller ) . GameSpot also recognized the game in its " Best and Worst of 2005 " , awarding it honors for " Best Puzzle / Rhythm Game " , " Most Metal " , and " Reader 's Choice – Best Puzzle / Rhythm Game " . The Game Developers Choice Awards honored Guitar Hero for " Excellence in Audio " and " Excellence in Game Innovation " . The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences ' 2005 Interactive Achievement Awards honored the game with awards for " Game of the Year " , " Outstanding Achievement in Game Design " , " Outstanding Achievement in Game Play Engineering " ( tie ) , and " Outstanding Achievement in Soundtrack " . Guitar Hero also won " Best Soundtrack " at the 2005 Spike TV Video Game Awards .
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= Steffen Peters =
Steffen Peters ( born September 18 , 1964 ) is a German @-@ born equestrian who competes for the United States in dressage . He has participated in three Olympic Games , winning a bronze medal at the 1996 Summer Olympics . Peters has been successful in numerous other international competitions , including winning team bronze at the 2006 World Equestrian Games , two individual bronze medals at the 2010 World Equestrian Games and individual and team gold at the 2011 Pan Am Games . The horse upon which he won many of his titles , Ravel , was retired in 2012 , and Peters is currently working with a new international competition horse , Legolas .
= = Personal life = =
Peters was born in North Rhine @-@ Westphalia , Germany . He began riding at age seven , and competing in weekend dressage shows . By 15 , he was competing outside of Germany , at international competitions in Belgium and Denmark . He received his first horse , Udon , at age 16 as a gift from his father ; this horse would carry him to a bronze medal in the 1996 Summer Olympics . In 1984 , he spent the summer training in San Diego , California , before returning to Germany to perform his army service . In 1985 , he returned to the United States with Udon . In 1991 , he opened his own barn and acquired his first sponsor , Lila Kommerstad , who purchased Udon and as of 2012 owned a portion of Peters ' Arroyo Del Mar training barn . Peters gained his US citizenship in 1992 , saying , " The whole idea of being so patriotic , of feeling so close to one 's country makes a difference . There are not too many other countries where the people are so patriotic . I really enjoy this about America . " Peters continues to live in the San Diego area with his wife , Shannon . Their large dressage barn is home to approximately 65 horses as of 2012 , around half of which the couple trains and the other half of which are in training under other riders . Outside of his competition and training schedule , he teaches in around 30 training seminars each year . His staff call him " a machine " with regard to his training and competition schedule , and in addition to riding , he participates in swimming , cycling and tennis .
= = Competitive career = =
Peters ' show record before the 1992 Summer Olympics made him a hopeful to compete for the US team . However , his citizenship papers were not processed in time to compete in the Olympic trials , and so he did not compete in Barcelona . Peters won his first Olympic medal when he rode with the US dressage team to a bronze medal at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , together with Robert Dover , Michelle Gibson and Guenter Seidel . Peters , riding Floriano , was an alternate for the US team at the 2004 Summer Olympics , and did not compete . In 2006 , with an aging Floriano , Peters and the US team won bronze at the 2006 World Equestrian Games . Soon after , he began riding TC Ravel , who would become his most successful horse . Despite being gelded while in quarantine after his shipment from the Netherlands and suffering an injury in 2007 that prevented training , Ravel carried Peters to a qualification for the 2008 Summer Olympics . In individual dressage competition at the Games , Peters placed fourth , riding Ravel . The US team finished fourth at the 2008 Games , but was disqualified after team member Courtney King 's horse tested positive for felbinac , a banned substance . In 2009 , Peters and Ravel had the highest scores in all three portions of the prestigious German Aachen World Equestrian Festival Grand Prix competition , leading them to be the first American pair to be named the Aachen Grand Prix Champions .
Ravel and Peters went on to win the 2009 World Cup Final , two bronze medals in individual competition at the 2010 World Equestrian Games , and be twice named the US Grand Prix Dressage Champions . In 2009 , The Chronicle of the Horse named Peters and Ravel Horse and Horseman of the Year , and the United States Equestrian Federation ( USEF ) named Ravel as Horse of the Year . At the time , the Chronicle called him a " natural athlete with a balanced seat and an inherent understanding of the horse . He 's calm under pressure and has a reputation for having ice water in his veins . " In 2011 , riding Weltino 's Magic , he took gold in both the team and individual dressage events at the 2011 Pan Am Games . At the 2012 Summer Olympics he came 17th in the individual dressage and was part of the US team which came 6th , again riding Ravel . Peters retired Ravel from competition after the 2012 Olympic Games , after over 40 Grand Prix wins , and the same year the horse was inducted into the United States Dressage Federation Hall of Fame . Peters ' new international competition horse is Legolas , currently the world 's top dressage horse , and a prospect for the 2014 FEI World Equestrian Games , to be held in Normandy , France .
Peters is the first person to be awarded the USEF 's Equestrian of the Year Award three times , having won the honor in 2008 , 2009 and 2011 .
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= Gardner Lake =
Gardner Lake is a small lake which borders the towns of Salem , Montville and Bozrah in Connecticut . Named after the Gardner family which owned a large portion of the surrounding land , the 528 @-@ acre ( 214 ha ) lake has been expanded in size with the construction of an earthen dam . Three state parks are located around Gardner Lake . Minnie Island State Park , the smallest state park , is a pine knoll . Hopemead State Park is a former campground that abuts the lake 's eastern shore . Gardner Lake State Park primarily serves as a boat launch and swimming area , but has been beset by problems with trash and vandalism since the area was improved in 2008 . Four campgrounds , a marina and dozens of private residences surround the lake . The lake is used for fishing and boating .
= = History = =
Gardner Lake is a natural lake and is named for the Gardner family which owned a large portion of the surrounding area , but the history of the lake itself is more identified as the site of " an extremely public miscalculation " . Thomas LeCount , a grocer from Niantic , Connecticut wanted to move his two @-@ story summer house from the south side of the lake to the east side of the lake , but believed that moving the house conventionally would be inefficient . LeCount raised up his fully furnished house and placed it on sleds and waited until February 1895 when the lake was frozen . After moving the house about 300 feet ( 91 m ) off the south shore , the house slid sideways into a snowbank . The ice cracked as LeCount attempted to pull the house back , before abandoning the work at nightfall . That night , the mill operators utilized some of the lake 's water for power and made a gap between the ice and surface of the water , causing the house to crack through the ice and pitch over . LeCount 's summer home remained in this position until the spring thaw where it came to rest in 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) of water with the second story and attic positioned above the water like a small lighthouse . For years , the house was the subject of children who fished off it in summer and ice skated through the house in the winter , but an enduring tale told by fishermen is that the house 's piano could be heard playing on quiet nights . By 2005 , the house was mostly rotted away .
Though Gardner Lake is a 528 @-@ acre ( 214 ha ) natural lake that has been increased in size by the construction of a 168 feet ( 51 m ) earthen dam . The dam raises the water level up 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) to an average depth of 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) . The area surrounding Gardner Lake has dozens of private homes , four campgrounds and a marina .
= = Gardner Lake State Park = =
Gardner Lake State Park is a small 9 @.@ 75 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 95 ha ) Connecticut state park located on the south portion of the lake and provides access for fishing , swimming , and boating on the lake . Added to the state park list in 2001 , it expected to be open around 2002 and serves as one of the few public inland swimming areas ighyt dog poopn the New London County area .
In 2001 , the State of Connecticut paid $ 550 @,@ 000 to acquire the parcel of land which became Lake Gardner State Park . The land was acquired from the estate of Carmine Belardo and returned a beach to public service that had been a private resort for 60 years . The Town of Salem had sought to acquire the land , but the citizens rejected the plan three times and a state funded grant was rejected in 1994 after the DEP announced the interest in acquiring the property for the state . In 2008 , the state spent about $ 1 million to pave the boat launch area and improve parking for 54 vehicles . In 2012 , the State of Connecticut was looking to institute parking fees for the park after it experienced several years of increased attendance and incidents in the park limits . Concerns included littering , unkempt toilets , swimmers going outside the designated zone and police arresting almost three times as many visitors from 2011 . In response to the issues , patrols were increased and additional signage was added to inform swimmers . The problems with trash problems and portable toilets ending up in the lake caused concerns for a local advocacy group , Friends of Gardner Lake , and the Gardner Lake Authority which has staff to attend the lake during peak hours .
Gardner Lake State Park is located off Connecticut Route 354 and features accessible parking , chemical toilets and a paved boat launch area . This state park designated area is primarily to provide boating and recreational access to the lake , though there is also a small beach for visitors to use . As of 2014 , the park does not have a parking fee .
= = Minnie Island State Park = =
Minnie Island State Park is a pine grown @-@ knoll that is located in the deepest portion of the lake . It is unmarked and undeveloped island that also is Connecticut 's smallest state park at 0 @.@ 88 acres . The island acquired its name when a local man declared it to be Minnie Island , because he took his wife , Minnie , to it for picnics . Joseph Leary , author of A Shared Landscape writes , " [ a ] s far back as anyone can remember , the island was a frequent landing place for boating parties and a great place for local children to explore . " The island was claimed by both the towns of Salem , Connecticut and Montville , Connecticut though it was not in the land records of either town . This went unnoticed until a man attempted to purchase the island , and then made attempted to establish claim to the island . The man introduced a bill to authorize the sale by the state to establish title to the island , but instead the Connecticut General Assembly drafted and passed a bill to turn the island into a park .
Minnie Island State Park offers opportunities for picnicking and fishing to visitors who reach it by boat . Though the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection lists boating as an activity , which is redundant because the island is accessible by boat . The Oh Ranger website advises visitors of the tiny island to use a kayak to access the island because the island is heavily wooded and it is difficult to find a spot to dock .
= = Hopemead State Park = =
Hopemead State Park is currently undeveloped 70 acre park on the eastern shore of the lake . The land was originally Solomon Gardner 's farm until it was purchased as a summer getaway by the Fuller family . The property was named Camp Charmarlou , an acronym from Fuller 's three daughters , and contained a house and an artist 's studio . Camp Charmarlou was used a boys camp for a number of years with permission by the Fuller family . It was later renamed Hopemead , literally " Hope Meadow " , by the Fuller daughters who believed it to be a sanctuary with spiritual overtones . In 1954 , the land was donated to the State of Connecticut to become a state park . The state found the land is unsuitable for development and demolished the dilapidated buildings , with the intention of letting Hopemead return to a natural state . Joseph Leary notes that the wildlife has thrived in the area , but notes that the cacophony of noises and calls is simply " divine " . The park offers opportunities for hiking and fishing .
= = Activities = =
The Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection , now the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection has been stocking the lake with walleye since 1993 . The walleye populations have been reported to be growing and they join the lake 's " excellent populations of bull head and catfish " . Smallmouth bass , largemouth bass , yellow perch are also found in the pond , but have been reported as " fair " reports and also good reports for trout . Local fishing tournaments also occur at Gardner Lake . As a result of the improvements to the boat launch area , boating and kayaking have increased greatly and police had to up the patrols at the lake . The area is patrolled by the Montville police and it costs the majority of annual budget , but the service was seen as beneficial to ensure the safety of boaters and enforcing the rules .
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= German submarine U @-@ 44 ( 1939 ) =
German submarine U @-@ 44 was a Type IXA U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine that operated during World War II . She was ordered in November 1936 and laid down in September 1938 in Bremen . She was launched in August 1939 and commissioned in November .
During her service in the Kriegsmarine , U @-@ 44 conducted only two war patrols and sank a total of eight enemy vessels for a loss of 30 @,@ 885 GRT . On 13 March 1940 , she struck a mine that was located in field Number 7 off the north coast of the Netherlands . All 47 of her ' s crew members went down with the submarine .
= = Construction = =
U @-@ 44 was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 21 November 1936 ( as part of Plan Z and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles ) . She was laid down on 15 September 1938 by AG Weser , in Bremen as yard number 949 . U @-@ 44 was launched on 5 August 1939 and commissioned on 4 November of that same year under the command of Kapitänleutnant Ludwig Mathes .
= = Design = =
As one of the eight original German Type IX submarines , later designated IXA , U @-@ 44 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 032 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 016 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 153 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 135 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 50 m ( 251 ft ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 51 m ( 21 ft 4 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 40 m ( 30 ft 10 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 740 kW ; 990 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 2 knots ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 7 knots ( 14 @.@ 3 km / h ; 8 @.@ 9 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 65 – 78 nautical miles ( 120 – 144 km ; 75 – 90 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 10 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 400 km ; 12 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 44 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .
= = Service history = =
U @-@ 44 had a very short operational life . During her service with the Kriegsmarine , she took part in only two combat patrols . After training exercises with the 6th U @-@ boat Flotilla from 4 November to 31 December 1939 , U @-@ 44 was assigned as the front boat for the 2nd U @-@ boat Flotilla on 1 January 1940 . She was to remain a part of this flotilla until her loss .
= = = First patrol = = =
The first of U @-@ 44 's two patrols began on 6 January 1940 when she left Wilhelmshaven for the North Sea , eventually circumnavigating the British Isles , travelling as far south as the Bay of Biscay and Portugal . It was in these two locations that U @-@ 44 sank her first ( and last ) merchant ships . Following these victories , she headed north again , travelling just north of the coast of Scotland and back into the North Sea . She then returned to Wilhelmshaven , arriving there on 9 February 1940 . Over a period of thirty @-@ five days , U @-@ 44 sank eight merchant ships , for a total loss of 30 @,@ 885 GRT .
= = = Second patrol = = =
Unlike her first outing , U @-@ 44 's second patrol was a disaster , not even lasting through the first day . After spending more than a month in Wilhelmshaven , she began her second patrol on 13 March 1940 . A few hours after leaving port , U @-@ 44 entered minefield Number 7 , just off of the northern coast of the Netherlands . This particular minefield was laid by the British destroyers HMS Esk , Express , Icarus , Faulknor and Impulsive . Upon entering the minefield , U @-@ 44 struck one of the devices and sank at 54 ° 14 ′ N 5 ° 07 ′ E. All forty @-@ seven of her crew were lost .
= = Previously recorded fate = =
Sunk by HMS Fortune on 20 March 1940 .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
During her service , U @-@ 44 sank eight commercial ships for a loss of 30 @,@ 885 GRT . All of these ships were sunk during her first patrol .
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= Group 3 element =
Group 3 is a group of elements in the periodic table . This group , like other d @-@ block groups , should contain four elements , but it is not agreed what elements belong in the group . Scandium ( Sc ) and yttrium ( Y ) are always included , but the other two spaces are usually occupied by lanthanum ( La ) and actinium ( Ac ) , or by lutetium ( Lu ) and lawrencium ( Lr ) ; less frequently , it is considered the group should be expanded to 32 elements ( with all the lanthanides and actinides included ) or contracted to contain only scandium and yttrium . The group itself has not acquired a trivial name ; however , scandium , yttrium and the lanthanides are sometimes called rare earth metals .
Three group 3 elements occur naturally , scandium , yttrium , and either lanthanum or lutetium . Lanthanum continues the trend started by two lighter members in general chemical behavior , while lutetium behaves more similarly to yttrium . This is in accordance with the trend for period 6 transition metals to behave more similarly to their upper periodic table neighbors . This trend is seen from hafnium , which is almost identical chemically to zirconium , to mercury , which is quite distant chemically from cadmium , but still shares with it almost equal atomic size and other similar properties . They all are silvery @-@ white metals under standard conditions . The fourth element , either actinium or lawrencium , has only radioactive isotopes . Actinium , which occurs only in trace amounts , continues the trend in chemical behavior for metals that form tripositive ions with a noble gas configuration ; synthetic lawrencium is calculated and partially shown to be more similar to lutetium and yttrium . So far , no experiments have been conducted to synthesize any element that could be the next group 3 element . Unbiunium ( Ubu ) , which could be considered a group 3 element if preceded by lanthanum and actinium , might be synthesized in the near future , it being only three spaces away from the current heaviest element known , ununoctium .
= = History = =
In 1787 , Swedish part @-@ time chemist Carl Axel Arrhenius found a heavy black rock near the Swedish village of Ytterby , Sweden ( part of the Stockholm Archipelago ) . Thinking that it was an unknown mineral containing the newly discovered element tungsten , he named it ytterbite . Finnish scientist Johan Gadolin identified a new oxide or " earth " in Arrhenius ' sample in 1789 , and published his completed analysis in 1794 ; in 1797 , the new oxide was named yttria . In the decades after French scientist Antoine Lavoisier developed the first modern definition of chemical elements , it was believed that earths could be reduced to their elements , meaning that the discovery of a new earth was equivalent to the discovery of the element within , which in this case would have been yttrium . Until the early 1920s , the chemical symbol " Yt " was used for the element , after which " Y " came into common use . Yttrium metal was first isolated in 1828 when Friedrich Wöhler heated anhydrous yttrium ( III ) chloride with potassium to form metallic yttrium and potassium chloride .
In 1869 , Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published his periodic table , which had empty spaces for elements directly above and under yttrium . Mendeleev made several predictions on the upper neighbor of yttrium , which he called eka @-@ boron . Swedish chemist Lars Fredrik Nilson and his team discovered the missing element in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite and prepared 2 grams of scandium ( III ) oxide of high purity . He named it scandium , from the Latin Scandia meaning " Scandinavia " . Chemical experiments on the element proved that Mendeleev 's suggestions were correct ; along with discovery and characterization of gallium and germanium this proved the correctness of the whole periodic table and periodic law . Nilson was apparently unaware of Mendeleev 's prediction , but Per Teodor Cleve recognized the correspondence and notified Mendeleev . Metallic scandium was produced for the first time in 1937 by electrolysis of a eutectic mixture , at 700 – 800 ° C , of potassium , lithium , and scandium chlorides .
Lutetium was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist Georges Urbain , Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach , and American chemist Charles James as an impurity in the mineral ytterbia , which was thought by most chemists to consist entirely of ytterbium . Welsbach proposed the names cassiopeium for element 71 ( after the constellation Cassiopeia ) and aldebaranium ( after the star Aldebaran ) for the new name of ytterbium but these naming proposals were rejected , although many German scientists in the 1950s called the element 71 cassiopeium . Urbain chose the names neoytterbium ( Latin for " new ytterbium " ) for ytterbium and lutecium ( from Latin Lutetia , for Paris ) for the new element . The dispute on the priority of the discovery is documented in two articles in which Urbain and von Welsbach accuse each other of publishing results influenced by the published research of the other . The Commission on Atomic Mass , which was responsible for the attribution of the names for the new elements , settled the dispute in 1909 by granting priority to Urbain and adopting his names as official ones . An obvious problem with this decision was that Urbain was one of the four members of the commission . The separation of lutetium from ytterbium was first described by Urbain and the naming honor therefore went to him , but neoytterbium was eventually reverted to ytterbium and in 1949 , the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium . Ironically , Charles James , who had modestly stayed out of the argument as to priority , worked on a much larger scale than the others , and undoubtedly possessed the largest supply of lutetium at the time .
Lawrencium was first synthesized by the Albert Ghiorso and his team on February 14 , 1961 , at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory ( now called the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ) at the University of California in Berkeley , California , United States . The first atoms of lawrencium were produced by bombarding a three @-@ milligram target consisting of three isotopes of the element californium with boron @-@ 10 and boron @-@ 11 nuclei from the Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator ( HILAC ) . The nuclide 257103 was originally reported , but then this was reassigned to 258103 . The team at the University of California suggested the name lawrencium ( after Ernest O. Lawrence , the inventor of cyclotron particle accelerator ) and the symbol " Lw " , for the new element , but " Lw " was not adopted , and " Lr " was officially accepted instead . Nuclear @-@ physics researchers in Dubna , Soviet Union ( now Russia ) , reported in 1967 that they were not able to confirm American scientists ' data on 257103 . Two years earlier , the Dubna team reported 256103 . In 1992 , the IUPAC Trans @-@ fermium Working Group officially recognized element 103 , confirmed its naming as lawrencium , with symbol " Lr " , and named the nuclear physics teams at Dubna and Berkeley as the co @-@ discoverers of lawrencium .
So far , no experiments were conducted to synthesize any element that could be the next group 3 element ; if lutetium and lawrencium are considered to be group 3 elements , then the next element in the group should be element 153 , unpenttrium ( Upt ) . However , after element 120 , filling electronic configurations stops obeying Aufbau principle . According to the principle , unpenttrium should have an electronic configuration of [ Uuo ] 8s25g186f147d1 and filling the 5g @-@ subshell should be stopped at element 138 . However , the 7d @-@ orbitals are calculated to start being filled on element 137 , while the 5g @-@ subshell closes only at element 144 , after filling of 7d @-@ subshell begins . Therefore , it is hard to calculate which element should be the next group 3 element . Calculations suggest that unpentpentium ( Upp , element 155 ) could also be the next group 3 element . If lanthanum and actinium are considered group 3 elements , then element 121 , unbiunium ( Ubu ) , should be the fifth group 3 element . The element is calculated have electronic configuration of [ Uuo ] 8s28p1 / 21 , which is not associated with transition metals , without having a partially filled d @-@ subshell . No experiments have been performed to create unpenttrium , unbiunium or any element that could be considered the next group 3 element ; however , unbiunium is the element with the lowest atomic number that has not been tried to be created and thus has chances to be , while unpenttrium , unpentpentium or any other element considered if preceded by lawrencium is very unlikely to be created due to drip instabilities that imply that the periodic table ends soon after the island of stability at unbihexium .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Chemical = = =
Like other groups , the members of this family show patterns in their electron configurations , especially the outermost shells , resulting in trends in chemical behavior . However , lawrencium is an exception , since its last electron is transferred to the 7p1 / 2 subshell due to relativistic effects .
Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first three members of the group ; chemical properties of both actinium and especially lawrencium are not well @-@ characterized . The remaining elements of the group ( scandium , yttrium , lutetium ) are reactive metals with high melting points ( 1541 ° C , 1526 ° C , 1652 ° C respectively ) . They are usually oxidized to the + 3 oxidation state , even through scandium , yttrium and lanthanum can form lower oxidation states . The reactivity of the elements , especially yttrium , is not always obvious due to the formation of a stable oxide layer , which prevents further reactions . Scandium ( III ) oxide , yttrium ( III ) oxide , lanthanum ( III ) oxide and lutetium ( III ) oxide are white high @-@ temperature @-@ melting solids . Yttrium ( III ) oxide and lutetium ( III ) oxide exhibit weak basic character , but scandium ( III ) oxide is amphoteric . Lanthanum ( III ) oxide is strongly basic .
= = = Physical = = =
Elements that show tripositive ions with electronic configuration of a noble gas ( scandium , yttrium , lanthanum , actinium ) show a clear trend in their physical properties , such as hardness . At the same time , if group 3 is continued with lutetium and lawrencium , several trends are broken . For example , scandium and yttrium are both soft metals . Lanthanum is soft as well ; all these elements have their outermost electrons quite far from the nucleus compared to the nuclei charges . Due to the lanthanide contraction , lutetium , the last in the lanthanide series , has a significantly smaller atomic radius and a higher nucleus charge , thus making the extraction of the electrons from the atom to form metallic bonding more difficult , and thus making the metal harder . However , lutetium suits the previous elements better in several other properties , such as melting and boiling points . Very little is known about lawrencium , and none of its physical properties have been confirmed .
= = Group borders = =
It is disputed whether lutetium and lawrencium should be included in group 3 , rather than lanthanum and actinium . Other d @-@ block groups are composed of four transition metals , and group 3 is sometimes considered to follow suit . Scandium and yttrium are always classified as group 3 elements , but it is controversial which elements should follow them in group 3 , lanthanum and actinium or lutetium and lawrencium . Scerri has proposed a resolution to this debate on the basis of moving to a 32 @-@ column table and consideration of which option results in a continuous sequence of atomic number increase . He thereby finds that group 3 should consist of Sc , Y , Lu , Lr . The current IUPAC definition of the term " lanthanoid " includes fifteen elements including both lanthanum and lutetium , and that of " transition element " applies to lanthanum and actinium , as well as lutetium but not lawrencium , since it does not correctly follow the Aufbau principle . Normally , the 103rd electron would enter the d @-@ subshell , but quantum mechanical research has found that the configuration is actually [ Rn ] 7s25f147p1 due to relativistic effects . IUPAC thus has not recommended a specific format for the in @-@ line @-@ f @-@ block periodic table , leaving the dispute open .
Lanthanum and actinium are sometimes considered the remaining members of group 3 . In their most commonly encountered tripositive ion forms , these elements do not possess any partially filled f @-@ orbitals , thus continuing the scandium — yttrium — lanthanum — actinium trend , in which all the elements have relationship similar to that of elements of the calcium — strontium — barium — radium series , the elements ' left neighbors in s @-@ block . However , different behavior is observed in other d @-@ block groups , especially in group 4 , in which zirconium , hafnium and rutherfordium share similar chemical properties lacking a clear trend .
In other tables , lutetium and lawrencium are classified as the remaining members of group 3 . In these tables , lutetium and lawrencium end ( or sometimes succeed ) the lanthanide and actinide series , respectively . Since the f @-@ shell is nominally full in the ground state electron configuration for both of these metals , they behave most similarly to other period 6 and period 7 transition metals compared to the other lanthanides and actinides , and thus logically exhibit properties similar to those of scandium and yttrium .
Some tables , including the official IUPAC table refer to all lanthanides and actinides by a marker in group 3 . This sometimes is believed to be the inclusion of all 30 lanthanide and actinide elements as included in group 3 . Lanthanides , as electropositive trivalent metals , all have a closely related chemistry , and all show many similarities to scandium and yttrium , but they also show additional properties characteristic of their partially filled f @-@ orbitals which are not common to scandium and yttrium .
Exclusion of all elements is based on properties of earlier actinides , which show a much wider variety of chemistry ( for instance , in range of oxidation states ) within their series than the lanthanides , and comparisons to scandium and yttrium are even less useful . However , these elements are destabilized , and if they were stabilized to more closely match chemistry laws , they would be similar to lanthanides as well . Also , the later actinides from californium onwards behave more like the corresponding lanthanides , with only the valence + 3 ( and sometimes + 2 ) shown .
= = Occurrence = =
Scandium , yttrium , and lutetium tend to occur together with other lanthanides ( except promethium ) tend to occur together in the Earth 's crust , and are often harder to extract from their ores . The abundance of elements in Earth 's crust for group 3 is quite low — all the elements in the group are uncommon , the most abundant being yttrium with abundance of approximately 30 parts per million ( ppm ) ; the abundance of scandium is 16 ppm , while that of lutetium is about 0 @.@ 5 ppm . For comparison , the abundance of copper is 50 ppm , that of chromium is 160 ppm , and that of molybdenum is 1 @.@ 5 ppm .
Scandium is distributed sparsely and occurs in trace amounts in many minerals . Rare minerals from Scandinavia and Madagascar such as gadolinite , euxenite , and thortveitite are the only known concentrated sources of this element , the latter containing up to 45 % of scandium in the form of scandium ( III ) oxide . Yttrium has the same trend in occurrence places ; it is found in lunar rock samples collected during the American Apollo Project in a relatively high content as well .
The principal commercially viable ore of lutetium is the rare earth phosphate mineral monazite , ( Ce , La , etc . ) PO4 , which contains 0 @.@ 003 % of the element . The main mining areas are China , United States , Brazil , India , Sri Lanka and Australia . Pure lutetium metal is one of the rarest and most expensive of the rare earth metals with the price about US $ 10 @,@ 000 / kg , or about one @-@ fourth that of gold .
= = Production = =
The most available element in group 3 is yttrium , with annual production of 8 @,@ 900 tonnes in 2010 . Yttrium is mostly produced as oxide , by a single country , China ( 99 % ) . Lutetium and scandium are also mostly obtained as oxides , and their annual production by 2001 was about 10 and 2 tonnes , respectively .
Group 3 elements are mined only as a byproduct from the extraction of other elements . The metallic elements are extremely rare ; the production of metallic yttrium is about a few tonnes , and that of scandium is in the order of 10 kg per year ; production of lutetium is not calculated , but it is certainly small . The elements , after purification from other rare earth metals , are isolated as oxides ; the oxides are converted to fluorides during reactions with hydrofluoric acid . The resulting fluorides are reduced with alkaline earth metals or alloys of the metals ; metallic calcium is used most frequently . For example :
Sc2O3 + 3 HF → 2 ScF3 + 3 H2O
2 ScF3 + 3 Ca → 3 CaF2 + 2 Sc
= = Applications = =
= = Biological chemistry = =
Group 3 elements are generally hard metals with low aqueous solubility , and have low availability to the biosphere . No group 3 element has any documented biological role in living organisms . The radioactivity of the actinides generally makes them highly toxic to living cells , causing radiation poisoning .
Scandium has no biological role , but it is found in living organisms . Once reached a human , scandium concentrates in the liver and is a threat to it ; some its compounds are possibly carcinogenic , even through in general scandium is not toxic . Scandium is known to have reached the food chain , but in trace amounts only ; a typical human takes in less than 0 @.@ 1 micrograms per day . Once released into the environment , scandium gradually accumulates in soils , which leads to increased concentrations in soil particles , animals and humans . Scandium is mostly dangerous in the working environment , due to the fact that damps and gases can be inhaled with air . This can cause lung embolisms , especially during long @-@ term exposure . The element is known to damage cell membranes of water animals , causing several negative influences on reproduction and on the functions of the nervous system .
Yttrium has no known biological role , though it is found in most , if not all , organisms and tends to concentrate in the liver , kidney , spleen , lungs , and bones of humans . There is normally as little as 0 @.@ 5 milligrams found within the entire human body ; human breast milk contains 4 ppm . Yttrium can be found in edible plants in concentrations between 20 ppm and 100 ppm ( fresh weight ) , with cabbage having the largest amount . With up to 700 ppm , the seeds of woody plants have the highest known concentrations .
Lutetium has no biological role as well , but it is found even in the highest known organism , the humans , concentrating in bones , and to a lesser extent in the liver and kidneys . Lutetium salts are known to cause metabolism and they occur together with other lanthanide salts in nature ; the element is the least abundant in the human body of all lanthanides . Human diets have not been monitored for lutetium content , so it is not known how much the average human takes in , but estimations show the amount is only about several micrograms per year , all coming from tiny amounts taken by plants . Soluble lutetium salts are mildly toxic , but insoluble ones are not .
The high radioactivity of lawrencium would make it highly toxic to living cells , causing radiation poisoning .
= = Links to related articles = =
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= Pike @-@ Pawnee Village Site =
The Pike @-@ Pawnee Village Site , or Hill Farm Site , designated 25WT1 by archaeologists , is a site near the village of Guide Rock in Webster County , in the south central portion of the state of Nebraska , in the Great Plains region of the United States . It was the location of a village of the Kitkehahki band of the Pawnee people , in a region of the Republican River valley that they occupied intermittently from the 1770s to the 1820s .
In 1806 , the village was visited by a Spanish expedition led by Lieutenant Facundo Melgares and , soon after , by an American expedition led by Lieutenant Zebulon Pike . At the village , Pike persuaded the Pawnee leaders to haul down a Spanish flag that they had received from Melgares , and to raise the flag of the United States in its stead .
The location of the village visited by Pike was not known for many years . In the early 20th century , two sites were proposed : this one in Nebraska , and one in Republic County in northern Kansas . A dispute between the historical societies of the two states ensued , titled " The War Between Nebraska and Kansas " . The dispute was eventually resolved in favor of the Nebraska site .
Investigations conducted at the site by William Duncan Strong , Waldo Wedel , and A. T. Hill were instrumental in the development of Great Plains archaeology , and of Pawnee archaeology in particular .
The site is a National Historic Landmark , and is listed in the National Register of Historic Places .
= = Description = =
The site lies on a terrace on the Republican River 's south side , near the village of Guide Rock . At the terrace 's north edge is a near @-@ vertical 25 – 30 @-@ foot ( 8 – 9 m ) bank ; the floodplain of the river extends about one @-@ fourth mile ( about one @-@ half kilometer ) from the bank 's base to the present channel . The remains of over 100 earth lodges lie on the terrace between the bank and hills to the south , which rise 125 feet ( 38 m ) above the site . On the hills are five cemeteries . The village complex also includes a council site and two open courts where a hoop game was played .
The village extended for at least 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) from east to west . On its east and west sides were creeks , now dry , that ran northward into the Republican . At the time of the village 's occupation , springs in the western creek flowed year @-@ round ; these would have provided a more convenient source of water than the river , since access to the latter was hampered by the steep bank . The springs ceased to flow at some time after the land came under cultivation in the 1870s .
Not far downstream from the site is a hill known to the Pawnees as Pa @-@ hur , or " hill that points the way " . In the traditional Pawnee religion , this was one of five lodges of the nahurac , spirit animals with supernatural healing powers .
= = History 1770 – 1806 = =
= = = The Southern Pawnees move north = = =
The ancestors of the modern Pawnee people were not a single unified tribe . At the middle of the 18th century , they consisted of two major groups . The Skidis , or Wolf Pawnees , had migrated northward with the Arikaras , and had probably been in Nebraska since 1600 or earlier . By the beginning of the 18th century , they were established on the Loup River , which flows through central Nebraska into the Platte River from the north .
The second major division of the ancestral Pawnees was the Southern , or Black Pawnees . Their migration history is not well documented ; but by 1750 they , with the related and allied Wichitas , had established what seemed to be a secure territory on the Arkansas River .
The security of the southern bands depended on French trade in arms , and this was disrupted by the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 63 ) . In 1763 , France surrendered the Louisiana Territory under the terms of the Treaty of Fontainebleau . Great Britain obtained the portion of the territory east of the Mississippi River . Spain received the territory west of the Mississippi , including New Orleans , although they did not make their claim to that city effective until Governor Alejandro O 'Reilly suppressed the Rebellion of 1768 . Once in control of New Orleans , the Spanish imposed severe restrictions on trade up the Mississippi , cutting off the supply of arms to the Southern Pawnees and Wichitas .
The neighboring Osages were not so affected , as they had access to arms smuggled by French traders from British territory in present @-@ day Illinois . With superior weaponry , they drove between the Southern Pawnees and the Wichitas , pushing the latter group southward to the Red River . The Pawnees moved northward into Nebraska , possibly because of news that modern weapons were available from traders on the Platte .
The dates of the moves are not known exactly . The Wichita move from the Arkansas to the Red occurred at some time between 1768 and 1772 . The Osages occupied the former Pawnee @-@ Wichita hunting grounds on the Arkansas in 1774 , indicating that the Pawnees had left by then ; in 1777 , a Spanish report indicated that they were in Nebraska .
The Southern Pawnees were divided into three bands : the Chauis , or Grand Pawnees ; the Pitahawiratas , or Tappage Pawnees ; and the Kitkehahkis , or Republican Pawnees . The Chauis were regarded as the nominal leaders , and in the traditional account they led the migration to Nebraska , followed by the Pitahawiratas . However , the Kitkehahkis declined to follow the Chaui chiefs to their new settlements on the Platte ; instead , they established themselves on the Republican River , near what is now the Nebraska @-@ Kansas border .
= = = Occupation history = = =
There is much debate among historians and archaeologists concerning the dates of occupation of the Webster County village . Four Kitkehahki village sites on the Republican are known , two of them quite large : this one , and the Pawnee Indian Village Site near Republic , Kansas , 49 kilometres ( 30 mi ) downstream . The band inhabited the Republican valley intermittently from the 1770s to the 1820s . Unfortunately , there is little information on which villages were occupied at what times , although there is a strong consensus that this village is the one visited by Pike in 1806 . The following account , therefore , can only describe what is known about Kitkehahki occupation and abandonment of the Republican valley , and not the history of this particular village .
The Pawnees did not live in their villages year @-@ round . In the spring , they planted and hoed crops near their villages . In mid @-@ June , they left on their summer buffalo hunt . In September , they returned to harvest the crops and to hold their harvest festival ; they then cached a portion of their food in their villages and left on the winter buffalo hunt , from which they did not return until planting time in the spring . Thus the villages were deserted for at least eight months of the year .
The Kitkehahkis also moved , both in small groups and en masse , between the Republican and the Platte . The Pitahawiratas and the Chauis seem to have lived together amicably from the time of their arrival in Nebraska . However , the Kitkehahkis were divided between those who wanted to live independently on the Republican , and those who wanted to live near the Chauis on the Platte . The three bands frequently moved together on the summer and winter buffalo hunts , so there was regular contact between them . It was common for people to move from one household to another , especially upon returning from a buffalo hunt ; this would have facilitated moves from village to village .
At times , the entire Kitkehahki band abandoned the Republican and moved to the Platte . Generally , this took place in times of war , when the bands sought protection in numbers . Movement between the Republican and the Platte probably occurred continually until about 1825 .
= = = War with the Skidis = = =
When the Southern Pawnees arrived in Nebraska , the Skidis were not pleased to see them on lands that they regarded as their own . Nevertheless , they were willing to accept them as neighbors , so long as they kept to the south side of the Platte . However , the Chaui leaders demanded that they be recognized as the heads of the entire Pawnee people , above the Skidi chiefs . They defied the Skidis by sending a large hunting party to Prairie Creek , on the north side of the Platte within sight of the Skidi villages on the Loup . The Skidis responded by attacking the Chaui hunters and driving them back across the Platte . The Chauis and Pitahawiratas resolved on war , and summoned the Kitkehahki fighters to join them against the Skidis ; the Kitkehahkis , unwilling to leave their people unprotected against Skidi raids , left the Republican and moved to the Platte near the other bands .
The conflict with the Skidis probably took place sometime between 1770 and 1775 . It concluded with the defeat of the Skidis , who , although nominally conquered , remained on the Loup and continued to hunt separately from the other three bands . By 1777 , the Kitkehahkis had moved back to the Republican .
At some time between 1777 and 1785 , the Kitkehahkis again abandoned and then re @-@ occupied the Republican valley . A Spanish account of 1785 describes a village on the south side of the Platte in Butler County , not far from the modern town of Linwood , Nebraska ; this village was occupied by the Kitkehahkis until about 1785 , when they returned to the Republican .
= = = War with the Omahas = = =
War came to the Kitkehahkis on the Republican in 1798 . The Omahas , under the leadership of Chief Blackbird , had become perhaps the most powerful group in Nebraska . They were located at the junction of the French trade route up the Missouri River and an overland route across northern Iowa whereby the Sac and Fox brought British arms and goods westward . This allowed them to levy tribute and exercise control over trade on the Missouri .
During the height of their power in the late 1790s , bands of Omaha warriors frequently visited the Kitkehahkis to perform the calumet ceremony . This traditional peacemaking ritual had degenerated into what the Omahas called " smoking for horses " : the Kitkehahkis were obliged to give feasts and presents of horses to their uninvited guests . In 1798 , a group of Omahas under Little Grizzly Bear went for this purpose to the Republican . The Kitkehahkis , feeling imposed upon by the frequency of these visits , stripped and beat the Omahas and drove them out of the village .
When Blackbird learned of this , he ordered an attack on the Kitkehahkis . The Omahas descended upon the band 's village , burned and plundered many of the lodges , and killed about one hundred Pawnees at the cost of about fifteen of their own men . The remaining Kitkehahkis had withdrawn into four lodges , occupying a position too strong for the Omahas to reach them and massacre them without unacceptable losses .
Whether the Republican valley was abandoned after the Omaha attack is not recorded . The invading Omahas had camped on the Platte , undisturbed by the Chauis , on their way to the Kitkehahkis ; this might indicate that the two Pawnee bands were on bad terms at the time . The power of the Omahas was broken soon thereafter : in about 1801 , a smallpox epidemic spread from the Skidis to the Omahas , killing half of the tribe , Blackbird among them .
When the Lewis and Clark Expedition reached the Platte in 1804 , they found the Kitkehahkis ( whom they mistakenly called Arapahos ) living there . They were told that the band had returned to the Republican about ten years before ( that is , before the conflict with the Omahas ) , but had recently moved to the Platte under pressure from the Kanzas . By 1806 , however , the Kitkehahkis were at peace with the Kanzas , and were once again living on the Republican .
= = 1806 : Melgares and Pike = =
Under the 1800 Treaty of San Ildefonso , Spain returned the Louisiana Territory to France . In connection with this transfer , France agreed not to sell the territory to a third party ; French foreign minister Talleyrand had indicated that a strong French Louisiana would halt the expansion of Britain and the United States in the New World .
Napoleon quickly reneged on this agreement . In the 1803 Louisiana Purchase , France sold the territory to the United States . This led to conflict between the latter nation and Spain . The Spanish contended that the sale of Louisiana to the United States was invalid , and that the territory had reverted to them . Although they were unable to prevent American occupation of New Orleans , they sought to check American activity west of the Mississippi River .
Spain and the United States both sought allies among the Native Americans of the disputed territory . In June 1806 , Lieutenant Facundo Melgares and 600 men were dispatched from the Spanish provincial capital of Santa Fe down the Red River and then northward into present @-@ day Nebraska . Although no Spanish records of the Melgares expedition are known to exist , it is believed that its purpose was to find and arrest the Lewis and Clark party , and to establish alliances with the Native Americans of the region , including the Pawnees .
About a month later , Lieutenant Zebulon Pike left St. Louis with an American party of 23 men , and orders to negotiate peace between the Kanzas and Osages , to contact the Comanches of the high plains , and to explore the headwaters of the Red and Arkansas Rivers . For guides and interpreters to the Comanches , Pike turned to the Pawnees ; his Osage and Pawnee guides led him northwest through present @-@ day Kansas toward the Kitkehahki village on the Republican .
Melgares was the first to arrive at the village . His journey north had not been easy . Mutiny had broken out and been suppressed among his New Mexican militia ; and many of his horses had gone lame , or had been stolen by Pawnee raiders . He had left 240 of his men on the Arkansas in southern Kansas before turning northward with the other half of his force . In the Republican village , he met with Kitkehahki and Chaui leaders , to whom he presented gifts , including Spanish flags . The Pawnees agreed to expel Americans from their territory , but also opposed the Melgares expedition 's continuing to the Missouri River . In the face of this opposition , and with no supply lines and a force too large to live off the country , Melgares returned to the Arkansas and thence to Santa Fe .
= = = Pike at the village = = =
Pike 's party reached the Kitkehahki village on September 25 , 1806 , shortly after Melgares 's departure . Upon his arrival , he was greeted by the ranking chief , Sharitarish , who invited him to eat in his lodge and told him of Melgares 's recent visit . The Pawnees presented eight horses to the Osages accompanying Pike , and members of the two tribes smoked pipes together . Pike 's party established a camp fortified with rifle pits on a hill on the north bank of the Republican opposite the village .
On the following day , a delegation of 12 Kanzas arrived at the village ; on September 28 , they held a council with the Osages . Pipes were smoked in token of peace between the tribes .
On September 29 , Pike held a " grand council " with the Pawnees . At this council , one of Melgares 's Spanish flags was displayed at the chief 's lodge . Pike urged the Pawnees to haul it down and replace it with that of the United States . When the Pawnee chiefs demurred ,
... I again reiterated the demand for the flag , adding " that it was impossible for the nation to have two fathers ; that they must either be the children of the Spaniards , or acknowledge their American father " . After a silence of some time an old man rose , went to the door , took down the Spanish flag , brought it and laid it at my feet ; he then received the American flag , and elevated it on the staff which had lately borne the standard of his Catholic Majesty .
This was favorably received by the Osages and Kanzas , but apparently caused distress to the Pawnees . Perceiving this , Pike returned the Spanish flag to them , asking only that they not fly it during his party 's stay in the village . " At this , there was a general shout of applause ... "
Pike had planned for the Pawnees to guide him to the Comanches . However , upon his arrival at the village , he was informed that the two tribes were at war . When Pike expressed his intention of continuing inland toward the headwaters of the Arkansas , Sharitarish urged him to turn back : he had prevented the Spanish from going further into American territory , and would likewise resist an American movement toward Spanish land .
Pike refused to be intimidated . He told the chief
... that the young warriors of his great American father were not women , to be turned back by words ; that I should therefore proceed , and if he thought proper to stop me , he could attempt it ; but that we were men , well armed , and would sell our lives at a dear rate to his nation ; that we knew our great father would send his young warriors there to gather our bones and revenge our deaths on his people ...
The Pawnees relented , though unwillingly and with much dissent . Pike obtained horses from them , and set out on October 7 . He ordered his party to stay in a compact body , with guns and bayonets and sabers at the ready ; he estimated that " it would have cost them at least 100 men to have exterminated us " . With no guides to the Comanches , he was forced to abandon that part of the mission ; instead , he returned south into Kansas , where he attempted to follow Melgares 's trail toward the Arkansas .
= = 1806 – 1833 = =
Sharitarish was a Chaui who , at some time before 1805 , had been involved in a struggle over the leadership of that band . In the course of this struggle , he had brought his clan to the Kitkehahki village on the Republican , where he had deposed Iskatappe , the hereditary chief of the Kitkehahki . Although the exact situation is not known , it is thought that Sharitarish was trying to bring the Kitkehahkis back to the Platte , to support his faction in the Chaui village .
After 1806 , the Spanish continued their efforts to win the friendship of the Pawnees . Messages were dispatched to the Pawnee chiefs , urging them to come to Santa Fe ; and most of these messages went to Sharitarish . The fact that he received them while Long Hair , the Chaui head chief , was ignored , fed his self @-@ importance . In 1809 , in an ill @-@ judged attempt to impress the Pawnees , he led the Kitkehahki to war with the Kanzas . By 1811 he had been defeated , and the Kitkehahkis had been forced to abandon the Republican and move to the Platte .
There is no firm documentary evidence of occupation of the Webster County village after 1809 . However , analysis of pottery and glass beads suggests that the site was re @-@ occupied during the second decade of the 19th century ; and three letters from 1823 and 1825 suggest that the Kitkehahki were living on the Republican . By 1833 , however , the village had been abandoned and the band was living on the Loup River . In that year , the four Pawnee bands , treated as a single tribe by the U.S. government , signed a treaty in which they gave up their lands south of the Platte .
= = Rediscovering the village = =
Webster County was opened to homesteaders in 1870 . In 1872 , the village site was homesteaded and placed under cultivation .
In 1875 , Elizabeth Johnson discovered the remains of a Pawnee village in Republic County , Kansas . She thought that it might be the site of Pike 's flag incident ; but hearing of another village in Webster County , Nebraska , she dispatched her husband and another man to investigate this site . Because the surface had been altered by cultivation , they found little evidence of habitation , and Johnson was persuaded that the Republic County site was Pike 's village . She prevented its being plowed on several occasions , and eventually purchased the land .
Johnson 's claim was supported by Elliott Coues , who had edited Pike 's journal ; with his endorsement , it was accepted by the Kansas State Historical Society . In 1901 , Johnson donated the land to the state of Kansas , which built a 26 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) granite monument commemorating Pike 's symbolic triumph over Spain . At the dedication of the monument , several of the speakers drew parallels between the Pike episode and the recent American victory in the Spanish – American War . In 1906 , a four @-@ day festival was held to celebrate the centennial of the flag incident .
= = = A. T. Hill = = =
One of those attending the 1906 ceremonies at the Kansas monument was A. T. Hill , a resident of Logan , Kansas . Hill had no formal training as an archaeologist — indeed , his formal education had ended in the fourth grade . However , he had developed a strong interest in the history and archaeology of the Great Plains .
Upon reading Pike 's journal , Hill became convinced that the Kansas site could not be the correct one . To him , the local topography did not appear to match that described by Pike ; and when he attempted to retrace Pike 's route , he concluded that the actual village site must be some distance northwest of the Kansas monument .
In 1912 , Hill moved to Hastings , Nebraska , where he went to work for an automobile dealership . In his job , he traveled throughout central Nebraska ; in the course of this , he spoke with many collectors and investigated possible Pike sites . When he reached a managerial position at the dealership , he recruited his salesmen to bring him reports on archaeological sites and collections .
In 1923 , Hill learned of the remains of a Spanish saddle obtained from the George DeWitt farm in Webster County . He visited the farm , and learned from DeWitt , the son of the original homesteader , that when the land was first plowed , it was covered with Native American relics . Hill opened a grave and found a Spanish bridle bit and spur ; across the river , on land that had never been plowed , he found traces of a camp , including rifle pits . The topography of the site closely matched Pike 's description ; and when Hill attempted to follow Pike 's route from the site to the Arkansas River , he recognized a number of landmarks from Pike 's account .
Hill called the attention of the Nebraska State Historical Society ( NSHS ) to the site and , in 1924 , joined representatives of the Society in conducting further excavations , showing that a village of considerable size had existed there . In 1925 , to ensure archaeological access to the site and to protect it from relic @-@ hunting , he bought the two farms on whose land it lay . Between 1924 and 1930 , he excavated two lodges and over fifty graves .
= = = Nebraska versus Kansas = = =
By 1927 , Hill and the NSHS were persuaded that the Webster County site was the scene of the Pike flag incident . In that year , they challenged Kansas 's claim . A full issue of the Society 's journal , Nebraska History , was devoted to the matter . The issue , provocatively titled " The War Between Nebraska and Kansas " , included articles by representatives of the Nebraska society and of the Kansas Historical Society , each claiming the Pike site for his own state .
More than historical accuracy was at stake . In a 1901 address delivered at the Republic County site , Katherine S. Lewis of the Kansas Daughters of the American Revolution had declared that " we have been seeking out antiquity for Kansas ; we felt that our state was too new to be interesting " . In 1927 , Kansans still regarded their Pike site as a focus of state pride , and were unwilling to give it up : in the Nebraska History issue , George Morehouse of the KHS wrote , " It is now very strange that ... our Nebraska friends should become so enthusiastic in trying to take from our Pike 's Pawnee Republic Village its halo of glory . "
In their articles , the champions of each state argued that Pike 's account of his route supported their site , and entirely ruled out the other . Both sides also argued that Pike 's description of the local topography matched their site and differed significantly from the other .
The proponents of the Nebraska site cited the artifacts that had been recovered from their village . These included a Spanish peace medal dated 1797 and bearing the image of Charles IV , an American peace medal of the type issued after 1801 , and soldier 's buttons and brass medallions bearing 15 stars , one of which bore the number " 1 " , that of Pike 's infantry regiment .
The Kansans had no such artifacts to show . However , they argued that the Nebraska village postdated the Pike episode . The Kansas village , they stated , had been the one visited by Pike , and was occupied by the Pawnees until they were driven north by the Delawares in the early 1830s ; the fleeing Pawnees had then established the village on the Republican , where they had been devastated by smallpox . In this account the epidemic , and not long habitation , explained the number of graves found by Hill ; the medals had not been buried with their original owners , but had been treasured by the band for decades , until the time that the pestilence was blamed on " evil gifts from the whites " and they were cast away .
Further work at both sites strengthened the case for Nebraska . Kansas supporters gave ground reluctantly : a major celebration was held at the Republic County site in 1933 , and as late as 1947 , an article in the Kansas Historical Quarterly spoke of the issue as " debatable ground " . Today , however , the Webster County site is generally acknowledged as the true one : an exhibit at the Republic County site states as much , and a Kansas historical marker near the 1901 monument states that " the village was long believed ... to be that visited by Zebulon M. Pike " .
Although Elizabeth Johnson was mistaken about the Pike village site , her mistake is held to be a fortunate one . The Webster County site had been subjected to decades of cultivation and relic hunting . The Republic County site was not entirely pristine , due to surface collecting and possibly to amateur excavation ; but it was far better preserved . Today , the Kansas Historical Society operates a museum on the site , built in 1967 over one of the excavated earth lodges .
= = Investigation history = =
Hill continued work at the site through 1930 . In that year , he was joined by William Duncan Strong , who the previous year had been named a professor of anthropology at the University of Nebraska , and by Strong 's research assistant Waldo Wedel . The collaboration of these three was crucial to the new science of Central Plains archaeology , and to Pawnee studies in particular : up to this time , the conventional wisdom among anthropologists was that there was no useful archaeological work to be done on the Plains . In 1936 , Wedel published his 1930 master 's thesis as the seminal An Introduction to Pawnee Archaeology .
In the summer of 1941 , a WPA crew excavated a number of lodges , cache pits , and graves at the site . Some testing and surface collecting were conducted in 1943 . More recently , a magnetic survey was conducted over a portion of the village in 1982 , and some testing was carried out in 1987 .
Hill plotted the remains of 102 lodges . Pike reported finding 44 lodges at the village ; the difference is probably due to the abandonment or destruction of lodges and the building of new ones on different sites . At least 90 graves have been investigated by archaeologists ; an estimated 75 – 100 additional graves are thought to have been opened by relic hunters .
= = Preservation = =
In 1964 , the site was listed as a National Historic Landmark . In 1966 , it was added to the National Register of Historic Places . The boundaries of the historic site were expanded to nearly 300 acres ( 120 ha ) at some time in 1977 or later .
The site is owned and preserved by the Nebraska State Historical Society Foundation . There is no museum or visitor center there , and the site is not open to the public .
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= Australia national baseball team =
The Australian national baseball team represents Australia in international baseball tournaments and competitions . They are ranked as the top team in Oceania , and are the Oceanian Champions , having been awarded the title in 2007 when New Zealand withdrew from the Oceania Baseball Championship . After achieving a last ( 16th ) place in the 2013 World Baseball Classic , their ranked dropped to 13 , which is the lowest rank Australia ever got . The highest rank they have achieved was 9th .
The Australian team participated in the Summer Olympic Games in 1996 , 2000 and 2004 , but failed to qualify for 2008 . The team has also participated in both of the other major international baseball tournaments recognised by the International Baseball Federation ( IBAF ) : the Baseball World Cup and most recently the World Baseball Classic ( WBC ) .
The team is controlled by the Australian Baseball Federation , which is represented in the Baseball Confederation of Oceania ( BCO ) . Prior to the BCO 's formation , Australia competed in the Asian Baseball Championship under the Baseball Federation of Asia ( BFA ) . Australia continues to have a relationship with the BFA ; the 2011 resumption of the Asia Series includes the Australian Baseball League 's champion team .
= = Current roster = =
On 17 January 2013 , the Australian Baseball Federation announced the 28 players that made up the provisional roster for Australia at the 2013 World Baseball Classic in March . The final roster was announced on 20 February , and included only one change from the provisional roster : Shane Lindsay was added after Peter Moylan withdrew himself from the team as a result of signing with a new team , the Los Angeles Dodgers .
Of the players named in the roster , eight have previous Major League experience , four pitchers and four position players : Brad Harman , Justin Huber , Luke Hughes , Shane Lindsay , Chris Oxspring , Ryan Rowland @-@ Smith , Chris Snelling and Brad Thomas . Assistant Coach Graeme Lloyd has also had 10 seasons as a Major League pitcher , including two World Series championships with the New York Yankees . Coaches Greg Jelks and Glenn Williams have also had Major League experience as players . Peter Moylan ,
* – Player has not played for Australia in international competition prior to 2013 WBC
† – Player did not play for Australia in WBC prior to 2013
= = World ranking = =
In January 2009 the International Baseball Federation created a ranking system so that the nations involved in international competition could be compared independently . Teams receive points based on the position they finish at the end of tournaments . The system takes into account results not only of the senior men 's teams but also of junior teams . Weightings that emphasise the importance of certain tournaments are based on the number of teams competing , the number of continents represented ( or eligible to be represented ) , and in the case of continental tournaments such as the Oceania Baseball Championship the relative strength of teams eligible . Only results within the previous four years are used , so points are added and removed over time . Since the system began , the rankings have been adjusted after the completion of tournaments qualifying for the ranking process ; the most recent was the 2009 Baseball World Cup .
When the rankings were first introduced , Australia was listed at 10th position . The high @-@ water mark was after the 2009 World Baseball Classic when they were in 9th . The lowest position they have been in the ranking since its inception is 11th . At the end of 2010 , Australia had returned to their original position of 10th .
* – The tournaments that Australia participated in since the previous release of the rankings .
* * – Multiple tournaments were held since the previous release of the rankings .
† – Denotes a rankings release that had no tournaments Australia participated in .
= = International competition = =
In January 2009 the IBAF , in releasing the first edition of the world rankings , announced the classifications of various tournaments that contributed to the rankings themselves . In doing so , they identified that of the " world " tournaments , there were different levels with differing levels of weighting towards the ranks : major world championships , minor world championships , world qualifying tournaments and continental championships / qualifying tournaments .
= = = Major world championships = = =
There are currently three recognised tournaments that are considered " major " by the IBAF : the World Baseball Classic , the Summer Olympic Games and the Baseball World Cup . Of those , the Summer Olympics will be phased out of the rankings structure , as baseball will no longer be contested as an Olympic event .
= = = = World Baseball Classic = = = =
Australia has competed in all three editions of the World Baseball Classic . All sixteen teams that played in the 2006 edition were invited to compete in the second in 2009 . By virtue of their third @-@ place finish in their first @-@ round pool , Australia qualified compete at the 2013 edition of the WBC . ; however , they were eliminated with an 0 – 3 record and finished in last place overall .
Australia , which has not progressed beyond the first round of competition , achieved its highest finish , 12th , in the 2009 tournament . Unusual for international competition in baseball , the squads selected in the World Baseball Classic tournaments featured players active in Major League Baseball in addition to Minor League , Nippon Professional Baseball and local players . Generally players in the Major Leagues are unavailable for international representative teams due to their contracts with the respective clubs .
= = = = = United States , 2006 = = = = =
Prior to formally starting their campaign , Australia played an exhibition game , which they lost , against a Boston Red Sox squad at City of Palms Park in Fort Myers , Florida . This was also the site of their training camp .
Australia competed in Pool D — along with Dominican Republic , Italy and Venezuela — in the first round at Cracker Jack Stadium in Orlando , Florida . The other three teams were able to field a large number of Major League players . Of players born outside the United States on 2006 Major League Opening Day rosters , the Dominican Republic ( 85 ) and Venezuela ( 43 ) had more than all other countries and between them accounted for more than 57 % of foreign @-@ born players in the leagues . Italy is among the top nations in Europe and had access to Italian @-@ American players under the eligibility rules for the tournament . Thus , Australia was considered the underdog in the pool .
Having failed to win any of their round @-@ robin pool games , they finished last in their pool , and were eliminated with Canada , China , Chinese Taipei , Italy , Netherlands , Panama and South Africa . The eventual champions were Japan .
= = = = = Mexico , 2009 = = = = =
Australia was based in Peoria , Arizona — the site of the Seattle Mariners spring training camp — for their preparation for the formal start of their 2009 campaign . Unlike 2006 , in which they had one exhibition game , they competed against three different Major League clubs : the Seattle Mariners , the Milwaukee Brewers and the Chicago White Sox . Their game against Seattle was Ken Griffey , Jr . ' s first game playing for the Mariners since October 1999 , and was also their first victory as part of a World Baseball Classic tour .
Australia was drawn in Pool B for the 2009 tournament , along with Cuba , Mexico and South Africa , competing at Foro Sol Stadium in Mexico City . After beating Mexico in their opening game , they lost their next two games to Cuba and Mexico , and were eliminated from the tournament . The Australians set a WBC record against Mexico : 22 hits in a single game is more than any other team has achieved in either tournament .
= = = = = Taiwan , 2013 = = = = =
In June 2011 , it was announced that the field for the 2013 WBC would be expanded to include an additional 12 teams and that a qualifying round would be several months prior to the main tournament . The qualifying tournament involved the 12 newly invited teams , as well as the four lowest @-@ placed teams from the 2009 tournament ; all teams who did not win a game . The qualifying tournament broke the teams into four pools of four teams each , which competed in a six @-@ game , modified double @-@ elimination format , similar to the first round of the 2009 tournament , with the winners of the sixth game in each pool proceeding to the main tournament . Australia , having finished 12th after beating Mexico in their first game in 2009 , automatically qualified for the main tournament .
The main tournament combined elements of both previous WBC editions . The first round was split all teams into four pools , where the teams competed in a round @-@ robin , as was the case in the 2006 tournament . The second round used the same modified double @-@ elimination format as used in the 2009 tournament and the 2013 qualifying tournament . The final round was contested in the same manner as both previous tournaments : the top two teams from each group in the second round qualifying for the two semi @-@ final matches , the winners of which played in the championship game .
Australia was drawn into Pool B , which was held at the Taichung Intercontinental Baseball Stadium in Taiwan . In their opener , they fell to host and qualifiers Chinese Taipei , 4 – 1 . They followed up with a 6 – 0 loss to South Korea before finishing with a 4 – 1 defeat to the Netherlands .
= = = = Olympic Games = = = =
Australia was the third nation , after the United States and Sweden , to participate in baseball at the Summer Olympics , making their first appearance at the 1956 Games in Melbourne , and again as part of its demonstration at the 1988 Games in Seoul . Though the sport has applied for re @-@ admission for 2016 , baseball is no longer contested as a medal event at the Olympics .
Since baseball was first included as a medal sport at the 1992 Games in Barcelona , Australia has participated in three of the five tournaments . The best result achieved was in the 2004 Games in Athens , where Australia lost the gold medal match to Cuba to receive silver . Their medal tally puts them at 5th , equal to Chinese Taipei .
= = = = World Cup = = = =
Australia has participated in ten of the IBAF World Cup tournaments . To date its best result has been 5th , which Australia has achieved twice in both of the most recent tournaments held — 2009 and 2011 . At the 2007 tournament , Trent Oeltjen became the first Australian player to be named in a World Cup All Star team , in recognition of his tournament @-@ leading hitting and base @-@ running statistics . Australia is currently participating in the 2011 tournament in Panama .
Until 1986 , the World Cup was actually referred to as the " Amateur World Series " . The Amateur World Series only made use of round @-@ robin fixtures , with teams ranked at the end of the tournament . Australia 's first appearance was in Italy in 1978 . Out of the ten teams to compete , Australia finished 9th ahead of the other debuting team , Belgium .
Since the 1988 tournament , it has held the " World Cup " name , with the IBAF recognising the past Amateur World Series winners as World Cup winners . With the change of name came a change in format for the tournament : a round @-@ robin phase , followed by a knockout phase for the top four teams . ( Later tournaments would see two pools used in the first phase , and an expanded knockout phase including the top four teams from each pool . ) In the " World Cup Era " , Australia has reached the final phase four times , finishing 7th in 1998 , 6th in 2007 and most recently 5th in 2009 and 2011 .
= = = Minor world championships = = =
There are six separate tournaments that the IBAF currently recognises as " minor world championships " . Of those , Australia has only participated in one senior tournament : the Intercontinental Cup . ( Australia has also participated in the World Junior Baseball Championship and the World Youth Baseball Championship , both of which are also included in the same category for the IBAF rankings . )
= = = = Intercontinental Cup = = = =
Australia is one of five nations to have won the Intercontinental Cup , winning the 1999 tournament by beating Cuba 4 – 3 in extra innings in front of a home crowd in Sydney . It was the first time Australia had won an international baseball tournament , and through 2009 the only win outside of the Oceania Baseball Championship . The team enjoyed several individual successes as well :
Dave Nilsson named tournament MVP , to go along with leading the tournament for runs batted in ( 12 ) and being named in the tournament all @-@ star team ( as catcher )
Shayne Bennett led the tournament pitching with the best win – loss record ( 3 – 0 )
Adam Burton led the tournament batting with the most runs scored ( 9 )
Michael Moyle shared the lead in the tournament with Oscar Macias ( Cuba ) , with the most home runs ( 3 )
two other Australians were selected along with Dave Nilsson in the all @-@ star team : Adrian Meagher ( right @-@ handed pitcher ) and Michael Moyle ( designated hitter )
It was only the third time Cuba had been beaten in the gold medal match in the tournament 's history , having reached the tournament decider every time they have participated . Australia also shares another honour with Cuba : of the nine nations to have hosted the tournament , only Australia and Cuba have won as hosts , combining for five tournament wins from five times hosted . ( Cuba in 1979 , 1987 , 1995 and 2002 , Australia in 1999 . )
Australia first participated in the tournament at the 1981 Intercontinental Cup , managing only one win out of their seven games , finishing 8th . Missing the 1983 Intercontinental Cup , they returned in 1985 to repeat their previous performance : 1 win , 8th @-@ place finish . They would not reappear at the tournament until 1993 where they improved to a 5 – 4 record to finish in 6th position . Australia 's first medal performance at the Intercontinental Cup ( and their first medal at a world tournament ) was at the 1997 tournament . In their best performance through the preliminary round , they put together a 6 – 1 record losing only to eventual silver @-@ medalists Cuba , and beating eventual gold @-@ medalists Japan . They lost to Japan in the semi @-@ final , but beat the United States for the second time in the tournament to secure the bronze .
Australia also competed in the most recent tournament in 2006 . There they finished in 5th position , compiling a 3 – 4 record . This is likely to be the last edition of the tournament for the foreseeable future .
= = = Continental tournaments = = =
Australia is the second of only two nations to have participated in IBAF @-@ sanctioned continental tournaments for more than one continent : the Asian Baseball Championship between 1971 – 1993 , and the Oceania Baseball Championship since 2003 . The first nation to achieve this was Guam , who competed in the Asian tournament within the same timeframe as Australia , though they were involved in the first Oceania tournament in 1999 .
= = = = Asian Baseball Championship = = = =
Australia is one of thirteen nations to have participated in the Asian Baseball Championship since the tournament was first held in 1954 . The last time they contested the championship was in 1993 , as a result of joining the newly formed Baseball Confederation of Oceania . Though their best result was a bronze medal in the 1975 , the only teams to consistently finish ahead of Australia were Japan , South Korea and Chinese Taipei — the top three teams in Asia , and all in the top five in the world .
= = = = Oceania Baseball Championship = = = =
Though scheduled to participate on three separate occasions , Australia has only contested the Oceania Baseball Championship once in 2003 . The two other times , Australia 's scheduled opponents — Guam in 2004 and New Zealand in 2007 — withdrew from competition in the lead up to each series , both times scheduled to be held in Sydney . Australia was awarded the championship both times , and as a result represented Oceania at the 2004 Summer Olympics and at the 2007 Baseball World Cup respectively .
Held during late April 2003 , Australia won its first continental championship , beating hosts Guam 12 – 1 , 12 – 1 and 5 – 1 to win the best of five series three games to one . ( Guam won the third game 8 – 2 . )
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= Donkey Kong Country 3 : Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! =
Donkey Kong Country 3 : Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! is an adventure platform video game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) . It was first released on 22 November 1996 in North America , 23 November in Japan and on 18 December 1996 in Europe and Australia . It is the third instalment of the Donkey Kong Country series , and serves as a direct sequel to Donkey Kong Country 2 : Diddy 's Kong Quest . It was also re @-@ released for the Game Boy Advance in 2005 . The game was made available to download on the Wii 's Virtual Console service in 2007 , as well as for the Wii U 's Virtual Console in 2014 .
The plot revolves around Dixie Kong and her cousin , Kiddy Kong , in their attempts to rescue the kidnapped Donkey Kong and Diddy Kong from series antagonist King K. Rool . The game is set in the " Northern Kremisphere " , a fictionalised version of northern Europe and Canada . Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! utilises the same Silicon Graphics technology from its predecessors , which feature the use of pre @-@ rendered 3D imagery . The game received positive reviews upon release . Critics praised the visuals and various aspects of gameplay , however most were divided over the game 's soundtrack .
= = Gameplay = =
Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! is a platform game where players control Dixie Kong and her cousin , Kiddy Kong , through eight worlds which comprise a total of 48 levels . Many of the gameplay elements from previous games in the series mark a return in this game , such as barrels , bonus levels which reward the player with special " bonus coins " , DK coins , animal helpers and a multiplayer mode . Both of the two playable Kongs have unique abilities , such as Dixie 's ability to slow her descent by spinning her ponytail , and Kiddy 's ability to bounce across open water . The Kongs may also pick each other up to throw each other around levels ; the impact of the other player @-@ character can reveal cracked floors , hidden switches or secret areas . At any time , the player can switch Kongs during a level .
Levels in the game include a mixture of platforming , swimming and on @-@ rails levels . They are based around several returning themes including forests , cliff @-@ sides , factories and mountain tops . The level design is more diverse compared to its predecessors , which includes more complex puzzles and obstacles . Every level has an enemy called a Koin ; each of these enemies bears the DK Coin of their respective level , holding it as a shield . As these enemies always face towards the player , they must be defeated by throwing a steel barrel over them so it bounces off a wall behind them in order to strike them from behind . The game overworld is also more complex , allowing players to explore between each area instead of forcing them along a linear path . To achieve this , the game includes several vehicles such as a speedboat and hovercraft which can be used to traverse the overworld and access different worlds .
The game features " Animal Friends " , which return from its predecessors . Returning animals include Enguarde the swordfish , Squitter the spider and Squawks the parrot . New animals include Ellie the elephant , who can suck up water in her trunk to spray enemies with , and Parry the " parallel bird " , who flies directly above the player @-@ characters and can be used to collect out @-@ of @-@ reach items . As in the previous game , players can directly control animals instead of just riding them . Scattered around the Northern Kremisphere overworld are the Brothers Bear , a family of bears who provide the players with hints , key items or other services . Players can collect items in levels to trade with the bears for other items or to help progress to later levels ; one such item is the Bear Coin , which acts as the game 's currency . Other members from the Kong family , such as Cranky Kong , Wrinkly Kong , Swanky Kong and Funky Kong can also be found around the overworld , each of whom offer their own services .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
The player @-@ characters in this game are Dixie Kong , who is Diddy Kong 's girlfriend , and her younger cousin , Kiddy Kong . Scattered around the overworld are various other characters : Wrinkly Kong appears in " save caves , " which when entered allow the player to save their game ; Funky Kong plays a key role in the game , as he supplies the player with vehicles to traverse the overworld ; Swanky Kong , reappearing from the previous game , allows players to challenge Cranky Kong in a contest involving throwing balls at targets in exchange for Bear Coins . New to the series are the Brothers Bear , thirteen bears providing the player with services in exchange for Bear Coins , some of whom are instrumental for advancing through the game . The main antagonist of the previous games , King K. Rool , reappears under the moniker of " Baron K. Roolenstein " .
= = = Story = = =
Shortly after the events of Donkey Kong Country 2 , Donkey Kong and Diddy Kong suddenly disappear in the Northern Kremisphere , which bears a geographical resemblance to Canada and northern Europe . Dixie Kong sets off to find the pair and is joined by her cousin Kiddy Kong , aided by Funky Kong 's vehicles to traverse the land . They reach Kastle KAOS , the lair of a robot named KAOS , who was thought to be the new leader of the Kremlings . After they destroy KAOS , the curtain in the background rolls up to reveal the robot was being controlled by Baron K. Roolenstein , the new moniker of King K. Rool . After the duo fights him , Donkey and Diddy pop out of the destroyed KAOS , implying they were being used to power the robot .
Dixie and Kiddy uncover the extinct volcanic island of Krematoa . They meet Boomer , an exiled member of the Brothers Bear , inside his Anderson shelter . He agrees to destroy the rocks hindering the path in exchange for bonus coins . After Dixie and Kiddy find all bonus coins and five cogwheels hidden in Krematoa , the duo give the cogs to Boomer , who puts them into a machine which reactivates Krematoa , revealing the Knautilus , K. Roolenstein 's personal submarine . The Kongs board the submarine and battle against him in there , however he escapes once again .
Once the Kongs collect all DK coins , they give the coins to Funky , who in exchange gives them a gyrocopter . The duo then finds an enigmatic creature called the Banana Bird Queen , who is bound to a barrier cast by K. Roolenstein . She tells the Kongs that she can only be freed if her separated children are returned to her , and that she will rid the land of K. Rool if she is freed . The Kongs find each of her children in a cave , where one of the birds is trapped in an egg which hatches when the Kongs complete a Simon @-@ like memory game . After rescuing them and completing a large trade sequence between the Brothers Bear , the Kongs return the children to the Queen . The Queen and her children all sing , annihilating the barrier . The Queen proceeds to chase K. Rool , who is fleeing in a hovercraft . When she catches up to him , she drops a giant eggshell on top of him , which Dixie and Kiddy land on . The Kongs repeatedly knock on the shell , annoying K. Rool .
= = Development and release = =
Similar to its predecessors , Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! utilises the same Silicon Graphics ( SGI ) and Advanced Computer Modelling ( ACM ) rendering technology , in which pre @-@ rendered 3D animations are turned into 2D sprites . Rare founder Tim Stamper re @-@ took the role as the game 's director , whereas Rare staffers Andrew Collard and Paul Weaver designed the game . Development of Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! began shortly after the release of Diddy 's Kong Quest . Rare took significant financial risks in purchasing the expensive SGI equipment used to render the graphics . David Wise , Rare 's composer from 1985 to 1994 , admitted that the workstations Rare purchased were worth £ 80 @,@ 000 each . A new compression technique they developed allowed them to incorporate more detail and animation for each sprite for a given memory footprint than previously achieved on the SNES , which better captured the pre @-@ rendered graphics . Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! ' s soundtrack was composed by Eveline Fischer and David Wise , with Fischer producing most of the game 's music .
Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! was first released in North America on 22 November 1996 and Europe and Australia on 18 December 1996 . It was also made available to download on the Wii 's Virtual Console service in 2007 , as well as for the Wii U 's Virtual Console in 2014 . While the game sold over 3 @.@ 5 million units worldwide , it has been believed that its sales were hurt by its November 1996 release , which was when the Nintendo 64 console had the majority of industry 's attention . 1 @.@ 7 million copies were sold in Japan and 1 @.@ 12 million copies sold in the United States . Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! has sold the least amount of copies in the Donkey Kong Country series , with the exception of Donkey Kong Country : Tropical Freeze for the Wii U.
= = Reception = =
The game received positive reviews upon release . The SNES version holds an aggregate score of 86 % from GameRankings , whereas the Game Boy Advance version holds a score of 76 % .
The graphics and gameplay were the most praised aspects of the game . Frank Provo of GameSpot stated that the graphics were colourful , vibrant and " top @-@ notch " . Lucas Thomas of IGN opined that Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! ' s visuals were not as awe @-@ inspiring as the pre @-@ rendered CGI of Donkey Kong Country , however he admitted that they " still looked great " for the third instalment . In a retrospective review , Marcel van Duyn of NintendoLife praised the game 's visuals and detailed backgrounds , stating that they were " fantastic " for the SNES . Reviewing the Game Boy Advance version , a reviewer from GamePro thought that the graphics appeared " washed out " on the system 's backlit screen ; stating that the pre @-@ rendered sprites did not " show up very well " . A reviewer from Nintendo Master thought that the game 's main strengths were its " beautiful graphics and script " . A reviewer from Jeuxvideo asserted that the various aspects of gameplay made Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! a hallmark of the series .
The music received mixed opinions from critics . Although Provo stated that the game 's music was " catchy " , he noted that devotees to the original Donkey Kong Country may not like it . Thomas thought compared to the other Donkey Kong Country games , the music in Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! stands out the least , although he stated that it was an " impressive effort " . Van Duyn similarly stated that the soundtrack was not as " legendary " as it was in its previous instalment , however he still admitted that it had some " great " tracks . In addition , Van Duyn criticised the Game Boy Advance 's port for replacing all of the original music with remixed versions . However , Provo stated that the music was " just as good " as the original , regarding the soundtrack on the Game Boy Advance port .
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= Herb Pennock =
Herbert Jefferis Pennock ( February 10 , 1894 – January 30 , 1948 ) was an American professional baseball pitcher . He played in Major League Baseball from 1912 through 1933 . He is best known for his time spent with the star @-@ studded New York Yankee teams of the mid to late 1920s and early 1930s .
Connie Mack signed Pennock to his Philadelphia Athletics in 1912 . After using Pennock sparingly , and questioning his competitive drive , Mack sold Pennock to the Boston Red Sox in 1915 . After returning from military service in 1919 , Pennock became a regular contributor for the Red Sox . The Yankees acquired Pennock from the Red Sox after the 1922 season , and he served as a key member of the pitching staff as the Yankees won four World Series championships during his tenure with the team . After retiring as a player , Pennock served as a coach and farm system director for the Red Sox , and as general manager of the Philadelphia Phillies .
Pennock was regarded as one of the greatest left @-@ handed pitchers in baseball history . Mack later called his sale of Pennock to the Red Sox his greatest mistake . Pennock died of a cerebral hemorrhage in 1948 ; later that year , he was posthumously inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame .
= = Early life = =
Pennock was born on February 10 , 1894 in Kennett Square , Pennsylvania . His father , Theodore Pennock , and mother Mary Louise Pennock ( née Sharp ) were of Scotch @-@ Irish and Quaker descent . His ancestors came to the United States with William Penn . Herb was the youngest of four children .
Pennock attended Westtown School and Cedarcroft Boarding School , where he played for the baseball team . After struggling as a first baseman , with a weak offensive output and throwing arm that resulted in curved throws , his Cedarcroft coach converted Pennock into a pitcher .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Philadelphia Athletics = = =
While pitching at Cedarcroft , Pennock threw a no @-@ hitter to catcher Earle Mack , the son of Connie Mack , manager of the Philadelphia Athletics , in 1910 . Pennock agreed to sign with the Athletics at a later date . Mack signed Pennock in 1912 to play for his collegiate team based in Atlantic City . Pennock 's father insisted that he sign under an alias in order to protect his collegiate eligibility . Pennock threw a no @-@ hitter against a traveling Negro league baseball team , and Mack promoted him to the Athletics . Mack intended for Pennock to be one of the prospects who would replace star pitchers Eddie Plank , Chief Bender , and Jack Coombs .
Pennock made his major league debut with the Athletics during the 1912 season on May 14 , allowing one hit in four innings pitched . He was the youngest person to play in the American League ( AL ) that season . Former major leaguer Mike Grady , a neighbor of Pennock 's in Kennett Square , took Pennock under his wing , while Bender taught Pennock to throw a screwball .
Pennock missed most of the 1913 season with an illness . In the 1914 season , Pennock posted an 11 – 4 win – loss record with a 2 @.@ 79 earned run average ( ERA ) in 151 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched for the Athletics , and pitched three scoreless innings in the 1914 World Series , which the Athletics lost to the Boston Braves . Mack let Bender go after the season , naming Pennock his Opening Day starting pitcher in 1915 . On Opening Day , Pennock threw a one @-@ hit complete game shutout against the Boston Red Sox . However , as the Athletics struggled , Pennock 's nonchalant playing style drew Mack 's ire . Concluding that Pennock " lacked ambition " , Mack sold Pennock to the Red Sox for the waiver price of $ 2 @,@ 500 ( $ 58 @,@ 479 in current dollar terms ) . Mack later regarded this sale as his greatest mistake .
= = = Boston Red Sox = = =
With a deep pitching staff in place , the Red Sox loaned Pennock to the Providence Grays of the International League in August for the remainder of the 1915 season . He split the 1916 season between the Red Sox and the Buffalo Bisons , also in the International League . With Buffalo , Pennock pitched to a 1 @.@ 67 ERA , as Buffalo won the league pennant . Though the Red Sox won the 1915 and 1916 World Series , Pennock did not appear in either series .
Pitching in minor league baseball , Pennock began to regain confidence . However , Boston manager Jack Barry used Pennock sparingly in the 1917 season , and Pennock enlisted in the United States Navy in 1918 . Pennock pitched for a team fielded by the Navy , defeating a team composed of members of the United States Army in an exhibition for George VI , the King of England , in Stamford Bridge . After the game , Ed Barrow , the new manager of the Red Sox , signed Pennock to a new contract after promising to use him regularly during the 1919 season .
Pennock received only one start apiece in the months of April and May , as the 1919 Red Sox relied on George Dumont , Bill James , and Bullet Joe Bush , leading Pennock to threaten to quit in late @-@ May unless Barrow fulfilled his earlier promise to Pennock . Barrow continued to use Pennock regularly after Memorial Day , and Pennock finished the season with a 16 – 8 win @-@ loss record and a 2 @.@ 71 ERA in 219 innings pitched . He served as the team 's ace pitcher in the 1920 season , but subsequently settled in as the Red Sox ' third starter . After the 1922 Red Sox campaign , in which he went 10 – 17 , and had seven wild pitches , leading the AL , the New York Yankees began to negotiate with the Red Sox to acquire Pennock . The Yankees traded Norm McMillan , George Murray , and Camp Skinner to the Red Sox for Pennock that offseason .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
Pennock pitched to a 19 – 6 win @-@ loss record in the 1923 season , his first with the Yankees , leading the American League ( AL ) in winning percentage ( .760 ) and finishing sixth in wins . Pitching in the 1923 World Series , Pennock defeated the New York Giants in game two , on October 11 , to end their eight @-@ game World Series winning streak . He recorded a save in securing the Yankees ' win in game four , and pitched to the win in game six on one day of rest , clinching the Yankees ' first World Series championship . Umpire Billy Evans called it " the greatest pitching performance I have ever seen " , as Pennock " had nothing . "
In the 1924 season , he pitched to a 21 – 9 win @-@ loss record with a 2 @.@ 83 ERA while striking out a career @-@ high 101 batters . His win total was second in the AL , behind Walter Johnson , while his ERA was third behind Johnson and Tom Zachary , and he finished fourth in strikeouts behind Johnson , Howard Ehmke , and teammate Bob Shawkey . Pennock 's 277 innings pitched and 1 @.@ 220 walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) ratio led the AL in the 1925 season , while his 2 @.@ 96 ERA was second @-@ best , behind Stan Coveleski . In the 1926 season , he posted a career @-@ high 23 wins , finishing second in the AL to George Uhle . He again led the AL in WHIP ( 1 @.@ 265 ) , and issued the fewest walks per nine innings pitched ( 1 @.@ 453 ) . During the pennant race , The Sporting News called Pennock the " best left @-@ hander in the majors " . Pennock earned the wins in game one and game five of the 1926 World Series . He finished game seven of the series , which the Yankees lost to the St. Louis Cardinals .
The Yankees reached the World Series , facing the Pittsburgh Pirates . Pennock pitched a complete game against the Pirates in game three of the 1927 World Series , not allowing a hit until the eighth inning . Pennock 's performance drew praise from teammate Babe Ruth . The Yankees swept the series from Pittsburgh . After pitching a three @-@ hit shutout against the Red Sox on August 12 , 1928 , he missed the remainder of the season , including the 1928 World Series , with an arm injury . His five shutouts and 0 @.@ 085 home runs per nine innings pitched led the AL . His 2 @.@ 56 ERA trailed only Garland Braxton , while his 17 wins tied for eighth place . Though the Yankees defeated the Cardinals in the 1928 World Series , the Yankees ' starting rotation without Pennock was likened to " a three @-@ stringed ukulele . "
In the 1929 season , Pennock saw his pitching time and pitching quality diminish . Over the rest of his career , he never posted more than 189 innings pitched in a season and his ERA rose to over 4 @.@ 00 . He suffered from bouts of neuritis in 1929 and 1930 . Pennock won his 200th career game during the 1929 season , becoming the third left @-@ handed pitcher to reach that mark . He led the AL in walks per nine innings pitched in 1930 ( 1 @.@ 151 ) and 1931 ( 1 @.@ 426 ) . Pennock pitched four innings of relief against the Chicago Cubs in the 1932 World Series , recording two saves . The New York chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America named him their player of the year .
In 1933 , serving exclusively as a relief pitcher , Pennock had a 7 – 4 win @-@ loss record in 23 appearances . After the 1933 season , the Yankees honored Pennock with a testimonial dinner on January 6 , 1934 , and then gave him his release .
= = = Return to Boston = = =
Eddie Collins , a former teammate with the Athletics now serving as the general manager of the Red Sox , signed Pennock to their 1934 roster . In his last season pitching in the major leagues , Pennock served as a relief pitcher for the Red Sox .
Pennock retired with a career record of 240 wins , 162 losses , and a 3 @.@ 60 ERA . Pennock pitched in five World Series , one with Philadelphia and four with New York . He was a member of four World Series championship teams . In World Series play , Pennock amassed a 5 – 0 career win @-@ loss record with three saves , becoming the second pitcher to win five World Series games , after Coombs . Pennock was a part of seven World Series championship teams ( 1913 , 1915 , 1916 , 1923 , 1927 , 1928 , and 1932 ) , though he played in four World Series ' as a member of the winning team . Many , including Mack , consider Pennock among the greatest left @-@ handed pitchers of all time .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
Pennock became the general manager of the Charlotte Hornets , a Red Sox ' farm team of the Piedmont League , prior to the 1935 season . He returned to the Red Sox in 1936 , serving as the first base and pitching coach under manager Joe Cronin . He served in this role through the 1938 season . In 1939 , Pennock served as the Assistant Supervisor of Boston 's minor league system , reporting to Evans . Pennock succeeded Evans as Director of Minor League Operations late in the 1940 season .
In December 1943 , R. R. M. Carpenter , Jr . , the new owner of the Philadelphia Phillies , hired Pennock as his general manager , after receiving a recommendation from Mack . Carpenter gave Pennock a lifetime contract . Pennock filled Carpenter 's duties when the team 's owner was drafted into service during World War II in 1944 . As general manager , Pennock changed the team 's name to the " Blue Jays " , and invested $ 1 million ( $ 13 @,@ 442 @,@ 344 in current dollar terms ) into players who would become known as the " Whiz Kids " , who won the National League pennant in 1950 , including Curt Simmons and Willie Jones . He also created a " Grandstand Managers Club " , the first in baseball history , allowing fans to give feedback to the team , and advocated for the repeal of the Bonus Rule .
Pennock opposed racial integration in baseball . In 1947 , when Jackie Robinson was signed to the Brooklyn Dodgers , Pennock called Dodgers team president Branch Rickey before the Dodgers ' series in Philadelphia and told him not to " bring that nigger here with the rest of the team . " He further threatened to boycott a 1947 game between the Phillies and Dodgers if Robinson played .
In 1948 , at the age of 53 , one week and four days before his 54th birthday , Pennock collapsed in the lobby of the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel as a result of a cerebral hemorrhage . He was pronounced dead upon his arrival at Midtown Hospital . Pennock had been healthy , even inviting friends to join him at Madison Square Garden to attend a boxing match .
= = Honors = =
Pennock was honored with " Herb Pennock Day " on April 30 , 1944 in Kennett Square . Weeks after his death , Pennock was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame . An attempt to erect a statue in Kennett Square in his honor was blocked due to his support of segregation in baseball .
Fred Heimach , a teammate of Pennock , once called him the smartest ball player he knew . In 1981 , Lawrence Ritter and Donald Honig included Pennock in their book The 100 Greatest Baseball Players of All Time . He was inducted in the International League Hall of Fame in 1948 . Noted baseball photographer Charles M. Conlon considered Pennock one of his favorite subjects to photograph .
= = Personal = =
Pennock was nicknamed " the Squire of Kennett Square . " He married Esther M. Freck , his high school sweetheart and the younger sister of a childhood friend , on October 28 , 1915 . Esther often attended spring training and traveled with her husband 's team during the season . Together , the couple had a daughter , Jane ( born 1920 ) , and a son , Joe ( born 1925 ) . Jane later married Eddie Collins , Jr .. While a member of the Yankees , Pennock rented an apartment on Grand Concourse in The Bronx , where his wife and children stayed while the Yankees played their home games .
Pennock was a proficient horse rider . He also raised hounds and silver foxes for their pelts . He also grew flowers and vegetables on his farm .
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= 4th Armoured Brigade ( Australia ) =
The 4th Armoured Brigade was an armoured formation of the Australian Army established during the Second World War . It was formed in February 1943 to provide armoured support for infantry units operating in the South West Pacific Area . Its composition varied over time , but usually comprised several armoured regiments equipped with Matilda II or M3 Grant tanks as well as some support units .
The brigade 's main role throughout its existence was to provide a pool of armoured units and sub @-@ units that could be deployed to augment infantry forces . It was also responsible for developing specialised variants of armoured vehicles . Elements of the 4th Armoured Brigade were detached to support most of the Australian Army 's major operations from 1943 until the end of the war , and from September 1944 it was the Army 's only armoured brigade . The formation was disbanded , after the war , in February 1946 .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
The 4th Armoured Brigade was established in February 1943 as part of a reorganisation of the Australian Army 's armoured units . As there was no longer any threat of Japanese forces invading Australia , the 2nd Armoured Division was disbanded to free up manpower for other purposes . However , it was decided to retain the headquarters of that division 's 6th Armoured Brigade to command armoured units that were intended to take part in offensive operations in New Guinea and other locations in the South West Pacific . This specialised formation was designated the 4th Armoured Brigade . The need for armoured support of infantry forces had been demonstrated by the Army 's experiences in the New Guinea Campaign during 1942 and early 1943 .
The main role of the 4th Armoured Brigade was to provide detachments of tanks to support infantry units . As it was not practical or necessary to deploy large armoured units in the jungle terrain common across the South West Pacific , the brigade was organised into several self @-@ supporting regimental groups . These regimental groups could in turn provide sub @-@ units with the necessary logistics support to form the armoured component of other units during combat operations . This held in practice ; during combat deployments regiments from the 4th Armoured Brigade were attached to infantry divisions or brigades , and their squadrons and troops generally operated independently as part of combined arms forces .
Upon formation , the main units of the 4th Armoured Brigade were the 1st Army Tank Battalion , 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment and 2 / 9th Armoured Regiment . The 1st Army Tank Battalion was equipped with Matilda II infantry tanks and had previously formed part of the 3rd Army Tank Brigade . The 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment had formed part of the 1st Armoured Division until August 1942 when it and its M3 Stuart light tanks were transferred to New Guinea . Elements of the regiment saw combat in the Battle of Buna – Gona , where the Stuart tanks were too lightly armoured to be effective . The 2 / 9th Armoured Regiment was transferred from the 3rd Armoured Division and equipped with M3 Grant medium tanks . The brigade also had several supporting engineer , medical , signals and services units . As the brigade was not intended to operate as a single unit , it lacked the armoured reconnaissance , artillery , combat engineer and infantry units which were standard elements of other Australian Army armoured brigades . The 4th Armoured Brigade 's commander from its establishment until its disbandment was Brigadier Denzil Macarthur @-@ Onslow .
= = = Combat operations = = =
The units of the 4th Armoured Brigade were concentrated at Singleton , New South Wales , on 10 March 1943 . As of April that year , the brigade formed part of the Land Headquarters Reserve . The 1st Army Tank Battalion was subsequently transferred to Caboolture in southern Queensland and reorganised as a self @-@ supporting battalion group while remaining part of the 4th Armoured Brigade . The unit was redesignated the 1st Tank Battalion on 10 June 1943 , and in August that year was shipped to Milne Bay in New Guinea . It subsequently supported the 9th Division during the Landing at Lae and Huon Peninsula campaign . The 1st Tank Battalion returned to Australia in June 1944 and was redesignated again to become the 1st Armoured Regiment . In the meantime the 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment was added to the 4th Armoured Brigade in October 1943 ; this unit had previously formed part of the 3rd Armoured Division and was re @-@ equipped with Matilda II tanks . Also in October 1943 , a party from the 4th Armoured Brigade armed with pistols was sent to Grovely Camp near Brisbane to put down a riot by soldiers being held under detention there , but did not need to use force . During March 1944 the 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment was transferred to the 1st Armoured Brigade Group , and the 2 / 5th Armoured Regiment was transferred from that formation to the 4th Armoured Brigade .
By mid @-@ 1944 the 4th Armoured Brigade was located in Southport , Queensland . As of 1 June , the brigade had a strength of 4 @,@ 719 men and was scheduled to be ready for offensive operations by October that year . During June it also established a training area at Nerang in Queensland , where armoured units could practice operating in tropical conditions . In September 1944 the brigade gained the 2 / 1st Armoured Brigade Reconnaissance Squadron when the 1st Armoured Brigade Group was disbanded ; this unit was reorganised to become the Armoured Squadron ( Special Equipment ) in January 1945 . The 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment was also re @-@ assigned to the 4th Armoured Brigade , but was stationed in the Sydney area . Following the disbandment of the 1st Armoured Brigade Group the 4th Armoured Brigade was the last remaining armoured brigade in the Australian Army .
The 4th Armoured Brigade 's structure continued to change during late 1944 and 1945 . The 2 / 1st Armoured Amphibious Squadron was authorised to be raised as part of the brigade in October 1944 , but not established until May the next year . This squadron was to operate troop @-@ carrying Landing Vehicles Tracked , but they did not arrive in time for the unit to see action before the end of the war . In January 1945 the 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment was transferred to the direct control of Land Headquarters , and moved to Puckapunyal in Victoria the next month . This change proved short @-@ lived though , as the 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment rejoined the 4th Armoured Brigade at Southport during July ; B Squadron of this regiment had been transferred to the brigade in April ahead of the remainder of the regiment moving from Victoria to Queensland .
One of the 4th Armoured Brigade 's regimental groups supported Australian Army offensive operations in New Guinea and Bougainville during 1944 and 1945 . The 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment was transferred to New Guinea in August 1944 , and came under the command of the First Australian Army . From January 1945 until the end of the war , C Squadron of the 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment supported the 6th Division during the Aitape – Wewak campaign . The regimental headquarters and two other squadrons took part in the Bougainville Campaign from October 1944 until the end of the war as part of II Corps .
During 1945 two 4th Armoured Brigade regimental groups saw action in the Borneo campaign . C Squadron of the 2 / 9th Armoured Regiment was attached to the 26th Brigade Group during the invasion of Tarakan in May 1945 . The remainder of this regiment subsequently supported the 9th Division during the early stages of the Battle of North Borneo from 10 June . The 1st Armoured Regiment and Armoured Squadron ( Special Equipment ) were attached to the 7th Division , and took part in the Battle of Balikpapan from 1 July .
= = = Trials and development work = = =
Along with its combat role , the 4th Armoured Brigade was responsible for developing and deploying specialised types of tanks . Macarthur @-@ Onslow played an important role in guiding these processes , including by helping his subordinates to overcome institutional barriers . Variants of the Matilda II trialled or developed by the brigade included the " Frog " flame throwing tank , Matilda dozer and the bomb @-@ throwing Matilda Hedgehog . The 2 / 5th Armoured Regiment also trialled a bulldozer variant of the Grant in 1945 . The Frog and Matilda dozer were used in combat by the Armoured Squadron ( Special Equipment ) during the Borneo Campaign . The 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment was issued six Matilda Hedgehogs , but they did not arrive in Bougainville until after the end of the war . The 4th Armoured Brigade also trialled modifications to the Matilda II and Grant that sought to waterproof the tanks so they could travel through rivers and coastal waters . As well as trialling new tank variants , the Brigade developed an ammunition and fuel trailer , which could be towed by Matilda II tanks ; these trailers were used in combat zones by the 2 / 4th and 2 / 9th Armoured Regiments .
During 1944 the 4th Armoured Brigade provided crews for comparative trials of the American M4 Sherman and British Churchill tank in New Guinea conditions that were conducted by the Australian Army in response to a request from the British War Office . Before the tanks were sent to New Guinea , the 4th Armoured Brigade trialled two Sherman tanks alongside Grants and Matilda IIs in Queensland during mid @-@ 1944 . The Churchills and Shermans were subsequently trialled in the Madang region of New Guinea ; the Churchill proved better suited to jungle conditions . The Australian Army later ordered 510 Churchills , but none were delivered before the end of the war .
= = = Disbandment = = =
By July 1945 the only elements of the 4th Armoured Brigade in Australia were the unit 's headquarters , the 2 / 5th and 2 / 6th Armoured Regiments and the 2 / 1st Armoured Amphibious Squadron . The two regiments were preparing for offensive operations , including a planned but later cancelled invasion of Java , but did not leave Australia .
Most of the 4th Armoured Brigade 's units were rapidly disbanded following the war . The 2 / 1st Armoured Amphibious Squadron was dissolved in August 1945 , and the Armoured Squadron ( Special Equipment ) followed in October that year . The 4th Armoured Brigade headquarters and 2 / 5th and 2 / 6th Armoured Regiments were disbanded in February 1946 , and the 2 / 9th Armoured Regiment during the early part of the year . Only the 1st Armoured Regiment remained an active unit , and returned to its pre @-@ war designation of the 1st Royal New South Wales Lancers in 1949 . Volunteers from the 4th Armoured Brigade manned the 1st Armoured Car Squadron , which was established in 1946 for service with the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan ; in 1949 this squadron was expanded to form the 1st Armoured Regiment , which remains an active part of the Australian Army . A memorial to the 4th Armoured Brigade was dedicated at Caboolture in 1993 .
= = Works consulted = =
Beale , Peter ( 2011 ) . Fallen Sentinel : Australian Tanks in World War II . Newport , NSW : Big Sky Publishing . ISBN 9781921941023 .
Dexter , David ( 1961 ) . The New Guinea Offensives . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 1 – Army . Volume VI . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 2028994 .
Handel , Paul ( 2003 ) . Dust , Sand and Jungle : A History of Australian Armour During Training and Operations , 1927 – 1948 . Puckapunyal , Victoria : RAAC Memorial and Army Tank Museum . ISBN 9781876439750 .
Handel , Paul ( 2004 ) . The Vital Factor : A History of 2 / 6th Australian Armoured Regiment 1941 – 1946 . Loftus , NSW : Australian Military History Publications . ISBN 1876439610 .
Hopkins , R.N.L. ( 1978 ) . Australian Armour : A History of the Royal Australian Armoured Corps 1927 – 1972 . Canberra : Australian Government Publishing Service . ISBN 0642994072 .
Long , Gavin ( 1963 ) . The Final Campaigns . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 1 – Army . Volume VII . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 1297619 .
Threlfall , Adrian ( 2014 ) . Jungle Warriors : From Tobruk to Kokoda and beyond , how the Australian Army became the world 's most deadly jungle fighting force . Sydney : Allen & Unwin . ISBN 9781742372204 .
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= Crawl ( Chris Brown song ) =
" Crawl " is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown . It is the second single from his third studio album Graffiti , released as a digital download on November 24 , 2009 . The song was produced by The Messengers and was written by Nasri Atweh , Adam Messinger , Luke Boyd , and Brown . The song is about yearning to rebuild a failed relationship and was interpreted by critics as being about Brown 's former relationship with Barbadian singer Rihanna . However , Brown has stated the song is not about any of his previous relationships .
The song received positive to mixed reviews . It charted in the top twenty in Japan and New Zealand , and the top forty in the United Kingdom and Ireland . It peaked in the United States at number fifty @-@ three . The accompanying music video features Brown and American R & B singer Cassie as his love interest . In the video , he yearns for their relationship on a winter night in a city and in a desert scene . Brown performed the song on his 2009 Fan Appreciation Tour , and on BET 's SOS : Help for Haiti Telethon , which benefited victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake .
= = Background = =
The song was leaked to internet on October 21 , 2009 , one day after ex @-@ girlfriend Rihanna 's ballad " Russian Roulette " was also leaked . The song , which has been described as " melancholy " , sees Brown singing about a relationship that has slipped out of his hands with its chorus calling for an " incremental reconciliation " of the unspecified relationship . Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News noted that both " Crawl " and Rihanna 's " Russian Roulette " would inevitably be interpreted as being about Brown and Rihanna 's relationship .
In an interview with MTV News , Brown stated that the song is not about Rihanna or any of his previous relationships . He called the message of the song " universal " , and not just about love but " any type of heartache . " About the track he said , " When I heard the whole concept and everything I was like , ' Yo , this is crazy . So being able to express the feelings , it was like , probably one of the best [ records I 've done . ] But it was more than me trying to do a record that meant crawl to love , crawl back to love . Meaning whether it 's from your negative situations , whether it 's from any problems you 've dealt with , like anybody 's situation . " Although he stated his concept for the song was about love , he said for anybody , the song could be " inspired as far it being the war or a death in the family , whether it 's anything , anybody just crawl back to love . "
= = Critical reception = =
The song received mixed to positive reviews . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said the song was one of several on parent album Graffiti that " flirt with a public apology . " Kot went on to state that a " funeral organ " hovers over the song , and " the narrator longs for a second chance : " ' So where do we go from here / With all of this fear in your eyes ? ' " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said that both " Crawl " and another song from Graffiti , " So Cold " , come off as " thoughtful , even if they 're not quite mea culpas " and further suggested that " In these moments Mr. Brown is pining , mildly apologetic . " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly called the song a " genuinely affecting second single " , and stated that " Less forgiving listeners " looking for " signs of contrition " may find them on the track . Dan Gennoe of Yahoo ! Music UK said that , of the six tracks on the album 's deluxe edition that could be interpreted as dealing with Brown 's relationship with Rihanna directly , " Crawl " is " by far the most catchily contrite . " Rap @-@ Up said that the song shows Brown " taking baby steps back to love and into the spotlight , " and said that it found Brown " longing to mend a broken relationship " as in his 2008 Jordin Sparks collaboration , “ No Air ” .
= = Chart performance = =
After the song 's premiere on Brown 's MechanicalDummy.com website , " Crawl " made its official debut on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart at number ninety @-@ nine . After its release for digital download on November 23 , 2009 , it later peaked at fifty @-@ nine . On the week ending December 12 , 2009 , " Crawl " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at sixty @-@ eight and peaked at fifty @-@ three .
On December 19 , 2009 , " Crawl " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at seventy @-@ six . In February , the song re @-@ entered the chart at eighty @-@ five , and debuted on the UK R & B chart at twenty @-@ five . On the week of February 27 , 2010 , the song reached its peak of number thirty @-@ five on the singles chart , and eventually peaked at number eight on the R & B chart . The song debuted and peaked on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number sixteen on the week beginning February 1 , 2010 . The song debuted and peaked at number thirty @-@ nine on the Irish Singles Chart , and reached number eight on the Dutch singles chart . It peaked at number twenty on the Japan Hot 100 , and ninety @-@ seven on the European Hot 100 .
= = Music video = =
The music video was edited by David Blackburn and directed by Joseph Kahn , who also worked with Brown on the " I Can Transform Ya " and " Forever " videos . The video features American R & B singer Cassie as Brown 's love interest . Kahn had previously directed the video for Britney Spears 's 2008 ' comeback ' song , " Womanizer " , after her public breakdown . In an interview with MTV News , Kahn said , " I seem to be the guy that record companies go to when they need help , " he joked . " I truly feel [ Brown ] is remorseful . You don 't drop people just because they made a mistake ( even if it was a big mistake ) . "
Kahn said that the entire idea for the video was Brown 's : " It 's an interesting video for me , because it 's so rare that music videos ever try to achieve anything emotional . Chris just basically told me a story of what he felt this video was going to be , with his heart glowing and how he 's , like , cold . It is a very personal story . But it 's told in such a graphic manner that I fell in love with the idea . It 's Chris ' story . Period . I am the pencil that put it down on the paper . " When comparing the song 's video to that of " I Can Transform Ya " , the director said , " ' Crawl ' is my favorite one , because — gosh , I 'm going to let you in on this — ' cause it 's probably his most personal thing he 's ever done . " He went on to say , " I mean , everything that 's happened to him in the year , I think this is going to be his big statement , in terms of what he 's feeling and what he 's living through right now . " When talking about the ideas and concepts of the video , Kahn said that the video , his first ballad with Brown , should speak for itself through the ideas that he had and the " genesis " of what that idea was .
On November 2 , 2009 , several stills from the video were released onto the internet . The photos focused on two sets of the video , a desert location , and a snow and puddle @-@ spotted alleyway . In both settings , Brown wears the same thick black glasses , brown leather trench coat , white t @-@ shirt , and fingerless gloves , among other attire . Cassie appears in a photo from the alleyway scenes , as the desert scenes show Brown in " deep contemplation " . The video first aired on The Wendy Williams Show on Friday , November 13 , 2009 , when Brown was a guest on the show . The video opens with Brown sitting on an edge of a bed wearing a plain white t @-@ shirt . As the music begins and he starts singing , his heart is shown lit up red and beating in his chest . The singer then walks into an alleyway on a winter 's night , revealed in the air as he breathes . Brown walks past several storefronts , seeing images of Cassie broadcast on television . He then sees paparazzi taking photos of her , but she does not notice him . Brown is shown in a desert scene , and then returns to the winter night scene as Cassie sees him and they walk towards each other meeting face @-@ to @-@ face . They gather close , but Brown does not reel her in as the video ends . The music video ranked at forty @-@ eight on the BET : Notarized Top 100 Videos of 2009 countdown .
= = Live performances = =
Brown performed the song on his 2009 Fan Appreciation Tour , and on Black Entertainment Television 's SOS Saving Ourselves : Hope for Haiti Telethon , to raise money for the country after the 2010 earthquake that devastated the area . Eric Ditzian of MTV News noted that although the song was rumored to be about Rihanna , " the lyrics also at times seemed to fit the evening 's focus , like when Brown sang , " If we crawl till we can walk again / Then we 'll run until we 're strong enough to jump . "
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Crawl " – 3 : 57
Germany Digital download
Crawl - 3 : 56
Graffiti - 5 : 12
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting - Chris Brown , Nasri Atweh , Adam Messinger , Luke Boyd
Production - Adam Messinger , Nasri Atweh
Background vocals - Adam Messinger , Nasri Atweh
Vocal recording - Brian Springer
Mixing - Manny Marroquin , assisted by Christian Plata & Erik Madrid
Source
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Release history = =
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= Missoula , Montana =
Missoula / mᵻˈzuːlə / is a city in the U.S. state of Montana and is the county seat of Missoula County . It is located along the Clark Fork River near its confluences with the Bitterroot and Blackfoot Rivers in western Montana and at the convergence of five mountain ranges , thus is often described as the " hub of five valleys " . In 2015 , the United States Census Bureau estimated the city 's population at 71 @,@ 022 and the population of the Missoula Metropolitan Area at 114 @,@ 181 . In the 1990s , Missoula overtook Great Falls as Montana ’ s second ‑ largest city , behind Billings . Missoula is home to the University of Montana , a public research university .
Missoula was founded in 1860 as Hellgate Trading Post while still part of Washington Territory . By 1866 , the settlement had moved east , 5 miles ( 8 km ) upstream , and renamed Missoula Mills , later shortened to Missoula . The mills provided supplies to western settlers traveling along the Mullan Road . The establishment of Fort Missoula in 1877 to protect settlers further stabilized the economy . The arrival of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1883 brought rapid growth and the maturation of the local lumber industry . In 1893 , the Montana Legislature chose the city as the site for the state 's first university . Along with the U.S. Forest Service headquarters founded in 1908 , lumber and the university remained staples of the local economy for the next hundred years .
By the 1990s , Missoula 's lumber industry had gradually disappeared , and as of 2009 , the city 's largest employers were the University of Montana , Missoula County Public Schools , and Missoula 's two hospitals . The city is governed by a mayor – council government with twelve city council members , two from each of the six wards . In and around Missoula are 400 acres ( 160 ha ) of parkland , 22 miles ( 35 km ) of trails , and nearly 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 ha ) of open @-@ space conservation land with adjacent Mount Jumbo home to grazing elk and mule deer during the winter . The city is also home to both Montana 's largest and its oldest active breweries as well as the Montana Grizzlies , one of the strongest college football programs in the Division I Football Championship Subdivision of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) . Notable residents include the first woman in the U.S. Congress , Jeannette Rankin , and the United States ' longest @-@ serving Senate Majority Leader , Mike Mansfield .
= = History = =
Archaeological artifacts date the Missoula Valley 's earliest inhabitants to the end of the last ice age 12 @,@ 000 years ago with settlements as early as 3500 BCE . From the 1700s until European settlements began a hundred years later , it was primarily the Salish , Kootenai , Pend d 'Oreille , Blackfeet , and Shoshone who used the land . Located at the confluence of five mountain valleys , the Missoula Valley was heavily traversed by local and distant native tribes that periodically went to the Eastern Montana plains in search of bison , leading to conflict . The narrow valley at Missoula 's eastern entrance was so strewn with human bones from repeated ambushes that French fur trappers would later refer to this area as Porte de l 'Enfer , translated as " Gate of Hell " . Hell Gate would remain the name of the area until it was renamed " Missoula " in 1866 .
The Lewis and Clark Expedition brought the first U.S. citizens to the area . They twice stopped just south of Missoula at Traveler 's Rest . They camped there the first time on their westbound trip in September 1805 . When they stayed there again on their return in June – July 1806 , Clark left heading south along the Bitterroot River and Lewis traveled north , then east , through Hellgate Canyon . In 1860 , Hell Gate Village was established 5 miles ( 8 km ) west of present @-@ day downtown by Christopher P. Higgins and Frank Worden as a trading post to serve travelers on the recently completed Mullan Road , the first wagon road to cross the Rocky Mountains to the inland of the Pacific Northwest . The desire for a more convenient water supply to power a lumber and flour mill led to the movement of the settlement to its modern location in 1864 .
The Missoula Mills replaced Hell Gate Village as the economic power of the valley and replaced it as the county seat in 1866 . The name " Missoula " came from the Salish name for the Clark Fork River , " nmesuletkw " , which roughly translates as " place of frozen water " . Fort Missoula was established in 1877 to help protect further arriving settlers . Growth accelerated with the arrival of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1883 , and the Town of Missoula was chartered the same year . In 1893 , Missoula was chosen as the location of the state 's first university , the University of Montana . The need for lumber for the railway and its bridges spurred the opening of multiple saw mills in the area and , in turn , the beginning of Missoula 's lumber industry , which remained the mainstay of the area 's economy for the next hundred years . The continued economic windfall from railroad construction and lumber mills led to a further boom in Missoula 's population . A. B. Hammond and Copper Kings Marcus Daly and William A. Clark competed fiercely in the region over lumber share and Missoula investments . The United States Forest Service work in Missoula began in 1905 . Missoula is also home of the smokejumpers ' headquarters and will be the site of the National Museum of Forest Service History . Nationally , there are nine Forest Service regions ; Region 1 is headquartered in Missoula .
Logging remained a mainstay of industry in Missoula with the groundbreaking of the Hoerner @-@ Waldorf pulp mill in 1956 , which resulted in protests over the resultant air pollution . An article in Life magazine thirteen years later speaks of Missoulians sometimes needing to drive with headlights on during the day to navigate through the smog . In 1979 , still almost 40 % of the county 's labor income came from the wood and paper products sector . The lumber industry was hit hard by the recession of the early 1980s , and Missoula 's economy began to diversify . By the early 1990s , the disappearance of many of the region 's log yards , along with legislation , had helped clean the skies dramatically .
As of 2009 , education and healthcare were Missoula 's leading industries ; the University of Montana , Missoula County Public Schools , and the city 's two hospitals were the largest employers . St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center , founded in 1873 , is the region 's only Level II trauma center and has undergone three major expansions since the 1980s . Likewise , the University of Montana grew 50 % and built or renovated 20 buildings from 1990 – 2010 . It is expected that these industries as well as expansions in business and professional services , and retail will be the main engines of future growth .
= = Geography = =
Missoula is located at the western edge of Montana approximately 45 miles ( 70 km ) from the Idaho border . The city is at an elevation of 3 @,@ 209 feet ( 978 m ) above sea level , with nearby Mount Sentinel and Mount Jumbo steeply rising to 5 @,@ 158 feet ( 1 @,@ 572 m ) and 4 @,@ 768 feet ( 1 @,@ 453 m ) respectively . According to the Census Bureau 's 2015 figures , the city had a total area of 29 @.@ 08 square miles ( 75 @.@ 3 km2 ) , of which , 28 @.@ 90 square miles ( 74 @.@ 9 km2 ) was land and 0 @.@ 184 square miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km2 ) was water .
Approximately 13 @,@ 000 years ago , the entire valley was at the bottom of Glacial Lake Missoula and as could be expected for a former lake bottom , the layout of Missoula is relatively flat and surrounded by steep hills . Evidence of the city of Missoula 's lake @-@ bottom past can be seen in the form of ancient horizontal wave @-@ cut shorelines on nearby Mount Sentinel and Mount Jumbo . At the location of present @-@ day University of Montana , the lake once had a depth of 950 feet ( 290 m ) . The Clark Fork River enters the Missoula Valley from the east through Hellgate Canyon after joining the nearby Blackfoot River at the site of the former Milltown Dam . The Bitterroot River and multiple smaller tributaries join the Clark Fork on the western edge of Missoula . The city also sits at the convergence of five mountain ranges : the Bitterroot Mountains , Sapphire Range , Garnet Range , Rattlesnake Mountains , and the Reservation Divide , thus is often described as being the " hub of five valleys " .
= = = Flora and fauna = = =
Located in the Northern Rockies , Missoula has a typical Rocky Mountain ecology . Local wildlife includes populations of white @-@ tailed deer , black bears , osprey , and bald eagles . During the winter , rapid snowmelt on Mount Jumbo due to its steep slope leaves grass available for grazing elk and mule deer . The rivers around Missoula provide nesting habitats for bank swallows , northern rough @-@ winged swallows and belted kingfishers . Killdeer and spotted sandpipers can be seen foraging for insects along the gravel bars . Other species include song sparrows , catbirds , several species of warblers , and the pileated woodpecker . The rivers also provide cold , clean water for native fish such as westslope cutthroat trout and bull trout . The meandering streams also attract beaver and wood ducks . The parks also host a variety of snakes such as racers , garter snakes , and rubber boa .
Native riparian plant life includes sandbar willows and cottonwoods with Montana 's state tree , the ponderosa pine , also being prevalent . Other native plants include wetland species such as cattails and beaked @-@ sedge as well as shrubs and berry plants like Douglas hawthorn , chokecherry , and western snowberries . To the chagrin of local farmers , Missoula is also home to several noxious weeds , which multiple programs have set out to eliminate . Notable ones include Dalmatian toadflax , spotted knapweed , leafy spurge , St. John 's wort , and sulfur cinquefoil . Controversially , the Norway maples that line many of Missoula 's older streets have also been declared an invasive species .
= = = Climate = = =
Missoula has a semi @-@ arid climate ( Köppen climate classification BSk ) , with cold and moderately snowy winters , hot and dry summers , and short , crisp springs and autumns . Winters are usually milder than much of the rest of the state due to its location west of the Rockies , allowing it to be influenced more by mild , moist Pacific air and avoiding the worst of cold snaps ; however , this means precipitation is not at a strong minimum during winter . Winter snowfall averages 39 @.@ 5 inches ( 100 cm ) , on average occurring between October 30 and April 20 . As with the rest of the state , summers are very sunny , and the average diurnal temperature variation is more than 30 ° F ( 17 ° C ) from late June through late September , due to the relative aridity . The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 23 @.@ 9 ° F ( − 4 @.@ 5 ° C ) in December to 68 @.@ 6 ° F ( 20 @.@ 3 ° C ) in July . There is an average of 24 days with temperatures above 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) , 45 days where the temperature does not rise above freezing , and 7 @.@ 8 days with temperatures below 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) .
= = Demographics = =
The median income for a household in the city was $ 30 @,@ 366 , and the median income for a family was $ 42 @,@ 103 . Males had a median income of $ 30 @,@ 686 versus $ 21 @,@ 559 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 17 @,@ 166 . About 11 @.@ 7 % of families and 19 @.@ 7 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 20 @.@ 5 % of those under age 18 and 9 @.@ 3 % of those age 65 or over . 40 @.@ 3 % of Missoula residents age 25 and older have a bachelor 's or advanced college degree .
= = = 2010 census = = =
As of 2010 's census , there were 66 @,@ 788 people , 29 @,@ 081 households , and 13 @,@ 990 families residing in the city . The population density was 2 @,@ 427 @.@ 8 inhabitants per square mile ( 937 @.@ 4 / km2 ) . There were 30 @,@ 682 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 115 @.@ 3 per square mile ( 430 @.@ 6 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 92 @.@ 1 % White , 0 @.@ 5 % African American , 2 @.@ 8 % Native American , 1 @.@ 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 0 @.@ 5 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 8 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2 @.@ 9 % of the population .
There were 29 @,@ 081 households of which 23 @.@ 6 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 34 @.@ 4 % were married couples living together , 9 @.@ 6 % had a female householder with no husband present , 4 @.@ 1 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 51 @.@ 9 % were non @-@ families . 35 @.@ 0 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9 @.@ 1 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 18 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 82 .
The median age in the city was 30 @.@ 9 years . 17 @.@ 9 % of residents were under the age of 18 ; 19 @.@ 7 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 ; 29 @.@ 6 % were from 25 to 44 ; 22 @.@ 1 % were from 45 to 64 ; and 10 @.@ 7 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was 49 @.@ 9 % male and 50 @.@ 1 % female .
= = Economy = =
Missoula began as a trading post in the 1860s situated along the Mullan Military Road to take advantage of the first route across the Bitterroot Mountains to the plains of Eastern Washington . Its designation as county seat in 1866 and location of the hastily built Fort Missoula in 1877 ensured Missoula 's status as a regional commercial center ; a status further consolidated in 1883 with the arrival of the Northern Pacific Railway . The railroad expanded Missoula 's trade area to cover a 150 @-@ mile radius , and Missoula 's location as the railway 's division point and repair shops provided hundreds of jobs . When the railway began expanding again in 1898 , increased freight shipments came through the city , and with the arrival of the Milwaukee Road and regional office for the U.S. Forest Service as well as the opening of the Flathead Indian Reservation to settlement all within a couple years of each other beginning in 1908 , the economy began to rapidly expand .
Lumber mills , originally built to provide construction @-@ grade materials for homes and business but then expanded to entice and then meet the demands of the railroad , profited from an increase in demand from railroad expansion and the nation at large . The Bonner mill , owned the Northern Pacific and Copper King Marcus Daly , became the largest producer of lumber in the northwest . In 1908 , Missoula 's location as both a major lumber producer and a regional commercial center helped land the city the regional office for the newly establish U.S. Forest Service created to help manage the nation 's timber supply . Over the next century , Missoula 's various lumber industries was consolidated under various entities such as the Anaconda Company in the 1970s and Champion International Paper through the 1980s until most were under control of Plum Creek Timber , all the while demand in timber dropped . In 2007 , a downward spiral of Missoula 's lumber industry began with the closure of a plywood plant in Bonner , the closure of Bonner 's sawmill in 2008 , and the closing of the Smurfit @-@ Stone Container pulp mill in 2010 .
Since opening in 1895 , the University of Montana has had a major impact on the development of Missoula 's economy . In addition to the economic advantage from accommodating the student body , it gave the city an educated workforce not available in most of the state . The university has a close relationship with the city as Missoula 's largest employer and with the millions of dollars the school brings into the city through visitors of school @-@ sponsored sporting and cultural events . The university also houses Missoula 's only business incubator , the Montana Technology Enterprise Center ( MonTEC ) , and several start @-@ up businesses .
Beyond timber and education , Missoula 's economic mainstay has been of one as a regional trade center . Missoula has an immediate trade area of approximately 180 @,@ 000 residents . The Missoula is the hub of its Bureau of Economic Analysis ( BEA ) Economic Area , which includes the Montana Counties of Flathead , Lake , Lincoln , Mineral , Missoula , Ravalli , and Sanders . As of 2011 , the BEA listed the economic area population at 306 @,@ 050 . Key businesses sectors serving the area include health care , retail shopping , transportation , financial services , government and social services , education , events , arts and culture . Health care in particular is one of Missoula 's fastest growing industries with St. Patrick Hospital ( western Montana 's only Level II Trauma center ) and the Community Medical Center already the city 's second and third largest employers behind the university . 55 % of employment in Missoula is made up of the service and retail sectors . Export industries are concentrated in heavy and civil engineering , construction , beverage production , technical services , truck transportation , and forestry- , logging- , and wood @-@ related industries . In addition to nearly 4 million out @-@ of @-@ state visitors annually , which makes tourism a significant aspect of the Missoula economy , Missoula also is home to a vibrant sector of alternative healthcare .
As of 2013 , Missoula ranked 299 nationally in gross metropolitan product with an output of $ 5 billion , while the city 's total personal income ranked 333 at $ 4 @.@ 18 billion , an increase of more than 47 % since 2003 . As of 2013 , per capita personal income ranked 239 at $ 37 @,@ 397 a year , 84 % of the national average . The Missoula metropolitan area 's unemployment rate was 3 @.@ 7 % As of June 2015 , dropping nearly 0 @.@ 8 % in the twelve months prior .
= = Culture = =
Missoula , often considered the cultural center of Montana , is the location of the state 's first university , and an eclectic mix of loggers , hippies , college students , sports fans , and retirees . Community events generally take place downtown either outdoors or in one of the several downtown buildings listed on the National Historic Registry .
Since 2006 , the River City Roots Festival has been an event each August with music , beer , food , and art , and generally attracts crowds of 15 @,@ 000 . The longest @-@ standing event downtown has been the Missoula Farmers Market that was founded in 1972 , which provides an outlet for Western Montana produce on Saturday mornings from May to October as well as Tuesday evenings from July to early September . An arts and crafts People 's Market and a Clark Fork Market run concurrently . Downtown hosts " First Friday Missoula " , a gallery walk on the first Friday of the month to feature local art from museums and galleries , such as that of Monte Dolack . Missoula celebrates " First Night Missoula " on New Year 's Eve , which includes food and live entertainment . The " Festival of the Book " to celebrate the literature of the American West was rebranded the " Montana Book Festival " in 2015 . Missoula 's two historic theatres both hold annual film festivals : the Roxy hosting the International Wildlife Film Festival , established in 1977 as the first juried wildlife film festival in the world ; and since 2003 , the Wilma accommodating the largest film event in Montana , the Big Sky Documentary Film Festival . In performance arts , the Missoula Community Theatre has held performances of musical and non @-@ musical plays since 1977 , with its affiliated Missoula Children 's Theatre also acting as an international touring program that visits nearly 1 @,@ 000 communities per year around the world .
The Montana Museum of Art & Culture , which became a state museum in 2001 , is one Montana 's oldest cultural reserves , having begun in 1894 ; its permanent collection of more than 10 @,@ 000 original works . The Missoula Museum of Art is housed in a former Carnegie library ; it features contemporary art and annually features 20 – 25 group and solo exhibits . Fort Missoula is home to the Historic Museum , dedicated to preserving the history of Western Montana , and to the Rocky Mountain Museum of Military History and the Northern Rockies Heritage Center . The National Museum of Forest Service History is constructing the National Conservation Legacy and Education Center in Missoula as well .
Opened in 1987 , Missoula 's Bayern Brewing is the oldest active brewery in Montana . Big Sky Brewing opened in 1995 and with a production of over 38 @,@ 000 barrels in 2008 , it is by far Montana 's largest brewery , and produces the best @-@ selling beer brewed in Montana , Moose Drool Brown Ale . Missoula has also been home to Kettle House Brewing since 1995 and Draught Works opened in 2011 . Big Sky , Bayern , and Kettlehouse represent the first , second , and third largest breweries respectively in the state of Montana . Also in 2011 , Tamarack Brewing and Flathead Lake Brewing Company from nearby Lake County opened pub houses at downtown Missoula locations . The city also holds annual the Garden City Brewfest and Winterfest , and also periodically hosts the Montana Brewers Festival .
Missoula 's celebration of the outdoors can also be seen in notable non @-@ profits based in the city such as the Adventure Cycling Association , the conservationist @-@ hunting organizations Boone and Crockett Club and Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation , and the Outdoor Writers Association of America . In an attempt to reduce harmful emissions , the non @-@ profit Missoula in Motion promotes environmentally sustainable transportation options for commuters , such as walking , biking , carpooling , public transportation , and telecommuting . Other non @-@ profits headquartered in Missoula illustrate the city 's liberal reputation in Montana . Promoter of marijuana law reform NORML has its state headquarters in Missoula , as does the Montana Hemp Council . Forward Montana is a " left @-@ leaning though officially nonpartisan group that seeks to engage young people in politics " . The Montana Justice Foundation , founded in 1979 , is a charitable organization that helps underprivileged and underserved Montanans to access to civil legal aid . The Western Montana Community Center supports the LGBTIQ community and the Jeannette Rankin Peace Center focuses on " nonviolence , social justice and environmental sustainability " . The largest emergency homeless shelter and soup kitchen in Montana , the Poverello Center , is also located in Missoula .
= = Sports = =
Missoula plays host to a variety of intercollegiate , youth , and amateur sports organizations in addition to a Minor league baseball team . The Montana Grizzlies ' football and basketball teams of the University of Montana have the highest attendance . The Montana Grizzlies football team has a successful program within the NCAA D @-@ 1 FCS level . Their home games at Washington – Grizzly Stadium have a near 90 % winning percentage and average over 25 @,@ 000 spectators in attendance . All games are televised throughout Montana . The Grizzlies men 's and Lady Griz basketball teams have also been successful at the conference level where they both rank at or near the top in attendance , about 4 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 respectively , and play their home games at Dahlberg Arena .
Missoula is also home to the Missoula Osprey , a rookie affiliate of the Arizona Diamondbacks that plays in the Rocky Mountain @-@ based Pioneer Baseball League . They play their home games at Ogren Park at Allegiance Field . Also competing regionally are the Hellgate Rollergirls , a roller derby team that competes at the Adam 's Center . Since 1977 , Missoula has also held " Maggotfest " , a festival @-@ style rugby tournament hosted by the Missoula Maggots Rugby Club the first weekend in May . The non @-@ elimination tournament focuses on the fun aspect of the game , attracting 36 teams ( male and female ) from around the United States and Canada . In regular season play , the Missoula Maggots compete as part of the Montana Rugby Union alongside another local rugby team , the University of Montana Jesters .
= = Parks and recreation = =
The city has over 400 acres ( 160 ha ) of parkland , 22 miles ( 35 km ) of trails , and nearly 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 ha ) of conserved open @-@ space . Located at the confluence of three rivers ( the Clark Fork , Bitterroot , and Blackfoot ) , the area is also popular for white water rafting and , thanks largely to the novel and subsequent film A River Runs Through It by Missoula native Norman Maclean , is well known for its fly fishing . Additionally , Missoula has two aquatic parks , multiple golf courses , is home to the Adventure Cycling Association , and hosts what Runner 's World called the " best overall " marathon in the U.S. There are also three ski areas within 100 miles ( 160 km ) : Montana Snowbowl , Discovery Ski Area , and Lost Trail Powder Mountain . Slightly farther away are Lookout Pass , Blacktail Mountain , and Big Mountain .
A system of public parks was developed in Missoula in 1902 with the donation by lumber baron Thomas Greenough and his wife Tessie . They gave a 42 @-@ acre ( 17 ha ) tract of land along Rattlesnake Creek for Greenough Park , on the condition that " the land forever be used as a park and for park purposes to which the people of Missoula may . . . find a comfortable , romantic and poetic retreat " . In a follow @-@ up nine years later in a letter to the Missoulian , he stressed his interest in having the park remain in as close to a native state as possible . That request , along with the discovery that non @-@ native Norway maples were inhibiting the growth of native trees and shrubs such as cottonwoods , ponderosa pines and Rocky Mountain maples , led to the controversial decision to remove Norway maples from the park with the hope of returning it to its natural state .
In 1924 , Bonner Park was created out of John L. Bonner 's estate near the university . The park today has multiple athletic fields and courts in addition a band shell used by the Missoula City band through the summer . The Kiwanis club set up a park downtown in 1934 , making Kiwanis Park the first of a string of parks which line both sides of the Clark Fork River . One of those parks on the southern bank of the river is McCormick Park , which was created with WPA funds out of surplus highway land , a parcel from the American Hide and Fur Company , and land donated from the Kate McCormick estate . The 26 @-@ acre ( 11 ha ) park , named for Washington J. McCormick and his wife is home to a skate park , aquatics center , a free bike check @-@ out and a children 's fishing pond . Other popular parks include the Jacobs Island Bark Park , a designated area for dogs to play off @-@ leash ; the Montana State veterans ' memorial rose garden ; Waterwise Garden , a " living laboratory " garden utilizing water conservation techniques ; and Splash Montana Waterpark at Playfair Park .
= = = Caras Park = = =
Caras Park is located just south of the historic Wilma Theatre downtown . It is located on land reclaimed when the Higgins Avenue Bridge was widened from two lanes to four in 1962 . Before the reclamation , the Clark Fork River divided to create an island with the north channel 's bank extending to nearby buildings such as the Wilma Theatre . The south channel was deepened for the increased water flow and the infilled land later became Caras Park . Events in the park were not common until the early 1980s and permanent fixtures like " Out to Lunch " , which began in 1986 . The Missoula Downtown Association took over from Parks and Recreation for management of the park and made improvements to make Caras Park more event @-@ friendly . Seating , event circles , brick plazas , restrooms , and storage structures were added . Large temporary tents were used for events until 1997 when a permanent pavilion was constructed . The park is a hub of city festivities including include " Out to Lunch " , the International Wildlife Film Festival , First Night Missoula , Garden City BrewFest and offered intimate concert settings for artists such as Jewel , Chris Isaak , Santana , Ziggy Marley , and B.B. King . Located next to Caras Park is A Carousel for Missoula , a wooden , hand @-@ carved and volunteer @-@ built carousel ; and Dragon Hollow , a children 's recreational area adjacent to the carousel .
= = Government and politics = =
Missoula 's system of government has changed four times since 1883 when an aldermanic form of government was approved with the town charter . The city adopted a commission @-@ council form of government in 1911 with the opening of new City Hall and a council – manager government in 1954 before returning to an aldermanic form of government in 1959 . Since January 1 , 1997 , Missoula has been governed in accordance with the Missoula City Charter , which calls for a mayor @-@ council system of government .
The current system comprises a mayor and city treasurer elected in a citywide vote and twelve city council members who must reside in and are elected from one of six wards with each ward having two council members . All positions are nominally nonpartisan . Council members and the mayor are elected to four @-@ year terms with council @-@ member elections being staggered to allow only one member from each ward to up for re @-@ election . There are no term limits for either position .
Missoula 's state legislative delegation is the second largest in the Montana Legislature and is represented by districts 91 – 100 in the Montana House of Representatives and districts 46 – 50 in the Montana Senate . Having thirteen Democrats and two Republicans in its state legislative delegation , Missoula is known as a more liberal area than the rest of the state .
Though Missoula 's political leanings may not be unique for a college town , its initiative to make marijuana possession the lowest priority of law enforcement in 2006 , and symbolic resolutions calling on Congress to withdraw from Iraq in 2007 , and to amend the U.S. Constitution to declare that " corporations are not human beings " in 2011 , often put it at odds with the rest of the state . In 2011 , the Montana legislature , with a Republican House majority , attempted to overturn Missoula 's marijuana law and revoke its ability to have an anti @-@ discrimination ordinance that included the LGBT community . The marijuana repeal was vetoed by then – Governor Brian Schweitzer and the attempt to repeal the other died in the Senate .
= = Education = =
Missoula 's first school was opened in late 1869 with sixteen students from around the region and their teacher Emma C. Slack who had come to Missoula via a two @-@ month trip by horseback , railroad , and boat from Baltimore at the invitation of her brother . She resigned two years later upon marrying William H. H. Dickinson ( the first couple married in Missoula ) and was replaced by Elizabeth Countryman who later married Missoula 's first mayor , Frank H. Woody . The first public high school was opened in 1904 but was converted back to a grade school after the A. J. Gibson @-@ designed Missoula County High School ( now Hellgate High School ) was opened in 1908 . After several expansions , Stanford University was commissioned in 1951 to create a master building plan to manage future growth . It suggested purchasing land and building an additional campus at the Garden City Airport 's Hale Field , which was gradually being replaced by the Missoula County Airport , which was then southwest of town . The new school ( now Sentinel High School ) was opened in 1957 . Initially the two campuses were separated between upper and lower classmen with upper classmen in the new school , but in 1965 , the two campuses became separate high schools . In 1974 , the private Loyola Sacred Heart Catholic High School was created from a merger of the all @-@ girls Sacred Heart Academy ( est . 1873 ) and the all @-@ boys Loyola High School ( est . 1912 ) . In 1980 , Missoula 's third public high school , Big Sky , was established .
Missoula 's public schools are part of the Missoula County Public School districts 1 , 4 , 20 , and 23 . In Missoula , there are nine public elementary schools ( kindergarten to 5th grade ) , three public middle schools ( 6th to 8th grades ) , four public high schools ( 9th to 12th grades ) , and three public schools serving kindergarten to 8th grade . Missoula also has several private schools including an international school , religious @-@ affiliated schools , as well as Next Step Prep , a theater academy high school operated by the Missoula Children 's Theatre .
The University of Montana dominates higher education in Missoula . The university , established in 1893 , was Montana 's first , and has the state 's second @-@ largest enrollment , with 12 @,@ 922 students as of 2015 ) . The campus houses six colleges and three schools including Montana 's first and only law school , the Alexander Blewett III School of Law at the University of Montana . The university is also the location of the state 's Regional Federal Depository Library , and houses the state Arboretum . The University of Montana College of Technology , established in 1956 and formerly known as the Missoula Vocational Technical Center , offers fast @-@ track learning programs . Multiple vocational programs not affiliated with the university ranging from photography and massage to truck driving also have a presence in Missoula .
= = Media = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
Missoula 's single – broadcast over – air television media market is the largest in Montana and ranked 165 nationally in as of 2015 . Though Missoula itself is second in population to Billings , Montana , Missoula 's single @-@ broadcast over @-@ air television media market includes all of Missoula , Ravalli , Granite , Mineral , Lake , Flathead , and Sanders Counties in the more densely populated western region of Montana and serves over 112 @,@ 600 television homes as of 2015 . Missoula is home to three local affiliate channels : KPAX @-@ TV ( CBS / MTN , The CW ; founded 1970 ; channel 8 ) , KECI @-@ TV ( NBC ; founded 1954 as KGVO @-@ TV ; channel 13 , and KTMF @-@ TV ( ABC , FOX ; founded 1991 ; channel 23 ) . Also based in Missoula at the University of Montana is Montana PBS ( founded 1984 ; channel 11 ) . There are seventeen FM radio stations and four AM radio stations licensed in the city .
= = = Print = = =
Missoula has four main sources of print media : the Missoulian ( primary daily ) , Missoula Independent ( alternative weekly ) , Montana Kaimin ( college ) , and New West ( digital , progressive ) . The Missoulian was founded as a weekly publication in 1870 as The Missoula and Cedar Creek Pioneer . As of 2015 , the Missoulian remains Missoula 's most popular newspaper with a circulation of over 26 @,@ 000 , making it the third most read daily newspaper in Montana behind the Billings Gazette and the Great Falls Tribune . The Missoula Independent ( founded 1991 ) is the largest weekly newspaper in Montana and the states only member of the Association of Alternative Newsweeklies . With over 21 @,@ 000 readers it has twice the circulation of second place Billings Outpost . The newspaper is distributed free to more than 600 locations across Western Montana from Hamilton in the south to Whitefish in the north . The Montana Kaimin ( founded 1891 ) is likewise distributed free throughout parts of Missoula with heavy student traffic from the University of Montana where the newspaper is printed Monday through Friday during the school year . New West was founded in 2005 as a left @-@ leaning " next @-@ generation media company " that focused on culture , environment , economy , and politics in the Rocky Mountain West .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Health care = = =
Missoula has two primary health care facilities : St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center and Community Medical Center . St. Patrick 's was founded in 1873 under the sponsorship of the Sisters of Providence . It is the only Level II trauma center in the region , the largest medical facility in Western Montana , and has undergone three major expansions since the 1980s . The hospital has 195 acute @-@ care beds , and admitted over 9 @,@ 700 patients in 2003 . The name was changed from " St. Patrick Hospital " to " St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center " in 2000 to reflect an increasing involvement with national medical research and education . The Community Medical Center and its adjacent medical facilities are located near Fort Missoula and is part of a modern complex that includes a nursing home , the Missoula Crippled Children 's Center , and private offices . It was founded in 1922 as Thornton Hospital by doctors Will Thornton and Charles Thornton and has been at its current location since 1972 . It is the only facility providing obstetrical and newborn care in Missoula County and the only hospital in Western Montana with a separate Pediatric Intensive Care Unit . The center is partnered with Seattle Children 's Hospital . The nearest Level I trauma center to Missoula is Harborview Medical Center in Seattle , Washington .
= = = Utilities = = =
The earliest Missoulians drew their water directly from the Clark Fork River or nearby Rattlesnake Creek . The first water system consisted of a Native American known as One @-@ Eyed Riley and his friend filling buckets of water from the Rattlesnake Creek and hauling them door to door on a donkey cart . In 1871 city co @-@ founder Frank Worden began construction of a log pipe and wooden main system that flowed from the Rattlesnake Creek 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) north of the city . With the addition of two small covered reservoirs , the first municipal water system was begun in 1880 . With an intake dam built in 1901 with a settling basin capacity of 3 million US gallons ( 11 @,@ 000 m3 ) , the Rattlesnake Creek continued to meet demands of the city until 1935 when five wells were added to respond to increased summer and fall demand . This system is still maintained as an emergency backup , but was discontinued as a primary source after Giardia outbreak in 1983 . Since then , Missoula has relied on the Missoula Valley Aquifer as the sole source of water . In 1889 , the first electrical plant was built by A. B. Hammond to power his major downtown properties such as the Missoula Mercantile and the Florence Hotel . In 1905 , the Missoula Mercantile ( by then owned by Copper King William A. Clark purchased the water system and consolidated it with its vast electrical holdings to create the Missoula Light and Water Company ( ML & W ) a year later . Electricity and water remained bundled after ML & W 's sale to the Montana Power Company ( MPC ) in 1929 . In 1979 , MPC sold its water utility holdings as Mountain Water Company to Park Water Company in Downey , California , which since 2011 has been a subsidiary of The Carlyle Group . In 2015 , the City of Missoula was legally granted its " ' right to acquire ' the water system by exercising its power of eminent domain " , but as of June 2015 , that decision is under appeal .
Following the deregulation of Montana 's electricity market in 1997 , Montana Power Company began to divest its energy business . MPC sold substantially all its electrical generating assets to the PPL Corporation in December 1997 and its energy transmission and distribution business to NorthWestern Corporation in February 2002 . Despite filing for bankruptcy in 2002 , NorthWestern Corporation 's subsidiary NorthWestern Energy is the primary provider of electric and natural gas service to Missoula in addition to the Rural Utilities Service 's Missoula Electric Cooperative .
Local telephone service in the area is provided by CenturyLink and Blackfoot Telecommunications . Major cell phone providers include AT & T , Sprint , Verizon , and T @-@ Mobile . Trash collection in Missoula is handled by Allied Waste Industries and Grant Creek Water Systems . Allied Waste also handles recycling through a program where customers can purchase special blue bags to designate recyclables . Recycling has also been offered by Missoula Valley Recycling since 1992 , by Garden City Recycling since 2010 which offers curbside pickup , and by Pacific Steel & Recycling which offers drop @-@ off recycling . Sewer service is handled by the City of Missoula Wastewater Division .
= = = City layout and development = = =
In the mid @-@ 1860s , C. P. Higgins and Frank Worden began plotting what would become the town of Missoula along the Mullan Military Road , which ran parallel to the Clark Fork River . Through downtown Missoula , the route of the road is now Front Street . It is intersected by Higgins Avenue , to which a bridge across the Clark Fork was added in 1873 . The intersection of these two streets became the default center of the city , and remains the numerical center regarding city street addresses . The arrival of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1883 led to a housing boom along the tracks , particularly on the northern side where many of the railway workers would reside . When the Higgins Avenue Bridge was replaced in 1893 , they debated whether the bridge should continue southwest toward the Bitterroot Valley as it had earlier , or due south . Attorneys W. M. Bickford and W. J. Stephens had already laid out plots of land five years earlier for what they hoped would be a new town of " South Missoula " . The streets there were perpendicular to the Bitterroot Wagon Road while Judge Hiram Knowles who owned the land just south of the river preferred the north @-@ south plan and did not want to become part of South Missoula . The result was a 7 × 14 – block area along the west side of Higgins Avenue commonly referred to as the Slant Streets centered along what is now Stephens Avenue . Stephens Avenue and Brooks Street are the only arterials to traverse the city diagonally along with the Bitterroot Branch of Montana Rail Link . The rest of the city , with the exception of Downtown , where streets follow the angle of the river , and newer expansions into the hills , strictly follow the grid plan . With the establishment of the University of Montana in 1893 and the announcement that the now @-@ defunct Milwaukee Road would be located south of the river , houses began to spread quickly throughout the university and south side districts . The area near the university was promoted as high @-@ end and luxurious homes appeared on Hammond Avenue ( then nicknamed " Millionaires Row " and known today as Gerald Avenue ) . The arrival of Interstate 90 in the mid @-@ 1960s forced the removal of 60 homes , including the Greenough Mansion . The north side of Missoula became isolated between the Interstate and the tracks while the Greenough Mansion was moved to a South Hills golf course and converted to a restaurant . This dichotomy has prevailed with the North Side feeling neglected by the city while the South Hills became an upscale neighborhood . With the release of the latest Missoula Downtown Master Plan in 2009 , increased emphasis was directed toward redeveloping the North Side 's former rail yard and the area just south of the tracks .
The city is divided into 18 neighborhood councils of which all Missoula residents are a member . The city further contains 10 historical districts : Downtown Missoula , East Pine Street , Fort Missoula , Lower Rattlesnake , McCormick , Northside , Southside , University Area and , the campus of the University of Montana .
= = = = Trail system = = = =
Missoula has an extensive trail system for both commuting and recreation that extends over 22 miles ( 35 km ) . The city is actively trying to connect its various sections within the city to each other and to recreational trails extending beyond the city . The heart of the Missoula Commuter Bike Network are the trails along either side of the Clark Fork River that link Downtown with surrounding neighborhoods , the university , city parks , and outlying open space with smooth surfaces and three bicycle / pedestrian bridges . The most southern of these is Milwaukee Trail which follows the path of the former Milwaukee Railroad and continues east out of town as the Kim Williams Nature Trail beside Mount Sentinel . The Bitterroot Branch Trail connects to the Riverfront trails west of Downtown and , when completed , will provide a trail from Downtown to Southgate Mall . Near the Bitterroot Branch Trail , but not connected , is the South Avenue Trail on the west side of Reserve Street that connects the Community Medical Center with Fort Missoula , nearby athletic fields , and the Bitterroot River . The South Hills neighborhood has its own system of trails that is also approaching , but not quite meeting , the larger network .
= = = Transportation = = =
Due to its rural location , highway access is especially important to Missoula . Interstate 90 runs east – west along the northern edge of Missoula at the base of the North Hills , with all but a small portion of the city located south of the highway . Completed in 1965 at the expense of 60 homes , the Garden City Brewery , and the Greenough Mansion , I ‑ 90 has four city exits and makes connections with U.S. Route 93 , U.S. Route 12 , and Montana Highway 200 . The original U.S. 12 , approved by the AASHO in 1939 to extend west into Montana did not include Missoula until the highway was rerouted along State Route 6 in October 1959 and was not extended west from Missoula until 1962 . The road now crosses Missoula southwest – northeast . U.S. 93 serves as a major economic corridor for western Montana connecting Missoula with the Bitterroot Valley communities to the south and Flathead Lake , Kalispell , and Glacier National Park to the north . Montana Highway 200 , the longest state highway in the United States enters Missoula from the east and provides access along the Blackfoot River and a direct route to Great Falls .
Public transportation in Missoula began as early as 1890 with a horse @-@ drawn streetcar system ( electrified in 1910 ) operated by the Missoula Street Railway Company that connected Downtown Missoula with the University , Bonner , the fairgrounds , and Fort Missoula . These streetcars were then replaced by buses in 1932 due to cost . Bus service today is provided by Mountain Line , a public transit agency created by public vote in 1976 as part of the Missoula Urban Transportation District ( MUTD ) that began operation in December 1977 . Mountain Line operates twelve bus routes within a 36 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 93 km2 ) area , serving Missoula , East Missoula , Bonner , Target Range , Rattlesnake , and the airport . Additionally the line has offered paratransit services since 1991 to assist the disabled , senior van since 2008 , and has four park ‑ and ‑ ride lots throughout Missoula . Special bus service is offered to the University of Montana through three of the city 's park ‑ and ‑ ride lots in addition to a late @-@ night UDASH shuttle that offers service between the University and Downtown . As of January 2015 a three @-@ year pilot program of zero fare transportation on all Mountain Line busses began , with the goal of increasing use by 45 percent .
Direct intercity ground travel needs are provided by bus carriers Greyhound Lines and Rimrock Trailways . Intercity rail travel was available from 1883 , when the Northern Pacific Railway began service through Missoula , until 1979 when Amtrak discontinued its North Coast Hiawatha route across southern Montana . In 1901 , Northern Pacific built their station at the terminus of Higgins Avenue ; since 1985 , it has been on the National Register of Historic Places . A feasibility study was commissioned by Congress in 2008 to examine the merits of reopening the North Coast Hiawatha , but as of 2008 , the nearest rail station to Missoula is the Whitefish station of Amtrak 's Empire Builder , 136 miles ( 219 km ) to the north .
= = = = Air = = = =
Air travel to Missoula began in 1927 , which is served by Missoula International Airport at Johnson @-@ Bell Field , a public airport run by the Missoula County Airport Authority . It is the largest airport in western Montana , serving 582 @,@ 821 passengers in 2011 . The current building contains three jet bridges and three ground ‑ level boarding gates . There are direct flights year ‑ round to Billings , Denver , Las Vegas , Minneapolis , Phoenix , Portland , Salt Lake City , Seattle , and seasonally to Atlanta , Chicago , Los Angeles , Oakland , and San Francisco . Four airlines operate out of Missoula ( Allegiant Air , Delta Air Lines , Horizon / Alaska Airlines , and United Airlines ) in addition to cargo carriers FedEx Express , and UPS Airlines . The airport is also home to Homestead Helicopters and fixed ‑ base operators Minuteman Jet Center ( an Avfuel fuel provider ) , and Northstar Jet ( a Phillips 66 fuel provider ) .
= = Notable people = =
Missoula has produced and been home to a number of notable individuals in varying fields . Its natives and residents are referred to as " Missoulians " . In politics , Jeannette Rankin , the first woman in congress , was born and raised in Missoula while Senators Mike Mansfield , the U.S. ' s longest serving Senate Majority Leader , and Max Baucus , Montana 's longest serving U.S. Senator both established careers and joined politics while living in the city . Noted athletes who were born or resided in Missoula include five Olympic medalists , Pro Football Hall of Fame Quarterback John Elway , and former Milwaukee Bucks coach Larry Krystowiak . Actor Dana Carvey , filmmaker David Lynch , and award ‑ winning biologist Leroy Hood were born in Missoula while Carroll O 'Connor and J. K. Simmons both attended the University of Montana . Composer David Maslanka , musician Jeff Ament , and musician and vlogger Hank Green reside in Missoula . Academically , Missoula has been home to Nobel Prize winners Harold C. Urey and Steve Running as well as 20th century Montana historian K. Ross Toole Noted names in literature include Native @-@ American poet James Welch , crime novelist James Crumley , former head of the University of Montana 's Creative Writing Program Richard Hugo , and Norman Maclean , whose A River Runs Through It chronicles his life in early 20th @-@ century Missoula .
= = Sister cities = =
Missoula has two sister cities , as designated by Sister Cities International :
Neckargemünd , Germany
Palmerston North , New Zealand
Missoula 's Sister City relationship with Palmerston North , New Zealand , began after Missoula resident and later University of Montana professor Harold Bockemuehl returned from obtaining his PhD from Massey University . The relationship was made official in 1983 after a meeting between then UM President Neil Bucklew and officials from Massey University . Each May , Missoula celebrates " New Zealand Day " in honor of the relationship with rugby , food , and entertainment . Missoula 's second Sister City relationship began in 1991 after a Neckargemünd delegation , led by Mayor Oskar Schuster , visited Missoula following a Fulbright @-@ sponsored faculty exchange between Heidelberg University and the University of Montana . Every September the Missoula Cultural Council holds an annual " Germanfest " to celebrate German culture and this relationship .
= = Portrayal in media = =
Author Norman Maclean grew up in Missoula and wrote about it in his 1976 autobiographical novella A River Runs Through It . The work was adapted into a 1992 motion picture of the same name , directed by Robert Redford , starring Brad Pitt and Craig Sheffer .
Missoula : Rape and the Justice System in a College Town is the title of a 2015 book by Jon Krakauer that looked at the Justice Department 's investigation into a " pattern of disrespect and indifference toward alleged victims " by Missoula law enforcement in sexual assault cases between 2010 and 2012 , some involving football players from the Montana Grizzlies . While being interviewed on NPR about the book , John Krakauer stated " I don 't mean to single out Missoula : Its rape rate is a little less than the national average ; I think its problems with dealing with rape are pretty depressingly typical " .
There is a lengthy study of Missoula in the title essay of Jonathan Raban 's Driving Home : An American Journey : despite writing that on his arrival , " I had the powerful impression that I had driven deep into the Rocky Mountains and somehow arrived in Rotherham or Barnsley , " and that " the overall effect [ of the city ] was oddly unsettling ; the streets too open for comfort , the town too closed in , inducing mild claustrophobia and agoraphobia at the same time " , he notes the literary heritage of the city and its reputation as a " kindly town " ( evidenced by its being a place where " odds and ends naturally collected and cohered " ) .
Missoula was portrayed in an episode of the CBS show Criminal Minds . The episode aired on November 5 , 2014 .
Missoula ( as well as Jermone , MT ) was also portrayed in the movie Chill Factor released in 1999 starring Skeet Ulrich and Cuba Gooding , Jr .
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= Gene =
A gene is a locus ( or region ) of DNA which is made up of nucleotides and is the molecular unit of heredity . The transmission of genes to an organism 's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits . Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes ( many different genes ) as well as the gene – environment interactions . Some genetic traits are instantly visible , such as eye colour or number of limbs , and some are not , such as blood type , risk for specific diseases , or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life . In July 2016 , scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor ( LUCA ) of all organisms living on Earth .
Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence , leading to different variants , known as alleles , in the population . These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein , which cause different phenotype traits . Colloquial usage of the term " having a gene " ( e.g. , " good genes , " " hair colour gene " ) typically refers to having a different allele of the gene . Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles .
The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered . For example , regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions , and coding regions can be split into several exons . Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non @-@ coding RNAs . Therefore , a broad , modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable , genomic sequence which affect an organism 's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery of discrete inherited units = = =
The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel ( 1822 – 1884 ) . From 1857 to 1864 , he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants , tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring . He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas . Although he did not use the term gene , he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics . This description prefigured the distinction between genotype ( the genetic material of an organism ) and phenotype ( the visible traits of that organism ) . Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment , the distinction between dominant and recessive traits , the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote , and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance .
Prior to Mendel 's work , the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance , which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring . Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis , from Greek pan ( " all , whole " ) and genesis ( " birth " ) / genos ( " origin " ) . Darwin used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction .
Mendel 's work went largely unnoticed after its first publication in 1866 , but was rediscovered in the late 19th @-@ century by Hugo de Vries , Carl Correns , and Erich von Tschermak , who ( claimed to have ) reached similar conclusions in their own research . Specifically , in 1889 , Hugo de Vries published his book Intracellular Pangenesis , in which he postulated that different characters have individual hereditary carriers and that inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles . De Vries called these units " pangenes " ( Pangens in German ) , after Darwin 's 1868 pangenesis theory .
Sixteen years later , in 1905 , the word genetics was first used by William Bateson , while Eduard Strasburger , amongst others , still used the term pangene for the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity . In 1909 the Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen shortened the name to " gene " .
= = = Discovery of DNA = = =
Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century . Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s . The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins using X @-@ ray crystallography , which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double @-@ stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication . Collectively , this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology , which states that proteins are translated from RNA , which is transcribed from DNA . This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions , such as reverse transcription in retroviruses . The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics .
In 1972 , Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene : the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein . The subsequent development of chain @-@ termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool . An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project .
= = = Modern evolutionary synthesis = = =
The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis , a term introduced by Julian Huxley . Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept , such as George C. Williams ' gene @-@ centric view of evolution . He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition : " that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency . " In this view , the molecular gene transcribes as a unit , and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit . Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins .
= = Molecular basis = =
= = = DNA = = =
The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA ( deoxyribonucleic acid ) . DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits , each composed of : a five @-@ carbon sugar ( 2 ' -deoxyribose ) , a phosphate group , and one of the four bases adenine , cytosine , guanine , and thymine .
Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate @-@ sugar backbone spiralling around the outside , and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine . The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align to form two hydrogen bonds , whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds . The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary , with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand , and so on .
Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases , DNA strands have directionality . One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose ; this is known as the 3 ' end of the molecule . The other end contains an exposed phosphate group ; this is the 5 ' end . The two strands of a double @-@ helix run in opposite directions . Nucleic acid synthesis , including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5 ' → 3 ' direction , because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3 ' hydroxyl as a nucleophile .
The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA , a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA , but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose . RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine . RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single @-@ stranded . Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three @-@ nucleotide sequences called codons , which serve as the " words " in the genetic " language " . The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids . The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms .
= = = Chromosomes = = =
The total complement of genes in an organism or cell is known as its genome , which may be stored on one or more chromosomes . A chromosome consists of a single , very long DNA helix on which thousands of genes are encoded . The region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located is called its locus . Each locus contains one allele of a gene ; however , members of a population may have different alleles at the locus , each with a slightly different gene sequence .
The majority of eukaryotic genes are stored on a set of large , linear chromosomes . The chromosomes are packed within the nucleus in complex with storage proteins called histones to form a unit called a nucleosome . DNA packaged and condensed in this way is called chromatin . The manner in which DNA is stored on the histones , as well as chemical modifications of the histone itself , regulate whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression . In addition to genes , eukaryotic chromosomes contain sequences involved in ensuring that the DNA is copied without degradation of end regions and sorted into daughter cells during cell division : replication origins , telomeres and the centromere . Replication origins are the sequence regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome . Telomeres are long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes and prevent degradation of coding and regulatory regions during DNA replication . The length of the telomeres decreases each time the genome is replicated and has been implicated in the aging process . The centromere is required for binding spindle fibres to separate sister chromatids into daughter cells during cell division .
Prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ) typically store their genomes on a single large , circular chromosome . Similarly , some eukaryotic organelles contain a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes . Prokaryotes sometimes supplement their chromosome with additional small circles of DNA called plasmids , which usually encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals . For example , the genes for antibiotic resistance are usually encoded on bacterial plasmids and can be passed between individual cells , even those of different species , via horizontal gene transfer .
Whereas the chromosomes of prokaryotes are relatively gene @-@ dense , those of eukaryotes often contain regions of DNA that serve no obvious function . Simple single @-@ celled eukaryotes have relatively small amounts of such DNA , whereas the genomes of complex multicellular organisms , including humans , contain an absolute majority of DNA without an identified function . This DNA has often been referred to as " junk DNA " . However , more recent analyses suggest that , although protein @-@ coding DNA makes up barely 2 % of the human genome , about 80 % of the bases in the genome may be expressed , so the term " junk DNA " may be a misnomer .
= = Structure and function = =
The structure of a gene consists of many elements of which the actual protein coding sequence is often only a small part . These include DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA .
Firstly , flanking the open reading frame , all genes contain a regulatory sequence that is required for their expression . In order to be expressed , genes require a promoter sequence . The promoter is recognized and bound by transcription factors and RNA polymerase to initiate transcription . A gene can have more than one promoter , resulting in messenger RNAs ( mRNA ) that differ in how far they extend in the 5 ' end . Promoter regions have a consensus sequence , however highly transcribed genes have " strong " promoter sequences that bind the transcription machinery well , whereas others have " weak " promoters that bind poorly and initiate transcription less frequently . Eukaryotic promoter regions are much more complex and difficult to identify than prokaryotic promoters .
Additionally , genes can have regulatory regions many kilobases upstream or downstream of the open reading frame . These act by binding to transcription factors which then cause the DNA to loop so that the regulatory sequence ( and bound transcription factor ) become close to the RNA polymerase binding site . For example , enhancers increase transcription by binding an activator protein which then helps to recruit the RNA polymerase to the promoter ; conversely silencers bind repressor proteins and make the DNA less available for RNA polymerase .
The transcribed pre @-@ mRNA contains untranslated regions at both ends which contain a ribosome binding site , terminator and start and stop codons . In addition , most eukaryotic open reading frames contain untranslated introns which are removed before the exons are translated . The sequences at the ends of the introns , dictate the splice sites to generate the final mature mRNA which encodes the protein or RNA product .
Many prokaryotic genes are organized into operons , with multiple protein @-@ coding sequences that are transcribed as a unit . The products of operon genes typically have related functions and are involved in the same regulatory network .
= = = Functional definitions = = =
Defining exactly what section of a DNA sequence comprises a gene is difficult . Regulatory regions of a gene such as enhancers do not necessarily have to be close to the coding sequence on the linear molecule because the intervening DNA can be looped out to bring the gene and its regulatory region into proximity . Similarly , a gene 's introns can be much larger than its exons . Regulatory regions can even be on entirely different chromosomes and operate in trans to allow regulatory regions on one chromosome to come in contact with target genes on another chromosome .
Early work in molecular genetics suggested the model that one gene makes one protein . This model has been refined since the discovery of genes that can encode multiple proteins by alternative splicing and coding sequences split in short section across the genome whose mRNAs are concatenated by trans @-@ splicing .
A broad operational definition is sometimes used to encompass the complexity of these diverse phenomena , where a gene is defined as a union of genomic sequences encoding a coherent set of potentially overlapping functional products . This definition categorizes genes by their functional products ( proteins or RNA ) rather than their specific DNA loci , with regulatory elements classified as gene @-@ associated regions .
= = Gene expression = =
In all organisms , two steps are required to read the information encoded in a gene 's DNA and produce the protein it specifies . First , the gene 's DNA is transcribed to messenger RNA ( mRNA ) . Second , that mRNA is translated to protein . RNA @-@ coding genes must still go through the first step , but are not translated into protein . The process of producing a biologically functional molecule of either RNA or protein is called gene expression , and the resulting molecule is called a gene product .
= = = Genetic code = = =
The nucleotide sequence of a gene 's DNA specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein through the genetic code . Sets of three nucleotides , known as codons , each correspond to a specific amino acid . Additionally , a " start codon " , and three " stop codons " indicate the beginning and end of the protein coding region . There are 64 possible codons ( four possible nucleotides at each of three positions , hence 43 possible codons ) and only 20 standard amino acids ; hence the code is redundant and multiple codons can specify the same amino acid . The correspondence between codons and amino acids is nearly universal among all known living organisms .
= = = Transcription = = =
Transcription produces a single @-@ stranded RNA molecule known as messenger RNA , whose nucleotide sequence is complementary to the DNA from which it was transcribed . The mRNA acts as an intermediate between the DNA gene and its final protein product . The gene 's DNA is used as a template to generate a complementary mRNA . The mRNA matches the sequence of the gene 's DNA coding strand because it is synthesised as the complement of the template strand . Transcription is performed by an enzyme called an RNA polymerase , which reads the template strand in the 3 ' to 5 ' direction and synthesizes the RNA from 5 ' to 3 ' . To initiate transcription , the polymerase first recognizes and binds a promoter region of the gene . Thus , a major mechanism of gene regulation is the blocking or sequestering the promoter region , either by tight binding by repressor molecules that physically block the polymerase , or by organizing the DNA so that the promoter region is not accessible .
In prokaryotes , transcription occurs in the cytoplasm ; for very long transcripts , translation may begin at the 5 ' end of the RNA while the 3 ' end is still being transcribed . In eukaryotes , transcription occurs in the nucleus , where the cell 's DNA is stored . The RNA molecule produced by the polymerase is known as the primary transcript and undergoes post @-@ transcriptional modifications before being exported to the cytoplasm for translation . One of the modifications performed is the splicing of introns which are sequences in the transcribed region that do not encode protein . Alternative splicing mechanisms can result in mature transcripts from the same gene having different sequences and thus coding for different proteins . This is a major form of regulation in eukaryotic cells and also occurs in some prokaryotes .
= = = Translation = = =
Translation is the process by which a mature mRNA molecule is used as a template for synthesizing a new protein . Translation is carried out by ribosomes , large complexes of RNA and protein responsible for carrying out the chemical reactions to add new amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain by the formation of peptide bonds . The genetic code is read three nucleotides at a time , in units called codons , via interactions with specialized RNA molecules called transfer RNA ( tRNA ) . Each tRNA has three unpaired bases known as the anticodon that are complementary to the codon it reads on the mRNA . The tRNA is also covalently attached to the amino acid specified by the complementary codon . When the tRNA binds to its complementary codon in an mRNA strand , the ribosome attaches its amino acid cargo to the new polypeptide chain , which is synthesized from amino terminus to carboxyl terminus . During and after synthesis , most new proteins must folds to their active three @-@ dimensional structure before they can carry out their cellular functions .
= = = Regulation = = =
Genes are regulated so that they are expressed only when the product is needed , since expression draws on limited resources . A cell regulates its gene expression depending on its external environment ( e.g. available nutrients , temperature and other stresses ) , its internal environment ( e.g. cell division cycle , metabolism , infection status ) , and its specific role if in a multicellular organism . Gene expression can be regulated at any step : from transcriptional initiation , to RNA processing , to post @-@ translational modification of the protein . The regulation of lactose metabolism genes in E. coli ( lac operon ) was the first such mechanism to be described in 1961 .
= = = RNA genes = = =
A typical protein @-@ coding gene is first copied into RNA as an intermediate in the manufacture of the final protein product . In other cases , the RNA molecules are the actual functional products , as in the synthesis of ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA . Some RNAs known as ribozymes are capable of enzymatic function , and microRNA has a regulatory role . The DNA sequences from which such RNAs are transcribed are known as non @-@ coding RNA genes .
Some viruses store their entire genomes in the form of RNA , and contain no DNA at all . Because they use RNA to store genes , their cellular hosts may synthesize their proteins as soon as they are infected and without the delay in waiting for transcription . On the other hand , RNA retroviruses , such as HIV , require the reverse transcription of their genome from RNA into DNA before their proteins can be synthesized . RNA @-@ mediated epigenetic inheritance has also been observed in plants and very rarely in animals .
= = Inheritance = =
Organisms inherit their genes from their parents . Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome . Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent .
= = = Mendelian inheritance = = =
According to Mendelian inheritance , variations in an organism 's phenotype ( observable physical and behavioral characteristics ) are due in part to variations in its genotype ( particular set of genes ) . Each gene specifies a particular trait with different sequence of a gene ( alleles ) giving rise to different phenotypes . Most eukaryotic organisms ( such as the pea plants Mendel worked on ) have two alleles for each trait , one inherited from each parent .
Alleles at a locus may be dominant or recessive ; dominant alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotypes when paired with any other allele for the same trait , whereas recessive alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotype only when paired with another copy of the same allele . For example , if the allele specifying tall stems in pea plants is dominant over the allele specifying short stems , then pea plants that inherit one tall allele from one parent and one short allele from the other parent will also have tall stems . Mendel 's work demonstrated that alleles assort independently in the production of gametes , or germ cells , ensuring variation in the next generation . Although Mendelian inheritance remains a good model for many traits determined by single genes ( including a number of well @-@ known genetic disorders ) it does not include the physical processes of DNA replication and cell division .
= = = DNA replication and cell division = = =
The growth , development , and reproduction of organisms relies on cell division , or the process by which a single cell divides into two usually identical daughter cells . This requires first making a duplicate copy of every gene in the genome in a process called DNA replication . The copies are made by specialized enzymes known as DNA polymerases , which " read " one strand of the double @-@ helical DNA , known as the template strand , and synthesize a new complementary strand . Because the DNA double helix is held together by base pairing , the sequence of one strand completely specifies the sequence of its complement ; hence only one strand needs to be read by the enzyme to produce a faithful copy . The process of DNA replication is semiconservative ; that is , the copy of the genome inherited by each daughter cell contains one original and one newly synthesized strand of DNA .
After DNA replication is complete , the cell must physically separate the two copies of the genome and divide into two distinct membrane @-@ bound cells . In prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ) this usually occurs via a relatively simple process called binary fission , in which each circular genome attaches to the cell membrane and is separated into the daughter cells as the membrane invaginates to split the cytoplasm into two membrane @-@ bound portions . Binary fission is extremely fast compared to the rates of cell division in eukaryotes . Eukaryotic cell division is a more complex process known as the cell cycle ; DNA replication occurs during a phase of this cycle known as S phase , whereas the process of segregating chromosomes and splitting the cytoplasm occurs during M phase .
= = = Molecular inheritance = = =
The duplication and transmission of genetic material from one generation of cells to the next is the basis for molecular inheritance , and the link between the classical and molecular pictures of genes . Organisms inherit the characteristics of their parents because the cells of the offspring contain copies of the genes in their parents ' cells . In asexually reproducing organisms , the offspring will be a genetic copy or clone of the parent organism . In sexually reproducing organisms , a specialized form of cell division called meiosis produces cells called gametes or germ cells that are haploid , or contain only one copy of each gene . The gametes produced by females are called eggs or ova , and those produced by males are called sperm . Two gametes fuse to form a diploid fertilized egg , a single cell that has two sets of genes , with one copy of each gene from the mother and one from the father .
During the process of meiotic cell division , an event called genetic recombination or crossing @-@ over can sometimes occur , in which a length of DNA on one chromatid is swapped with a length of DNA on the corresponding sister chromatid . This has no effect if the alleles on the chromatids are the same , but results in reassortment of otherwise linked alleles if they are different . The Mendelian principle of independent assortment asserts that each of a parent 's two genes for each trait will sort independently into gametes ; which allele an organism inherits for one trait is unrelated to which allele it inherits for another trait . This is in fact only true for genes that do not reside on the same chromosome , or are located very far from one another on the same chromosome . The closer two genes lie on the same chromosome , the more closely they will be associated in gametes and the more often they will appear together ; genes that are very close are essentially never separated because it is extremely unlikely that a crossover point will occur between them . This is known as genetic linkage .
= = Molecular evolution = =
= = = Mutation = = =
DNA replication is for the most part extremely accurate , however errors ( mutations ) do occur . The error rate in eukaryotic cells can be as low as 10 − 8 per nucleotide per replication , whereas for some RNA viruses it can be as high as 10 − 3 . This means that each generation , each human genome accumulates 1 – 2 new mutations . Small mutations can be caused by DNA replication and the aftermath of DNA damage and include point mutations in which a single base is altered and frameshift mutations in which a single base is inserted or deleted . Either of these mutations can change the gene by missense ( change a codon to encode a different amino acid ) or nonsense ( a premature stop codon ) . Larger mutations can be caused by errors in recombination to cause chromosomal abnormalities including the duplication , deletion , rearrangement or inversion of large sections of a chromosome . Additionally , the DNA repair mechanisms that normally revert mutations can introduce errors when repairing the physical damage to the molecule is more important than restoring an exact copy , for example when repairing double @-@ strand breaks .
When multiple different alleles for a gene are present in a species 's population it is called polymorphic . Most different alleles are functionally equivalent , however some alleles can give rise to different phenotypic traits . A gene 's most common allele is called the wild type , and rare alleles are called mutants . The genetic variation in relative frequencies of different alleles in a population is due to both natural selection and genetic drift . The wild @-@ type allele is not necessarily the ancestor of less common alleles , nor is it necessarily fitter .
Most mutations within genes are neutral , having no effect on the organism 's phenotype ( silent mutations ) . Some mutations do not change the amino acid sequence because multiple codons encode the same amino acid ( synonymous mutations ) . Other mutations can be neutral if they lead to amino acid sequence changes , but the protein still functions similarly with the new amino acid ( e.g. conservative mutations ) . Many mutations , however , are deleterious or even lethal , and are removed from populations by natural selection . Genetic disorders are the result of deleterious mutations and can be due to spontaneous mutation in the affected individual , or can be inherited . Finally , a small fraction of mutations are beneficial , improving the organism 's fitness and are extremely important for evolution , since their directional selection leads to adaptive evolution .
= = = Sequence homology = = =
Genes with a most recent common ancestor , and thus a shared evolutionary ancestry , are known as homologs . These genes appear either from gene duplication within an organism 's genome , where they are known as paralogous genes , or are the result of divergence of the genes after a speciation event , where they are known as orthologous genes , and often perform the same or similar functions in related organisms . It is often assumed that the functions of orthologous genes are more similar than those of paralogous genes , although the difference is minimal .
The relationship between genes can be measured by comparing the sequence alignment of their DNA . The degree of sequence similarity between homologous genes is called conserved sequence . Most changes to a gene 's sequence do not affect its function and so genes accumulate mutations over time by neutral molecular evolution . Additionally , any selection on a gene will cause its sequence to diverge at a different rate . Genes under stabilizing selection are constrained and so change more slowly whereas genes under directional selection change sequence more rapidly . The sequence differences between genes can be used for phylogenetic analyses to study how those genes have evolved and how the organisms they come from are related .
= = = Origins of new genes = = =
The most common source of new genes in eukaryotic lineages is gene duplication , which creates copy number variation of an existing gene in the genome . The resulting genes ( paralogs ) may then diverge in sequence and in function . Sets of genes formed in this way comprise a gene family . Gene duplications and losses within a family are common and represent a major source of evolutionary biodiversity . Sometimes , gene duplication may result in a nonfunctional copy of a gene , or a functional copy may be subject to mutations that result in loss of function ; such nonfunctional genes are called pseudogenes .
De novo or " orphan " genes , whose sequence shows no similarity to existing genes , are extremely rare . Estimates of the number of de novo genes in the human genome range from 18 to 60 . Such genes are typically shorter and simpler in structure than most eukaryotic genes , with few if any introns . Two primary sources of orphan protein @-@ coding genes are gene duplication followed by extremely rapid sequence change , such that the original relationship is undetectable by sequence comparisons , and formation through mutation of " cryptic " transcription start sites that introduce a new open reading frame in a region of the genome that did not previously code for a protein .
Horizontal gene transfer refers to the transfer of genetic material through a mechanism other than reproduction . This mechanism is a common source of new genes in prokaryotes , sometimes thought to contribute more to genetic variation than gene duplication . It is a common means of spreading antibiotic resistance , virulence , and adaptive metabolic functions . Although horizontal gene transfer is rare in eukaryotes , likely examples have been identified of protist and alga genomes containing genes of bacterial origin .
= = Genome = =
The genome is the total genetic material of an organism and includes both the genes and non @-@ coding sequences .
= = = Number of genes = = =
The genome size , and the number of genes it encodes varies widely between organisms . The smallest genomes occur in viruses ( which can have as few as 2 protein @-@ coding genes ) , and viroids ( which act as a single non @-@ coding RNA gene ) . Conversely , plants can have extremely large genomes , with rice containing > 46 @,@ 000 protein @-@ coding genes . The total number of protein @-@ coding genes ( the Earth 's proteome ) is estimated to be 5 million sequences .
Although the number of base @-@ pairs of DNA in the human genome has been known since the 1960s , the estimated number of genes has changed over time as definitions of genes , and methods of detecting them have been refined . Initial theoretical predictions of the number of human genes were as high as 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Early experimental measures indicated there to be 50 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 transcribed genes ( expressed sequence tags ) . Subsequently , the sequencing in the Human Genome Project indicated that many of these transcripts were alternative variants of the same genes , and the total number of protein @-@ coding genes was revised down to ~ 20 @,@ 000 with 13 genes encoded on the mitochondrial genome . Of the human genome , only 1 – 2 % consists of protein @-@ coding genes , with the remainder being ' noncoding ' DNA such as introns , retrotransposons , and noncoding RNAs.Every organism has all his genes in all cells of his body but it is not important that every gene must function in every cell .
= = = Essential genes = = =
Essential genes are the set of genes thought to be critical for an organism 's survival . This definition assumes the abundant availability of all relevant nutrients and the absence of environmental stress . Only a small portion of an organism 's genes are essential . In bacteria , an estimated 250 – 400 genes are essential for Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis , which is less than 10 % of their genes . Half of these genes are orthologs in both organisms and are largely involved in protein synthesis . In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae the number of essential genes is slightly higher , at 1000 genes ( ~ 20 % of their genes ) . Although the number is more difficult to measure in higher eukaryotes , mice and humans are estimated to have around 2000 essential genes ( ~ 10 % of their genes ) . The synthetic organism , Syn 3 , has a minimal genome of 473 essential genes and quasi @-@ essential genes ( necessary for fast growth ) , although 149 have unknown function .
Essential genes include Housekeeping genes ( critical for basic cell functions ) as well as genes that are expressed at different times in the organisms development or life cycle . Housekeeping genes are used as experimental controls when analysing gene expression , since they are constitutively expressed at a relatively constant level .
= = = Genetic and genomic nomenclature = = =
Gene nomenclature has been established by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee ( HGNC ) for each known human gene in the form of an approved gene name and symbol ( short @-@ form abbreviation ) , which can be accessed through a database maintained by HGNC . Symbols are chosen to be unique , and each gene has only one symbol ( although approved symbols sometimes change ) . Symbols are preferably kept consistent with other members of a gene family and with homologs in other species , particularly the mouse due to its role as a common model organism .
= = Genetic engineering = =
Genetic engineering is the modification of an organism 's genome through biotechnology . Since the 1970s , a variety of techniques have been developed to specifically add , remove and edit genes in an organism . Recently developed genome engineering techniques use engineered nuclease enzymes to create targeted DNA repair in a chromosome to either disrupt or edit a gene when the break is repaired . The related term synthetic biology is sometimes used to refer to extensive genetic engineering of an organism .
Genetic engineering is now a routine research tool with model organisms . For example , genes are easily added to bacteria and lineages of knockout mice with a specific gene 's function disrupted are used to investigate that gene 's function . Many organisms have been genetically modified for applications in agriculture , industrial biotechnology , and medicine .
For multicellular organisms , typically the embryo is engineered which grows into the adult genetically modified organism . However , the genomes of cells in an adult organism can be edited using gene therapy techniques to treat genetic diseases .
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= Dynamics of the celestial spheres =
Ancient , medieval and Renaissance astronomers and philosophers developed many different theories about the dynamics of the celestial spheres . They explained the motions of the various nested spheres in terms of the materials of which they were made , external movers such as celestial intelligences , and internal movers such as motive souls or impressed forces . Most of these models were qualitative , although a few of them incorporated quantitative analyses that related speed , motive force and resistance .
= = The celestial material and its natural motions = =
In considering the physics of the celestial spheres , scholars followed two different views about the material composition of the celestial spheres . For Plato , the celestial regions were made " mostly out of fire " on account of fire 's mobility . Later Platonists , such as Plotinus , maintained that although fire moves naturally upward in a straight line toward its natural place at the periphery of the universe , when it arrived there , it would either rest or move naturally in a circle . This account was compatible with Aristotle 's meteorology of a fiery region in the upper air , dragged along underneath the circular motion of the lunar sphere . For Aristotle , however , the spheres themselves were made entirely of a special fifth element , Aether ( Αἰθήρ ) , the bright , untainted upper atmosphere in which the gods dwell , as distinct from the dense lower atmosphere , Aer ( Ἀήρ ) . While the four terrestrial elements ( earth , water , air and fire ) gave rise to the generation and corruption of natural substances by their mutual transformations , aether was unchanging , moving always with a uniform circular motion that was uniquely suited to the celestial spheres , which were eternal . Earth and water had a natural heaviness ( gravitas ) , which they expressed by moving downward toward the center of the universe . Fire and air had a natural lightness ( levitas ) , such that they moved upward , away from the center . Aether , being neither heavy nor light , moved naturally around the center .
= = The causes of celestial motion = =
As early as Plato , philosophers considered the heavens to be moved by immaterial agents . Plato believed the cause to be a world @-@ soul , created according to mathematical principles , which governed the daily motion of the heavens ( the motion of the Same ) and the opposed motions of the planets along the zodiac ( the motion of the Different ) . Aristotle proposed the existence of divine unmoved movers which act as final causes ; the celestial spheres mimic the movers , as best they could , by moving with uniform circular motion . In his Metaphysics , Aristotle maintained that an individual unmoved mover would be required to insure each individual motion in the heavens . While stipulating that the number of spheres , and thus gods , is subject to revision by astronomers , he estimated the total as 47 or 55 , depending on whether one followed the model of Eudoxus or Callippus . In On the Heavens , Aristotle presented an alternate view of eternal circular motion as moving itself , in the manner of Plato 's world @-@ soul , which lent support to three principles of celestial motion : an internal soul , an external unmoved mover , and the celestial material ( aether ) .
= = = Later Greek interpreters = = =
In his Planetary Hypotheses , Ptolemy ( c.90 – 168 ) rejected the Aristotelian concept of an external prime mover , maintaining instead that the planets have souls and move themselves with a voluntary motion . Each planet sends out motive emissions that direct its own motion and the motions of the epicycle and deferent that make up its system , just as a bird sends out emissions to its nerves that direct the motions of its feet and wings .
John Philoponus ( 490 – 570 ) considered that the heavens were made of fire , not of aether , yet maintained that circular motion is one of the two natural motions of fire . In a theological work , On the Creation of the World ( De opificio mundi ) , he denied that the heavens are moved by either a soul or by angels , proposing that " it is not impossible that God , who created all these things , imparted a motive force to the Moon , the Sun , and other stars – just as the inclination to heavy and light bodies , and the movements due to the internal soul to all living beings – in order that the angels do not move them by force . " This is interpreted as an application of the concept of impetus to the motion of the celestial spheres . In an earlier commentary on Aristotle 's Physics , Philoponus compared the innate power or nature that accounts for the rotation of the heavens to the innate power or nature that accounts for the fall of rocks .
= = = Islamic interpreters = = =
The Persian philosophers al @-@ Farabi ( c.872 – c.950 ) and Avicenna ( c.980 – 1037 ) , following Plotinus , maintained that Aristotle 's movers , called intelligences , came into being through a series of emanations beginning with God . A first intelligence emanated from God , and from the first intelligence emanated a sphere , its soul , and a second intelligence . The process continued down through the celestial spheres until the sphere of the Moon , its soul , and a final intelligence . They considered that each sphere was moved continually by its soul , seeking to emulate the perfection of its intelligence . Avicenna maintained that besides an intelligence and its soul , each sphere was also moved by a natural inclination ( mayl ) .
An interpreter of Aristotle from Muslim Spain , al @-@ Bitruji ( d. c.1024 ) , proposed a radical transformation of astronomy that did away with epicycles and eccentrics , in which the celestial spheres were driven by a single unmoved mover at the periphery of the universe . The spheres thus moved with a " natural nonviolent motion " . The mover 's power diminished with increasing distance from the periphery so that the lower spheres lagged behind in their daily motion around the Earth ; this power reached even as far as the sphere of water , producing the tides .
More influential for later Christian thinkers were the teachings of Averroes ( 1126 – 1198 ) , who agreed with Avicenna that the intelligences and souls combine to move the spheres but rejected his concept of emanation . Considering how the soul acts , he maintained that the soul moves its sphere without effort , for the celestial material has no tendency to a contrary motion .
Later in the century , a commentator on the Islamic theologian Adud al @-@ Din al @-@ Iji ( 1281 – 1355 ) rejected non @-@ religious science and astronomy , following the Ash 'ari doctrine of occasionalism , which maintained that all physical effects were caused directly by God 's will rather than by natural causes . He maintained that the celestial spheres were " imaginary things " and " more tenuous than a spider 's web " .
= = = Medieval Western Europe = = =
In the Early Middle Ages , Plato 's picture of the heavens was dominant among European philosophers , which led Christian thinkers to question the role and nature of the world @-@ soul . With the recovery of Aristotle 's works in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries , Aristotle 's views supplanted the earlier Platonism , and a new set of questions regarding the relationships of the unmoved movers to the spheres and to God emerged .
In the early phases of the Western recovery of Aristotle , Robert Grosseteste ( c.1175 – 1253 ) , influenced by medieval Platonism and by the astronomy of al @-@ Bitruji , rejected the idea that the heavens are moved by either souls or intelligences . Adam Marsh 's ( c.1200 – 1259 ) treatise On the Ebb and Flow of the Sea , which was formerly attributed to Grosseteste , maintained al @-@ Bitruji 's opinion that the celestial spheres and the seas are moved by a peripheral mover whose motion weakens with distance .
Thomas Aquinas ( c.1225 – 1274 ) , following Avicenna , interpreted Aristotle to mean that there were two immaterial substances responsible for the motion of each celestial sphere , a soul that was an integral part of its sphere , and an intelligence that was separate from its sphere . The soul shares the motion of its sphere and causes the sphere to move through its love and desire for the unmoved separate intelligence . Avicenna , al @-@ Ghazali , Moses Maimonides , and most Christian scholastic philosophers identified Aristotle 's intelligences with the angels of revelation , thereby associating an angel with each of the spheres . Moreover , Aquinas rejected the idea that celestial bodies are moved by an internal nature , similar to the heaviness and lightness that moves terrestrial bodies . Attributing souls to the spheres was theologically controversial , as that could make them animals . After the Condemnations of 1277 , most philosophers came to reject the idea that the celestial spheres had souls .
Robert Kilwardby ( c . 1215 – 1279 ) discussed three alternative explanations of the motions of the celestial spheres , rejecting the views that celestial bodies are animated and are moved by their own spirits or souls , or that the celestial bodies are moved by angelic spirits , which govern and move them . He maintained , instead , that " celestial bodies are moved by their own natural inclinations similar to weight " . Just as heavy bodies are naturally moved by their own weight , which is an intrinsic active principle , so the celestial bodies are naturally moved by a similar intrinsic principle . Since the heavens are spherical , the only motion that could be natural to them is rotation . Kilwardby 's idea had been earlier held by another Oxford scholar , John Blund ( c . 1175 – 1248 ) .
In two slightly different discussions , John Buridan ( c.1295 – 1358 ) suggested that when God created the celestial spheres , he began to move them , impressing in them a circular impetus that would be neither corrupted nor diminished , since there was neither an inclination to other movements nor any resistance in the celestial region . He noted that this would allow God to rest on the seventh day , but he left the matter to be resolved by the theologians .
Nicole Oresme ( c.1323 @-@ 1382 ) explained the motion of the spheres in traditional terms of the action of intelligences but noted that , contrary to Aristotle , some intelligences are moved ; for example , the intelligence that moves the Moon 's epicycle shares the motion of the lunar orb in which the epicycle is embedded . He related the spheres ' motions to the proportion of motive power to resistance that was impressed in each sphere when God created the heavens . In discussing the relation of the moving power of the intelligence , the resistance of the sphere , and the circular velocity , he said " this ratio ought not to be called a ratio of force to resistance except by analogy , because an intelligence moves by will alone ... and the heavens do not resist it . "
According to Grant , except for Oresme , scholastic thinkers did not consider the force @-@ resistance model to be properly applicable to the motion of celestial bodies , although some , such as Bartholomeus Amicus , thought analogically in terms of force and resistance . By the end of the Middle Ages it was the common opinion among philosophers that the celestial bodies were moved by external intelligences , or angels , and not by some kind of an internal mover .
= = = The movers and Copernicanism = = =
Although Nicolaus Copernicus ( 1473 – 1543 ) transformed Ptolemaic astronomy and Aristotelian cosmology by moving the Earth from the center of the universe , he retained both the traditional model of the celestial spheres and the medieval Aristotelian views of the causes of its motion . Copernicus follows Aristotle to maintain that circular motion is natural to the form of a sphere . However , he also appears to have accepted the traditional philosophical belief that the spheres are moved by an external mover .
Johannes Kepler 's ( 1571 – 1630 ) cosmology eliminated the celestial spheres , but he held that the planets were moved both by an external motive power , which he located in the Sun , and a motive soul associated with each planet . In an early manuscript discussing the motion of Mars , Kepler considered the Sun to cause the circular motion of the planet . He then attributed the inward and outward motion of the planet , which transforms its overall motion from circular to oval , to a moving soul in the planet since the motion is " not a natural motion , but more of an animate one " . In various writings , Kepler often attributed a kind of intelligence to the inborn motive faculties associated with the stars .
In the aftermath of Copernicanism the planets came to be seen as bodies moving freely through a very subtle aethereal medium . Although many scholastics continued to maintain that intelligences were the celestial movers , they now associated the intelligences with the planets themselves , rather than with the celestial spheres .
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= Greg Wohlwend =
Greg Wohlwend is an American independent video game developer and artist whose games include Threes ! , Ridiculous Fishing , Hundreds , Gasketball , Puzzlejuice , and Solipskier . He originally formed Intuition Games with Iowa State University classmate Mike Boxleiter in 2007 where they worked on Dinowaurs and other small Adobe Flash games . Trained as an artist , Wohlwend worked mainly on the visual assets . As Mikengreg , they released Solipskier ( 2010 , iOS ) , whose success let the two take a more experimental approach with Gasketball , which did not fare as well . At the same time , Wohlwend collaborated with Asher Vollmer to make Puzzlejuice and with Adam Saltsman to make Hundreds based on Wohlwend 's first game design . He later released Threes ! with Vollmer in 2014 to critical acclaim . He was named among Forbes ' 2014 " 30 under 30 " in the games industry . Mikengreg released TouchTone in 2015 following two years of development .
= = Career = =
Wohlwend studied graphic design at Iowa State University and graduated in 2008 . He has described his aesthetic as " simple and elegant " , and has said about his practice that he is not good at character design and that he prefers to work with vector file formats in Adobe Illustrator so that the images can work at all resolutions . Wohlwend also feels that creativity is a skill that is cultivated and not inborn . He has been influenced by his lifelong experience playing video games , and his favorite game is Baldur 's Gate II : Shadows of Amn . His writings on the lifestyle required for indie development have been noted by games journalists . Wohlwend was named among Forbes ' 2014 " 30 under 30 " in the games industry .
= = = Intuition and Mikengreg = = =
Wohlwend met Mike Boxleiter in an experimental video game development class they took together at Iowa State University . Wohlwend had attempted to help Boxleiter with a project , but quit after drawing a few aliens . They met again as coworkers at the university 's Virtual Reality Application Center during Boxleiter 's final year of college . Upon discovering their close interests , they began to work on an Adobe Flash game named Dinowaurs while they completed college . So as to make money while they worked on the game , they founded Intuition Games at the university 's Research Park around May 2007 . They decided to stay in Ames , Iowa due to its financial feasibility and local connections , but two other team members ( friends from Iowa State ) lived farther away . They saw Flash games as an easy entry point into full @-@ time self @-@ employment , but planned to eventually work on console platforms such as WiiWare .
In their development process , Boxleiter and Wohlwend both proposed and worked on each other 's ideas , and would drop the ideas they found unexciting . Wohlwend said they often argued over aspects of their games , which he found normal and natural . Their labor as a team was divided in that Wohlwend always did the art and Boxleiter the programming , as reflective of their skills at the time . The pair agreed to an assessment of their partnership as " left @-@ brain right @-@ brain " , and saw the majority of their joint work as " editing " . Aside from the business aspects , they were grateful to have the " creative freedom " to do their own work . Wohlwend appreciated the benefits of not doing contract work , but struggled with the relative " isolation " of having few colleagues , a low salary , and job instability . He disagreed with the " cinematic action games " he saw to be popular at the time and hoped to contribute more compelling ideas to the young industry . They thought of themselves as artists and of their work as experimental . Boxleiter and Wohlwend worked long hours when making the Flash games , which they found exciting and unsustainable . At Intuition , they worked on games such as Dinowaurs , Gray , Fig . 8 , and Lifecraft and participated in at least six game jams . As of April 2010 , they had created 10 games together .
Intuition 's first game , Dinowaurs , is a Flash @-@ based strategy and action game where two players compete as dinosaurs to seize the most cavemen settlements so as to upgrade their own capacity and eventually kill the other dinosaur . It features online matchmaking . The concept came from one of Boxleiter 's unfinished projects and another Intuition member 's drawing of a stegosaurus with a jetpack . The team was funded then @-@ new Flash site Kongregate by November 2007 as one of the first five games for Kongregate platform . It was finished in two years for a 2009 release . IndieGames.com reported mixed reviews from players .
Their later games would only take a few months each , in comparison . They abandoned the use of design documents after Dinowaurs , and instead chose to refine and experiment in process . Intuition released Effing Hail and Gray around April 2009 . Players in action game Effing Hail control hail and wind to destroy the most buildings and midair objects within a time limit . The game was published through Kongregate . In Gray , players control a single character and try to end a riot by influencing other individuals in the crowd . The game was featured at IndieCade in 2009 . In the case of Fig . 8 . , Wohlwend thought of the idea based on a college art project . In the project , Wohlwend followed a bike trail in the snow , metaphorically related it to the tribulations of romantic relationship , and made an art installation involving a bike spray @-@ painted black with two errant red and blue tracks painted on the floor . The concept went unused on their whiteboard for four months until they needed an idea , whereupon Boxleiter added game mechanics to the visuals . In their next game , Liferaft , the player @-@ character is a young woman set to escape " a post @-@ apocalyptic sci @-@ fi ... test chamber " , with core gameplay that revolves around a " Bionic Commando @-@ style grappling hook " . Wohlwend used a 16 @-@ bit era graphics style . They sought crowdfunding from Kickstarter , but later canceled and put the project on hiatus in October 2009 .
In March 2010 and under the moniker Mikengreg , Boxleiter and Wohlwend 's 4fourths was selected for Kokoromi 's Gamma IV showcase . Based on the showcase 's " one button game " theme , four players control two spaceships using one button apiece to cooperatively destroy enemy ships . It was Michael Rose of IndieGame.com 's favorite game of the Gamma IV selections , was later displayed at the 2010 Game Developers Conference and in Brandon Boyer 's 2011 Wild Rumpus event .
Mikengreg announced Liferaft : Zero and Solipskier in November 2010 . The former is a " prequel teaser " to Liferaft : a game of trial @-@ based challenges with wall @-@ jumping and grappling wherein girl clones attempt to swing and jump around test chambers to reach and ring a bell . Wohlwend and Boxleiter made the shorter version to limit the scope creep of the overall project . IndieGames.com named the Flash game their third best browser platformer of the year . Their other game , 4fourths , was put on hiatus for lack of resources . They were interested in making games outside the Flash market .
= = = Solipskier = = =
Their first game as Mikengreg was the sport @-@ inspired Solipskier , where the player 's finger draws the ground for the on @-@ screen skier to pass through a level filled with gates , tunnels , and walls . It was designed as a Flash game , which set the limitations for its mechanics . The game concept came from a brainstorming session about parallax scrolling , and was revised in fits of creativity . They paired the parallax scrolling with speed and began to prototype . Wohlwend saved the skier 's character design for last since he felt it was his weakest area . Mikengreg then decided to develop for iOS in addition to Flash , and to release both versions simultaneously . It was released simultaneously for Kongregate ( Flash ) and iOS on August 29 , 2010 . Solipskier became their first game to receive public appreciation . The iOS version made around $ 70 @,@ 000 in its first two months ( as compared to $ 15 @,@ 000 from the Flash release ) , which gave them enough stability to branch out into non @-@ Flash platforms .
= = = Gasketball = = =
Riding the earnings from Solipskier , Mikengreg continued to pay themselves their same salary but now had the means to try new ideas . Wohlwend estimated that they discarded about six " fairly polished prototypes " over the development of their next game , Gasketball . They were able to live on $ 20 – 25 @,@ 000 a year each in Iowa for the next two years while working on the new game . Wohlwend made somewhat more income due to other collaborations , such as Puzzlejuice with Asher Vollmer , but shared his income with Boxleiter . Even though Solipskier was successful , the duo did not have a following comparable to indie developers like Team Meat and thus felt like their external pressure was low . Instead , their pressure was internal . Wohlwend said he worked 100 @-@ hour weeks with no weekends or vacations while living off of the Solipskier funds . In making Gasketball , Boxleiter and Wohlwend felt that their game quality had improved continually , but found the idea of a million @-@ person audience " daunting " . Wohlwend questioned whether he could even recreate Solipskier 's success . When they ran out of money , Boxleiter borrowed money from his parents , and eventually they both went homeless , living off of the couches of friends .
Gasketball was released for iPad on August 9 , 2012 . They had decided to release the game as an ethically non @-@ coercive free @-@ to @-@ play game , with a free base game and in @-@ app purchases for the extended content . Not as many players paid for the content as expected . This was due , in part , to the players ' difficulty in finding the purchase function . The game had been downloaded 200 @,@ 000 times in its August 2012 launch week and was briefly ranked near the top of an iTunes top downloads ranking , though it did not break the top 200 grossing chart .
= = = Puzzlejuice = = =
Wohlwend began to collaborate with Asher Vollmer when Vollmer reached out to Wohlwend for aesthetic advice on a game he was designing , Puzzlejuice . The game has been compared to a cross between Boggle , Tetris , and tile @-@ matching , where tetromino blocks fall from the top of the screen that players turn into letters and rearrange into words . Wohlwend and Vollmer communicated nonverbally through the entire development process via a 365 @-@ message email chain . Vollmer served as the game 's programmer , Wohlwend as the artist , and Jimmy Hinson as the composer . Puzzlejuice was selected for the PAX 10 , a spotlighted group of indie games , in July 2012 . It was released as a universal app for iPhone and iPad on January 19 , 2012 .
= = = Hundreds = = =
Upon finishing his role as artist on Solipskier , Wohlwend wanted to experiment with game programming by designing his own game . He developed Hundreds from an idea he had while staring at a ceiling , where he imagined a circle growing without overlapping another when growing . He found this to be a good core game concept and based the game around " patience and persistence " . The game 's style inadvertently borrowed from his first year in art school , where Wohlwend composed in black , white , and red so as to focus on composition rather than color . While Wohlwend 's design style is " simple and elegant " , the game 's minimalism was also functional due to his inexperience with programming . The code was " brute forced " and written in a single file . He finished Hundreds as a Flash game in 2010 , but when Flash sites were not interested in purchasing it , Wohlwend chose to open source the code ( partly with the intent to spur " non @-@ coders " to try coding , as he had ) . This version is available online at Newgrounds .
At a lull in @-@ between projects , programmer Eric Johnson of Semi Secret Software found the open source code and ported the game to iPad in a weekend before notifying Wohlwend . At the time , Wohlwend did not have an iOS device to test the port , and had to purchase an iPad . Johnson 's iPad version spurred Wohlwend to consider how Hundreds would work with multitouch and cooperative play , and Semi Secret 's Adam Saltsman to consider a Hundreds collaborative iOS release . The project was intended to be a quick level expansion , but quickly surpassed its several month estimate . Wohlwend and Saltsman extended the game 's mechanics with new circles and puzzles , and many of their implemented ideas were later removed . Wohlwend was happy with the final result and credited the game 's " emergent interaction " qualities to Saltsman . They built on each other 's level designs , though Wohlwend said that Saltsman made " basically all the levels " . The new team enjoyed working with each other .
In Hundreds , players touch circles to make them grow without overlapping . There are 100 puzzles that increase in complexity . The Flash version was much simpler in design , and added circles onscreen as the game progressed . The iOS version added a new gameplay mode and a narrative element based on ciphers and codes , and was released on January 7 , 2013 for iPhone and iPad , and later for Android . It was nominated for several Independent Games Festival awards , and The Atlantic critic Ian Bogost wrote that the game functioned like a design object , a feat unique for the video game medium .
= = = Ridiculous Fishing = = =
Wohlwend produced the art for Vlambeer 's Ridiculous Fishing . The four @-@ person team — Vlambeer designer Jan Willem Nijman and marketer Rami Ismail alongside iOS developer Zach Gage — was described by games journalists as an " indie supergroup " and a " dream team " . In Ridiculous Fishing , the player uses motion and touch controls to catch fish and consequently shoot them out of the sky for cash . The game is known for its developers ' battle against a cloned version of their game released by another company . The team worked separately and sporadically with little progress as disheartened by their cloned game predicament , until an August 2012 road trip home across the United States from Penny Arcade Expo in Seattle to New York convinced the team to set a deadline . They scrapped " 90 percent " of their work , and Wohlwend moved to New York City to live with Gage and work 14 @-@ hour days during the final weeks .
The last parts of Ridiculous Fishing assembled smoothly and it was released March 14 , 2013 for iOS and later that year for Android . It was well received at launch with " near @-@ universal perfect scores " and won both a 2013 Apple Design Award and Apple 's iPhone game of the year . While IGN 's Justin Davis thought the game 's levels could have been more differentiated in theme and art style , he found the " almost cubist design ... absolutely gorgeous " . Welsh of Eurogamer agreed that Wohlwend 's art was " achingly cool " and reflected a " retro and minimalist " indie gaming trend without overpowering the gameplay .
= = = Threes ! = = =
Wohlwend , Vollmer , and Hinson of Puzzlejuice collaborated again on Threes ! , a game where the player slides numbered tiles on a four @-@ by @-@ four grid to combine addends and multiples of three . Its development began before Ridiculous Fishing 's March 2013 release . Vollmer presented an idea similar to the final product in its simplicity : pair tiles as multiples of three . The first prototype was written in a single night . Vollmer and Wohlwend spent at least half a year of the game 's 14 @-@ month development iterating on this main idea . Early Threes designs had no inclination towards minimalism : the pair felt that the game needed to appear more complex so as to interest players . Wohlwend sent Vollmer designs with themes such as sushi , chess , broccoli and cheese soup , and hydrogen atoms , which confused their test audiences . They received a " wake @-@ up call " from fellow game designer Zach Gage , who encouraged them to return from their foray into complexity . The final game returned to its original theme of numbers . Speaking in retrospect , Wohlwend said the game " always wanted to be simple " . He noted that players " think math " upon seeing the game 's numbers , though the game is more about " spatial relationships " and just happens to have a " number theme " .
When returning to the fundamental and original game concept — pairing tiles as multiples of three — the developers felt their experiments informed their final game development decisions . The theme of individual tile personalities extended to the final version , as tiles have faces and express emotions when paired . For example , the 384 tile has a pirate personality with a large tooth and a pirate eyepatch . Of the development process , Wohlwend called it " tough and frustrating and sometimes hard to see if it was worth it " . It was released for iOS on February 6 , 2014 and later ported to Android , with an Xbox One version announced as in development . The game received what video game review score aggregator Metacritic described as " universal acclaim " . Eurogamer and TouchArcade awarded the game perfect scores , with the latter calling Threes " about as close as it gets to a perfect mobile game " . Re / code reported that it " dominated " the chart in the following weeks and became one of the 25 highest grossing apps on the App Store . It later won a 2014 Apple Design Award .
= = = TouchTone = = =
After Gasketball 's 2012 release , Boxleiter and Wohlwend planned a celebratory road trip to a game jam in Victoria , British Columbia . The game did not fare as expected , so Boxleiter used the two @-@ day jam to create the core mirror reflection mechanics of what would become TouchTone , though it would take two years of sporadic work to finalize the remainder of the game . In TouchTone , the player monitors phone calls as part of a government surveillance program to find public threats . The story is told through a series of reflection puzzles wherein the player swipes the screen to reflect a beam around a room to its intended destination .
Mikengreg felt that their first theme of light , prisms , and audio signal too closely mimicked " a hacking minigame from a bigger AAA game like BioShock or System Shock " , but eventually paired the concept with a satirical Edward Snowden theme following the mid @-@ 2013 global surveillance disclosures . Their original efforts were jocular , but their concept became more serious as the story and " political message " grew deeper . Boxleiter wrote most of the script , and together with Wohlwend , would conference after each chapter for coherency . Mikengreg decided against including an option to skip puzzles , which they felt would spoil the game and the player 's capacity to adapt to increasing difficulty . They called this philosophy the " Derek Yu ( of Spelunky ) school of game design " . TouchTone was released on March 19 , 2015 for iOS . Review aggregator Metacritic characterized its reviews as generally favorable .
= = = TumbleSeed = = =
As of July 2015 , Wohlwend is collaborating with Benedict Fritz on Tumbleseed , a computer game based on arcade game Ice Cold Beer wherein the player uses four keyboard keys to navigate a seed around holes . The game 's development is part of a Cards Against Humanity game incubation program . Tumbleseed is planned for release in 2015 .
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= Vincent and the Doctor =
" Vincent and the Doctor " is the tenth episode in the fifth series of British science fiction television series Doctor Who , first broadcast on BBC One on 5 June 2010 . It was written by Richard Curtis and directed by Jonny Campbell and featured an uncredited guest appearance from actor Bill Nighy .
Intrigued by an ominous figure in one of Vincent van Gogh 's paintings , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companion Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) go back in time to meet Van Gogh ( Tony Curran ) and discover that Provence has been plagued by an invisible monster , known as the Krafayis , which only Van Gogh can see . The Doctor and Amy work with Van Gogh to defeat the Krafayis , but in their attempt to have Van Gogh realise his legacy through bringing him to the future they ultimately realise that not all of time can be rewritten and there are some evils which are out of the Doctor 's reach .
Curtis , inspired by the fact that Van Gogh never knew he would be famous , had the idea for an episode centred on him . He left the script open to criticism from the crew and made many revisions as a result . Curtis wanted to portray Van Gogh truthfully , rather than being cruel by writing jokes about his madness . The episode was filmed in Trogir , Croatia and many of the sets were modelled after Van Gogh paintings . The episode was watched by 6 @.@ 76 million viewers on BBC One and BBC HD . Reception to the episode varied , ranging from very positive to mixed to very negative . While the amount of emotion in the episode was debated over , most reviewers agreed that the Krafayis was not a threatening monster while Curran 's performance as Van Gogh was immensely praised .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
The Doctor has taken Amy to the Musée d 'Orsay in Paris , where they admire the work of the post @-@ impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh . The Doctor discovers a seemingly alien figure in a window of the painting The Church at Auvers , and decides they must travel back in time to speak to Vincent around when he painted the painting . In 1890 , they find Vincent at a cafe in Arles , a lonely man with a bad reputation . Vincent opens up when he notices Amy , sensing a loss she herself is not aware of . Outside the cafe a young girl is murdered , when the trio go out to see what happened they are stoned by locals who blame Vincent 's insanity for the killing . The Doctor and Amy talk Vincent into letting them stay the night and they return to his home .
That evening , Vincent confesses that his works have little value to anyone else . He believes the universe is filled with wonders that he must paint , and that he can " hear the colours " . Amy goes outside and is attacked by a beast that only Vincent is able to see . He sketches it for the Doctor , who identifies it as a Krafayis . Knowing the beast will appear when Vincent paints the nearby church the next evening , the Doctor and Amy plan to join him . The next morning , Vincent becomes distraught after being told that The Doctor and Amy won 't be staying long . Vincent shuts himself in his bedroom , saying that everyone leaves him in the end . The Doctor and Amy set out to capture the beast alone , but Vincent soon joins them eager to help . He confides to Amy that if she can " soldier on , then so can Vincent van Gogh " .
Vincent begins creating the painting of the church and soon spots the beast inside . The Doctor demands that Amy stay back as he enters the church alone , but she and Vincent both agree they should help the Doctor . Vincent is able to save the Doctor and Amy , describing the beast 's actions as they hide in the confessionals . The Doctor soon realises from Vincent 's description that the beast is blind , the likely reason it was abandoned on Earth . The beast is impaled on Vincent 's easel when it tries to lunge at the artist . The Doctor attempts to soothe the dying creature while Vincent empathises with its pain . After the creature dies , the three return outside the church and Vincent describes the night sky as he envisions it .
The next day , the Doctor and Amy prepare to leave . Vincent asks Amy to return and marry him should she leave the Doctor . The Doctor offers to show him something . The Doctor and Amy take Vincent in the TARDIS to the present and the Van Gogh exhibit at the Musée d 'Orsay . Vincent is stunned at the display and becomes emotionally overwhelmed when he overhears art curator Dr. Black ( Bill Nighy ) say that Van Gogh was " the greatest painter of them all " and " one of the greatest men who ever lived " . They return an emotionally changed Vincent to the past and say their final goodbyes . As the Doctor and Amy return to the present , Amy is confident that there will be hundreds of new paintings by Vincent waiting for them . She is crushed to learn that Vincent still committed suicide weeks after their adventure , at the age of 37 . The Doctor explains that life is a mixture of bad and good , and while their brief encounter with Vincent couldn 't undo all of the bad , they added some good to his life . The evidence is in Vincent 's displayed works : the face no longer appears in The Church , and now Vase with 12 Sunflowers bears the inscription , " For Amy " .
= = = Continuity = = =
Images of the First and Second Doctors are displayed on the Doctor 's mirror device and printout from the TARDIS ' typewriter . The episode presents these trips as the Doctor 's compensation to Amy for her fiancé Rory Williams ' death in the previous episode , which Amy herself does not remember since Rory was consumed by a crack in the universe and thus erased from time . Van Gogh is able to sense Amy 's sadness at Rory 's death , and the Doctor later accidentally addresses Amy and Vincent as Amy and Rory , respectively .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Writer Richard Curtis was previously executive producer on the Doctor Who spoof The Curse of Fatal Death , a one @-@ off comedy special written for Comic Relief by current show @-@ runner Steven Moffat . Based on this experience , Moffat asked Curtis to write an episode of Doctor Who . Curtis had enjoyed the show 's historical episodes and felt comfortable writing one . He had the idea of a story centred on Van Gogh for " a long while " and was particularly interested in the fact Van Gogh never knew he would be famous , as well as his inspirational story . Curtis was also interested in depression and the price paid for it . He wanted to convey that the Doctor could rewrite time , but Van Gogh 's " demons " were out of his reach . Moffat was " enthusiastic " about the story idea .
Curtis asked Moffat to criticise " anything and everything " and later said he was very honest . Executive producer Piers Wenger and director Jonny Campbell also critiqued the script . Moffat told Curtis that it needed to " start quicker " and that the meeting with the Doctor and Vincent was " dull " and needed to be something " cute " like Curtis had done in his films . He also noted that the Doctor did not talk as much as Curtis had written and recommended Curtis watch some episodes to see he was " rather efficient in the way that he talked " . Curtis enjoyed the experience , commenting that it was " fun " to work within boundaries rather than doing it all himself . After seeing a read @-@ through performed by leads Matt Smith and Karen Gillan , Curtis made more changes . He commented that it was easy to write for them as they were " so delightful and modern and relaxed " . Curtis 's original title for the episode was " Eyes that See the Darkness " , but he said this was vetoed .
Curtis wanted to write for Doctor Who because he thought it would be " something my kids would like . " When writing " Vincent and the Doctor " , Curtis put up prints of Van Gogh paintings around the house as well as a board with index cards outlining the plot . His children helped him come up with some ideas . Gillan commented that the story had a different style and approach and was more character @-@ driven . Though it was a subject he knew " quite a lot " about , he still read a 200 @-@ page biography of Van Gogh , which was more research than he normally would have done if working on other projects ; he took Van Gogh very seriously . As such , he wanted to be " truthful rather than cruel " and refused to write any jokes about Van Gogh 's ears after he famously cut one of them off . However , he did incorporate other humour as he naturally wanted to " try to make things funny " .
= = = Casting and filming = = =
Curtis stated that casting an actor to play Van Gogh was done carefully , as he wanted him to feel to the audience as Van Gogh , not " like a bloke they ’ ve seen acting lots of other parts , in an orange wig " . Tony Curran was ultimately cast as the part ; Curtis called him a " wonderful actor " who " really could not look more like " Van Gogh . Curran , Smith and Gillan got to know each other very well , which Gillan hoped would be evident in their chemistry in the episode . Bill Nighy appears uncredited as the Musée d 'Orsay 's expert on Van Gogh . Nighy was rumoured to have been considered for the role of the Ninth Doctor when the show was revived . Campbell stated that they were " very fortunate " to have Nighy in the role , who he believed was someone people paid attention to , and the audience needed to pay attention to his character as he said facts which would become important later in the story .
Scenes set in Provence were filmed on location in Trogir , Croatia in the same production block as " The Vampires of Venice " , which sees Trogir depicting 16th @-@ century Venice . Filming took place around November 2009 . The National Museum Cardiff doubled for the interior of the Musée d 'Orsay . Some of the sets were intended to reference paintings , such as Van Gogh 's bedroom . One such set was the café where the Doctor and Amy first meet Van Gogh , which was modelled after the painting Cafe Terrace at Night . This proved challenging for the art department , who extensively looked for a suitable building in Croatia to use . Once they found the one they wanted , they had to redesign it to look like the painting ; this involved putting an awning up , changing the windows , and adding a platform with tables and chairs . The song played during the ending scene is " Chances " by the British rock band Athlete .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Vincent and the Doctor " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One and simulcast on BBC HD on 5 June 2010 . Initial overnight ratings showed that the episode was watched by 5 million , the second rated show of the day and the first on BBC One . Final consolidated ratings rose to 6 @.@ 76 million , with 6 @.@ 29 on BBC One and a further 0 @.@ 47 on BBC HD . It was the second most watched programme on BBC One and the highest on BBC HD . It was given an Appreciation Index of 86 , considered " excellent " .
After the original broadcast , viewers were offered a helpline if they had been affected by the issues raised in the programme . " Vincent and the Doctor " was released in Region 2 on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 6 September 2010 with " The Lodger " , " The Pandorica Opens " and " The Big Bang " . It was then re @-@ released as part of the Complete Fifth Series boxset on 8 November 2010 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Since its broadcast , Vincent and the Doctor has received critical acclaim . Dave Golder of SFX magazine gave the episode five out of five stars , calling it " a genuinely magical episode of Who , high on atmosphere ... and bursting with charm " . John Moore , writing on Den of Geek , also took a positive stance towards the episode , describing it as " life @-@ affirming " as a Doctor Who fan , and , though he did criticise some elements of the plot , likewise wrote positively about the ending , ultimately finding the episode " utterly useless , but absolutely art " . Keith Watson in the Metro was surprised by the " impressive imagining of Van Gogh 's world " , praising Curtis ' humour throughout the episode . He also praised the performance by Curran as Van Gogh , feeling that , with regard to Van Gogh 's depression , the producers " pulled it off " against the odds . Mark Lawson of The Guardian praised it as " exceptionally good " and " thrilling and funny , as well as educational " , noting its " historical rigour " and its " good arty jokes " , while Deborah Orr wrote that it was " hardly original for someone to alight on [ Van Gogh 's ] tale as a tear @-@ jerker , although it is pretty shrewd to think of placing it in a popular time @-@ travel context " and that " the feeling that I 'd been gently monstered into life @-@ affirming feel @-@ good sobs by Richard Curtis was not new , not in the least " .
In the mainstream press , Tom Sutcliffe in The Independent praised the episode as " first ingenious and then decidedly poignant " , though he felt some aspects of plot would have wider implications not addressed in the episode , and remained " coldly unfeeling " towards the death of the Krafayis . Sam Wollaston of The Guardian liked the episode , considering Curtis ' dialogue to be " witty and clever " and , despite feeling that some of the moral sentiments expressed during the episode were " as schmaltzy as sugary gloop " , described how the emotion of the episode eventually got to him . The A.V. Club 's Keith Phipps gave the episode a B- , explaining that it " didn 't quite work " and suffered from tonal problems . Matt Wales on IGN was also mixed , giving it a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating . He was positive toward Curran and Gillan and that the episode " finally gave us a three @-@ dimensional Amy Pond " , but thought the " usually excellent " Smith " didn 't get much to work with " . He also thought that the Krafayis was " a nice idea " for being a metaphor but was not threatening , and he labelled the emotional ending as " self @-@ indulgently mawkish " .
On The Guardian film blog , Peter Bradshaw considered " Vincent and the Doctor " to be a " terrifically clever , funny , likeable wildly surreal episode " . He praised the " unmistakeably [ sic ] Curtis dialogue " and the " uproariously emotional ending of the sort only Richard Curtis could get away with " . Dan Martin on the same paper 's regular Doctor Who blog was more critical , writing that its " main problem [ was ] that it doesn 't feel much like a Doctor Who story " and would have worked better if " the middle section with the monster had been stripped out " . He also criticised the script for its " lashings of weapons @-@ grade sentimentality " and for " throwing up possibilities that weren 't followed up " and the monster as an " afterthought [ posing ] ... no tangible threat " . However , he did praise Curran 's " great performance " along with the episode 's treatment of depression , concluding like Wollaston that he enjoyed the episode despite his misgivings .
One of the most negative reviews came from Gavin Fuller in The Telegraph , who criticised it as a " bland , inconsequential episode that , once it set up what was a decent enough premise ... completely failed to run with it " . He compared it unfavourably with the third series episode " The Shakespeare Code " in being centred round a historical " tormented artist " but wrote that it lacked that episode 's " narrative drive " , with " a serious plot hole " in Van Gogh 's ability to see the creature and that the Krafayis was " the most pointless monsters ever to appear in the series ' long history " . He also criticised Smith 's Doctor and wrote that Van Gogh still committing suicide despite the trip to the Orsay was " nonsensical " . He did , however , praise " the Doctor 's homily about good things and bad things " ( though Sam Wollaston criticised this speech in The Guardian ) and was grateful that Curtis " avoided turning the Doctor into a bumbling Hugh Grant character from his romcoms " , concluding however " he did little else right and a crushing disappointment was the result " .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
" Vincent and the Doctor " was nominated for the Bradbury Award for Outstanding Dramatic Presentation in the 2010 Nebula Awards and the 2011 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation ( Short Form ) . It lost both of these ; the Bradbury to the film Inception and the Hugo to the series finale " The Pandorica Opens " / " The Big Bang " . In Canada 's Constellation Awards , Curran was nominated ( alongside Smith ) for Best Actor and Curtis for Best Script ; Curran came in sixth with 10 % of the votes and Curtis came in second , losing out to Christopher Nolan 's Inception by one percent of the vote .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Vincent and the Doctor " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
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= Quantum electrodynamics =
In particle physics , quantum electrodynamics ( QED ) is the relativistic quantum field theory of electrodynamics . In essence , it describes how light and matter interact and is the first theory where full agreement between quantum mechanics and special relativity is achieved . QED mathematically describes all phenomena involving electrically charged particles interacting by means of exchange of photons and represents the quantum counterpart of classical electromagnetism giving a complete account of matter and light interaction .
In technical terms , QED can be described as a perturbation theory of the electromagnetic quantum vacuum . Richard Feynman called it " the jewel of physics " for its extremely accurate predictions of quantities like the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron and the Lamb shift of the energy levels of hydrogen .
= = History = =
The first formulation of a quantum theory describing radiation and matter interaction is attributed to British scientist Paul Dirac , who ( during the 1920s ) was able to compute the coefficient of spontaneous emission of an atom .
Dirac described the quantization of the electromagnetic field as an ensemble of harmonic oscillators with the introduction of the concept of creation and annihilation operators of particles . In the following years , with contributions from Wolfgang Pauli , Eugene Wigner , Pascual Jordan , Werner Heisenberg and an elegant formulation of quantum electrodynamics due to Enrico Fermi , physicists came to believe that , in principle , it would be possible to perform any computation for any physical process involving photons and charged particles . However , further studies by Felix Bloch with Arnold Nordsieck , and Victor Weisskopf , in 1937 and 1939 , revealed that such computations were reliable only at a first order of perturbation theory , a problem already pointed out by Robert Oppenheimer . At higher orders in the series infinities emerged , making such computations meaningless and casting serious doubts on the internal consistency of the theory itself . With no solution for this problem known at the time , it appeared that a fundamental incompatibility existed between special relativity and quantum mechanics .
Difficulties with the theory increased through the end of 1940 . Improvements in microwave technology made it possible to take more precise measurements of the shift of the levels of a hydrogen atom , now known as the Lamb shift and magnetic moment of the electron . These experiments unequivocally exposed discrepancies which the theory was unable to explain .
A first indication of a possible way out was given by Hans Bethe . In 1947 , while he was traveling by train to reach Schenectady from New York , after giving a talk at the conference at Shelter Island on the subject , Bethe completed the first non @-@ relativistic computation of the shift of the lines of the hydrogen atom as measured by Lamb and Retherford . Despite the limitations of the computation , agreement was excellent . The idea was simply to attach infinities to corrections of mass and charge that were actually fixed to a finite value by experiments . In this way , the infinities get absorbed in those constants and yield a finite result in good agreement with experiments . This procedure was named renormalization .
Based on Bethe 's intuition and fundamental papers on the subject by Sin @-@ Itiro Tomonaga , Julian Schwinger , Richard Feynman and Freeman Dyson , it was finally possible to get fully covariant formulations that were finite at any order in a perturbation series of quantum electrodynamics . Sin @-@ Itiro Tomonaga , Julian Schwinger and Richard Feynman were jointly awarded with a Nobel prize in physics in 1965 for their work in this area . Their contributions , and those of Freeman Dyson , were about covariant and gauge invariant formulations of quantum electrodynamics that allow computations of observables at any order of perturbation theory . Feynman 's mathematical technique , based on his diagrams , initially seemed very different from the field @-@ theoretic , operator @-@ based approach of Schwinger and Tomonaga , but Freeman Dyson later showed that the two approaches were equivalent . Renormalization , the need to attach a physical meaning at certain divergences appearing in the theory through integrals , has subsequently become one of the fundamental aspects of quantum field theory and has come to be seen as a criterion for a theory 's general acceptability . Even though renormalization works very well in practice , Feynman was never entirely comfortable with its mathematical validity , even referring to renormalization as a " shell game " and " hocus pocus " .
QED has served as the model and template for all subsequent quantum field theories . One such subsequent theory is quantum chromodynamics , which began in the early 1960s and attained its present form in the 1975 work by H. David Politzer , Sidney Coleman , David Gross and Frank Wilczek . Building on the pioneering work of Schwinger , Gerald Guralnik , Dick Hagen , and Tom Kibble , Peter Higgs , Jeffrey Goldstone , and others , Sheldon Glashow , Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam independently showed how the weak nuclear force and quantum electrodynamics could be merged into a single electroweak force .
= = Feynman 's view of quantum electrodynamics = =
= = = Introduction = = =
Near the end of his life , Richard P. Feynman gave a series of lectures on QED intended for the lay public . These lectures were transcribed and published as Feynman ( 1985 ) , QED : The strange theory of light and matter , a classic non @-@ mathematical exposition of QED from the point of view articulated below .
The key components of Feynman 's presentation of QED are three basic actions .
A photon goes from one place and time to another place and time .
An electron goes from one place and time to another place and time .
An electron emits or absorbs a photon at a certain place and time .
These actions are represented in a form of visual shorthand by the three basic elements of Feynman diagrams : a wavy line for the photon , a straight line for the electron and a junction of two straight lines and a wavy one for a vertex representing emission or absorption of a photon by an electron . These can all be seen in the adjacent diagram .
It is important not to over @-@ interpret these diagrams . Nothing is implied about how a particle gets from one point to another . The diagrams do not imply that the particles are moving in straight or curved lines . They do not imply that the particles are moving with fixed speeds . The fact that the photon is often represented , by convention , by a wavy line and not a straight one does not imply that it is thought that it is more wavelike than is an electron . The images are just symbols to represent the actions above : photons and electrons do , somehow , move from point to point and electrons , somehow , emit and absorb photons . We do not know how these things happen , but the theory tells us about the probabilities of these things happening .
As well as the visual shorthand for the actions Feynman introduces another kind of shorthand for the numerical quantities called probability amplitudes . The probability is the square of the total probability amplitude . If a photon moves from one place and time — in shorthand , A — to another place and time — in shorthand , B — the associated quantity is written in Feynman 's shorthand as P ( A to B ) . The similar quantity for an electron moving from C to D is written E ( C to D ) . The quantity which tells us about the probability amplitude for the emission or absorption of a photon he calls ' j ' . This is related to , but not the same as , the measured electron charge ' e ' .
QED is based on the assumption that complex interactions of many electrons and photons can be represented by fitting together a suitable collection of the above three building blocks , and then using the probability amplitudes to calculate the probability of any such complex interaction . It turns out that the basic idea of QED can be communicated while making the assumption that the square of the total of the probability amplitudes mentioned above ( P ( A to B ) , E ( A to B ) and ' j ' ) acts just like our everyday probability . ( A simplification made in Feynman 's book . ) Later on , this will be corrected to include specifically quantum @-@ style mathematics , following Feynman .
The basic rules of probability amplitudes that will be used are that a ) if an event can happen in a variety of different ways then its probability amplitude is the sum of the probability amplitudes of the possible ways and b ) if a process involves a number of independent sub @-@ processes then its probability amplitude is the product of the component probability amplitudes .
= = = Basic constructions = = =
Suppose we start with one electron at a certain place and time ( this place and time being given the arbitrary label A ) and a photon at another place and time ( given the label B ) . A typical question from a physical standpoint is : ' What is the probability of finding an electron at C ( another place and a later time ) and a photon at D ( yet another place and time ) ? ' . The simplest process to achieve this end is for the electron to move from A to C ( an elementary action ) and for the photon to move from B to D ( another elementary action ) . From a knowledge of the probability amplitudes of each of these sub @-@ processes – E ( A to C ) and P ( B to D ) – then we would expect to calculate the probability amplitude of both happening together by multiplying them , using rule b ) above . This gives a simple estimated overall probability amplitude , which is squared to give an estimated probability .
But there are other ways in which the end result could come about . The electron might move to a place and time E where it absorbs the photon ; then move on before emitting another photon at F ; then move on to C where it is detected , while the new photon moves on to D. The probability of this complex process can again be calculated by knowing the probability amplitudes of each of the individual actions : three electron actions , two photon actions and two vertexes – one emission and one absorption . We would expect to find the total probability amplitude by multiplying the probability amplitudes of each of the actions , for any chosen positions of E and F. We then , using rule a ) above , have to add up all these probability amplitudes for all the alternatives for E and F. ( This is not elementary in practice , and involves integration . ) But there is another possibility , which is that the electron first moves to G where it emits a photon which goes on to D , while the electron moves on to H , where it absorbs the first photon , before moving on to C. Again we can calculate the probability amplitude of these possibilities ( for all points G and H ) . We then have a better estimation for the total probability amplitude by adding the probability amplitudes of these two possibilities to our original simple estimate . Incidentally the name given to this process of a photon interacting with an electron in this way is Compton scattering .
There are an infinite number of other intermediate processes in which more and more photons are absorbed and / or emitted . For each of these possibilities there is a Feynman diagram describing it . This implies a complex computation for the resulting probability amplitudes , but provided it is the case that the more complicated the diagram the less it contributes to the result , it is only a matter of time and effort to find as accurate an answer as one wants to the original question . This is the basic approach of QED . To calculate the probability of any interactive process between electrons and photons it is a matter of first noting , with Feynman diagrams , all the possible ways in which the process can be constructed from the three basic elements . Each diagram involves some calculation involving definite rules to find the associated probability amplitude .
That basic scaffolding remains when one moves to a quantum description but some conceptual changes are needed . One is that whereas we might expect in our everyday life that there would be some constraints on the points to which a particle can move , that is not true in full quantum electrodynamics . There is a possibility of an electron at A , or a photon at B , moving as a basic action to any other place and time in the universe . That includes places that could only be reached at speeds greater than that of light and also earlier times . ( An electron moving backwards in time can be viewed as a positron moving forward in time . )
= = = Probability amplitudes = = =
Quantum mechanics introduces an important change in the way probabilities are computed . Probabilities are still represented by the usual real numbers we use for probabilities in our everyday world , but probabilities are computed as the square of probability amplitudes . Probability amplitudes are complex numbers .
Feynman avoids exposing the reader to the mathematics of complex numbers by using a simple but accurate representation of them as arrows on a piece of paper or screen . ( These must not be confused with the arrows of Feynman diagrams which are actually simplified representations in two dimensions of a relationship between points in three dimensions of space and one of time . ) The amplitude arrows are fundamental to the description of the world given by quantum theory . No satisfactory reason has been given for why they are needed . But pragmatically we have to accept that they are an essential part of our description of all quantum phenomena . They are related to our everyday ideas of probability by the simple rule that the probability of an event is the square of the length of the corresponding amplitude arrow . So , for a given process , if two probability amplitudes , v and w , are involved , the probability of the process will be given either by
<formula>
or
<formula>
The rules as regards adding or multiplying , however , are the same as above . But where you would expect to add or multiply probabilities , instead you add or multiply probability amplitudes that now are complex numbers .
Addition and multiplication are familiar operations in the theory of complex numbers and are given in the figures . The sum is found as follows . Let the start of the second arrow be at the end of the first . The sum is then a third arrow that goes directly from the start of the first to the end of the second . The product of two arrows is an arrow whose length is the product of the two lengths . The direction of the product is found by adding the angles that each of the two have been turned through relative to a reference direction : that gives the angle that the product is turned relative to the reference direction .
That change , from probabilities to probability amplitudes , complicates the mathematics without changing the basic approach . But that change is still not quite enough because it fails to take into account the fact that both photons and electrons can be polarized , which is to say that their orientations in space and time have to be taken into account . Therefore , P ( A to B ) actually consists of 16 complex numbers , or probability amplitude arrows . There are also some minor changes to do with the quantity " j " , which may have to be rotated by a multiple of 90 ° for some polarizations , which is only of interest for the detailed bookkeeping .
Associated with the fact that the electron can be polarized is another small necessary detail which is connected with the fact that an electron is a fermion and obeys Fermi – Dirac statistics . The basic rule is that if we have the probability amplitude for a given complex process involving more than one electron , then when we include ( as we always must ) the complementary Feynman diagram in which we just exchange two electron events , the resulting amplitude is the reverse – the negative – of the first . The simplest case would be two electrons starting at A and B ending at C and D. The amplitude would be calculated as the " difference " , E ( A to D ) × E ( B to C ) − E ( A to C ) × E ( B to D ) , where we would expect , from our everyday idea of probabilities , that it would be a sum .
= = = Propagators = = =
Finally , one has to compute P ( A to B ) and E ( C to D ) corresponding to the probability amplitudes for the photon and the electron respectively . These are essentially the solutions of the Dirac Equation which describes the behavior of the electron 's probability amplitude and the Klein – Gordon equation which describes the behavior of the photon 's probability amplitude . These are called Feynman propagators . The translation to a notation commonly used in the standard literature is as follows :
<formula>
where a shorthand symbol such as <formula> stands for the four real numbers which give the time and position in three dimensions of the point labeled A.
= = = Mass renormalization = = =
A problem arose historically which held up progress for twenty years : although we start with the assumption of three basic " simple " actions , the rules of the game say that if we want to calculate the probability amplitude for an electron to get from A to B we must take into account all the possible ways : all possible Feynman diagrams with those end points . Thus there will be a way in which the electron travels to C , emits a photon there and then absorbs it again at D before moving on to B. Or it could do this kind of thing twice , or more . In short we have a fractal @-@ like situation in which if we look closely at a line it breaks up into a collection of " simple " lines , each of which , if looked at closely , are in turn composed of " simple " lines , and so on ad infinitum . This is a very difficult situation to handle . If adding that detail only altered things slightly then it would not have been too bad , but disaster struck when it was found that the simple correction mentioned above led to infinite probability amplitudes . In time this problem was " fixed " by the technique of renormalization . However , Feynman himself remained unhappy about it , calling it a " dippy process " .
= = = Conclusions = = =
Within the above framework physicists were then able to calculate to a high degree of accuracy some of the properties of electrons , such as the anomalous magnetic dipole moment . However , as Feynman points out , it fails totally to explain why particles such as the electron have the masses they do . " There is no theory that adequately explains these numbers . We use the numbers in all our theories , but we don 't understand them – what they are , or where they come from . I believe that from a fundamental point of view , this is a very interesting and serious problem . "
= = Mathematics = =
Mathematically , QED is an abelian gauge theory with the symmetry group U ( 1 ) . The gauge field , which mediates the interaction between the charged spin @-@ 1 / 2 fields , is the electromagnetic field . The QED Lagrangian for a spin @-@ 1 / 2 field interacting with the electromagnetic field is given by the real part of
where
<formula> are Dirac matrices ;
<formula> a bispinor field of spin @-@ 1 / 2 particles ( e.g. electron – positron field ) ;
<formula> , called " psi @-@ bar " , is sometimes referred to as the Dirac adjoint ;
<formula> is the gauge covariant derivative ;
e is the coupling constant , equal to the electric charge of the bispinor field ;
m is the mass of the electron or positron ;
<formula> is the covariant four @-@ potential of the electromagnetic field generated by the electron itself ;
<formula> is the external field imposed by external source ;
<formula> is the electromagnetic field tensor .
= = = Equations of motion = = =
To begin , substituting the definition of D into the Lagrangian gives us
<formula>
Next , we can substitute this Lagrangian into the Euler – Lagrange equation of motion for a field :
to find the field equations for QED .
The two terms from this Lagrangian are then
<formula>
<formula>
Substituting these two back into the Euler – Lagrange equation ( 2 ) results in
<formula>
with Hermitian conjugate
<formula>
Bringing the middle term to the right @-@ hand side transforms this second equation into
The left @-@ hand side is like the original Dirac equation and the right @-@ hand side is the interaction with the electromagnetic field .
One further important equation can be found by substituting the above Lagrangian into another Euler – Lagrange equation , this time for the field <formula> :
The two terms this time are
<formula>
<formula>
and these two terms , when substituted back into ( 3 ) give us
Now , if we impose the Lorenz gauge condition , that the divergence of the four potential vanishes
<formula>
then we get
<formula>
which is a wave equation for the four potential , the QED version of the classical Maxwell equations in the Lorenz gauge . ( In the above equation , the square represents the D 'Alembert operator . )
= = = Interaction picture = = =
This theory can be straightforwardly quantized by treating bosonic and fermionic sectors as free . This permits us to build a set of asymptotic states which can be used to start a computation of the probability amplitudes for different processes . In order to do so , we have to compute an evolution operator that , for a given initial state <formula> , will give a final state <formula> in such a way to have
<formula>
This technique is also known as the S @-@ matrix . The evolution operator is obtained in the interaction picture where time evolution is given by the interaction Hamiltonian , which is the integral over space of the second term in the Lagrangian density given above :
<formula>
and so , one has
<formula>
where T is the time ordering operator . This evolution operator only has meaning as a series , and what we get here is a perturbation series with the fine structure constant as the development parameter . This series is called the Dyson series .
= = = Feynman diagrams = = =
Despite the conceptual clarity of this Feynman approach to QED , almost no early textbooks follow him in their presentation . When performing calculations it is much easier to work with the Fourier transforms of the propagators . Experimental tests of quantum electrodynamics are typically scattering experiments . In scattering theory , particles ' momenta rather than their positions are considered , and it is convenient to think of particles as being created or annihilated when they interact . Feynman diagrams then look the same , but the lines have different interpretations . The electron line represents an electron with a given energy and momentum , with a similar interpretation of the photon line . A vertex diagram represents the annihilation of one electron and the creation of another together with the absorption or creation of a photon , each having specified energies and momenta .
Using Wick theorem on the terms of the Dyson series , all the terms of the S @-@ matrix for quantum electrodynamics can be computed through the technique of Feynman diagrams . In this case rules for drawing are the following
To these rules we must add a further one for closed loops that implies an integration on momenta <formula> , since these internal ( " virtual " ) particles are not constrained to any specific energy – momentum – even that usually required by special relativity ( see this article for details ) . From them , computations of probability amplitudes are straightforwardly given . An example is Compton scattering , with an electron and a photon undergoing elastic scattering . Feynman diagrams are in this case
and so we are able to get the corresponding amplitude at the first order of a perturbation series for the S @-@ matrix :
<formula>
from which we are able to compute the cross section for this scattering .
= = Renormalizability = =
Higher order terms can be straightforwardly computed for the evolution operator but these terms display diagrams containing the following simpler ones
that , being closed loops , imply the presence of diverging integrals having no mathematical meaning . To overcome this difficulty , a technique called renormalization has been devised , producing finite results in very close agreement with experiments . It is important to note that a criterion for theory being meaningful after renormalization is that the number of diverging diagrams is finite . In this case the theory is said to be renormalizable . The reason for this is that to get observables renormalized one needs a finite number of constants to maintain the predictive value of the theory untouched . This is exactly the case of quantum electrodynamics displaying just three diverging diagrams . This procedure gives observables in very close agreement with experiment as seen e.g. for electron gyromagnetic ratio .
Renormalizability has become an essential criterion for a quantum field theory to be considered as a viable one . All the theories describing fundamental interactions , except gravitation whose quantum counterpart is presently under very active research , are renormalizable theories .
= = Nonconvergence of series = =
An argument by Freeman Dyson shows that the radius of convergence of the perturbation series in QED is zero . The basic argument goes as follows : if the coupling constant were negative , this would be equivalent to the Coulomb force constant being negative . This would " reverse " the electromagnetic interaction so that like charges would attract and unlike charges would repel . This would render the vacuum unstable against decay into a cluster of electrons on one side of the universe and a cluster of positrons on the other side of the universe . Because the theory is ' sick ' for any negative value of the coupling constant , the series do not converge , but are an asymptotic series .
From a modern perspective , we say that QED is not well defined as a quantum field theory to arbitrarily high energy . The coupling constant runs to infinity at finite energy , signalling a Landau pole . The problem is essentially that QED appears to suffer from quantum triviality issues . This is one of the motivations for embedding QED within a Grand Unified Theory .
= = = Books = = =
De Broglie , Louis ( 1925 ) . Recherches sur la theorie des quanta [ Research on quantum theory ] . France : Wiley @-@ Interscience .
Feynman , Richard Phillips ( 1998 ) . Quantum Electrodynamics ( New ed . ) . Westview Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 36075 @-@ 2 .
Jauch , J.M. ; Rohrlich , F. ( 1980 ) . The Theory of Photons and Electrons . Springer @-@ Verlag . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 387 @-@ 07295 @-@ 1 .
Greiner , Walter ; Bromley , D.A. ; Müller , Berndt ( 2000 ) . Gauge Theory of Weak Interactions . Springer . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 67672 @-@ 0 .
Kane , Gordon , L. ( 1993 ) . Modern Elementary Particle Physics . Westview Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 62460 @-@ 1 .
Miller , Arthur I. ( 1995 ) . Early Quantum Electrodynamics : A Sourcebook . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 56891 @-@ 3 .
Milonni , Peter W. , ( 1994 ) The quantum vacuum - an introduction to quantum electrodynamics . Academic Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 498080 @-@ 5
Schweber , Silvan S. ( 1994 ) . QED and the Men Who Made It . Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 03327 @-@ 3 .
Schwinger , Julian ( 1958 ) . Selected Papers on Quantum Electrodynamics . Dover Publications . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 60444 @-@ 2 .
Tannoudji @-@ Cohen , Claude ; Dupont @-@ Roc , Jacques ; Grynberg , Gilbert ( 1997 ) . Photons and Atoms : Introduction to Quantum Electrodynamics . Wiley @-@ Interscience . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 471 @-@ 18433 @-@ 1 .
= = = Journals = = =
Dudley , J.M. ; Kwan , A.M. ( 1996 ) . " Richard Feynman 's popular lectures on quantum electrodynamics : The 1979 Robb Lectures at Auckland University " . American Journal of Physics 64 ( 6 ) : 694 – 698 . Bibcode : 1996AmJPh .. 64 .. 694D. doi : 10 @.@ 1119 / 1 @.@ 18234 .
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= Asker Line =
The Asker Line ( Norwegian : Askerbanen ) is a 9 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) railway line between Asker and Lysaker in Norway . The line runs along the same corridor as the Drammen Line , offering increased capacity , speed and regularity on the rail network west of Oslo . The first part opened in 2005 , and in 2011 an extension opened from Sandvika to Lysaker . An extension to Skøyen in Oslo will perhaps be built after 2020 . Most of the railway is in tunnel and is dimensioned for 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) running . The entire railway is electrified at 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC . The first section cost NOK 3 @.@ 7 billion , while the second is budgeted at NOK 2 @.@ 7 billion .
The purpose of the new line is to allow regional and express trains to run directly between Asker Station , Sandvika Station and Lysaker Station , without being slowed and delayed by commuter trains that make frequent stops at intermediate stations . The Asker Line will improve regularity , and capacity will increase from 12 to 26 trains per hour in each direction . Travel time from Asker to Skøyen Station will be reduced from 20 to 13 minutes . The line has received criticism for not being a true high @-@ speed line , and for Lysaker Station not being in compliance with accessibility requirements . Similar parallel , high @-@ speed lines have been or will be built northeast and southeast of Oslo .
The line is built , owned and maintained by the Norwegian National Rail Administration . At Sandvika , the line connects to the Drammen Line , which runs to Oslo Central Station in the east . At Asker , the line connects to the Spikkestad and Drammen Lines ; the latter connects to the Sørland- and Vestfold Line at Drammen . The line is served by Norwegian State Railways with regional trains to Vestfold , Buskerud and Telemark , and the express trains along the Sørland Line and the Bergen Line ; in addition , the Airport Express Train operates from Asker to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen . During night , freight trains also use the line .
= = Background = =
Following the construction of the high @-@ speed Gardermoen Line from Oslo , via Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , to Eidsvoll , the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications started planning additional high @-@ speed lines west and southeast of Oslo . The Asker and Follo Lines would allow express and regional trains to travel faster and more reliably to Drammen and Ski , leaving the old tracks for slower freight trains , and commuter trains making frequent stops . Construction of the Follo Line will , at the earliest , be completed in 2015 .
The Gardermoen Line had shown that profits could be made by operating passenger trains , but that it would not be possible to debt @-@ finance short @-@ distance tracks in Eastern Norway . Therefore , a conventional financial method for the Asker Line was started . While the railway is entirely financed through allocation through the state budget , the prioritising was secured through a political compromise for investments in Greater Oslo , the Oslo Package 2 . Financing of a diverse range of road and public transport investments — including new motorways , extension of the Oslo Metro and new railways — would be made through a " package " . This involved both state , county and toll funding being collected in one lot , and then redistributing the funds to the agencies responsible for the investments .
Prior to the construction , the Western Corridor had a capacity of 12 – 14 trains per hour in each direction west of Skøyen . The first section of the Asker Line , from Asker to Sandvika , increased the capacity with an additional two trains . The opening of Lysaker Station will increase capacity with four more , since all stations along the line between Oslo and Drammen will then have four platforms . When the whole line is completed , total capacity in the Western Corridor will be 26 trains per hour . This is equivalent to 5 @,@ 500 cars per hour , and exceeds the capacity of a four @-@ lane motorway .
The Asker Line is also a necessary component to allow a high @-@ speed route to be built along the Vestfold and Ringerike Lines . The former is planned to branch off at Drammen , while the latter would branch of at Sandvika , and become a 60 @-@ kilometre ( 37 mi ) shortening of the Bergen Line . The first sections of the upgraded Vestfold Line opened in 1995 and 2001 , and additional proposals are under planning for the remaining sections .
= = Route = =
= = = Asker Station = = =
Asker Station is the end of the Asker Line , and trains must continue westwards along the Spikkestad Line or the Drammen Line . The latter immediately enters the Lieråsen Tunnel , allowing the same speeds as the Asker Line to Drammen . The Spikkestad Line is only used by the commuter trains to Spikkestad . Along with building the line , Asker Station was upgraded from five to six platforms , and also received a new , artistically decorated underpass between the platforms . The station is located 23 @.@ 16 kilometres ( 14 @.@ 39 mi ) from Oslo Central Station ( Oslo S ) at 104 @.@ 6 metres ( 343 ft ) elevation .
= = = Asker – Sandvika = = =
Construction of the section between Asker and Sandvika started in 2001 , and was completed in 2005 . It was officially opened by Torild Skogsholm , Minister of Transport from the Liberal Party , on 27 August . This section is dominated by the 3 @,@ 590 @-@ metre ( 2 @.@ 23 mi ) Tanum Tunnel and the 3 @,@ 790 @-@ metre ( 2 @.@ 35 mi ) Skaugum Tunnel , and cost NOK 3 @.@ 7 billion . For the last 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) of track west of Sandvika , the Asker and Drammen Line have been built along the same , new , right @-@ of @-@ way . The Drammen Line , leaves Slependen Station , and joins the Asker Line just after the latter leaves the Tanum Tunnel .
= = = Sandvika Station = = =
Sandvika Station is 14 @.@ 14 km ( 8 @.@ 79 mi ) from Oslo S , at 12 @.@ 0 metres ( 39 @.@ 4 ft ) elevation . The track layout has been criticised by among others Norsk Bane , for not permitting high through speeds . A sharp curve before the station will not permit trains to travel at more than 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , even if they are not scheduled to stop at the station . This will increase travel time , and hinder the efficiency of the line should it be used later for high @-@ speed lines to Vestfold or Western Norway . The proposed Ringerike Line would demerge just west of Sandvika Station .
= = = Sandvika – Lysaker = = =
Construction of the second section started in 2007 and was completed in 2011 . The section between Sandvika and Lysaker is 6 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 2 mi ) , most of which runs through the 5 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) Bærum Tunnel . There was local debate whether the tunnel should be built using a tunnel boring machine or by drilling and blasting . The latter was preferred by the Rail Administration , since it allowed a shorter construction time , and a NOK 700 million saving . Total budget is NOK 2 @,@ 787 million .
= = = Lysaker Station = = =
Lysaker Station serves as the main public transport hub for Eastern Bærum , parts of Western Oslo and Fornebu . Within 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) , there are 20 @,@ 000 jobs , with an additional 10 – 15 @,@ 000 in development . Located 7 @.@ 00 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 35 mi ) west of Oslo S , it is receiving a major overhaul between 2006 and 2009 , including 1 @.@ 2 km ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) of new track . The current station will be entirely replaced , and the number of platforms increased from two to four . More than one thousand buses depart from Lysaker Station each day , and it has been proposed as the terminus of the Fornebu Line — a tramway originally proposed as a people mover .
The NOK 1 billion renovation has become a scandal , due to the station being built in a curve , and thus does not have straight platforms . This will become a security problem ; in addition it will create a gap up to 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) between the train and the platform , hindering accessibility to the trains for disabled people . Norges Statsbaner claims they will have to buy new trains due to this station alone , costing the state @-@ owned company NOK 1 @.@ 5 billion . Minister of Transport , Liv Signe Navarsete from the Centre Party , has said that resolving the problems by building a straight station is not an alternative , since it would cost an additional hundred @-@ millions of NOK , and delay the new station several years .
= = = Lysaker – Skøyen = = =
The last section is a proposed 2 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 3 mi ) section from Lysaker to Skøyen ; the latter not being modified as part of the extension , since it was upgraded in 1999 . The government has not set a date to start construction , but it will not be until at least 2020 , since other projects will be prioritised over this section . No specific route has been finalised , and the project has been proposed to either run parallel to the current Drammen Line , or by placing all four tracks through a new tunnel . The former has been preferred by the Rail Administration , while the latter — which would cost NOK 1 billion more — has been preferred by the municipality . There are no intermediate commuter stations between Skøyen and Lysaker , so there is little regularity or speed potential to gain from the construction , since the Oslo Tunnel from Skøyen to Oslo Central Station will still remain a bottleneck with only two tracks . Advocates have claimed that there is no gain from building this section without building two additional tracks all the way to the central station .
= = Operation = =
Norges Statsbaner ( NSB ) operates their express trains on the Bergen and Sørland Line on the Asker Line , along with the regional trains along the Vestfold Line . They also operate some of Oslo Commuter Rail trains , that do not stop on the intermediate stations . Other commuter trains use the old Drammen Line , along with freight trains . However , in 2006 , the night freight trains were moved to the new line , despite operating at less than 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) . The Flytoget airport express train operates along the line three times per hour using Class 71 multiple units , connecting the main stations west of Oslo to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen .
With the opening of the new line , NSB stopped operating their commuter trains from Drammen to Oslo with stops at Høn , Hvalstad and Billingstad . Passengers from Drammen now need to transfer in Asker , but all other passengers have travel times reduced from 48 to 36 minutes .
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= Dakota , Minnesota and Eastern Railroad =
The Dakota , Minnesota and Eastern Railroad ( reporting mark DME ) is a Class II railroad subsidiary of the Canadian Pacific Railway operating across South Dakota and southern Minnesota in the Northern Plains of the United States . Portions of the railroad also extend into Wyoming , Nebraska and Iowa .
DM & E began operations on September 5 , 1986 , over trackage spun off from the Chicago and North Western Transportation Company in South Dakota and Minnesota . Many of the negotiations were handled by the office of Senator Larry Pressler and his legal counsel Kevin V. Schieffer . After DME 's successful first decade , Schieffer succeeded J. C. McIntyre as president of the railroad on November 7 , 1996 .
DM & E purchased the assets of I & M Rail Link railroad in 2002 , renaming it Iowa , Chicago and Eastern Railroad . DM & E combined its management and dispatching duties with those of ICE under the holding company Cedar American Rail Holdings . The combined system directly connects Chicago through Iowa to Kansas City , Minneapolis @-@ St. Paul and continues as far west as Rapid City , South Dakota . Smaller branches extend into portions of Wisconsin , Wyoming and Nebraska .
In September 2007 it was announced that Canadian Pacific Railway ( CP ) would acquire the DM & E upon approval by the Surface Transportation Board of the US Department of Transportation . The STB announced its approval of the purchase plan on September 30 , 2008 . The merger was completed , and the official last day of operations for the DM & E was October 30 , 2008 .
= = 1986 – 1996 : Startup and initial expansion = =
In the early 1980s , Chicago and North Western Railway ( CNW ) announced plans to abandon a section of railroad through Minnesota and South Dakota that dated to 1859 . Due to pressure from customers and Senator Larry Pressler from South Dakota , a deal was reached and announced on April 24 , 1986 , creating the Dakota , Minnesota and Eastern Railroad out of sections of CNW from Winona , Minnesota , to Rapid City , South Dakota . This deal also included buildings , rolling stock and locomotives , mostly rebuilt EMD SD9s , from the CNW .
DM & E began operations on this track on September 5 , 1986 . The railroad was expanded in 1995 when it acquired additional former CNW branch lines from Rapid City , South Dakota , to Colony , Wyoming , and Crawford , Nebraska .
From startup to the railroad 's ten @-@ year anniversary in 1996 , DM & E hauled nearly 500 @,@ 000 carloads of freight , which includes 700 million bushels of grain . DM & E celebrated the anniversary with picnics and employee appreciation events and excursions in Waseca , Minnesota , and Pierre , South Dakota .
Kevin V. Schieffer , whom former United States President George H. W. Bush had appointed as US Attorney for South Dakota in 1991 , became president of DM & E on November 7 , 1996 . Schieffer was no newcomer to the railroad ; he first became involved with DM & E in 1983 when he worked to prevent the abandonment of the former CNW lines that eventually formed the first sections of DM & E 's mainline . Maintaining the status quo on DM & E was not the fate that he had in mind for the railroad as he took the reins .
= = 1997 – 2006 : plans for expansion into the Powder River Basin = =
= = = Expansion plans = = =
In 1997 , DM & E announced plans to expand into the Powder River Basin ( PRB ) in Wyoming and start providing unit coal train service from that area . The railroad filed an application for the expansion to the Surface Transportation Board ( STB ) on February 20 , 1998 . Burlington Northern Railroad built into this area in 1979 , and the Chicago and North Western Railway ( CNW ) also sought to access the PRB coalfields , a project accomplished by CNW 's successor Union Pacific Railroad . DM & E would become the third railroad to tap into the coal deposits in the region .
DM & E 's expansion would require the construction of 281 miles ( 452 km ) of new track , upgrading 598 miles ( 962 km ) of existing track ( including all of the railroad 's mainline track in Minnesota ) , new mainline connections Owatonna and Mankato , Minnesota , and three new rail yards . The plan would be the largest new railroad construction in the United States since the completion of Milwaukee Road 's Pacific extension to Seattle , Washington , in 1909 .
= = = Initial approval and lawsuits = = =
The STB approved the application on December 10 of that year pending completion of an Environmental Impact Statement ( EIS ) , which was released by the STB on September 27 , 2000 .
An analysis of the plan by Minnesota 's Dakota , Minnesota and Eastern Railroad Working Group in 2001 showed support among customers and freight shippers , but DM & E 's expansion plan led to complaints among residents in communities along the railroad 's right @-@ of @-@ way . While some communities welcomed the railroad 's expansion plan as an opportunity for increased business within their own cities , other residents and businesses felt that roads in the area were not built with enough overpasses and underpasses to deal with the traffic flow problems that the longer and more frequent unit trains would produce at grade crossings . The objectors cited concerns of the general public in safely and quickly traversing their communities as well as the ability of emergency vehicles to cross the tracks to reach emergency scenes or hospitals . The city of Rochester , Minnesota filed a lawsuit to force the railroad to build a bypass around the city . The bypass was estimated to cost around US $ 100 million .
= = = Further legal actions = = =
After a period of public comment that lasted until March 16 , 2001 , and further review by the STB , the final EIS was issued on November 19 , 2001 . In this final approval , the STB agreed with DM & E that no new bypasses around cities would be required even though the cities of Rochester , Minnesota , Brookings and Pierre , South Dakota , had requested them . In 2003 , a ruling by the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit ordered the STB to re @-@ examine potential environmental issues around Rochester . The STB 's preliminary report , released in early 2005 , noted that no additional steps were needed by the railroad to alleviate noise and vibration caused by the projected increase in train traffic .
The court upheld the STB 's approval with stipulations for the new line 's environmental impact , including the projected increase in the frequency of train horn soundings along the line . From the court 's ruling , the STB prepared a Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement which sets forth mitigation strategies for the railroad . On February 15 , 2006 , the United States Surface Transportation Board ( STB ) announced its final approval of the railroad 's 1998 application .
In April 2004 , DM & E was awarded the power of eminent domain in South Dakota by the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit in Pierre , South Dakota . The ruling overturned part of South Dakota legislation passed in 1999 ( two years after the railroad first announced its intentions to expand ) that would have impaired railroad operations and construction in the state . This decision restores the legal process by which the railroad can effectively force landowners along the proposed new route to sell their land to the railroad .
= = = Funding = = =
With the final EIS in place and approval from the STB , DM & E had the authority to undertake the expansion as proposed , but needed financing . On February 26 , 2007 , the FRA rejected a proposed $ 2 @.@ 3 billion loan to DM & E. In announcing the decision , Administrator Joseph H. Boardman noted that the project proposal met many federal requirements for the loan but cited concerns that the railroad might not be able to handle cost overruns during construction or to repay such a hefty amount after construction is completed .
= = 2002 – 2007 : consolidation with IC & E = =
DM & E hauled nearly 60 @,@ 000 carloads of various freight shipments in fiscal year 2002 , serving approximately 130 customers along the railroad 's mainline . Of these shipments , 53 % were grains or grain products , 24 % were bentonite and kaolin clay , 7 % were cement , and 5 % were wood and lumber products ; the remaining 11 % were split among all other types of freight .
On February 21 , 2002 , DM & E announced that it would purchase the railroad assets of 1 @,@ 700 @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 700 km ) I & M Rail Link ( IMRL ) from its then current owners Washington Corporation . DM & E renamed the IMRL property to Iowa , Chicago and Eastern Railroad ( IC & E ) and began operating it under that name on July 30 , 2002 . Although a purchase price was not stated in the original announcement , an article in the May 2002 Trains Magazine suggests that several industry sources believed the total to be around $ 150 million .
DM & E and IC & E combined management under the holding company Cedar American Rail Holdings . Locomotives of both railroads were given a unified paint scheme ( see below ) and interchanges were streamlined between the two railroads . The administration of both railroads is handled by Cedar , further streamlining processes between the two railroads . As a result , the combined DM & E / IC & E system makes up the largest Class II railroad ( by route @-@ miles ) in the United States ; it is also the eighth largest system of all American railroads and the only system with direct rail connections with all Class I railroads in North America .
In its first twenty years of operations , the railroad 's revenues had increased more than tenfold , from $ 22 million in 1987 to $ 258 million in 2006 , with $ 290 million projected in 2007 and $ 340 million for 2008 . Its operating ratio ( the ratio of operating expenses to revenues ) declined to 70 @.@ 2 % in 2006 and was projected to improve further to 67 @.@ 6 % in 2007 . Its traffic was a mix of agricultural , coal , and industrial products , and ethanol shipments were projected to exceed one billion gallons in 2008 .
= = Acquisition by Canadian Pacific Railway = =
On September 4 , 2007 , the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) announced it was acquiring the DM & E from its owners , London @-@ based Electra Private Equity , for US $ 1 @.@ 48 billion , and future payments of over $ 1 @.@ 0 billion contingent on commencement of construction on the Powder River extension and specified volumes of coal shipments from the Powder River basin . The transaction will include the ICE and other affiliated companies . The merger is an " end @-@ to @-@ end " consolidation ; the lines presently interchange at three points , including the Winona , Minnesota connection between the DM & E 's main line across southern Minnesota and CP 's Chicago main . Kevin Schieffer , president of the DM & E , has called CP the DM & E 's " natural partner " and the transaction a " natural fit " .
The acquisition will give CP access to shipments of agricultural products and ethanol in addition to coal from the Wyoming coal fields . CP has stated its intention to use this purchase to gain access to the Powder River and ship coal to midwestern and eastern utilities . The transaction is subject to approval of the Surface Transportation Board , which is expected to take a year . Securities analysts have stated that competing railroads for Powder River coal , the Union Pacific and BNSF , could challenge the acquisition and delay STB approval , but are unlikely to prevent it . At least until approval is received , the DM & E will continue to operate as a separate entity .
On October 4 , 2007 , CP announced that it has completed the financial transactions to acquire the DM & E and subsidiaries . Control of DM & E has been placed into a voting trust with Richard Hamlin appointed as trustee ; the trust will remain in effect until the STB issues its decision on the acquisition . CP plans to integrate DM & E 's operations once it receives STB approval . CP expected STB approval of the purchase in October 2008 . The STB announced its approval of the purchase plan on September 30 , 2008 , with no conditions other than those that CP had already agreed to in the original plan ; the effective date of the purchase was October 30 , 2008 . CP assumed control of DM & E and IC & E on October 30 , 2008 . CP plans to invest $ 300 million in capital improvements to the former DM & E lines by 2011 .
= = Recent developments = =
On December 3 , 2012 , CP announced it was indefinitely placing on hold plans for building new trackage into the Powder River Basin . The next day the railroad announced its intention to sell the entire ex @-@ DM & E west of Tracy , Minnesota , roughly 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) of track . On January 2 , 2014 CP announced that all track west of Tracy , Minnesota was to be sold to Rapid City , Pierre and Eastern Railroad , a subsidiary of Genesee & Wyoming , a short line operator . The sale was completed on May 30 , 2014 for $ 210 million . Most of the Rapid City , Pierre and Eastern 's employees came over from the DM & E.
= = Subdivisions = =
DM & E operated over twelve subdivisions . The divisions were located in Minnesota , South Dakota , Iowa , and Nebraska .
Waseca Subdivision — Winona to Waseca , Minnesota
Hartland Subdivision — Waseca , Minnesota to Mason City , Iowa
Tracy Subdivision — Waseca to Tracy , Minnesota
Huron Subdivision — Tracy , Minnesota to Huron , South Dakota
Yale Spur Subdivision — Huron to Watertown , South Dakota
Redfield Subdivision — Aberdeen to Wolsey , South Dakota
Mansfield Subdivision — Redfield to Mansfield , South Dakota
Pierre Subdivision — Huron to Pierre , South Dakota
Onida Subdivision — Blunt to Onida , South Dakota
PRC Subdivision — Pierre to Rapid City , South Dakota
Black Hills Subdivision — Bentonite ( at Colony , WY ) to Rapid City to Dakota Junction , Nebraska
Crawford Subdivision — Chadron to Crawford , Nebraska
= = Rolling stock = =
DM & E originally purchased used first @-@ generation locomotives from a variety of railroads ; in the early years it was more common to see a locomotive with a Milwaukee Road or Chicago and North Western Railway paint scheme than a DM & E paint scheme . Over the years , the locomotives were repainted , and many of them are now in DM & E 's paint scheme ( which is closely mirrored by that of sister Iowa , Chicago and Eastern Railroad ) of blue with a yellow stripe along its length .
DM & E eventually assigns names to all of its locomotives when they are repainted , usually after locations along its right @-@ of @-@ way , but a few exceptions have been named for people ( like road number 550 , named after Senator Larry Pressler ) . All of the first @-@ generation diesel locomotives purchased from Chicago and North Western and Milwaukee Road have since been replaced with more recent locomotives , although the newer locomotives were also bought used .
In 1987 , at the railroad 's one @-@ year anniversary , DM & E owned 39 locomotives and leased five more for a total of 44 locomotives rostered . By the railroad 's tenth anniversary in 1996 , DM & E owned 69 locomotives and owned or leased over 1 @,@ 500 cars including over 600 covered hoppers for grain and cement shipments . In 2001 , the number of locomotives owned stayed about the same , while the number of cars increased to about 5 @,@ 000 with 52 % of them in dedicated grain service .
= = Company officers = =
DM & E has had three men serve as president of the railroad :
J. C. ( Pete ) McIntyre ( 1986 – 1996 ) began his railroad career in 1953 , eventually working for Chicago and North Western in the early 1980s . When DM & E was formed in 1986 , McIntyre became the new railroad 's first president .
Kevin V. Schieffer ( 1996 – 2008 ) served as counsel for Senator Larry Pressler starting in 1982 . Schieffer began working with DM & E business in 1983 when he worked to prevent the abandonment of C & NW branch lines that would eventually form the beginnings of DM & E. He initiated the negotiations in 1985 that led to DM & E 's creation . He was promoted to Chief of Staff for Senator Pressler in 1987 , a position he held until 1991 when United States President George H. W. Bush appointed Schieffer to be US Attorney for South Dakota . In 1993 , Schieffer left his US Attorney post and became the legal counsel for DM & E ; as legal counsel for the railroad , he oversaw the railroad 's recapitalization in 1994 and the acquisition of C & NW 's Colony line . He held this position until he was unanimously elected president of the railroad on November 7 , 1996 . Schieffer left the DM & E on October 7 , 2008 , shortly after the Surface Transportation Board approved the proposed purchase of the railroad by Canadian Pacific ; DM & E 's COO Ed Terbell and CFO Kurt Feaster were named to manage the railroad until CP completed the acquisition October 30 , 2008 .
Vern Graham ( 2008 – 2010 ) was appointed president November 5 , 2008 .
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= Javier López ( baseball ) =
Javier Alfonso López ( born July 11 , 1977 ) is a Puerto Rican @-@ born professional baseball pitcher for the San Francisco Giants of Major League Baseball . He is 6 feet 5 inches ( 1 @.@ 96 m ) tall and weighs 220 pounds ( 100 kg ) . López previously pitched for the Colorado Rockies ( 2003 – 2005 ) , Arizona Diamondbacks ( 2005 ) , Boston Red Sox ( 2006 – 09 ) and Pittsburgh Pirates ( 2010 ) . He is a left @-@ handed specialist known for his sidearm delivery . He also bats left @-@ handed .
López attended the University of Virginia , earning a degree in psychology despite leaving early to begin his baseball career . He was selected by the Arizona Diamondbacks in the fourth round of the 1998 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft . He began his career as a starting pitcher but struggled and converted into a sidearm ( or submarine ) reliever while still in the Diamondbacks ' organization . Before the 2003 season , he was selected by the Boston Red Sox in the Rule 5 draft , but he was traded to the Colorado Rockies during spring training . He spent all of 2003 on Colorado 's roster , nearly tying the franchise record for most consecutive batters retired and finishing third among major league rookies in games pitched . He struggled the next two seasons , getting claimed off waivers and later sent to the minors by Arizona in 2005 . In 2006 , he signed with the Chicago White Sox but failed to make the team and spent the first part of the season in the minors before getting traded to Boston during the year .
López served four stints with Boston in 2006 . In 2007 , he had three different stints but appeared in 61 games , posting a 3 @.@ 10 earned run average ( ERA ) . He posted a 15 @.@ 43 ERA in the playoffs but won his first World Series ring as the Red Sox defeated Colorado in four games . In 2008 , he spent the entire season on a major league roster for the first time since 2003 . He posted a 9 @.@ 26 ERA in his first 14 games of 2009 before getting sent to the minors for the rest of the season . In 2010 , he signed with the Pittsburgh Pirates but was traded to the San Francisco Giants during the season . He had his lowest ERA that year ( 2 @.@ 34 ) and won another World Series as the Giants defeated the Texas Rangers to win their first World Series since 1954 . In 2011 , López was one of two major league relief pitchers to throw at least 50 innings without giving up a home run . He won his third World Series in 2012 as the Giants defeated the Detroit Tigers in four games . In 2013 , López posted a career @-@ best 1 @.@ 83 ERA . He won his fourth World Series in 2014 as the Giants defeated the Kansas City Royals in seven games . As of 2014 , he is the only active player to have played on 4 or more World Series championship teams .
= = Early life = =
Although he was born in Puerto Rico , López grew up in Fairfax , Virginia . He and his wife , Renee , attended Robinson Secondary School in Fairfax , Virginia . Growing up , his dream was to be an FBI agent like his father .
López went to college at the University of Virginia ( UVA ) and played for the Virginia Cavaliers baseball team . Through August 2011 , he was one of 29 former UVA players to have made it to the major leagues , along with among others Mark Reynolds , and Ryan Zimmerman . While playing at UVA , he went 12 – 9 with a 6 @.@ 30 earned run average ( ERA ) . As a hitter , he had a batting average of .319 , 15 home runs , and 71 runs batted in ( RBI ) . However , while still at UVA , he discovered that pitching was most likely to get him to the major leagues . Despite leaving college after only three years to play professional baseball , López continued working on his degree in psychology , which he earned in 2002 to fulfill a promise to his father @-@ in @-@ law . He also said , " I had done three years at a great university . I figured I should finish . "
= = Professional career = =
= = = Drafts and minor leagues = = =
After three seasons at UVA , López was drafted by the Arizona Diamondbacks in the fourth round of the 1998 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft . He began his minor league career as a starting pitcher for the South Bend Silver Hawks of the A Midwest League . In 16 games ( 19 starts ) , he had a 2 – 4 record , a 6 @.@ 55 ERA , 31 strikeouts , and 30 walks in 44 innings pitched . He remained at South Bend in 1999 , posting a 4 – 6 record , a 6 @.@ 00 ERA , and 70 strikeouts over 99 innings pitched in 20 starts . In 2000 , López was promoted to the High Desert Mavericks of the A @-@ Advanced California League . In 30 games ( 21 starts ) , he had a 4 – 8 record , a 5 @.@ 22 ERA , 98 strikeouts , and two saves in 136 1 ⁄ 3 innings .
In 2001 , deciding that he would not be able to reach the major leagues as a starter , López converted to a submariner and moved to the bullpen . He said , " I don 't know if that was desperation as much as it was admitting failure . " He began the season with Arizona 's A @-@ Advanced affiliate , which was now the Lancaster JetHawks . In 17 games , he had a 1 – 3 record , a 2 @.@ 62 ERA , 18 strikeouts , and one save in 24 innings pitched . He was promoted to the El Paso Diablos of the AA Texas League that season , where he had a 1 – 0 record , a 7 @.@ 42 ERA , 21 strikeouts , and 40 innings pitched in 22 games ( one start , his last professionally ) . In 2002 , he played in 61 games for El Paso as a reliever , allowing only a .204 opponent batting average . That year , he went 2 – 2 with a 2 @.@ 72 ERA , 47 strikeouts , and six saves in 46 1 ⁄ 3 innings .
= = = Colorado Rockies ( 2003 – 2005 ) = = =
= = = = 2003 = = = =
In December 2002 , the Boston Red Sox selected López in the Rule 5 draft , intending for him to compete for a role as a left @-@ handed specialist in the Red Sox ' bullpen . However , on March 18 he was traded to the Colorado Rockies for a player to be named later ( Ryan Cameron ) . López made the roster and made his MLB debut for the Rockies on Opening Day in 2003 , pitching a scoreless inning in a 10 – 4 loss to the Houston Astros . He got his first major league strikeout in his next game on April 5 , punching out Tony Womack in a 4 – 3 victory over the Diamondbacks . On April 10 , he got his first win , pitching 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings in a 7 – 6 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals . He posted an 0 @.@ 72 ERA , which led all NL relievers , in his first 30 games through June 8 , posting an 18 2 ⁄ 3 innings scoreless streak at the end of that run . However , his ERA jumped up to 3 @.@ 16 on June 12 , when he allowed seven runs in 2 ⁄ 3 of an inning in a 15 – 3 loss to the Minnesota Twins . From July 31 through August 16 , López almost tied a franchise record by retiring 18 straight hitters over the span of 17 days , but he fell short of the record of 21 set by Darren Holmes in 1996 when he intentionally walked Jason Phillips in a 13 – 4 loss to the New York Mets . On August 12 , he recorded his first career save by pitching a scoreless 11th inning in a 6 – 3 victory over the Montreal Expos . He played in 72 games , the third @-@ most among rookies in the major leagues , trailing only Óscar Villareal ( 86 ) and Brad Lidge ( 78 ) . He had a 4 – 1 record , a 3 @.@ 70 ERA , and 1 save .
= = = = 2004 = = = =
López started off badly in 2004 , going 0 – 2 with a 9 @.@ 93 ERA in 46 games by mid @-@ season . He was then sent down to the AAA Colorado Springs Sky Sox of the Pacific Coast League on July 18 . While in AAA , he went 0 – 1 and had a 4 @.@ 00 ERA in eight games . He was called back to the majors on August 10 to replace an injured Aaron Cook and played the rest of the season in Colorado . He pitched better the rest of the season , allowing only two runs for a 1 @.@ 54 ERA in his final 18 games . In 64 games , López had a 1 – 2 record , a 7 @.@ 52 ERA , 20 strikeouts , and no saves in 40 2 ⁄ 3 innings .
= = = = 2005 = = = =
López began 2005 with the Rockies , but after allowing five runs in his first three games ( for a 22 @.@ 50 ERA ) , he was optioned to Colorado Springs on April 11 .
= = = Arizona Diamondbacks ( 2005 ) = = =
Before he could appear in any games with Colorado Springs , López was claimed off waivers by the Arizona Diamondbacks on April 14 . Due to major league rules , Arizona was unable to call him up until April 24 . He had another poor season , having a record of 1 – 1 and an 11 @.@ 02 ERA , the highest in the majors among relievers who made at least 30 appearances . On July 5 , López was designated for assignment to make room on the roster for Armando Almanza . He cleared waivers and was sent down to the Tucson Sidewinders of the Pacific Coast League for the rest of the season . He went 0 – 1 with a 2 @.@ 22 ERA . On October 15 , he was granted free agency .
= = = Chicago White Sox organization ( 2006 ) = = =
López signed a minor league deal for the Chicago White Sox in 2006 . He competed with Boone Logan for the role of left @-@ handed specialist , but Logan won the role , and López was sent to AAA to begin the season . Playing for the Charlotte Knights of the International League , he went 2 – 1 with 12 saves and an 0 @.@ 55 ERA in 26 games .
= = = Boston Red Sox ( 2006 – 2009 ) = = =
= = = = 2006 = = = =
On June 15 , 2006 , López was traded to the Boston Red Sox for David Riske . He posted a 4 @.@ 32 ERA in 14 appearances before getting sent to the Pawtucket Red Sox of the International League on July 17 because it was too " tough " for the Red Sox to carry a left @-@ handed specialist at that point in the season , according to manager Terry Francona . He was called up for two short stints from July 28 through August 1 and from August 20 through 22 , appearing in one game each time . On September 4 , he was recalled for the remainder of the season . In 11 September outings , López allowed only one run . He finished the year going 1 – 0 with a 2 @.@ 70 ERA in 27 games . With Pawtucket , he had no record and a 4 @.@ 86 ERA in 13 games ( 16 2 ⁄ 3 innings ) .
= = = = 2007 = = = =
López made the Red Sox ' Opening Day roster in 2007 , but after four scoreless outings he was optioned to Pawtucket on April 9 to make room for Mike Timlin , who had started the season on the disabled list . He was recalled on May 11 when Devern Hansack was sent down . On this stint , he posted a 3 @.@ 18 ERA in 40 appearances before getting sent down on August 5 to make room for Curt Schilling , who was returning from the disabled list . With the Red Sox about to face several tough left @-@ handed hitters in late August , Jon Lester was sent down on August 23 to make room for López on the roster . In 2007 , López made 61 appearances , posting a 2 – 1 record with a 3 @.@ 10 ERA in 40 2 ⁄ 3 innings . Despite his three stints in the minors , his 61 appearances ranked second on the club to Hideki Okajima 's 66 . He made 17 appearances for Pawtucket , going 2 – 1 with a 3 @.@ 78 ERA . López was a member of the playoff roster for the Red Sox , posting a 15 @.@ 43 ERA but winning his first World Series as the Red Sox swept the Rockies in four games .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
On 18 January 2008 , López agreed to a one @-@ year contract with the Red Sox for $ 840 @,@ 000 , avoiding the arbitration process . In 2008 , López spent the full season on a major league roster for the first time since his rookie year . On June 6 , he threw a career @-@ high three innings , allowing no runs in an 8 – 0 loss to the Seattle Mariners . In 70 games , López had a 2 – 0 record , a 2 @.@ 43 ERA , and 38 strikeouts in 59 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He had the fifth @-@ lowest ERA among major league left @-@ handed relievers and appeared in the fifth @-@ most games of AL left @-@ handers . He had the second @-@ lowest ERA among Red Sox pitchers in 2008 .
López made the playoffs for the second year in a row as the Red Sox won the AL Wild Card . He made one appearance in the AL Division Series ( ALDS ) against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim , taking the loss in Game 3 after giving up a game @-@ winning , twelfth @-@ inning single to Erick Aybar . That was Boston 's only loss of the series , as they defeated the Angels in four games . He made two appearances in the AL Championship Series ( ALCS ) against the Tampa Bay Rays , allowing no runs as the Red Sox were defeated in seven games .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
On April 30 , 2009 , López allowed five runs in 1 ⁄ 3 inning and played the remainder of the eighth inning in right field after Francona switched him with right fielder Jonathan Van Every . This game , a 13 – 0 loss to the Rays , was the first time a Red Sox pitcher had played another position in a major league game since Tom Burgmeier played left field on August 3 , 1980 . On May 10 , López was designated for assignment to make room for pitcher Daniel Bard after he started the year 0 – 2 with a 9 @.@ 26 ERA in 14 games . Shortly thereafter , he was outrighted to the minors . He spent the rest of the season in Pawtucket , going 1 – 1 with a 3 @.@ 18 ERA in 38 games . On October 5 , he was granted free agency . López ended his Red Sox tenure with a string of 152 straight games without a save , the longest stretch for a Red Sox pitcher since Rheal Cormier had 160 in 1995 and from 1999 – 2000 .
= = = Pittsburgh Pirates ( 2010 ) = = =
On December 18 , 2009 , López signed a one @-@ year contract with the Pittsburgh Pirates where he replaced John Grabow , who was traded mid @-@ 2009 , as the Pirates ' left @-@ handed specialist . After posting a 10 @.@ 80 ERA in his first two games , he posted a 2 @.@ 43 ERA over his next 48 through July 31 .
= = = San Francisco Giants ( 2010 – present ) = = =
= = = = 2010 = = = =
On July 31 , 2010 , López was traded to the San Francisco Giants for Joe Martinez and John Bowker . He appeared in 27 games for the Giants , earning a 2 – 0 record with an ERA of 1 @.@ 42 . His combined record of 4 – 2 for the year with both Pittsburgh and San Francisco came in 77 appearances with an ERA of 2 @.@ 34 , both career records . Left @-@ handed batters hit only .162 against López , lowest among all National League left @-@ handers ( minimum 85 at @-@ bats ) . He ended the season five days short of qualifying for free agency .
López reached the playoffs as the Giants won the NL West for the first time since 2003 . He made two appearances in the NLDS against the Atlanta Braves to face Jason Heyward , whom he struck out both times . The Giants won the series in four games . Against the Philadelphia Phillies in the NLCS , he made five appearances , all scoreless except for Game 4 , in which he allowed a run . In the deciding Game 6 , he pitched a scoreless seventh inning and was charged with the win after Juan Uribe hit a game @-@ winning home run against Ryan Madson in the eighth inning . López made two appearances against the Texas Rangers in the 2010 World Series , striking out the two batters he faced . In Game 2 , he struck out Josh Hamilton to end the top of the eighth inning with a runner on second and preserve a 2 – 0 lead , although the Giants went on to win 9 – 0 . He won his second World Series ring as the Giants defeated the Rangers in five games to win their first World Series since 1954 .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
Since joining the Giants in 2010 , López has become one of the premier lefty specialists in the game . On May 12 , 2011 , he recorded his first save since 2006 in a 3 – 2 victory over the Diamondbacks . Following the game , he crossed his arms , imitating Giants ' closer Brian Wilson 's post @-@ save gesture . In 70 games in 2011 , he had a 5 – 2 record , a 2 @.@ 72 ERA , and 40 strikeouts in 50 innings pitched . He and Brad Ziegler were the only relief pitchers in the major leagues to toss at least 50 innings without allowing a home run . His .163 opponent batting average ( OBA ) against left @-@ handers was the eighth @-@ lowest in the NL .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
After the 2011 season , the Giants re @-@ signed López to a two @-@ year , $ 8 @.@ 5 million contract . On July 6 , 2012 , López gave up his first home run since joining the Giants in 2010 when he allowed a 457 @-@ foot home run to Pedro Álvarez in a 6 – 5 victory over the Pirates . That brought his ERA to 4 @.@ 00 , but he posted a 1 @.@ 00 ERA over his last 32 games . Following struggles by Santiago Casilla ( who had replaced an injured Wilson as the Giants ' closer ) , Giants ' manager Bruce Bochy announced on August 7 that the Giants would be going to a " bullpen by committee " strategy , with López , Sergio Romo , and Jeremy Affeldt pitching the final two innings of close games , depending on which hitters they would be facing . Romo and López received most of the save opportunities ; Affeldt only had one save after that point . López received six save opportunities after August 7 and converted each of them . In 70 games , López had a 3 – 0 record , a 2 @.@ 50 ERA , and 28 strikeouts in 36 innings while converting seven out of nine save opportunities . He stranded 87 @.@ 9 % of inherited runners , the third @-@ best mark in the NL . López made five appearances in the NLDS and the NLCS , allowing no runs as the Giants won both of those series . He did not pitch in the World Series but won his third career World Series ring as the Giants swept the Detroit Tigers .
= = = = 2013 = = = =
López recorded his only save of the 2013 season on September 19 , pitching the final 2 ⁄ 3 of the ninth inning in a 2 – 1 victory over the Mets . He made 69 appearances in 2013 , going 4 – 2 with a career @-@ best 1 @.@ 83 ERA and striking out 37 in 39 1 ⁄ 3 innings . He held left @-@ handed hitters to a .156 OBA . On November 20 , 2013 , López was re @-@ signed by the Giants to a three @-@ year , $ 13 million contract .
= = = = 2014 = = = =
López appeared in 65 games in 2014 , recording a 3 @.@ 11 ERA with 22 strikeouts and 19 walks . In the 2014 NLDS , NLCS , and World Series , he recorded 11 outs over nine appearances , allowing 4 hits and a walk . Lopez won his fourth World Series ring as the Giants defeated the Kansas City Royals in seven games .
= = = = 2015 = = = =
In 2015 , López matched his career high with 77 appearances , setting new career @-@ bests with a 1 @.@ 60 ERA and 0 @.@ 890 WHIP . He struck out 26 batters in 391 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .
= = Pitching style = =
López 's main pitch is a two @-@ seam fastball in the low 80s , and his secondary pitch is a slider in the high 70s . Against left @-@ handed hitters he will sometimes mix in a curveball . López 's distinctive sidearm delivery makes him appealing as a left @-@ handed specialist ; through the 2013 season , lefties have hit only .209 against him , while righties have hit .297 .
After López struggled to begin his professional career , throwing over the top , he decided he needed to change his style . In the Diamondbacks ' system in 2002 , with the help of Mike Myers , he began throwing sidearm ( or submarine ) , which Andy Baggarly called " a decision that changed his life . "
= = Personal life = =
López is married to Renée Richards , with whom he attended high school and college . The couple has two children : Kylan ( March 19 , 2010 ) and Christian ( October 26 , 2012 ) . Because López was in the 2012 World Series when Christian was born , he had to fly back home for the birth between Games 2 and 3 . He and his family reside in Denver , Colorado . López is a Christian . He says , " I do everything through faith , for sure . "
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= Domitian =
Domitian ( / dəˈmɪʃən , -iən / ; Latin : Titus Flavius Caesar Domitianus Augustus ; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96 ) was Roman emperor from 81 to 96 . Domitian was the third and last emperor of the Flavian dynasty .
Domitian 's youth and early career were largely spent in the shadow of his brother Titus , who gained military renown during the First Jewish – Roman War . This situation continued under the rule of his father Vespasian , who became emperor in 69 following the civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors . While Titus held a great many offices under the rule of his father , Domitian was left with honours but no responsibilities . Vespasian died in 79 and was succeeded by Titus , whose own reign came to an unexpected end when he was struck by a fatal illness in 81 . The following day Domitian was declared Emperor by the Praetorian Guard , commencing a reign that lasted fifteen years – longer than any man who had ruled since Tiberius .
As Emperor , Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the Roman coinage , expanded the border defenses of the Empire , and initiated a massive building program to restore the damaged city of Rome . Significant wars were fought in Britain , where his general Agricola attempted to conquer Caledonia ( Scotland ) , and in Dacia , where Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against king Decebalus . Domitian 's government exhibited totalitarian characteristics ; he saw himself as the new Augustus , an enlightened despot destined to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of brilliance . Religious , military , and cultural propaganda fostered a cult of personality , and by nominating himself perpetual censor , he sought to control public and private morals . As a consequence , Domitian was popular with the people and army but considered a tyrant by members of the Roman Senate .
Domitian 's reign came to an end in 96 when he was assassinated by court officials . The same day he was succeeded by his advisor Nerva . After his death , Domitian 's memory was condemned to oblivion by the Roman Senate , while senatorial authors such as Tacitus , Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories propagating the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant . Modern revisionists have instead characterized Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat whose cultural , economic and political program provided the foundation of the peaceful 2nd century .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family = = =
Domitian was born in Rome on 24 October 51 , the youngest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus — commonly known as Vespasian — and Flavia Domitilla Major . He had an older sister , Domitilla the Younger , and brother , also named Titus Flavius Vespasianus .
Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome , which a new Italian nobility gradually replaced in prominence during the early part of the 1st century . One such family , the Flavians , or gens Flavia , rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations , acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty . Domitian 's great @-@ grandfather , Titus Flavius Petro , had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar 's civil war . His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC .
Nevertheless , Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla , whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro 's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I , Domitian 's grandfather . Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia ( modern Switzerland ) . By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied the Flavian family to the more prestigious gens Vespasia , ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to senatorial rank .
The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor , aedile , and praetor , and culminated with a consulship in 51 , the year of Domitian 's birth . As a military commander , Vespasian gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43 . Nevertheless , ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian 's upbringing , even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula ( 37 – 41 ) and Nero ( 54 – 68 ) . Modern history has refuted these claims , suggesting these stories later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty and to maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius ( 41 – 54 ) and his son Britannicus .
By all appearances , the Flavians enjoyed high imperial favour throughout the 40s and 60s . While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus , Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career . Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s , he returned to public office under Nero , serving as proconsul of the Africa province in 63 , and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of Greece in 66 .
The same year the Jews of the Judaea province revolted against the Roman Empire in what is now known as the First Jewish @-@ Roman War . Vespasian was assigned to lead the Roman army against the insurgents , with Titus — who had completed his military education by this time — in charge of a legion .
= = = Youth and character = = =
By the time he was 6 years old , Domitian 's mother and sister had long since died , while his father and brother were continuously active in the Roman military , commanding armies in Germania and Judaea . For Domitian , this meant that a significant part of his adolescence was spent in the absence of his near relatives . During the Jewish @-@ Roman wars , he was likely taken under the care of his uncle Titus Flavius Sabinus II , at the time serving as city prefect of Rome ; or possibly even Marcus Cocceius Nerva , a loyal friend of the Flavians and the future successor to Domitian .
He received the education of a young man of the privileged senatorial class , studying rhetoric and literature . In his biography in the Lives of the Twelve Caesars , Suetonius attests to Domitian 's ability to quote the important poets and writers such as Homer or Virgil on appropriate occasions , and describes him as a learned and educated adolescent , with elegant conversation . Among his first published works were poetry , as well as writings on law and administration .
Unlike his brother Titus , Domitian was not educated at court . Whether he received formal military training is not recorded , but according to Suetonius , he displayed considerable marksmanship with the bow and arrow . A detailed description of Domitian 's appearance and character is provided by Suetonius , who devotes a substantial part of his biography to his personality .
He was tall of stature , with a modest expression and a high colour . His eyes were large , but his sight was somewhat dim . He was handsome and graceful too , especially when a young man , and indeed in his whole body with the exception of his feet , the toes of which were somewhat cramped . In later life he had the further disfigurement of baldness , a protruding belly , and spindling legs , though the latter had become thin from a long illness .
Suetonius , De Vita Caesarum , " Life of Domitian " , 18
Domitian was allegedly extremely sensitive regarding his baldness , which he disguised in later life by wearing wigs . According to Suetonius , he even wrote a book on the subject of hair care . With regard to Domitian 's personality , however , the account of Suetonius alternates sharply between portraying Domitian as the emperor @-@ tyrant , a man both physically and intellectually lazy , and the intelligent , refined personality drawn elsewhere .
Historian Brian Jones concludes in The Emperor Domitian that assessing the true nature of Domitian 's personality is inherently complicated by the bias of the surviving sources . Common threads nonetheless emerge from the available evidence . He appears to have lacked the natural charisma of his brother and father . He was prone to suspicion , displayed an odd , sometimes self @-@ deprecating sense of humour , and often communicated in cryptic ways .
This ambiguity of character was further exacerbated by his remoteness , and as he grew older , he increasingly displayed a preference for solitude , which may have stemmed from his isolated upbringing . Indeed , by the age of eighteen nearly all of his closest relatives had died by war or disease . Having spent the greater part of his early life in the twilight of Nero 's reign , his formative years would have been strongly influenced by the political turmoil of the 60s , culminating with the civil war of 69 , which brought his family to power .
= = Rise of the Flavian dynasty = =
= = = Year of the Four Emperors = = =
On 9 June 68 , amid growing opposition of the Senate and the army , Nero committed suicide and with him the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty came to an end . Chaos ensued , leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors , during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire — Galba , Otho , Vitellius and Vespasian — successively vied for imperial power .
News of Nero 's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem . Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba , then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis ( modern northern Spain ) , as Emperor of Rome . Rather than continue his campaign , Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor .
Before reaching Italy , Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho , the governor of Lusitania ( modern Portugal ) . At the same time Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt and prepared to march on Rome , intent on overthrowing Otho . Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other , Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea .
Otho and Vitellius realized the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction . With four legions at his disposal , Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80 @,@ 000 soldiers . His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt , which controlled the grain supply to Rome . His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II , as city prefect , commanded the entire city garrison of Rome . Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high but so long as either Galba or Otho remained in power , Vespasian refused to take action .
When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum , the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69 . Vespasian accepted and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus , the governor of Syria , against Vitellius . A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus , while Vespasian travelled to Alexandria , leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion .
In Rome , Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius , as a safeguard against Flavian aggression . Support for the old emperor waned as more legions around the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian . On 24 October 69 , the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian met at the Second Battle of Bedriacum , which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius .
In despair , Vitellius attempted to negotiate a surrender . Terms of peace , including a voluntary abdication , were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II but the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard — the imperial bodyguard — considered such a resignation disgraceful and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty . On the morning of 18 December , the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord but at the last minute retraced his steps to the Imperial palace . In the confusion , the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus ' house , proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor , but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus , who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill .
During the night , he was joined by his relatives , including Domitian . The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day . On 19 December , Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol and in a skirmish , Sabinus was captured and executed . Domitian managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis and spent the night in safety with one of his father 's supporters , Cornelius Primus .
By the afternoon of 20 December , Vitellius was dead , his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions . With nothing more to be feared , Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces ; he was universally saluted by the title of Caesar and the mass of troops conducted him to his father 's house . The following day , 21 December , the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire .
= = = Aftermath of the war = = =
Although the war had officially ended , a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius . Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70 but Vespasian did not enter Rome until September of that year . In the meantime , Domitian acted as the representative of the Flavian family in the Roman Senate . He received the title of Caesar and was appointed praetor with consular power .
The ancient historian Tacitus describes Domitian 's first speech in the Senate as brief and measured , at the same time noting his ability to elude awkward questions . Domitian 's authority was merely nominal , however , foreshadowing what was to be his role for at least ten more years . By all accounts , Mucianus held the real power in Vespasian 's absence and he was careful to ensure that Domitian , still only eighteen years old , did not overstep the boundaries of his function . Strict control was also maintained over the young Caesar 's entourage , promoting away Flavian generals such as Arrius Varus and Antonius Primus and replacing them by more reliable men such as Arrecinus Clemens .
Equally curtailed by Mucianus were Domitian 's military ambitions . The civil war of 69 had severely destabilized the provinces , leading to several local uprisings such as the Batavian revolt in Gaul . Batavian auxiliaries of the Rhine legions , led by Gaius Julius Civilis , had rebelled with the aid of a faction of Treveri under the command of Julius Classicus . Seven legions were sent from Rome , led by Vespasian 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Quintus Petillius Cerialis .
Although the revolt was quickly suppressed , exaggerated reports of disaster prompted Mucianus to depart the capital with reinforcements of his own . Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory and joined the other officers with the intention of commanding a legion of his own . According to Tacitus , Mucianus was not keen on this prospect but since he considered Domitian a liability in any capacity that was entrusted to him , he preferred to keep him close at hand rather than in Rome .
When news arrived of Cerialis ' victory over Civilis , Mucianus tactfully dissuaded Domitian from pursuing further military endeavours . Domitian then wrote to Cerialis personally , suggesting he hand over command of his army but , once again , he was snubbed . With the return of Vespasian in late September , his political role was rendered all but obsolete and Domitian withdrew from government devoting his time to arts and literature .
= = = Marriage = = =
Where his political and military career had ended in disappointment , Domitian 's private affairs were more successful . In 70 Vespasian attempted to arrange a dynastic marriage between his youngest son and the daughter of Titus , Julia Flavia , but Domitian was adamant in his love for Domitia Longina , going so far as to persuade her husband , Lucius Aelius Lamia , to divorce her so that Domitian could marry her himself . Despite its initial recklessness , the alliance was very prestigious for both families . Domitia Longina was the younger daughter of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo , a respected general and honoured politician who had distinguished himself for his leadership in Armenia . Following the failed Pisonian conspiracy against Nero in 65 , he had been forced to commit suicide . The new marriage not only re @-@ established ties to senatorial opposition , but also served the broader Flavian propaganda of the time , which sought to diminish Vespasian 's political success under Nero . Instead connections to Claudius and Britannicus were emphasised , and Nero 's victims , or those otherwise disadvantaged by him , rehabilitated .
In 80 , Domitia and Domitian 's only attested son was born . It is not known what the boy 's name was , but he died in childhood in 83 . Shortly following his accession as Emperor , Domitian bestowed the honorific title of Augusta upon Domitia , while their son was deified , appearing as such on the reverse of coin types from this period . Nevertheless , the marriage appears to have faced a significant crisis in 83 . For reasons unknown , Domitian briefly exiled Domitia , and then soon recalled her , either out of love or due to rumours that he was carrying on a relationship with his niece Julia Flavia . Jones argues that most likely he did so for her failure to produce an heir . By 84 , Domitia had returned to the palace , where she lived for the remainder of Domitian 's reign without incident . Little is known of Domitia 's activities as Empress , or how much influence she wielded in Domitian 's government , but it seems her role was limited . From Suetonius , we know that she at least accompanied the Emperor to the amphitheatre , while the Jewish writer Josephus speaks of benefits he received from her . It is not known whether Domitian had other children , but he did not marry again . Despite allegations by Roman sources of adultery and divorce , the marriage appears to have been happy .
= = = Ceremonial heir ( 71 – 81 ) = = =
Prior to becoming Emperor , Domitian 's role in the Flavian government was largely ceremonial . In June 71 , Titus returned triumphant from the war in Judaea . Ultimately , the rebellion had claimed the lives of over 1 million people , a majority of whom were Jewish . The city and temple of Jerusalem were completely destroyed , its most valuable treasures carried off by the Roman army , and nearly 100 @,@ 000 people were captured and enslaved .
For his victory , the Senate awarded Titus a Roman triumph . On the day of the festivities , the Flavian family rode into the capital , preceded by a lavish parade that displayed the spoils of the war . The family procession was headed by Vespasian and Titus , while Domitian , riding a magnificent white horse , followed with the remaining Flavian relatives .
Leaders of the Jewish resistance were executed in the Forum Romanum , after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter . A triumphal arch , the Arch of Titus , was erected at the south @-@ east entrance to the Forum to commemorate the successful end of the war .
Yet the return of Titus further highlighted the comparative insignificance of Domitian , both militarily and politically . As the eldest and most experienced of Vespasian 's sons , Titus shared tribunician power with his father , received seven consulships , the censorship , and was given command of the Praetorian Guard ; powers that left no doubt he was the designated heir to the Empire . As a second son , Domitian held honorary titles , such as Caesar or Princeps Iuventutis , and several priesthoods , including those of augur , pontifex , frater arvalis , magister frater arvalium , and sacerdos collegiorum omnium , but no office with imperium .
He held six consulships during Vespasian 's reign but only one of these , in 73 , was an ordinary consulship . The other five were less prestigious suffect consulships , which he held in 71 , 75 , 76 , 77 and 79 respectively , usually replacing his father or brother in mid @-@ January . While ceremonial , these offices no doubt gained Domitian valuable experience in the Roman Senate , and may have contributed to his later reservations about its relevance .
Under Vespasian and Titus , non @-@ Flavians were virtually excluded from the important public offices . Mucianus himself all but disappeared from historical records during this time , and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77 . Real power was unmistakably concentrated in the hands of the Flavian faction ; the weakened Senate only maintained the facade of democracy .
Because Titus effectively acted as co @-@ emperor with his father , no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred when Vespasian died on 23 June 79 . Titus assured Domitian that full partnership in the government would soon be his , but neither tribunician power nor imperium of any kind was conferred upon him during Titus ' brief reign . The new Emperor was not eager to alter this arrangement : he was under forty and at the height of his power .
Two major disasters struck during 79 and 80 . On 24 August 79 , Mount Vesuvius erupted , burying the surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under metres of ash and lava ; the following year , a fire broke out in Rome that lasted three days and that destroyed a number of important public buildings . Consequently , Titus spent much of his reign coordinating relief efforts and restoring damaged property . On 13 September 81 after barely two years in office , he unexpectedly died of fever during a trip to the Sabine territories .
Ancient authors have implicated Domitian in the death of his brother , either by directly accusing him of murder , or implying he left the ailing Titus for dead , even alleging that during his lifetime , Domitian was openly plotting against his brother . It is difficult to assess the factual veracity of these statements given the known bias of the surviving sources . Brotherly affection was likely at a minimum , but this was hardly surprising , considering that Domitian had barely seen Titus after the age of seven .
Whatever the nature of their relationship , Domitian seems to have displayed little sympathy when his brother lay dying , instead making for the Praetorian camp where he was proclaimed emperor . The following day , 14 September , the Senate confirmed Domitian 's powers , granting tribunician power , the office of Pontifex Maximus , and the titles of Augustus , and Pater Patriae .
= = Emperor ( 81 – 96 ) = =
= = = Rule = = =
As Emperor , Domitian quickly dispensed with the republican facade his father and brother had maintained during their reign . By moving the centre of government ( more or less formally ) to the imperial court , Domitian openly rendered the Senate 's powers obsolete . In his view , the Roman Empire was to be governed as a divine monarchy with himself as the benevolent despot at its head .
In addition to exercising absolute political power , Domitian believed the Emperor 's role encompassed every aspect of daily life , guiding the Roman people as a cultural and moral authority . To usher in the new era , he embarked on ambitious economic , military and cultural programs with the intention of restoring the Empire to the splendour it had seen under the Emperor Augustus .
Despite these grand designs Domitian was determined to govern the Empire conscientiously and scrupulously . He became personally involved in all branches of the administration : edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law , while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced . According to Suetonius , the imperial bureaucracy never ran more efficiently than under Domitian , whose exacting standards and suspicious nature maintained historically low corruption among provincial governors and elected officials .
Although he made no pretence regarding the significance of the Senate under his absolute rule , those senators he deemed unworthy were expelled from the Senate , and in the distribution of public offices he rarely favoured family members ; a policy that stood in contrast to the nepotism practiced by Vespasian and Titus . Above all , however , Domitian valued loyalty and malleability in those he assigned to strategic posts , qualities he found more often in men of the equestrian order than in members of the Senate or his own family , whom he regarded with suspicion , and promptly removed from office if they disagreed with imperial policy .
The reality of Domitian 's autocracy was further highlighted by the fact that , more than any emperor since Tiberius , he spent significant periods of time away from the capital . Although the Senate 's power had been in decline since the fall of the Republic , under Domitian the seat of power was no longer even in Rome , but rather wherever the Emperor was . Until the completion of the Flavian Palace on the Palatine Hill , the imperial court was situated at Alba or Circeii , and sometimes even farther afield . Domitian toured the European provinces extensively , and spent at least three years of his reign in Germania and Illyricum , conducting military campaigns on the frontiers of the Empire .
= = = Economy = = =
Domitian 's tendency towards micromanagement was nowhere more evident than in his financial policy . The question of whether Domitian left the Roman Empire in debt or with a surplus at the time of his death has been fiercely debated . The evidence points to a balanced economy for the greater part of Domitian 's reign . Upon his accession he revalued the Roman currency dramatically . He increased the silver purity of the denarius from 90 % to 98 % — the actual silver weight increasing from 2 @.@ 87 grams to 3 @.@ 26 grams . A financial crisis in 85 forced a devaluation of the silver purity and weight to 93 @.@ 5 % and 3 @.@ 04 grams respectively .
Nevertheless , the new values were still higher than the levels that Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reigns . Domitian 's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years . Coinage from this era displays a highly consistent degree of quality including meticulous attention to Domitian 's titulature and refined artwork on the reverse portraits .
Jones estimates Domitian 's annual income at more than 1 @.@ 2 billion sestertii , of which over one @-@ third would presumably have been spent maintaining the Roman army . The other major expense was the extensive reconstruction of Rome . At the time of Domitian 's accession the city was still suffering from the damage caused by the Great Fire of 64 , the civil war of 69 and the fire in 79 .
Much more than a renovation project , Domitian 's building program was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire @-@ wide cultural renaissance . Around fifty structures were erected , restored or completed , achievements second only to those of Augustus . Among the most important new structures were an odeon , a stadium , and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill known as the Flavian Palace , which was designed by Domitian 's master architect Rabirius .
The most important building Domitian restored was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill , said to have been covered with a gilded roof . Among those completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus , the Arch of Titus and the Colosseum , to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area .
In order to appease the people of Rome an estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives , or congiaria , throughout Domitian 's reign . The Emperor also revived the practice of public banquets , which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero , while he invested large sums on entertainment and games . In 86 he founded the Capitoline Games , a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays , chariot racing , and competitions for oratory , music and acting .
Domitian himself supported the travel of competitors from all corners of the Empire to Rome and distributed the prizes . Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games such as naval contests , nighttime battles , and female and dwarf gladiator fights . Lastly , he added two new factions to the chariot races , Gold and Purple , to race against the existing White , Red , Green and Blue factions .
= = = Military campaigns = = =
The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian 's reign were generally defensive in nature , as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare . His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus , which encompassed a vast network of roads , forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire . Nevertheless , several important wars were fought in Gaul , against the Chatti , and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi , the Sarmatians , and the Dacians .
The conquest of Britain continued under the command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola , who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia , or modern day Scotland . Domitian also founded a new legion in 82 , the Legio I Minervia , to fight against the Chatti . Domitian is also credited on the easternmost evidence of Roman presence , the rock inscription near Boyukdash mountain , in present @-@ day Azerbaijan . As judged by the carved titles of Caesar , Augustus and Germanicus , the related march took place between 84 and 96 AD .
Domitian 's administration of the Roman army was characterized by the same fastidious involvement he exhibited in other branches of the government . His competence as a military strategist was criticized by his contemporaries however . Although he claimed several triumphs , these were largely propaganda manoeuvres . Tacitus derided Domitian 's victory against the Chatti as a " mock triumph " , and criticized his decision to retreat in Britain following the conquests of Agricola .
Nevertheless , Domitian appears to have been very popular among the soldiers , spending an estimated three years of his reign among the army on campaigns — more than any emperor since Augustus — and raising their pay by one @-@ third . While the army command may have disapproved of his tactical and strategic decisions , the loyalty of the common soldier was unquestioned .
= = = = Campaign against the Chatti = = = =
Once Emperor , Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military glory . As early as 82 , or possibly 83 , he went to Gaul , ostensibly to conduct a census , and suddenly ordered an attack on the Chatti . For this purpose , a new legion was founded , Legio I Minervia , which constructed some 75 kilometres ( 46 mi ) of roads through Chattan territory to uncover the enemy 's hiding places .
Although little information survives of the battles fought , enough early victories were apparently achieved for Domitian to be back in Rome by the end of 83 , where he celebrated an elaborate triumph and conferred upon himself the title of Germanicus . Domitian 's supposed victory was much scorned by ancient authors , who described the campaign as " uncalled for " , and a " mock triumph " . The evidence lends some credence to these claims , as the Chatti would later play a significant role during the revolt of Saturninus in 89 .
= = = = Conquest of Britain ( 77 – 84 ) = = = =
One of the most detailed reports of military activity under the Flavian dynasty was written by Tacitus , whose biography of his father @-@ in @-@ law Gnaeus Julius Agricola largely concerns the conquest of Britain between 77 and 84 . Agricola arrived c . 77 as governor of Roman Britain , immediately launching campaigns into Caledonia ( modern Scotland ) .
In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then . He fortified the coast facing Ireland , and Tacitus recalls that his father @-@ in @-@ law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries . He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest . This conquest never happened , but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small @-@ scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland .
Turning his attention from Ireland , the following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia . To aid the advance , a large legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil . In the summer of 84 , Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians , led by Calgacus , at the Battle of Mons Graupius . Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the enemy , two @-@ thirds of the Caledonian army escaped and hid in the Scottish marshes and Highlands , ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control .
In 85 , Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian , having served for more than six years as governor , longer than normal for consular legates during the Flavian era . Tacitus claims that Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola 's successes outshone the Emperor 's own modest victories in Germania . The relationship between Agricola and the Emperor is unclear : on the one hand , Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue , on the other , Agricola never again held a civil or military post in spite of his experience and renown . He was offered the governorship of the province of Africa but declined it , either due to ill health or , as Tacitus claims , the machinations of Domitian .
Not long after Agricola 's recall from Britain , the Roman Empire entered into war with the Kingdom of Dacia in the East . Reinforcements were needed , and in 87 or 88 , Domitian ordered a large @-@ scale strategic withdrawal of troops in the British province . The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled and the Caledonian forts and watchtowers abandoned , moving the Roman frontier some 120 kilometres ( 75 mi ) further south . The army command may have resented Domitian 's decision to retreat , but to him the Caledonian territories never represented anything more than a loss to the Roman treasury .
= = = = Dacian wars ( 85 – 88 ) = = = =
The most significant threat the Roman Empire faced during the reign of Domitian arose from the northern provinces of Illyricum , where the Suebi , the Sarmatians and the Dacians continuously harassed Roman settlements along the Danube river . Of these , the Sarmatians and the Dacians posed the most formidable threat . In approximately 84 or 85 the Dacians , led by King Decebalus , crossed the Danube into the province of Moesia , wreaking havoc and killing the Moesian governor Oppius Sabinus .
Domitian quickly launched a counteroffensive , personally travelling to the region accompanied by a large force commanded by his praetorian prefect Cornelius Fuscus . Fuscus successfully drove the Dacians back across the border in mid @-@ 85 , prompting Domitian to return to Rome and celebrate his second triumph .
The victory proved short @-@ lived , however : as early in 86 Fuscus embarked on an ill @-@ fated expedition into Dacia , which resulted in the complete destruction of the fifth legion , Legio V Alaudae , in the First Battle of Tapae . Fuscus was killed , and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard was lost . The loss of the battle standard , or aquila , was indicative of a crushing defeat and a serious affront to Roman national pride .
Domitian returned to Moesia in August 86 . He divided the province into Lower Moesia and Upper Moesia , and transferred three additional legions to the Danube . In 87 , the Romans invaded Dacia once more , this time under the command of Tettius Julianus , and finally defeated Decebalus in late 88 at the same site where Fuscus had previously perished . An attack on the Dacian capital Sarmizegetusa was forestalled when new troubles arose on the German frontier in 89 .
In order to avert having to conduct a war on two fronts , Domitian agreed to terms of peace with Decebalus , negotiating free access of Roman troops through the Dacian region while granting Decebalus an annual subsidy of 8 million sesterces . Contemporary authors severely criticized this treaty , which was considered shameful to the Romans and left the deaths of Sabinus and Fuscus unavenged . For the remainder of Domitian 's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom , but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses .
Domitian probably wanted a new war against the Dacians , and reinforced Upper Moesia with two more cavalry units brought from Syria and with at least five cohorts brought from Pannonia . Trajan continued Domitian 's policy and added two more units to the auxiliary forces of Upper Moesia , and then he used the build up of troops for his Dacian wars . Eventually the Romans achieved a decisive victory against Decebalus in 106 . Again , the Roman army sustained heavy losses , but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and , importantly , annexed the Dacian gold and silver mines .
= = = Religious policy = = =
Domitian firmly believed in the traditional Roman religion , and personally saw to it that ancient customs and morals were observed throughout his reign . In order to justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule , Domitian emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter , perhaps most significantly through the impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill . A small chapel dedicated to Jupiter Conservator was also constructed near the house where Domitian had fled to safety on 20 December 69 . Later in his reign , he replaced it with a more expansive building , dedicated to Jupiter Custos .
The goddess he worshipped the most zealously , however , was Minerva . Not only did he keep a personal shrine dedicated to her in his bedroom , she regularly appeared on his coinage — in four different attested reverse types — and he founded a legion , Legio I Minervia , in her name .
Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult , which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian . Significantly , his first act as an Emperor was the deification of his brother Titus . Upon their deaths , his infant son , and niece , Julia Flavia , were likewise enrolled among the gods . With regards to the emperor himself as a religious figure , both Suetonius and Cassius Dio allege that Domitian officially gave himself the title of Dominus et Deus . However , not only did he reject the title of Dominus during his reign , but since he issued no official documentation or coinage to this effect , historians such as Brian Jones contend that such phrases were addressed to Domitian by flatterers who wished to earn favors from the emperor .
To foster the worship of the imperial family , he erected a dynastic mausoleum on the site of Vespasian 's former house on the Quirinal , and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus , a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother . To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family , he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Templum Fortuna Redux , and completed the Arch of Titus .
Construction projects such as these constituted only the most visible part of Domitian 's religious policy , which also concerned itself with the fulfilment of religious law and public morals . In 85 , he nominated himself perpetual censor , the office that held the task of supervising Roman morals and conduct . Once again , Domitian acquitted himself of this task dutifully , and with care . He renewed the Lex Iulia de Adulteriis Coercendis , under which adultery was punishable by exile . From the list of jurors he struck an equestrian who had divorced his wife and taken her back , while an ex @-@ quaestor was expelled from the Senate for acting and dancing .
Domitian also heavily prosecuted corruption among public officials , removing jurors if they accepted bribes and rescinding legislation when a conflict of interest was suspected . He ensured that libellous writings , especially those directed against himself , were punishable by exile or death . Actors were likewise regarded with suspicion , as their performances provided an opportunity for satire at the expense of the government . Consequently , he forbade mimes from appearing on stage in public .
In 87 , Vestal Virgins were found to have broken their sacred vows of lifelong public chastity . As the Vestals were regarded as daughters of the community , this offense essentially constituted incest . Accordingly , those found guilty of any such transgression were condemned to death , either by a manner of their choosing , or according to the ancient fashion , which dictated that Vestals should be buried alive .
Foreign religions were tolerated insofar as they did not interfere with public order , or could be assimilated with the traditional Roman religion . The worship of Egyptian deities in particular flourished under the Flavian dynasty , to an extent not seen again until the reign of Commodus . Veneration of Serapis and Isis , who were identified with Jupiter and Minerva respectively , was especially prominent .
4th century writings by Eusebius of Caesarea maintain that Jews and Christians were heavily persecuted toward the end of Domitian 's reign . The Book of Revelation is thought by some to have been written during this period . Although Jews were heavily taxed , no contemporary authors mention trials or executions based on religious offenses other than those within the Roman religion .
= = = Opposition = = =
= = = = Revolt of Governor Saturninus ( 89 ) = = = =
On 1 January 89 , the governor of Germania Superior , Lucius Antonius Saturninus , and his two legions at Mainz , Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax , revolted against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Germanic Chatti people . The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain , although it appears to have been planned well in advance . The Senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian 's military strategies , such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack , as well as his recent retreat from Britain , and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus .
At any rate , the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus ' province , and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces . The governor of Germania Inferior , Lappius Maximus , moved to the region at once , assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia , Titus Flavius Norbanus . From Spain , Trajan was summoned , while Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard .
By a stroke of luck , a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus ' aid . Within twenty @-@ four days the rebellion was crushed , and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished . The mutinous legions were sent to the front in Illyricum , while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded .
Lappius Maximus received the governorship of the province of Syria , a consulship in May 95 , and finally a priesthood , which he still held in 102 . Titus Flavius Norbanus may have been appointed to the prefecture of Egypt , but almost certainly became prefect of the Praetorian Guard by 94 , with Titus Petronius Secundus as his colleague . Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the consulship with Marcus Cocceius Nerva , suggesting the latter had played a part in uncovering the conspiracy , perhaps in a fashion similar to the one he played during the Pisonian conspiracy under Nero .
Although little is known about the life and career of Nerva before his accession as Emperor in 96 , he appears to have been a highly adaptable diplomat , surviving multiple regime changes and emerging as one of the Flavians ' most trusted advisors . His consulship may therefore have been intended to emphasize the stability and status quo of the regime . The revolt had been suppressed and the Empire returned to order .
= = = = Relationship with the Senate = = = =
Since the fall of the Republic , the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi @-@ monarchical system of government established by Augustus , known as the Principate . The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime , while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic . Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy , and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor 's status as a de facto monarch .
Some rulers handled this arrangement with less subtlety than others . Domitian was not so subtle . From the outset of his reign , he stressed the reality of his autocracy . He disliked aristocrats and had no fear of showing it , withdrawing every decision @-@ making power from the Senate , and instead relying on a small set of friends and equestrians to control the important offices of state .
The dislike was mutual . After Domitian 's assassination , the senators of Rome rushed to the Senate house , where they immediately passed a motion condemning his memory to oblivion . Under the rulers of the Nervan @-@ Antonian dynasty , senatorial authors published histories that elaborated on the view of Domitian as a tyrant .
Nevertheless , the evidence suggests that Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion . Whereas his father and brother had concentrated consular power largely in the hands of the Flavian family , Domitian admitted a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship , allowing them to head the official calendar by opening the year as an ordinary consul . Whether this was a genuine attempt to reconcile with hostile factions in the Senate cannot be ascertained . By offering the consulship to potential opponents , Domitian may have wanted to compromise these senators in the eyes of their supporters . When their conduct proved unsatisfactory , they were almost invariably brought to trial and exiled or executed , and their property was confiscated .
Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian 's reign , identifying a point of sharp increase around 93 , or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89 . At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed , including Domitia Longina 's former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia and three of Domitian 's own family members , Titus Flavius Sabinus IV , Titus Flavius Clemens and Marcus Arrecinus Clemens . Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85 however , lending little credit to Tacitus ' notion of a " reign of terror " late in Domitian 's reign . According to Suetonius , some were convicted for corruption or treason , others on trivial charges , which Domitian justified through his suspicion :
He used to say that the lot of Emperors was most unfortunate , since when they discovered a conspiracy , no one believed them unless they had been murdered .
Suetonius , De Vita Caesarum , " Life of Domitian " , 21
Jones compares the executions of Domitian to those under Emperor Claudius ( 41 – 55 ) , noting that Claudius executed around 35 senators and 300 equestrians , and yet was still deified by the Senate and regarded as one of the good Emperors of history . Domitian was apparently unable to gain support among the aristocracy , despite attempts to appease hostile factions with consular appointments . His autocratic style of government accentuated the Senate 's loss of power , while his policy of treating patricians and even family members as equals to all Romans earned him their contempt .
= = Death and succession = =
= = = Assassination ( 96 ) = = =
Domitian was assassinated on 18 September 96 , in a palace conspiracy organized by court officials . A highly detailed account of the plot and the assassination is provided by Suetonius , who alleges that Domitian 's chamberlain Parthenius was the chief instigator behind the conspiracy , citing the recent execution of Domitian 's secretary Epaphroditus as the primary motive . The murder itself was carried out by a freedman of Parthenius named Maximus , and a steward of Domitian 's niece Flavia Domitilla , named Stephanus .
The precise involvement of the Praetorian Guard is less clear . At the time the Guard was commanded by Titus Flavius Norbanus and Titus Petronius Secundus and the latter was almost certainly aware of the plot . Cassius Dio , writing nearly a hundred years after the assassination , includes Domitia Longina among the conspirators , but in light of her attested devotion to Domitian — even years after her husband had died — her involvement in the plot seems highly unlikely .
Dio further suggests that the assassination was improvised , while Suetonius implies a well @-@ organized conspiracy . For some days before the attack took place , Stephanus feigned an injury so as to be able to conceal a dagger beneath his bandages . On the day of the assassination the doors to the servants ' quarters were locked while Domitian 's personal weapon of last resort , a sword he concealed beneath his pillow , had been removed in advance .
In accordance with an astrological prediction the Emperor believed that he would die around noon , and was therefore restless during this time of the day . On his last day , Domitian was feeling disturbed and asked a servant several times what time it was . The boy , included in the plot , lied , saying that it was much later than noon . More at ease , the Emperor went to his desk to sign some decrees , where he was suddenly approached by Stephanus :
Then pretending to betray a conspiracy and for that reason being given an audience , [ Stephanus ] stabbed the emperor in the groin as he was reading a paper which the assassin handed him , and stood in a state of amazement . As the wounded prince attempted to resist , he was slain with seven wounds by Clodianus , a subaltern , Maximus , a freedman of Parthenius , Satur , decurion of the chamberlains , and a gladiator from the imperial school .
Suetonius , De Vita Caesarum , " Life of Domitian " , 17
Domitian and Stephanus wrestled on the ground for some time , until the Emperor was finally overpowered and fatally stabbed by the conspirators ; Stephanus was stabbed by Domitian during the struggle and died shortly afterward . Around noon Domitian , just one month short of his 45th birthday , was dead . His body was carried away on a common bier , and unceremoniously cremated by his nurse Phyllis , who later mingled the ashes with those of his niece Julia , at the Flavian temple .
According to Suetonius , a number of omens had foretold Domitian 's death . Several days prior to the assassination , Minerva had appeared to him in a dream , announcing she had been disarmed by Jupiter and would no longer be able to protect him .
= = = Succession and aftermath = = =
The Fasti Ostienses , the Ostian Calendar , records that the same day the Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor . Despite his political experience , this was a remarkable choice . Nerva was old and childless , and had spent much of his career out of the public light , prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian 's assassination .
According to Cassius Dio , the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination , suggesting that he was at least aware of the plot . He does not appear in Suetonius ' version of the events , but this may be understandable , since his works were published under Nerva 's direct descendants Trajan and Hadrian . To suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder would have been less than sensitive .
On the other hand , Nerva lacked widespread support in the Empire , and as a known Flavian loyalist , his track record would not have recommended him to the conspirators . The precise facts have been obscured by history , but modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate , within hours after the news of the assassination broke . The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war , but neither appears to have been involved in the conspiracy .
The Senate nonetheless rejoiced at the death of Domitian , and immediately following Nerva 's accession as Emperor , passed damnatio memoriae on his memory : his coins and statues were melted , his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records . Domitian and , over a century later Publius Septimius Geta , were the only emperors known to have officially received a damnatio memoriae , though others may have received de facto ones . In many instances , existing portraits of Domitian , such as those found on the Cancelleria Reliefs , were simply recarved to fit the likeness of Nerva , which allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material . Yet the order of the Senate was only partially executed in Rome , and wholly disregarded in most of the provinces outside Italy .
According to Suetonius , the people of Rome met the news of Domitian 's death with indifference , but the army was much grieved , calling for his deification immediately after the assassination , and in several provinces rioting . As a compensation measure , the Praetorian Guard demanded the execution of Domitian 's assassins , which Nerva refused . Instead he merely dismissed Titus Petronius Secundus , and replaced him with a former commander , Casperius Aelianus .
Dissatisfaction with this state of affairs continued to loom over Nerva 's reign , and ultimately erupted into a crisis in October 97 , when members of the Praetorian Guard , led by Casperius Aelianus , laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage . He was forced to submit to their demands , agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian 's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians . Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius were sought out and killed . Nerva was unharmed in this assault , but his authority was damaged beyond repair . Shortly thereafter he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor , and with this decision all but abdicated .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Ancient sources = = =
The classic view of Domitian is usually negative , since most of the antique sources were related to the Senatorial or aristocratic class , with which Domitian had notoriously difficult relations . Furthermore , contemporary historians such as Pliny the Younger , Tacitus and Suetonius all wrote down the information on his reign after it had ended , and his memory had been condemned to oblivion . The work of Domitian 's court poets Martial and Statius constitutes virtually the only literary evidence concurrent with his reign . Perhaps as unsurprising as the attitude of post @-@ Domitianic historians , the poems of Martial and Statius are highly adulatory , praising Domitian 's achievements as equalling those of the gods .
The most extensive account of the life of Domitian to survive was written by the historian Suetonius , who was born during the reign of Vespasian , and published his works under Emperor Hadrian ( 117 – 138 ) . His De Vita Caesarum is the source of much of what is known of Domitian . Although his text is predominantly negative , it neither exclusively condemns nor praises Domitian , and asserts that his rule started well , but gradually declined into terror . The biography is problematic however , in that it appears to contradict itself with regards to Domitian 's rule and personality , at the same time presenting him as a conscientious , moderate man , and as a decadent libertine .
According to Suetonius , Domitian wholly feigned his interest in arts and literature , and never bothered to acquaint himself with classic authors . Other passages , alluding to Domitian 's love of epigrammatic expression , suggest that he was in fact familiar with classic writers , while he also patronized poets and architects , founded artistic Olympics , and personally restored the library of Rome at great expense after it had burned down .
De Vita Caesarum is also the source of several outrageous stories regarding Domitian 's marriage life . According to Suetonius , Domitia Longina was exiled in 83 because of an affair with a famous actor named Paris . When Domitian found out , he allegedly murdered Paris in the street and promptly divorced his wife , with Suetonius further adding that once Domitia was exiled , Domitian took Julia as his mistress , who later died during a failed abortion .
Modern historians consider this highly implausible however , noting that malicious rumours such as those concerning Domitia 's alleged infidelity were eagerly repeated by post @-@ Domitianic authors , and used to highlight the hypocrisy of a ruler publicly preaching a return to Augustan morals , while privately indulging in excesses and presiding over a corrupt court . Nevertheless , the account of Suetonius has dominated imperial historiography for centuries .
Although Tacitus is usually considered to be the most reliable author of this era , his views on Domitian are complicated by the fact that his father @-@ in @-@ law , Gnaeus Julius Agricola , may have been a personal enemy of the Emperor . In his biographical work Agricola , Tacitus maintains that Agricola was forced into retirement because his triumph over the Caledonians highlighted Domitian 's own inadequacy as a military commander . Several modern authors such as Dorey have argued the opposite : that Agricola was in fact a close friend of Domitian , and that Tacitus merely sought to distance his family from the fallen dynasty once Nerva was in power .
Tacitus ' major historical works , including The Histories and Agricola 's biography , were all written and published under Domitian 's successors Nerva ( 96 – 98 ) and Trajan ( 98 – 117 ) . Unfortunately , the part of Tacitus ' Histories dealing with the reign of the Flavian dynasty is almost entirely lost . His views on Domitian survive through brief comments in its first five books , and the short but highly negative characterization in Agricola in which he severely criticizes Domitian 's military endeavours . Nevertheless , Tacitus admits his debt to the Flavians with regard to his own public career .
Other influential 2nd century authors include Juvenal and Pliny the Younger , the latter of whom was a friend of Tacitus and in 100 delivered his famous Panygericus Traiani before Trajan and the Roman Senate , exalting the new era of restored freedom while condemning Domitian as a tyrant . Juvenal savagely satirized the Domitianic court in his Satires , depicting the Emperor and his entourage as corrupt , violent and unjust . As a consequence , the anti @-@ Domitianic tradition was already well established by the end of the 2nd century , and by the 3rd century , even expanded upon by early Church historians , who identified Domitian as an early persecutor of Christians , such as in the Acts of John .
= = = Modern revisionism = = =
Hostile views of Domitian were propagated until well into the early 20th century , before archeological and numismatic advances brought renewed attention to his reign , and necessitated a revision of the literary tradition established by Tacitus and Pliny . In 1930 , Ronald Syme argued a complete reassessment of Domitian 's financial policy , which had until then been largely viewed as a disaster , opening his paper with the following introduction :
The work of the spade and the use of common sense have done much to mitigate the influence of Tacitus and Pliny and redeem the memory of Domitian from infamy or oblivion . But much remains to be done .
Ronald Syme , Imperial finances under Domitian , Nerva and Trajan
Over the course of the 20th century , Domitian 's military , administrative and economic policies were re @-@ evaluated . New book length studies were not published until the 1990s however , nearly a hundred years after Stéphane Gsell 's Essai sur le règne de l 'empereur Domitien ( 1894 ) . The most important of these was The Emperor Domitian , by Brian W. Jones . In his monograph , Jones concludes that Domitian was a ruthless , but efficient autocrat . For the majority of his reign , there was no widespread dissatisfaction with the emperor or his rule . His harshness was felt by only a small , but highly vocal minority , who later exaggerated his despotism in favour of the well @-@ regarded Nervan @-@ Antonian dynasty that followed .
Domitian 's foreign policy was realistic , rejecting expansionist warfare and negotiating peace at a time when Roman military tradition dictated aggressive conquest . His economic program , which was rigorously efficient , maintained the Roman currency at a standard it would never again achieve . Persecution of religious minorities , such as Jews and Christians , was non @-@ existent . Domitian 's government nonetheless exhibited totalitarian characteristics . As Emperor , he saw himself as the new Augustus , an enlightened despot destined to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of Flavian renaissance .
Religious , military and cultural propaganda fostered a cult of personality . He deified three of his family members and erected massive structures to commemorate the Flavian achievements . Elaborate triumphs were celebrated in order to boost his image as a warrior @-@ emperor , but many of these were either unearned or premature . By nominating himself perpetual censor , he sought to control public and private morals .
He became personally involved in all branches of the government and successfully prosecuted corruption among public officials . The dark side of his censorial power involved a restriction in freedom of speech , and an increasingly oppressive attitude toward the Roman Senate . He punished libel with exile or death and , due to his suspicious nature , increasingly accepted information from informers to bring false charges of treason if necessary .
Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death , his administration provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century . His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive , but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian 's . Much more than a " gloomy coda to the ... 1st century " the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96 , in a reign that Theodor Mommsen described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian .
= = In later arts = =
= = = Literature = = =
The Roman Actor ( 1626 ) , a play by Philip Massinger that features Domitian as the main character .
Josephus and the Emperor ( 1942 ; earlier Der Tag wird kommen ) , historical novel by Lion Feuchtwanger , in which a cruel and hypocritical Domitian suggests the tyranny of Adolf Hitler .
The Ravishers ( 1980 ) , a historical romance by Jeanne Duval , about a Gallic princess who is enslaved in Rome and survives the Year of the Four Emperors
The Marcus Didius Falco series of crime novels ( 1989 — ) by Lindsey Davis , set during the reign of Vespasian . Domitian appears as a peripheral character , and is named as the primary suspect in the murder being investigated in the first novel , Silver Pigs .
The companion series , featuring Falco 's adoptive daughter , Flavia Albia , takes place during the reign of Domitian .
Master and God ( 2012 ) , a historical novel by Davis centers around the reign of Domitian .
The Light Bearer ( 1994 ) , a historical novel by Donna Gillespie .
Domitia and Domitian ( 2000 ) , a historical novel by David Corson based on the works of Brian Jones and Pat Southern , revolving around the title characters .
The Roman Mysteries series of young adult novels by Caroline Lawrence features Domitian as a peripheral character , in which he is depicted as indolent and cruel , and responsible for several plots to undermine his brother Titus 's popularity ;
Mistress of Rome ( 2010 ) , an historical novel by Kate Quinn where Domitian 's skills as an emperor are tarnished by his personal cruelty and suspicion towards those around him .
Roman Hell ( 2010 ) , a historical novel by Mark Mellon , fictionalizes the rise and fall of Domitian and suggests he may have had a role in his brother 's death .
Roman Games : A Plinius Secundus Mystery ( 2010 ) , a crime novel by Bruce Macbain , featuring Pliny the Younger ;
Blood of Caesar , a crime novel by Albert Bell , Junior , featuring Pliny as detective with the historian Tacitus as his sidekick , during Domitian 's reign ;
Empire ( 2010 ) , an epic novel of imperial Rome by Steven Saylor depicting four generations of a Roman family and their relationships with every emperor from Augustus to Hadrian , with Domitian as a major character .
" Los Asesinos del Emperador " ( 2011 ) , a novel ( in Spanish ) by Spanish writer Santiago Posteguillo .
= = = Painting = = =
The Triumph of Titus by Lawrence Alma @-@ Tadema ( 1885 ) . Oil on canvas . Private collection . This painting depicts the triumphal procession of Titus and his family . Alma @-@ Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world . Vespasian , dressed as Pontifex Maximus , walks at the head of his family , followed by Domitian and his first wife Domitia Longina , who he had only recently married . Behind Domitian follows Titus , dressed in religious regalia . An exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair upon which historians have speculated .
= = = Film and television = = =
La Rivolta dei Pretoriani ( The Revolt of the Praetorians , 1964 ) , Italian film directed by Alfonso Brescia , concerning a fictional plot to overthrow Domitian ( Piero Lulli ) , who has grown into a cruel and murderous despot , which is in the end joined by the Praetorian Guard .
Dacii ( 1967 ) , Romanian film directed by Sergiu Nicolaescu about the Dacian campaign of Domitian , with György Kovács as Domitian .
Age of Treason ( 1993 ) , English television film , featuring Marcus Didius Falco from the crime novels by Lindsey Davis . The story is set during the reign of Vespasian , with Domitian , played by Jamie Glover , as a peripheral character .
San Giovanni - L 'apocalisse ( 2003 ) , English telefilm concerning the purported persecution of Christians under Domitian , who is played by Bruce Payne .
The Roman Mysteries , a TV miniseries based on the novels by Caroline Lawrence - Domitian appears in the episode , The Assassins of Rome , portrayed by Duncan Duff .
= = Ancestry = =
= = = Secondary material = = =
Donahue , John ( 1997 @-@ 10 @-@ 10 ) . " Titus Flavius Domitianus ( A.D. 81 – 96 ) " . De Imperatoribus Romanis : An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families . Retrieved 2007 @-@ 02 @-@ 10 .
A private collection of silver coins minted by Domitian
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= The Boat Race 1861 =
The 18th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 16 March 1861 . Held annually , The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge . The 1861 event , which featured the first ever non @-@ British competitor , suffered numerous interruptions from river traffic . Oxford won by 16 lengths .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Oxford by one length in the previous year 's race and led overall with ten wins to Oxford 's seven .
The challenge to race was sent from Oxford in the October term which was accepted by Cambridge . Both boats were built specifically for the race , Cambridge 's by Searle and Oxford 's by Salter . Oxford were " occasionally looked after " by H. Baxter , who rowed in the 1860 race , and C. G. Lane who represented the Dark Blues in the 1858 and 1859 races . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 4 @.@ 875 lb ( 71 @.@ 9 kg ) , 0 @.@ 875 pounds ( 0 @.@ 4 kg ) per rower more than their Dark Blue opposition . George Morrison returned to the Oxford crew , having rowed in the previous year 's race . Cambridge saw Chaytor , Blake , Coventry and Hall return . The race featured the first non @-@ British rower in the history of the event : William Robertson of Wadham College , Oxford was educated at Geelong Grammar School in Australia before representing the Dark Blues at number four .
= = Race = =
As a result of strong winds and a large volume of land water running into the river , the race was re @-@ scheduled for 11am . Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey station to Oxford . The starter , Edward Searle , gave the command to start , with neither boat taking an early advantage . By the Star and Garter pub , Cambridge had edged ahead and spurted to take a half @-@ length lead and by the Duke 's Head pub , the Light Blues had moved further in front . A steering error from Gaskell , the Cambridge cox , saw their lead eroded such that Oxford led by Craven Cottage . At the football ground , rough water created by one of the nearby steamboats ( who , according to MacMichael , had " shamefully put her paddle @-@ wheels into motion " ) caused a swell to slow the Oxford boat .
The Dark Blue crew 's rhythm combined with more poor steering from Cambridge allowed Oxford to pull away , three lengths ahead by the Crab Tree and six by Hammersmith Bridge . Further interruption to Cambridge 's passage came from a sailing barge which they forced to steer around , and by Chiswick , they were ten lengths behind . Oxford suffered briefly at the hands of a barge blocking their route but by Barnes Bridge were at least twelve lengths ahead . They passed the flag boat ( indicating the finish of the race ) at the Ship Tavern in a time of 23 minutes 30 seconds , and a lead of 16 lengths . It was the largest winning margin since the 1841 race and would be the first in a series of nine consecutive victories for Oxford .
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= Tropical Storm Dean ( 1983 ) =
Tropical Storm Dean caused minor flooding along portions of the East Coast of the United States in September 1983 . The seventh tropical cyclone and fourth named storm the 1983 Atlantic hurricane season , Dean developed from a frontal low to the northeast of the Bahamas on September 26 . Initially subtropical , it gained characteristics of a tropical cyclone while tracking slowly north @-@ northeastward . By September 27 , the system was reclassified as Tropical Storm Dean . While tracking northward on September 28 , Dean peaked with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , shortly before curving west @-@ northwestward and slowly leveling @-@ off in intensity . Eventually , Dean made landfall in Virginia on the Delmarva Peninsula on September 29 as a weakening tropical storm . Dean rapidly weakened over land and was no longer classifiable as a tropical cyclone by early on October 1 .
Offshore Virginia , swells generated by the storm stranded a tugboat and injured two people . Waves along the coast also caused beach erosion , especially in Virginia and North Carolina . Inland , effects were minor and generally limited to mostly light rainfall . More than 100 campers on the Outer Banks of North Carolina were forced to evacuate due to flooding on North Carolina Highway 12 . Although near @-@ hurricane @-@ force wind gusts pelted coastal areas of Virginia and North Carolina , wind damage from the storm was minimal . The remnants of the storm brought rainfall to portions of New England , especially to Connecticut , where precipitation from the storm peaked at 4 @.@ 62 in ( 117 mm ) . Damage from the storm was unknown , but presumed to be minimal .
= = Meteorological history = =
A frontal cloud band moved offshore the East Coast of the United States on September 22 . During the next few days , the cloud band became stationary while stretching from The Bahamas to northeast of Bermuda . Around that time , a 1 @,@ 035 mbar ( 30 @.@ 6 inHg ) high pressure stalled over the Northeastern United States , producing a strong pressure gradient and gale force winds over the East Coast of the United States . While located about 455 mi ( 732 km ) east of Vero Beach , Florida , a low @-@ level circulation developed within the frontal cloud band on September 26 . At around 1800 UTC that day , the NHC classified the system as a subtropical storm , due to a ship report of gale force winds 230 mi ( 370 km ) from the center . Initially , it tracked north @-@ northeastward under the influence of the frontal cloud band that spawned the storm . The wind field quickly condensed , while the storm itself separated from the frontal cloud band . As a result , it was re @-@ classified as Tropical Storm Dean at 1800 UTC on September 27 while approximately 575 mi ( 925 km ) east of Jacksonville , Florida . The National Hurricane Center , which initiated advisories on the storm at 2200 UTC on the same day , indicated that a weak ridge to the north and a cold low moving offshore of the Southeastern United States would cause Dean to move slowly and possibly curve northwestward .
Early on September 28 , a reconnaissance aircraft recorded Dean 's minimum barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Although forecast models initially indicated that the storm would continue northeastward , they quickly switched to a westward movement on September 29 . After curving northwestward later that day , Dean attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , as reported by a ship . While a reconnaissance aircraft flew into Dean north of center late on September 29 , it reported hurricane @-@ force wind gusts . However , the storm soon began to weaken . At around 1200 UTC on September 30 , Dean made landfall in Virginia on the Delmarva Peninsula with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Operationally , the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories four hours after Dean struck the state . At 1800 UTC on September 30 , the storm weakened to a tropical depression . At 0000 UTC on October 1 , Dean became unidentifiable as a tropical cyclone while located over Virginia near the mouth of the Potomac River . The remnants continued northwestward , before curving to the northeast while near the border of Virginia and West Virginia . It crossed the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England before re @-@ emerging into the Atlantic Ocean near Boston , Massachusetts . By October 2 , the remnants of Dean had dissipated just offshore of the East Coast of the United States .
= = Preparations and impact = =
As Dean approached the United States , numerous gale warnings were issued . Many of these warnings were issued from North Carolina up to Rhode Island . Small craft advisories were also raised along much of the eastern seaboard , covering places between Cape Cod , Massachusetts to Jupiter Inlet , Florida . In Norfolk , Virginia , the naval station was placed under " hurricane condition 3 " , meaning that destructive winds were anticipated within 48 hours . In parts of North Carolina , residents were urged to prepare for the storm and remain out of the rough coastal waters .
As the storm moved inland over Virginia , its outer bands and high winds prompted more than 100 campers on Ocracoke Island and Cape Hatteras to evacuate after 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water flooded North Carolina Highway 12 . Along the coast , wave between 6 and 10 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 and 3 @.@ 0 m ) were measured . Minor beach erosion ensued , although some beaches lost as much as 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) of sand . Squall lines associated with Dean brought near @-@ hurricane @-@ force wind gusts and brief , heavy rainfall . Winds caused little effect other than isolated power outages , especially on the Outer Banks . Aside from the minor damage caused by Dean , there was also a positive side to the storm . Throughout coastal waters off North Carolina , king mackerel appeared in near @-@ record numbers , improving the local fishing industry . Some catchers stated that they were finding some fish weighing up to 30 lb ( 14 kg ) .
About 300 mi ( 480 km ) off the coast of Virginia , large swells from Dean stranded a tugboat on September 29 with six people on board . Two of the crew were injured during the incident ; however , they were not seriously hurt . The ship was towed to Cape May , New Jersey later that day by the United States Coast Guard . Waves up to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) caused beach erosion across the Virginia coastline . In addition to minor erosion , waves caused " slight flooding " at Buckroe Beach , totaling to $ 500 to $ 5 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1983 USD ) . Although winds were estimated to have been around 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) as the storm moved inland , structural damage was minimal . Many areas near Dean 's path experienced light rainfall of 1 to 3 in ( 25 to 76 mm ) of rain , especially in Virginia where the statewide peak was 1 @.@ 29 in ( 33 mm ) in Richmond .
In Maryland , thousands of tons of sand was removed by rough seas near Ocean City ; beach erosion also occurred at nearby Assateague Island . Additionally , wind gusts between 50 and 55 mph ( 80 and 89 km / h ) resulted in minor damage , while minimal flooding was reported following rainfall . Damage in Maryland was light , totaling to between $ 500 and $ 5 @,@ 000 ( 1983 USD ) . Minor effects were reported in Delaware , limited to winds gusts up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , which caused the loss of tons of sand along beaches . In coastal New Jersey , locally heavy rainfall resulted in traffic jams , downed power lines , and numerous commuting problems . In some areas of New York , especially in the southeastern portions of the state , rainfall exceeding 2 in ( 51 mm ) in 24 hours flooded roadways and delayed trains . The remnants of Dean dropped light precipitation in New England . Rainfall from the storm peaked at 4 @.@ 62 in ( 117 mm ) at the Cockaponset Ranger Station in Connecticut .
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= 1869 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1869 Atlantic hurricane season was the earliest season in the Atlantic hurricane database in which there were at least ten tropical cyclones . Initially there were only three known storms in the year , but additional research uncovered the additional storms . Meteorologist Christopher Landsea estimates up to six storms may remain missing from the official database for each season in this era , due to small tropical cyclone size , sparse ship reports , and relatively unpopulated coastlines . All activity occurred in a three @-@ month period between the middle of August and early October .
Out of the ten tropical storms , seven reached hurricane intensity , of which four made landfall on the United States . The strongest hurricane was a Category 3 on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale which struck New England at that intensity , one of four storms to do so . It left heavy damage , killing at least one person . The most notable hurricane of the season was the Saxby Gale , which was predicted nearly a year in advance . The hurricane was one of six to produce hurricane force winds in Maine , where it left heavy damage and flooding . The Saxby Gale left 37 deaths along its path , with its destruction greatest along the Bay of Fundy ; there , the hurricane produced a 70 @.@ 9 ft ( 21 @.@ 6 m ) high tide near the head of the bay .
= = Timeline = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
The first tropical cyclone of the season was observed on August 12 , about 500 mi ( 800 km ) southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . Its entire track was unknown , and its existence was only confirmed for 24 hours , based on three ship reports . The second , a barque , the Prinze Frederik Carl , sustained damage to all of its sails . The Hurricane Research Division ( HRD ) assessed the storm to have moved northeastward in its limited duration , and based on the ship reports estimated peak winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) ; this would make it a Category 2 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
By August 16 , a strong hurricane was located in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico south of Louisiana . With estimated winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , it tracked westward and struck Texas on Matagorda Island before passing near Refugio . The hurricane quickly weakened over land and dissipated late on August 17 . Damage from the hurricane was heaviest in Refugio and Indianola . In the latter city , strong waves damaged wharves and boats while the storm surge flooded the streets with about 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water . Intense winds knocked down several houses as well as a church , and many buildings lost their roofs . In Sabine Pass , the winds ruined a variety of fruit crops .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
The third hurricane of the season was only known due to it affecting one ship . A vessel in the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company reported a hurricane on August 27 , about halfway between Bermuda and the Azores . The storm was estimated to have been moving north @-@ northwestward with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , although its entire track is unknown .
= = = Tropical Storm Four = = =
A tropical storm was first observed on September 1 to the east of the Bahamas . There , it left heavy damage to a brig sailing from Nassau to New York . The storm tracked generally northeastward , damaging another ship on September 2 near Bermuda .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
On September 4 , a hurricane was located in the northern Gulf of Mexico , moving north @-@ northwestward . The next day , it moved ashore in southeastern Louisiana with winds estimated at 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , passing west of New Orleans . It dissipated early on September 6 . The hurricane dropped heavy rainfall along its path that caused flooding . In addition , strong winds uprooted trees and damaged fences . High tides flooded Grand Isle with 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
On September 7 , three ships observed hurricane force winds over the western Atlantic Ocean , between the Bahamas and Bermuda . The storm moved northward , impacting several other ships as it paralleled the east coast of the United States ; one of them reported a pressure of 956 mbar ( 28 @.@ 24 inHg ) , which indicated the system was an intense hurricane . Late on September 8 , it reached a peak intensity of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) with a pressure of 950 mbar ( 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) . After brushing Long Island , the hurricane weakened slightly and made landfall on southwestern Rhode Island at peak intensity . It was one of four hurricanes , along with the 1938 New England hurricane , the 1944 Great Atlantic hurricane , and Hurricane Carol in 1954 , to strike New England as a major hurricane , or Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale .
At landfall , the hurricane was compact , estimated around 60 mi ( 97 km ) wide . However , less than 10 miles ( 16 km ) west of the center , there were no strong winds . The hurricane produced a storm surge of 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) , which was lessened due to it moving ashore at low tide . In Providence , Rhode Island , high waves damaged coastal wharves and left flooding . The hurricane weakened quickly over land , passing just west of Boston early on September 9 as a minimal hurricane . There , the winds downed many trees and left severe damage . All telegraph lines between New York and Boston were cut , although the storm did produce beneficial heavy rainfall . Shortly thereafter it dissipated over Maine . There was one confirmed death in Massachusetts . Offshore Maine , a schooner capsized , killing all but one in the crew .
= = = Hurricane Seven = = =
A ship about halfway between South America and Cape Verde reported a hurricane on September 11 . The storm tracked generally west @-@ northwestward , affecting several other ships with damaging winds . On September 15 , a ship traveling from St. Thomas to England encountered the hurricane and observed a minimum barometric pressure of 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 90 inHg ) ; this suggested peak winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . By September 16 the hurricane had weakened slightly as its track turned to the north and northeast . It was last observed on September 18 to the west of the Azores as a tropical storm .
= = = Tropical Storm Eight = = =
The only basis for identifying the eighth tropical cyclone of the season was from a report by the bark Crescent Wave . On September 14 , the ship encountered strong winds and heavy rainfall about halfway between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . At the time , the storm was at least 600 mi ( 970 km ) east of the previous hurricane .
= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =
On October 1 , the brig Jenny observed " a revolting gale lasting 3 days " off the south coast of Puerto Rico , which indicated a tropical storm in the region . Despite being located near several islands in the Caribbean , no land stations experienced any effects from the storm .
= = = Hurricane Ten = = =
The final hurricane of the season was first observed on October 4 by a ship off the southeast coast of North Carolina . With winds estimated at 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , the storm tracked northeastward , passing just east of Martha 's Vineyard before moving across Cape Cod late on October 4 . As it moved along the coast , the storm produced heavy precipitation , reaching 12 @.@ 25 in ( 311 mm ) in Canton , Connecticut . The strongest winds did not affect Massachusetts , although a few hours later the hurricane struck just east of Portland , Maine at peak intensity . This made it one of six storms to produce hurricane @-@ force winds in Maine , along with Hurricane Carol in 1953 , Hurricane Edna in 1954 , Hurricane Donna in 1960 , Hurricane Gerda in 1969 , and Hurricane Gloria in 1985 . In Maine , the high rainfall caused widespread flooding , while the high winds destroyed at least 90 houses . The hurricane quickly weakened over land , and after turning northeastward into Atlantic Canada dissipated on October 5 near the Gulf of St. Lawrence .
The hurricane was referred as Saxby 's Gale after Lieutenant S.M. Saxby of the Royal Navy predicted in November 1868 that an unusually violent storm would produce very high tides on October 5 ; he did not specify the location , however . Although heavy damage occurred in New England , the devastation was greatest in Atlantic Canada along the Bay of Fundy . The hurricane produced a storm surge of around 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) , which , in combination with the winds , the low pressure , and being in a region of naturally occurring high tides , produced a 70 @.@ 9 ft ( 21 @.@ 6 m ) high tide near the head of the bay . The high tides surpassed the dykes across New Brunswick and left widespread flooding , killing many cattle and sheep and washing away roads . In the Cumberland Basin , the floods washed two boats about 3 mi ( 5 km ) inland . In Moncton , water levels rose about 6 @.@ 6 ft ( 2 m ) higher than the previous highest level . There were 37 deaths between Maine , New Brunswick , and New York .
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= Bjaðmunjo Mýrjartaksdóttir =
Bjaðmunjo Mýrjartaksdóttir ( also known in Old Norse as Bjaðmynja ; and in Gaelic as Ben Muman , Bé Binn , Blathmuine , and Bláthmín ; fl . 1102 / 1103 ) was a daughter of a Muirchertach Ua Briain , High King of Ireland . In 1102 whilst still a child , she was married to Sigurðr , son of Magnús Óláfsson , King of Norway . At this time , Magnús appears to have been in the process of setting up his son as king over the Earldom of Orkney , the Kingdom of the Isles , and the Kingdom of Dublin . The marriage itself temporarily bound Muirchertach and Magnús together as allies before the latter 's death the following year . Sigurðr thereupon repudiated Bjaðmunjo , and left for Scandinavia , where he proceeded to share the Norwegian kingship with his brothers .
= = Background = =
Bjaðmunjo was a daughter of Muirchertach Ua Briain , High King of Ireland ( died 1119 ) . In the late eleventh century , following the death of his father , Muirchertach seized control of the Kingdom of Munster and moved to extend his authority throughout Ireland as High King of Ireland . In so doing , he gained control of the Norse @-@ Gaelic Kingdom of Dublin , and as a result began to extend his influence into the nearby Kingdom of the Isles . There is uncertainty concerning the political situation in the Isles in the last decade of the eleventh century . What is known for sure is that , before the end of the century , Magnús Óláfsson , King of Norway ( died 1103 ) led a marauding fleet from Scandinavia into the Irish Sea region , where he held power until his death in 1103 .
The catalyst for this Norwegian intervention may have been the extension of Muirchertach 's influence into the Irish Sea region following the death of Gofraid Crobán , King of the Isles ( died 1095 ) . The region itself appears to have degenerated into chaos following Gofraid 's demise , and Magnús seems to have taken it upon himself to reassert Norwegian authority . Magnús made two expeditions into the Irish Sea region . One arrived in 1098 ; the other in 1102 . The focus of the second overseas operation appears to have been Ireland itself . Following an apparent Norwegian conquest of Dublin , Magnús and Muirchertach negotiated a peace agreement , sealed through the marriage of Magnús ' son , Sigurðr ( died 1130 ) , and Bjaðmunjo herself .
= = Marriage = =
The marriage agreement between Magnús and Muirchertach is noted in several sources . The Annals of Inisfallen and the Annals of the Four Masters reveal that the marriage to place in 1102 . Other sources reporting the marriage include Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum , Orkneyinga saga , and Magnúss saga berfœtts within Heimskringla . The forms of Bjaðmunjo 's name in these Scandinavian sources ( Bjaðmunjo and Bjaðmynja ) suggest that they may represent the Gaelic Bé Binn , a name known to have been borne by other members of the Uí Briain . Other Gaelic names equated to that of Bjaðmunjo include Ben Muman , Blathmuine , and Bláthmín . Sigurðr was apparently twelve @-@ years @-@ old at the time of the marriage , although Bjaðmunjo 's age is uncertain . The remarkably young age of the newlyweds , and the fact that the union is recorded at all in historical sources , suggests that a dynastic marriage was required for the conclusion of peace between their fathers .
There seems to be some confusion in several historical sources regarding the marriage . For example , the twelfth @-@ century monk Ordericus Vitalis ( died 1142 × ) claimed that Magnús himself married the daughter of an Irish king in about 1093 . According to Morkinskinna , Magnús was at one point set to marry a certain Maktildr , described as an " emperor 's daughter " . It is possible that Maktildr represents Matilda ( died 1118 ) , a woman who was a sister of the reigning Étgar mac Maíl Choluim , King of Scotland ( died 1107 ) , and who is known to have married Henry I , King of England ( died 1135 ) in 1110 . In fact , the episode concerning Magnús and Maktildr in Morkinskinna may have influenced the erroneous claim preserved by the same source and Fagrskinna purporting that Sigurðr married a daughter of Máel Coluim mac Donnchada , King of Scotland . At about the same time as the marriage between Bjaðmunjo and Sigurðr , the former 's father secured yet another marital alliance through another daughter and Arnulf de Montgomery , Earl of Pembroke ( died 1118 × 1122 ) , an English magnate in the midst of a revolt against the reigning King of England .
= = Ramifications = =
Just prior to the settlement of peace between the Uí Briain and the Norwegians , Muirchertach was not only contending with the arrival of Magnús , but was also locked in an extended struggle with Domnall Mac Lochlainn , King of Cenél nEógain ( died 1121 ) . The agreement of a year 's peace between Muirchertach and Magnús , however , turned Magnús from an enemy into an ally . Whilst Magnús appears to have intended for Sigurðr to rule over his recently @-@ won overseas territories — a region stretching from Orkney to Dublin — Muirchertach appears to have intended to exert influence into the Isles through his new son @-@ in @-@ law . In fact , during the following year , Muirchertach and Magnús cooperated in military operations throughout Ireland . Unfortunately for Muirchertach , and his long @-@ term ambitions in Ireland and the Isles , Magnús was slain in Ulster in 1103 . Thereupon Morkinskinna and Fagrskinna reveal that Sigurðr immediately repudiated Bjaðmunjo — their marriage apparently having been unconsummated — and returned to Norway . There Sigurðr proceeded to share the Norwegian kingship with his two brothers , Eysteinn ( died 1123 ) and Óláfr ( died 1115 ) . It would over one hundred and fifty years until another King of Norway ventured into the Isles .
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= Danton @-@ class battleship =
The Danton @-@ class battleship was a class of six pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the French Navy ( Marine Nationale ) before World War I. The ships were assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet after commissioning in 1911 . After the beginning of World War I in early August 1914 , five of the sister ships participated in the Battle of Antivari . They spent most of the rest of the war blockading the Straits of Otranto and the Dardanelles to prevent warships of the Central Powers from breaking out into the Mediterranean . One ship was sunk by a German submarine in 1917 .
The remaining five ships were obsolescent by the end of the war and most were assigned to secondary roles . Two of the sisters were sent to the Black Sea to support the Whites during the Russian Civil War . One ship ran aground and the crew of the other mutinied after one of its members was killed during a protest against intervention in support of the Whites . Both ships were quickly condemned and later sold for scrap . The remaining three sisters received partial modernizations in the mid @-@ 1920s and became training ships until they were condemned in the mid @-@ 1930s and later scrapped . The only survivor still afloat at the beginning of World War II in August 1939 had been hulked in 1931 and was serving as part of the navy 's torpedo school . She was captured by the Germans when they occupied Vichy France in 1942 and scuttled by them after the Allied invasion of southern France in 1944 .
= = Background and description = =
The Danton @-@ class ships were ordered as the second tranche of a French naval expansion plan that began in response to the growth of the Imperial German Navy after 1900 . Discussions began in 1905 for an enlarged version of the preceding Liberté @-@ class design . French analyses of the Russian defeat by the Japanese at the Battle of Tsushima in May 1905 credited the latter 's victory to the large number of medium @-@ caliber hits that heavily damaged the superstructures of the Russian ships and started many fires that the crews had difficulty extinguishing . The superior speed and handling of the Japanese ships was also credited with a role in their victory .
The French decided that the increasing range of naval combat dictated the use of the 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) gun in lieu of the 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) gun used on the Liberté class as the larger gun had a greater ability to penetrate armor at longer ranges while still having a good rate of fire . The navy also wanted a faster ship , but this could only be done by reducing armor thicknesses without exceeding the 18 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 18 @,@ 000 long tons ) limit imposed by the Minister of the Navy , Gaston Thomson , for budgetary reasons . A preliminary design with the usual triple @-@ expansion steam engines was accepted in March 1906 , but various modifications were requested . One proposal was made to replace the 240 @-@ millimeter guns turrets with single 305 @-@ millimeter ( 12 in ) turrets to create an " all @-@ big @-@ gun " ship , like the British battleship HMS Dreadnought , but this was rejected as it would have raised the displacement above the 18 @,@ 000 @-@ metric ton limit and the slower @-@ firing 305 @-@ millimeter guns would have reduced the volume and weight of fire to an unacceptable degree .
Initial parliamentary discussion of the design focused less on the anticipated cost of the ships than the idea that France was being left behind in the technological arms race , particularly in regard to the innovative Parsons steam turbines used by HMS Dreadnought . In response the navy sent a technical mission to inspect the Parsons factory , several shipyards , and gun factories as well as the Barr & Stroud rangefinder factory in May 1906 and concluded that the turbines offered more power in a smaller volume than triple @-@ expansion steam engines at a significant increase in fuel consumption at low speeds . Two ships had already been ordered from the naval dockyards three months previously when the navy decided to use the turbines in July . To further complicate things , Gaston requested a study using the heavier and more powerful 45 @-@ caliber 305 @-@ millimeter Modèle 1906 gun on 3 August while not endorsing the navy 's decision to use turbines . On 6 October the director of naval construction , M. Dudebout , urgently requested a decision while recommending that three ships use steam engines and the others turbines . He felt that this would minimize delays and expense as the design needed to be modified to accommodate the turbines and their four propeller shafts , no company in France knew how to build the turbines , and the latter were three times as expensive as steam engines . Gaston was inclined to accept Dudebout 's recommendation , but prevaricated until December , after parliamentary debates showed overwhelming support for turbines in all six ships . Contracts for the remaining four ships were signed on 26 December , the day after the conclusion of the debate . Gaston also delayed in deciding on which boilers to use . He sent another technical mission to Britain to look at Babcock & Wilcox 's design in April 1907 , but did not make a decision in favor of French @-@ built boilers until 3 June 1908 , after all the ships had been laid down .
The design was estimated to displace 18 @,@ 318 tonnes ( 18 @,@ 029 long tons ) before the adoption of the heavier Modèle 1906 gun required a new and larger turret to handle the gun which meant that the turret 's supporting structure also had to be reinforced . In an unsuccessful bid to reduce the displacement , many sections of armor were reduced in thickness , but the ships exceeded even the design estimate as built .
= = General description = =
The Dantons were significantly larger than their predecessors of the Liberté class . The ships were 145 meters ( 475 ft 9 in ) long at the waterline and 146 @.@ 6 meters ( 481 ft 0 in ) long overall , over 13 meters ( 42 ft 8 in ) longer than the earlier ships . They had a beam of 25 @.@ 8 meters ( 84 ft 8 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 44 meters ( 27 ft 8 in ) at deep load . The Danton @-@ class ships were slightly overweight ; they actually displaced 18 @,@ 754 metric tons ( 18 @,@ 458 long tons ) at normal load . This was over 4 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 900 long tons ) more than the earlier ships . When serving as flagships , their crew consisted of 40 officers and 875 enlisted men . Without an admiral and his staff embarked , the crew numbered 28 officers and 824 enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Danton @-@ class ships had four license @-@ built Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines , each of which drove a single propeller , using steam from 26 coal @-@ fired Belleville or Niclausse boilers . Each boiler type was installed on three ships of the class . The boilers were housed in two large compartments , 17 in the forward boiler room that used the three forward funnels and 9 in the aft boiler which exhausted through the rear pair of funnels . The tubines were amidships , between the boiler rooms , in three compartments . The center engine room housed the turbines for the two center propeller shafts and the turbine for each of the outer shafts had their own compartment flanking the center engine room . The turbines were rated at a total of 22 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 16 @,@ 800 kW ) using steam provided by the boilers at a working pressure of 18 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 765 kPa ; 256 psi ) . Designed for a maximum speed of 19 @.@ 25 knots ( 35 @.@ 65 km / h ; 22 @.@ 15 mph ) , they handily exceeded that during their sea trials with speeds ranging from 19 @.@ 7 to 20 @.@ 66 knots ( 36 @.@ 5 to 38 @.@ 3 km / h ; 22 @.@ 7 to 23 @.@ 8 mph ) .
The Niclausse boilers were not well suited for use with turbines and burned more coal than the Belleville boilers . They also produced copious amounts of smoke and sparks ; occasionally even flames from incomplete combustion of the coal . The Dantons carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 027 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 995 long tons ) of coal which gave them an estimated range from 3 @,@ 120 – 4 @,@ 866 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 778 – 9 @,@ 012 km ; 3 @,@ 590 – 5 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , depending on which boilers were fitted . Their endurance was almost half that of their predecessors due to the uneconomical fuel consumption of their turbines at low speeds and meant that they needed frequent coaling stops during the war .
= = = Armament = = =
The main battery of the Danton @-@ class ships consisted of four 305 mm Modèle 1906 guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . Each turret could elevate up to + 12 ° that gave the guns a maximum range of 14 @,@ 500 meters ( 15 @,@ 900 yd ) . The guns fired 440 @-@ kilogram ( 970 lb ) armour @-@ piercing projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 780 m / s ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) at a rate of 1 @.@ 5 rounds per minute . Each turret stored eight rounds along the rear wall and their propellant was kept between the floor of the firing chamber and the bottom of the turret . The ships normally stowed 75 rounds per gun , but space was available for an additional 10 rounds . Their secondary armament consisted of twelve 240mm / 50 Modèle 1902 guns in six twin @-@ gun turrets , three on each side of the ship . Maximum elevation of the turrets was + 13 ° and the 240 @-@ kilogram ( 530 lb ) shell could be fired to a range of 14 @,@ 000 meters ( 15 @,@ 000 yd ) . The guns could fire at a rate of two rounds per minute . Each turret had space for 12 shells and the necessary 36 propellant charges ; 80 rounds per gun was normally carried , but maximum capacity was 100 rounds per gun .
The Dantons carried a number of smaller guns to defend themselves against torpedo boats . These included sixteen 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) Modèle 1908 Schneider guns mounted in unarmored embrasures in the hull sides . These guns had a range of 8 @,@ 000 meters ( 8 @,@ 700 yd ) and could fire approximately 15 rounds per minute . Because the shell hoists were slow and the shells difficult to handle in their three @-@ round cases in the magazines , a total of 576 rounds were stored close to the guns in ready @-@ use lockers . Each gun was provided with 400 rounds , but the maximum storage available was 430 rounds per gun . The ships also mounted ten 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns in pivot mounts on the superstructure . They had the same rate of fire as the larger 75 mm guns , but only a range of 6 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 600 yd ) . Each gun had 36 rounds nearby in ready @-@ use lockers and the ships were provided with a maximum of 800 rounds per gun .
The battleships were also armed with two submerged 450 @-@ millimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside . Each tube was angled 10 ° forward and 3 ° downward . Each ship carried six Modèle 1909R torpedoes . They had a 114 @-@ kilogram ( 251 lb ) warhead and two speed / range settings : 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 yd ) at 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) or 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) at 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) . The Dantons also had storage space for 10 Harlé Modèle 1906 mines , which had an explosive charge of 60 kilograms ( 130 lb ) of guncotton . These could not be laid by the ships themselves , but had to be off @-@ loaded for use .
= = = Fire control = = =
Finding the British Barr & Stroud coincidence rangefinder design superior to existing French designs , the Dantons mounted a pair of 2 @-@ meter ( 6 ft 7 in ) FQ rangefinders atop the conning tower and a 1 @.@ 37 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 6 in ) rangefinder on each turret top for use by the turret commanders . Integrating these into the overall fire @-@ control system took some time so eight Ponthus & Therrode stadimeters , which required knowledge of the target 's mast height and overall length , were used in the interim . During the war , the rangefinders were replaced by longer , more precise instrument . A triple 4 @.@ 57 @-@ meter ( 15 ft 0 in ) model was installed above the conning tower and 2 @-@ meter models replaced the smaller ones on the turret roofs .
= = = Armor = = =
The Danton @-@ class ships were built with 6 @,@ 725 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 619 long tons ) of armor , 36 percent of their designed displacement and almost 1 @,@ 200 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) more than their predecessors . Their waterline armored belt had a maximum thickness of 250 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) between the fore and aft turrets that reduced to 180 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) towards the bow and stern . The belt consisted of two strakes of armor , 4 @.@ 5 meters ( 14 ft 9 in ) high , that covered the sides of the hull up to the main deck and extended 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 ft 7 in ) below the normal waterline . Most of the lower armor plates tapered to a thickness of 80 – 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) along their bottom edge and the upper plates tapered to 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) amidships and down to 140 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) at the ends of the ship . The belt armour was backed by 80 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) of teak . It extended almost the entire length of the ship , with only the very stern unprotected . At the stern , the belt terminated in a 200 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) transverse bulkhead ; the forward 154 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) transverse bulkhead connected the sides of the forward barbette to the belt .
The main gun turrets had 340 millimeters ( 13 @.@ 4 in ) of armor on their faces , 260 @-@ millimeter ( 10 in ) sides , and roofs of three layers of 24 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 94 in ) mild @-@ steel plates . Their barbettes were protected by 246 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 7 in ) of armor which thinned to 66 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) below the upper protected deck . The secondary gun turrets had 225 @-@ millimeter ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) faces , 188 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 4 in ) sides , and a roof of three layers of 17 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 67 in ) plates . The 240 @-@ millimeter turret barbettes had sides 154 to 148 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 8 in ) . The front of the conning tower had armour 266 millimeters ( 10 @.@ 5 in ) thick and its sides were 216 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 5 in ) . The walls of its communication tube down to the fire @-@ control center ( poste central de tir ) were 200 millimeters thick down to the upper protected deck .
The ships had two protected decks ( the pont blindée supérieur and the pont blindée inférieur ( PBI ) ) , each formed from triple layers of mild steel 15 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) or 16 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 63 in ) thick . The lower of these , the PBI , curved downwards towards the sides of the hull to meet the torpedo bulkhead and the curved portion was reinforced by the substitution of a 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) plate of armor in lieu of the uppermost 15 @-@ millimeter plate of mild steel . The PBI also sloped downward toward the bow and was similarly reinforced to form an armored glacis . The Dantons had an internal anti @-@ torpedo bulge 2 meters ( 6 ft 7 in ) deep along the side of the hull below the waterline . It was backed by a torpedo bulkhead that consisted of three layers of 15 @-@ millimeter armor plate . Inboard of the bulkhead were 16 watertight compartments , 12 of which were normally kept empty , but the 4 abreast the boiler rooms were used as coal bunkers . This system of protection had only mixed success in practice as Danton capsized in 40 minutes after two torpedo hits while Voltaire survived her two torpedoes .
= = Ships = =
= = Construction and careers = =
The Dantons took a long time to build . Construction was prolonged by a number of factors , chief of which were the 500 plus changes were made to the original design and in the inability of Gaston to make a timely decision . This meant that the builders sometimes had to rip out already completed sections to incorporate the modifications . Other problems were shortages of necessary infrastructure at the shipyards , lengthy delays in delivery of parts , and labor shortages and a lack of building slips in the naval dockyards . For example , water in the lower end of the newly completed Point @-@ du @-@ Jour slip at Brest meant that building Danton 's stern was delayed four months after the bow began and construction of Mirabeau could not begin until the armored cruiser Waldeck @-@ Rousseau was launched .
After commissioning in 1911 , all six ships were assigned to the First Battle Squadron ( Première escadre de ligne ) of the Mediterranean Fleet where they participated in the fleet maneuvers in May – June 1913 . When the war began , the squadron , under the command of Vice Admiral Paul Chocheprat , was at sea preparing to escort troop convoys from French North Africa to France . Some of the ships unsuccessfully searched for the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and the light cruiser SMS Breslau in the Western Mediterranean and escorted convoys . Later that month , all of the ships , except Mirabeau , participated in the Battle of Antivari in the Adriatic Sea and helped to sink an Austro @-@ Hungarian protected cruiser . They spent most of the rest of the war blockading the Straits of Otranto and the Dardanelles to prevent German , Austro @-@ Hungarian and Turkish warships from breaking out . Mirabeau participated in the attempt to ensure Greek acquiescence to Allied operations in Macedonia in late 1916 .
= = = Post war = = =
Diderot , Mirabeau and Vergniaud briefly participated in the occupation of Constantinople after the end of the war and the latter two ships were sent to the Black Sea in early 1919 during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . Vergniaud 's crew mutinied after one of its members was killed when a protest against intervention in support of the Whites was bloodily suppressed and forced the return of the French ships supporting the Whites . Mirabeau ran aground in February 1919 off the coast of the Crimea and could not be refloated until some of her guns and armor were removed .
All of the surviving ships except Condorcet were reduced to second @-@ line roles by 1920 . Mirabeau was not repaired after her salvage and was hulked for a few years before being sold . Vergniaud was in bad shape and became a target ship before she was sold for scrap . Voltaire and Diderot had their underwater protection modernized in the early 1920s and became training ships before they were condemned in the mid @-@ 1930s . Condorcet was assigned to the Channel Division in the early 1920s before she too had her underwater protection modernized . She also became a training ship after its completion , but she was hulked in 1931 and became a depot ship for the torpedo school . The ship was captured intact when the Germans occupied Toulon in November 1942 and was used by them as a barracks ship . Condorcet was scuttled by the Germans in August 1944 and refloated the following year before being scrapped .
Danton 's wreck was discovered in 2007 between Algeria and Sardinia at a depth of over 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) .
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= Libor Michálek =
Mgr . Libor Michálek , MPA ( born 1968 ) is a Czech economist , politician , and whistleblower . He led successful corruption cases against the Czech National Property Fund and the Environment Ministry as former employees of both . He is the first Pirate Party candidate to be elected to office in a national legislature . His senatorial term is 2012 – 2018 .
= = Early life and career = =
Michálek was born in Náchod in 1968 . He graduated from high school in Přerov in 1987 , and from Palacký University of Olomouc in 1992 . He later studied in Masaryk University 's management program , and received his MPA from Nottingham Trent University 's executive program in 2010 . After college , he worked as a UNIX programmer , business school teacher , and portfolio manager at an investment company . Michálek was a broker at the National Property Fund from 1994 to 1996 , when he was fired after exposing a tunneling embezzlement scheme . The resulting court case found that he was improperly dismissed . He was later involved in compensating victims of financial crime . Michálek served as a capital market supervisor at the Czech Ministry of Finance from 1997 to 1998 , a director at the Czech Securities Commission from 1998 to 2006 , a director at the Czech National Bank from 2006 to 2007 , a senior consultant at the World Bank in 2007 , and the chief financial market inspector at the Czech National Bank from 2008 to 2010 .
In August 2010 , he became the director of the Czech State Environmental Fund . On December 13 , 2010 , Michálek filed a criminal complaint of corruption against the Environment Ministry in its tender for reconstruction of a Prague water treatment plant . He claimed the project was overpriced by 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Kč Kč . Based on a secretly audiotaped conversation , Michálek also alleged that Martin Knetig , an advisor to environmental minister Pavel Drobil , asked him to manipulate the tender to fund his party ( the Civic Democrats ) and Drobil 's political career . Michálek recorded his subsequent conversation with Drobil , who allegedly offered his deputy position for the destruction of the tapes . Upon the story 's publication , Drobil fired Michálek and Knetig , denied any wrongdoing , and resigned a day later .
Prime Minister Petr Nečas defended Drobil , and called Michálek untrustworthy despite his public reputation as a whistleblower . Since the Civic Democrats vowed to fight corruption , losing its first minister to corruption charges was a blow to the party 's standing . The Drobil incident was the first of several high @-@ profile resignations . On December 21 , 2010 , Czech Police Chief Oldrich Martinu resigned after Interior Minister Radek John 's month @-@ long call for his ouster in part due to the Drobil case 's mishandling . Michálek returned to the State Environmental Fund as a financial analyst in 2011 . The Drobil case is on indefinite hiatus for a lack of evidence as of September 2012 . As of February 2013 , the case against Knetig is on a similar hiatus for insufficient evidence .
Michálek is married and has three children . He is an evangelical Christian .
= = The Senate = =
At the end of July 2012 , Libor Michálek accepted the Czech Pirate , Green , and Christian Democrat Party senatorial nominations for District 26 . The Pirate Party was his primary affiliation due to its transparency and accountability platforms . His personal 12 @-@ point platform prioritized direct democracy , fair political party competition , and anti @-@ corruption oversight efforts alongside social welfare reforms . In the October 2012 elections , he won 24 @.@ 3 percent of the first round vote and 74 @.@ 4 percent of the first @-@ past @-@ the @-@ post runoff , giving him the seat . Another candidate , Karel Berka , challenged the decision , but the Czech Supreme Administrative Court found the claims unfounded . He was the first Pirate Party candidate to be elected to national office , the 81 @-@ seat Czech Senate . His senatorial term is 2012 – 2018 .
Czech President Miloš Zeman has publicly considered Michálek for leading the Supreme Audit Office . In 2013 , Michálek authored the first bill designed to protect whistleblowers , which was overwhelming rejected on the floor of the Senate .
= = Awards = =
In March 2011 , Michálek was awarded first prize from the Endowment Fund Against Corruption for his whistleblowing role in the Environment Ministry corruption scandal . In May 2011 , he was awarded the František Kriegel Prize by the Charter 77 Foundation for his " brave , consistent and uncompromising fight against corruption in government . "
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= Dangerously in Love =
Dangerously in Love is the debut studio album by American recording artist Beyoncé . It was released on June 24 , 2003 by Columbia Records . During the recording of Destiny 's Child 's third studio album , Survivor ( 2001 ) , the group announced that they would produce solo albums to be released . Recording sessions for the album took place from March 2002 to March 2003 at several studios , during the hiatus of her then @-@ group Destiny 's Child . As executive producer of the album , Beyoncé took a wider role in its production , co @-@ writing a majority of the songs , choosing which ones to produce and sharing ideas on the mixing and mastering of tracks .
The tracks in the album are a mixture of uptempos and ballads , which are basically inspired by R & B and soul genres ; it also features elements of hip hop and Arabic music . Although Beyoncé remained discreet about her interpretation of the songs , its underlying meanings were attributed by music writers as an allusion to her intimate relationship with then @-@ boyfriend and well @-@ known music mogul Jay @-@ Z. Dangerously in Love received positive reviews from music critics upon its release , with critics praising Knowles ' " artistic leap " . The album also received numerous accolades , earning Beyoncé five Grammy Awards .
Dangerously in Love propelled Beyoncé in becoming a viable solo star , as well as one of the most marketable singers in the recording industry . It became a worldwide commercial success , earning multi @-@ platinum certifications in Australia , the United Kingdom , and the United States . The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , selling 317 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , earning Beyoncé the highest debut sales among Destiny 's Child members ' solo albums . Dangerously in Love has sold over 5 million copies in the United States as of 2016 and an estimated 11 million copies worldwide as of 2011 , and has produced two number one Billboard singles and multiple top tens .
= = Background = =
Beyoncé launched her career as lead singer to R & B group Destiny 's Child in the late 1990s . According to Corey Moss of MTV News , " fans are eager to see " how Beyoncé , after years with the group , performs solo . While recording their third album , Survivor , in late 2000 , Beyoncé announced the group would be put on hiatus in order for the members to produce solo albums in the coming years , which they hoped would boost interest in Destiny 's Child . The idea of individual releases emanated from the group 's manager and Beyoncé 's father , Mathew .
With different types of music for each member to produce , the albums were not intended to compete on the charts . Destiny 's Child 's management strategically planned to stagger the release of each group member 's album to maximise sales . Michelle Williams was the first to release a debut solo album , Heart to Yours , in April 2002 . Meanwhile , Beyoncé debuted on the big screen , starring in the comedy film Austin Powers in Goldmember , and recorded her debut single , " Work It Out " , which is featured on the soundtrack to the film . Rowland collaborated with American rapper Nelly on the song " Dilemma " as a featured artist ; it became a hit that year , leading the label to advance the release date of her debut solo album , Simply Deep , in late 2002 . Beyoncé also starred in The Fighting Temptations and recorded another solo single . In August 2002 , she collaborated with boyfriend Jay @-@ Z as featured vocalist on the song " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " . The single earned Beyoncé credibility and paved the way for the release of Dangerously in Love .
= = Recording = =
Before Beyoncé began recording for Dangerously in Love , she selected the producers with whom she would collaborate . For two days , she held meetings with prospective producers from the West Coast across the East Coast , and had interviews with them . Beyoncé went to Miami , Florida to begin sessions with Canadian record producer Scott Storch , her first collaborator , and lived in a Miami hotel in the following months . As she wanted to concentrate on the album , Beyoncé took her time to avoid pressure build @-@ up , significantly different from the hasty productions of Destiny 's Child .
As she did on Survivor , Beyoncé took a wider role in the production of Dangerously in Love , co @-@ writing a majority of the songs , choosing which ones to produce and sharing ideas on the mixing and mastering of tracks . Although Beyoncé did not create beats , she came up with melodies and ideas she shared with the producers . With 43 songs completed — 15 of which made it to the album — Beyoncé is credited as co @-@ writer and co @-@ producer , as well as the album 's executive producer alongside Matthew Knowles .
Beyoncé felt that recording an album without her group mates was " liberating and therapeutic " , coming into the studio and freely expressing her ideas with her collaborators . The dependency she developed with Destiny 's Child , however , meant it was harder " to be on [ her ] own creatively " . As she wanted to grow as an artist Beyoncé contacted other artists with a view to forming a collaborative partnership . When the collective finished writing several songs , she printed copies of each and sent them to prospective guest artists . She talked to them by phone for possible collaboration , eventually gaining their approval . Besides Jay @-@ Z , Beyoncé was able to work with Jamaican artist Sean Paul , American rapper Missy Elliott , among others . In contrast , some artists sent copies of songs to Beyoncé , which were eventually produced . Additionally , Beyoncé also worked with Timbaland and Missy Elliott on a track titled " Wrapped Around Me " for the album . Eventually , however , for reasons unknown , the song failed to appear on the album .
Dangerously in Love was originally a song of the same title which Beyoncé had written for Survivor . The song was deemed too sophisticated compared to other songs on Survivor , and the group decided not to release it as a single off the album . After recording several tracks for Dangerously in Love , Beyoncé decided to add " Dangerously in Love " , after realizing that it fit the overriding theme of the album . Since the album 's release date was postponed to capitalize on the success of " Dilemma " , Beyoncé had been offered the chance to further enhance the album . Although she was disappointed with the move , Beyoncé realized that " everything happens for a reason " , agreeing to return to the recording studio to work with other songwriters . This allowed her to record more songs , including the album 's lead single , " Crazy in Love " . In late 2002 , Beyoncé paused working on Dangerously in Love for a holiday tour with Destiny 's Child . With a few weeks left for recording in March 2003 , Beyoncé was still collaborating with other guests on the album , including Sean Paul and P. Diddy .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Beyoncé 's mother @-@ manager said that Dangerously in Love showcases her musical roots . While Williams and Rowland were on gospel and alternative pop , respectively , Beyoncé focused on recording R & B songs . Songs in the album are varied : from mid @-@ tempo and club @-@ oriented tracks in the first half , and ballads in the second half . Beyoncé commented : " My album is a good balance of ... ballads and ... mid @-@ tempos with just ridin ' -in @-@ your @-@ car feels , to a lot of ... up @-@ tempo club songs , to really sexy songs , to songs that make you feel emotional . It 's a nice mixture of different types of tracks . " Although the album contains high @-@ energy songs like " Crazy in Love " and " Naughty Girl " , the album 's focal mode , however , is slow and moody . Beyoncé said that she had written lots of ballads for the album . According to Beyoncé , she wanted to be understood as an artist and showcase her range , and by doing so , she blended various genres and musical influences in the album . The album incorporates R & B , hip hop , soul and reggae influences . The album took hip hop influences from Jay @-@ Z , Outkast , and Lil ' Kim ; the reggae is from Sean Paul ; and courtesy of Storch , the album explores Arabic music . His personal study of that kind of music gave the album a Middle Eastern vibe . Beyoncé and the producers also used a wide array of instrumentations .
When " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " was released as a single in late 2002 , critics and the public had speculated that Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z were having a mutual affair . Despite widespread rumors , they remained silent about their relationship . According to critics , the title itself of the album sounded " more intriguing " with Beyoncé singing personal songs . Though love is the theme Beyoncé had incorporated in the album , " most the material is vague enough to be about any relationship " ; however , there are songs that suggested affirmation of their relationship . In the song " Signs " , Beyoncé sings about being in love with a Sagittarius , which coincidentally is Jay @-@ Z 's zodiac sign . In response to the persistent rumors about them , Beyoncé stated , " People can come to whatever conclusion they like ... That 's the beauty of music ... I 'm a singer , I 'll talk about writing songs all you want . But when it comes to certain personal things any normal person wouldn 't tell people they don 't know , I just feel like I don 't have to [ talk about it ] . "
Beyoncé said that Dangerously in Love is lyrically similar to Destiny 's Child 's albums . But because she only had to write for herself , Beyoncé had the chance to compose personally deeper songs than her previous records with the group . With a theme that is based upon different stages of a romantic relationship , Dangerously in Love contains songs that speak of love and honesty . In addition , Beyoncé admitted that there are songs about love @-@ making . The personal content of the album , however , was not generally attributed to Beyoncé 's own experiences — although some were based from hers — instead , the theme kept recurring in her mind . Beyoncé later explained : " I wanted to have an album that everyone could relate to and would listen to as long as I 'm alive and even after ... Love is something that never goes out of style . It 's something everybody experiences , and if they are not in love , people usually want to feel that ... " While some songs merely focus on the " beauty of love " , the album also explores another side of love , with songs that " celebrate breakup " and songs that narrate a woman 's desire to have a degree of control in a relationship . The album 's hidden track , " Daddy " , is a tribute to Beyoncé 's father , Mathew Knowles , who fronted Destiny 's Child as their manager . The song is an account of Beyoncé wanting her future husband and child to possess qualities similar to her father 's . Originally , Beyoncé did not intend to include the track in the album , having thought its lyrics would make her appear immature . However , considering it one of the songs that reflected her life at that transitional moment , she instead relegated " Daddy " as the closing track .
= = Release and promotion = =
Beyoncé said that she had trouble convincing executives at Columbia Records to release the album . The singer recounted that it almost was not released : " In 2003 , I had my first solo album . But when I played it through for my record label , they told me I didn 't have one hit on my album . I guess they were kinda right , I had five . ' Dangerously In Love ' , ' Naughty Girl ' , ' Me , Myself and I ' , ' Baby Boy ' and ' Crazy In Love ' . " Since " Dilemma " was concurrently charting atop the Billboard Hot 100 , Beyoncé 's management released , " Work It Out " , one of the songs on the soundtrack to Austin Powers in Goldmember , instead of a single from Dangerously in Love to preclude it from possibly competing with the former .
From the original release date of October 2002 , the album was pushed to December in the same year , and to May in the following year . Beyoncé recorded a version of " In da Club " , and served its way to mixtapes before its original release date . The single failed to dominate as a " dancefloor favorite " ; Mathew Knowles , however , confirmed that it was just a " buzz cut " and was not included in the album . Nonetheless , it earned enough airplay to appear on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks chart . While Beyoncé was wrapping up the album , several of its songs had leaked online . In efforts to prevent more tracks in the album from being spread illegally , as well as being a victim of bootlegging , Columbia Records , with high commercial expectations from the album , pulled the release of Dangerously in Love to June 24 , 2003 , two weeks ahead of the planned July 8 release .
Buyers who pre @-@ ordered the album online received links where they could download a song called " I Can 't Take No More " ; the promo lasted until the album 's release . On June 14 , 2003 , Beyoncé premiered songs from the album during her first solo concert and the pay @-@ per @-@ view TV special , " Ford Presents Beyoncé , Friends & Family , Live From Ford 's 100th Anniversary Celebration in Dearborn , Michigan " . By the night of the album 's release , Beyoncé 's concert was broadcast in more than twenty theaters across the United States . Kelly Rowland , Michelle Williams , Tyrese , Solange Knowles and girl group Ramiyah also performed in the show . Beyoncé also promoted the album by performing in television shows such as the Saturday Night Live , Late Show with David Letterman , The Today Show , The Early Show , and The View .
By April 2003 , Beyoncé 's management was choosing the album 's lead single between two songs . Sent to clubs , the song that would receive positive reception would be considered the lead single . Finally , " Crazy in Love " was released as the lead single off the album . With commercial success that included crossover music markets , the single spent eight consecutive weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Baby Boy " followed , and received greater success than " Crazy in Love " . With its dominance on radio airplays , the single surpassed " Crazy in Love " ' s chart performance , remaining on the top spot for nine consecutive weeks . " Me , Myself and I " was released as the third single and " Naughty Girl " as fourth and last ; although the last two releases only reached the top five on the Hot 100 , they all attained immediate commercial success and helped the album earn multi @-@ platinum certifications .
= = Singles = =
" Crazy in Love " was released as the lead single in mid @-@ 2003 . It was lauded by critics who described it as " deliriously catchy " . The single reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , the official US singles chart , based on heavy rotation alone . The same week the song reached number one , Dangerously in Love debuted on the Billboard 200 at number one as well . The substantial airplay and later retail sales of " Crazy in Love " facilitated it to dominate the chart , subsequently spending eight straight weeks atop the Hot 100 , making it Beyoncé 's first number @-@ one single in her solo career . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Crazy in Love " was the most downloaded song in the United States for four consecutive weeks in July 2003 . It also became a success internationally reaching the top of the charts in Ireland and the United Kingdom . " Baby Boy " was released as the second single in August 2003 . It was well received by critics , who declared it a " high @-@ profile collaboration " that " bridges the gap between the genres of R & B and dancehall . " It ultimately reached the top of the Hot 100 . It reached the chart 's top spot eight weeks after its debut , and stayed there for nine consecutive weeks . It peaked in the top two in the United Kingdom .
" Me , Myself and I " was released as the album 's third single in October 2003 . It received generally positive response , being considered a typical sounding R & B ballad with a familiar theme , in which Beyoncé sings with passion . It reached the top ten in Canada and the United States . " Naughty Girl " was the fourth single from the album , released in March 2004 . The song was lauded by critics , who cited its sensual vibe and writing : " Beyoncé borrowed a portion of Donna Summer 's naughty classic " Love to Love You Baby " to create this celebration of sensual naughtiness . " Internationally , it became a top ten hit in the United States , Australia , Canada and New Zealand .
= = Critical reception = =
Dangerously in Love received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 64 , based on 16 reviews . Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone viewed that it presents Beyoncé in two styles , one " far more flattering " than the other , and found the ballad @-@ oriented songs on the album least flattering , commenting that Beyoncé has " plenty of time " to develop the style maturely that would " [ make ] sense for her " . Entertainment Weekly 's Neil Drumming commented that the album validates Beyoncé 's " taste in innovation " . He also viewed that Beyoncé 's collaboration with various record producers explores new directions in contemporary music , doing more reinventing than revisiting . Like DeCurtis ' review , however , Drumming pointed out that " most of the disc 's missteps " are in its latter part . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani wrote that " [ Beyoncé ] is allowed more room to experiment vocally as a solo artist , exploring softer registers and lathering on the coquettish persona that was only hinted at on Destiny 's Child tracks like ' Bootylicious . ' " . Steve Jones of USA Today stated , " Beyoncé succeeds by showing greater depth as a songwriter and broader range as a singer " . Blender 's Ben Ratliff complimented Beyoncé 's performance and stated , " She ’ s playing the cool @-@ hunter but covering the bases with seraphic arrangements of multiple voices . Her reach is remarkable " . Mark Anthony Neal of PopMatters called it an " artistic leap " and wrote that it " finds Ms. B in the midst of a fully flowering womanhood and doing the best singing of her career " .
In a mixed review , Vibe magazine 's Jason King said that the album occasionally " sounds desperate to reach every demographic " . Kelefa Sanneh , writing in The New York Times , felt that it missed the harmonies Beyoncé had in Destiny 's Child records and that she is more effective " when she 's got a posse behind her " . Rob Fitzpatrick of NME called it " a cruel glimpse of a talent that occasionally blazes but is frustratingly inconsistent " . Uncut called its ballads " self @-@ pitying / self @-@ mythologising " , while Q stated , " She has good songs , but no great songs " . Los Angeles Times writer Natalie Nichols expressed that it " demonstrates vocal finesse [ ... ] But , especially on the ballads , [ Beyoncé ] often drags things out with diva acrobatics " . The Guardian 's Adam Sweeting wrote that " the desperate urge to cover every musical base from dancefloor to soul @-@ ballad means that there is barely a track here with any distinctive identity or even a tune " . In his consumer guide for The Village Voice , Robert Christgau cited " Yes " and " Baby Boy " as the album 's highlights and quippedly remarked , " Dangerously in Love ... with her daddy , the bonus cut reveals — as if we didn 't know . " He gave the album a one @-@ star honorable mention , indicating " a worthy effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well like . " In a retrospective review , Allmusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine commented that " the first half is good enough to make Dangerously in Love one of the best mainstream urban R & B records released in 2003 , and makes a strong case that Beyoncé might be better off fulfilling this destiny instead of reuniting with Destiny " .
= = Accolades = =
Dangerously in Love and its singles earned Beyoncé numerous awards and nominations . In 2003 , Beyoncé was recognized as New Female Artist and New R & B Artist , among the four awards she won during the Billboard Music Awards . At the 2013 American Music Awards , the album was nominated in the category for Favorite Soul / R & B Album . It also received a nomination in the category for Best Album at the 2003 MOBO Awards . At the 46th Annual Grammy Awards , Beyoncé won Best Contemporary R & B Album along with four other awards for the album 's songs . With that feat , she tied with Alicia Keys , Norah Jones , and Lauryn Hill for most Grammys won by a female artist in one night . At the 2004 Brit Awards , the album was nominated in the category for Best International Album but lost to Justin Timberlake 's Justified . However , the singer herself won in the category for Best International Female Solo Artist . Dangerously in Love was also nominated in the category for Best Album at the 2004 MTV Europe Music Awards .
The 1,000th issue of Entertainment Weekly , which celebrated " the new classics " in the entertainment industry in the period from 1983 to 2008 , ranked Dangerously in Love nineteenth in the Top 100 Best Albums of the past 25 years . The album also ranked at number 183 on the list " 200 Definitive Albums That Shaped Rock and Roll " according to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame .
= = Commercial performance = =
Dangerously in Love debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , with sales of 317 @,@ 000 copies according to Nielsen SoundScan . In its second week the album slid to number two with 183 @,@ 000 sold , behind Ashanti 's Chapter II . Although the album 's first @-@ week sales failed to match that of Survivor , which sold 663 @,@ 000 units in its debut in 2001 , Beyoncé earned the highest among Destiny 's Child members ' solo albums by best weeks : Rowland sold 77 @,@ 000 copies for Simply Deep in its strongest week while Williams earned 17 @,@ 000 copies for Heart to Yours in its top week . The album has been certified four @-@ time platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Dangerously in Love remains as Beyoncé 's best @-@ selling album to date , with cumulative sales of 5 million copies in the United States as of June 2016 .
Internationally , Dangerously in Love had similar commercial reception . On July 12 , 2003 , Beyoncé became the first female artist ( and the fifth artist ever ) to top both the singles — with " Crazy in Love " — and albums chart simultaneously in the United States and the United Kingdom , following The Beatles , Simon & Garfunkel , Rod Stewart , and Men at Work . As of June 2011 , the album had sold over 1 @,@ 150 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom , and the British Phonographic Industry has since certified the album four @-@ times platinum for sales of more than 1 @.@ 2 million units . Dangerously in Love was the 15th @-@ best selling album of 2003 in the United Kingdom . It is her second best @-@ selling album in the UK . In Australia , it reached number two ; the album was certified triple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales of 210 @,@ 000 copies . In 2003 , Dangerously in Love was the 51st best @-@ selling album in Australia , and the 74th the following year . As of 2015 , the album has sold more than 10 million copies worldwide .
= = Legacy = =
With the release of Dangerously in Love and the combined commercial success of its singles , Beyoncé had established herself a viable solo artist . Rebecca Louie of the New York Daily News wrote that the success of Dangerously in Love brought Beyoncé into a " sultry solo star " who " blossomed from a girly group " , referring to Destiny 's Child . The album has also facilitated her to become one of the marketable artists in the industry . She appeared on the cover of numerous magazines , guested TV for promotions , and has signed lucrative commercial deals . Beyoncé signed to PepsiCo , a conglomerate beverage manufacturer , in 2003 , and appeared on several TV commercials for its products .
The creative output of the sessions for Dangerously in Love left several tracks ready for another album pressing . In late 2003 , Beyoncé planned to release a follow @-@ up album that would comprise left @-@ over songs from Dangerously in Love . The move was prompted when a P. Diddy @-@ collaboration called " Summertime " , a left @-@ over track from the album , was sent to radio stations and had received favorable response .
Meanwhile , the success of the album incited the public to infer that it signals Destiny 's Child to finally part ways , as had pop singer Justin Timberlake " could not go back to ' N Sync after tasting solo success " . However , Beyoncé said that their side projects were only " a brief diversion in the juggernaut that has become Destiny 's Child " . As time did not permit , Beyoncé 's musical aspirations were put on hiatus for her to concentrate on her Super Bowl performance , wherein she was slated to sing the U.S. national anthem , and the recording of Destiny 's Child 's fourth album , Destiny Fulfilled ; the group finally disbanded in 2005 .
After the group 's formal disbandment , Beyoncé recorded and released her second album , B 'Day , on September 4 , 2006 . The album gave Beyoncé her second number one in the United States , and its debut week sales exceeded that of Dangerously in Love , the former having sold 541 @,@ 000 units . Despite the album 's first two singles ' average commercial performance — neither of which reached the peak of the Billboard Hot 100 — its " handsome debut " was noted by Keith Caulfield of Billboard as having generated " by goodwill earned from the performance of [ Beyoncé 's ] smash first album Dangerously in Love . "
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies a co @-@ producer
^ b signifies a vocal producer
" Crazy in Love " samples " Are You My Woman ( Tell Me So ) " ( 1970 ) by the Chi @-@ Lites
" Naughty Girl " contains interpolations from " Love to Love You Baby " ( 1975 ) by Donna Summer
" Baby Boy " contains interpolations from " Hot Stepper " ( 1990 ) by Ini Kamoze
" Be with You " samples " Ain 't Nothing I Can Do " ( 1979 ) Tyrone Davis and contains interpolations from " I 'd Rather Be with You " ( 1976 ) by Bootsy 's Rubber Band and " Strawberry Letter 23 " ( 1977 ) by the Brothers Johnson
" That 's How You Like It " contains interpolations from " I Like It " ( 1982 ) by DeBarge
" Gift from Virgo " samples " Rainy Day " ( 1974 ) by Shuggie Otis
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " contains interpolations from " If I Was Your Girlfriend " ( 1987 ) by Prince and samples of " Me and My Girlfriend " ( 1996 ) by 2Pac
" What 's It Gonna Be " samples " Do It Roger " ( 1981 ) by Roger Troutman
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
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= Myriostoma =
Myriostoma is a fungal genus in the family Geastraceae . The genus is monotypic , containing the single species Myriostoma coliforme . It is an earthstar , so named because the spore @-@ bearing sack 's outer wall splits open into the shape of a star . The inedible fungus has a cosmopolitan distribution , and has been found in Africa , Asia , North and South America , and Europe , where it grows in humus @-@ rich forests or in woodlands , especially on well @-@ drained and sandy soils . A somewhat rare fungus , it appears on the Red Lists of 12 European countries , and in 2004 it was one of 33 species proposed for protection under the Bern Convention by the European Council for Conservation of Fungi .
The fruit body , initially shaped like a puffball , is encased within an outer covering that splits open from the top to form rays . These rays curve down to expose an inner papery spore case , which contains the fertile spore @-@ bearing tissue , the gleba . The fungus is unique among the earthstars in having a spore case that is supported by multiple stalks , and is perforated by several small holes suggestive of its common names salt @-@ shaker earthstar and pepperpot . It is the largest of the earthstar fungi , and reaches diameters of up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . Its spherical spores have elongated warts that create a ridge @-@ like pattern on their surface . The spores are dispersed when falling water hits the outer wall of the spore sac , creating puffs of air that force the spores through the holes .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first mentioned in the scientific literature by Samuel Doody in the second edition of John Ray 's Synopsis methodica Stirpium Brittanicorum in 1696 . Doody briefly described the mushroom like so : " fungus pulverulentus coli instar perforatus , cum volva stellata " ( mushroom dusty , like a perforated colander , volva star @-@ shaped ) , and went on to explain that he found it in 1695 in Kent .
It was first described scientifically as a new species in 1776 from collections made in England by James Dickson , who named it Lycoperdon coliforme . He found it growing in roadside banks and hedgerows among nettles in Suffolk and Norfolk . Nicaise Auguste Desvaux first defined and published the new genus Myriostoma in 1809 , with the species renamed Myriostoma anglicum ( an illegitimate renaming ) . Christian Hendrik Persoon had previously placed the species in Geastrum in 1801 , while Samuel Frederick Gray would in 1821 describe the genus Polystoma for it . Myriostoma coliforme received its current and final name when August Carl Joseph Corda moved Dickson 's name to Myriostoma in 1842 , replacing Desvaux 's name .
In North America the fungus began to be reported in the late 19th century , first from Colorado by Charles Horton Peck , and later from Florida , collected by Lucien Underwood in 1891 ; both findings were reported by Andrew Price Morgan in April 1892 . In 1897 , Melville Thurston Cook also reported having collected it the year before from " Albino Beach " . Curtis Gates Lloyd described Bovistoides simplex from a South African specimen in 1919 , but in 1942 , William Henry Long examined that specimen and concluded that it was a weathered spore sac of M. coliforme that had become detached from the outer star @-@ shaped exoperidium . This conclusion was confirmed in a later study of the material .
Myriostoma had been classified in the Geastraceae family until 1973 , when British mycologist Donald Dring placed it in the Astraeaceae based on the presence of trabeculae ( stout columns that extend from the peridium to the central core of the fruit body ) in the gleba , and the absence of a true hymenium . In his 1989 monograph , Stellan Sunhede returned it to the Geastraceae . Molecular analysis of DNA sequences has confirmed the traditional belief that Myriostoma and Geastrum are closely related .
Václav Jan Staněk proposed a variety capillisporum in 1958 , which has been sunk back into synonymy with the species . M. coliforme is the sole species in Myriostoma , making the genus monotypic . Because the original type material has been lost , in 1989 Sunhede suggested that Dickson 's illustration in his 1776 publication ( tab . III : 4a & b ) be used as the lectotype .
The specific epithet is derived from the Latin words colum , meaning " strainer " , and forma , meaning " shape " — Berkeley 's vernacular name " Cullenden puff @-@ ball " also refers to a colander . Gray called it the " sievelike pill @-@ box " . The generic name is from the Greek words μνριός , meaning " countless " and στόμα , meaning " mouth " ( the source of the technical term stoma ) . The species is commonly known as the " salt @-@ and @-@ pepper shaker earthstar " or simply the " pepperpot " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies start their development underground or buried in leaf debris , linked to a strand of mycelium at the base . As they mature , the exoperidium ( the outer tissue layer of the peridium ) splits open into 7 to 14 rays which curve backward ; this pushes the fruit body above the substrate . Fully opened specimens can reach dimensions of 2 – 12 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) from ray tip to tip . The rays are of unequal size , with tips that often roll back inward . They comprise three distinct layers of tissue . The inner pseudoparenchymatous layer ( so named for the resemblance to the tightly packed cells of plant parenchyma ) is fleshy and thick when fresh , and initially pale beige but darkening to yellow or brown as it matures , often cracking and peeling off in the process . The exterior mycelial layer , often matted with fine leaf debris or dirt , usually cracks to reveal a middle fibrous layer , which is made of densely packed hyphae 1 – 2 @.@ 5 μm wide . The base of the fruit body is concave to vaulted in shape , and often covered with adhering dirt . The roughly spherical spore sac ( endoperidium ) measures 1 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , and is supported by a cluster of short columns shaped like flattened spheres . It is gray @-@ brown in color , and minutely roughened with small , lightly interconnected warts . There are several to many evenly dispersed mouths , the ostioles , mainly on the upper half of the endoperidium . They are roughly circular with fimbriate ( fringed ) edges . The inedible fruit bodies have no distinct taste , although dried specimens develop an odor resembling curry powder or bouillon cubes .
Like many earthstars , the fungus uses the force of falling raindrops to help disperse the spores , which are ejected in little bursts when objects ( such as rain ) strike the outer wall of the spore sac . The gleba is brown to grayish @-@ brown , with a cotton @-@ like texture that , when compressed , allows the endoperidium to flex quickly and create a puff of air that is forced out through the ostioles . This generates a cloud of spores that can then be carried by the wind . There are columellae ( sterile structures that start at the base of the gleba and extend through it ) , which are usually not evident in the mature gleba , but apparent at the base of the spore sac . The columellae are not connected to the ostioles , but rather , terminate within the gleba at some distance from them . The capillitia ( sterile strands within the gleba ) are long , slender , free , tapering , unbranched , and 2 – 5 μm thick , with thickened walls . The spores are spherical , nonamyloid , and are ornamented with irregularly shaped flaring protuberances up to 2 μm high . They measure 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 8 μm in diameter ( without ornamentation ) , and 5 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 0 μm including the ornamentation .
= = = Similar species = = =
Myriostoma coliforme is a distinctive species easily characterized by its size — being the largest earthstar fungus — as well as the multiple openings on its spore sack and stalk supporting the sack . Historically , it was thought that the holes might have been a result of insects . This was discussed and rejected by Thomas Jenkinson Woodward in 1797 :
It has been doubted whether these mouths might not be accidental , and formed by insects after the expansion of the plant . But this ( not to mention their regularity , and that each is furrowed by its border of ciliae ) is clearly disproved , from the marks of the projections formed by the mouths being seen on the expanded rays , when freshly opened ... I have likewise found an abortive plant , in which the seed did not ripen ; but which had numerous projecting papillae on the head , where the mouths should have been formed .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Myriostoma is saprobic , deriving nutrients from decomposing organic matter . Fruit bodies grow grouped in well @-@ drained or sandy soil , often in the partial shade of trees . The species occurs in deciduous forests and mixed forests , gardens , along hedges and grassy road banks , and grazed grasslands . In the Northern Hemisphere , it tends to grow on well @-@ drained south @-@ facing slopes , while it prefers a similar habitat on north @-@ facing slopes in Australia . In Europe , its major habitat is riparian mixed forests dominated by Salix alba and Populus alba along the great rivers . In Hawaii , it has been collected at elevations above 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) where it appears to favor the mamame ( Sophora chrysophylla ) forest .
The species is widespread , being known in its natural habitat from all five continents , but is not found in abundance . Myriostoma coliforme is rare in Europe , where it appears on the Regional Red Lists of 12 countries , and is one of 33 candidate species for listing in Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats ( the " Bern Convention " ) . Although originally described from England , it was considered extinct in mainland Britain until it was found again in Suffolk in 2006 near Ipswich , one of its original localities — it had been last reported in the country in 1880 . The fungus is considered extinct in Switzerland . Its most northerly location is southern Sweden , although it is generally rare in northern Europe . It is similarly widespread but rarely encountered in North America , although there may be isolated localities , like New Mexico , where it is more abundant . In Australia , where its range is limited to the central New South Wales coast , it may have been introduced from exotic plant material .
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= Dusky dolphin =
The dusky dolphin ( Lagenorhynchus obscurus ) is a dolphin found in coastal waters in the Southern Hemisphere . Its specific epithet is Latin for " dark " or " dim " . It is very closely genetically related to the Pacific white @-@ sided dolphin , but current scientific consensus holds they are distinct species . The dolphin 's range is patchy , with major populations around South America , southwestern Africa , New Zealand , and various oceanic islands , with some sightings around southern Australia and Tasmania . The dusky dolphin prefers cool currents and inshore waters , but can also be found offshore . It feeds on a variety of fish and squid species and has flexible hunting tactics . The dusky dolphin is known for its remarkable acrobatics , having a number of aerial behaviours . The status of the dolphin is unknown , but it has been commonly caught in gill nets .
= = Taxonomy = =
It is commonly thought that the dusky dolphin was first described by John Edward Gray in 1828 from stuffed skin and a single skull shipped from the Cape of Good Hope to the British Museum . Gray first described the species as Delphinus obscurus , with the subgenus Grampus in his 1828 Specilegia Zoologica . Gray reported that the animal was captured around the Cape of Good Hope by a Captain Haviside ( often misspelt " Heaviside " ) and sent to the British Museum though the Royal College of Surgeons in 1827 .
However , Gray later wrote that a similar dolphin was described as Delphinus supercilious by French surgeons and naturalists René Primevère Lesson and Prosper Garnot from a specimen collected off the coast of Tasmania two years before his own classification . Gray classified D. supercilious as a junior synonym of his D. obscurus and credited Lesson and Garnot ( 1826 ) for their original description . Meanwhile , Charles Darwin also described what turned out to be this species as Delphinus fitzroyi from a specimen harpooned off Argentina in 1838 . The dusky dolphin was reclassified as Prodelphinus obscurus in 1885 by British naturalist William Henry Flower , before gaining its current binomial name , Lagenorhynchus obscurus , from American biologist Frederick W. True in 1889 .
= = = Genetics = = =
The dusky dolphin and the Pacific white @-@ sided dolphin are considered phylogenetically related species . Some researchers have suggested they are the same species , but morphological and life @-@ history evidence shows otherwise . The two sister species diverged at around 1 @.@ 9 – 3 @.@ 0 million years ago . Recent analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene indicates that the genus Lagenorhynchus , as traditionally conceived , is not a natural ( monophyletic ) group . Another study finds that the dusky and the Pacific white @-@ sided dolphin form the sister group to the ( expanded ) genus Cephalorhynchus . If this placement is accurate , a new genus name will need to be coined to accommodate these two species .
Dusky dolphins from Argentina and southwest Africa separated 2000 generations ago from an ancestral Atlantic population and subsequently diverged without much gene flow . Most populations have low genetic diversity , with the Peruvian population being an exception . Possible hybrids of dusky dolphins have been described with a long @-@ beaked common dolphin and a southern right whale dolphin . There are four subspecies classified ; ( Lagenorhynchus obscurus obscurus ) , ( L. o. fitroyi ) , ( L. o. posidonia ) and ( L. o. superciliosis ) .
= = Description = =
The dusky dolphin is small to medium in length compared with other species in the family . There is significant variation in size among the different population areas . The largest dusky dolphins have been encountered off the coast of Peru , where they are up to 210 cm ( 6 feet ) in length and 100 kg ( 210 pounds ) in mass . The size for dusky dolphins in New Zealand have been recorded to be a length range of 167 – 178 cm and a weight range of 69 – 78 kg for females and a length range of 165 – 175 cm and a weigh range of 70 – 85 kg for males .
Almost no sexual dimorphism occurs in this species , although males have more curved dorsal fins with broader bases and greater surface areas . The back of the dolphin is dark grey or black , and the dorsal fin is distinctively two @-@ toned ; the leading edge matches the back in colour , but the trailing edge is a much lighter greyish white . The dusky dolphins has a long , light @-@ grey patch on its fore side leading to a short , dark @-@ grey beak . The throat and belly are white , and the beak and lower jaw are dark grey . Two blazes of white colour run back on the body from the dorsal fin to the tail . Right between the white areas remains a characteristic thorn @-@ shaped patch of dark colour , by which the species can easily be recognised . Aside from that , dusky dolphins may be confused with other members of their genus when observed at sea . It can be distinguished from the common dolphin , which has a more prominent and longer beak and yellow flank markings . The skull of a dusky dolphin has a longer and narrower rostrum than that of an hourglass dolphin or Peale 's dolphin of similar age and size .
= = Populations and distribution = =
The dusky dolphin has a discontinuous semi @-@ circumpolar range . The dolphins can be found off the coasts of South America , southwestern Africa , southern Australia and Tasmania , New Zealand , and some oceanic islands . Off South America , they range from southern Peru to Cape Horn in the west and from southern Patagonia to around 36 ° S in the east . Its range also includes the Falkland Islands . They are particularly common from Peninsula Valdes to Mar de Plata . In comparison , they are uncommon in the Beagle Channel and the inshore waters of the Tierra del Fuego region .
Dusky dolphins are found throughout New Zealand waters . The dolphin population in this area centres around East Cape and Cape Palliser on the North Island to Timaru and Oamaru on the South Island . They are especially common in the cold waters of the Southland and Canterbury currents . In Africa , the dusky dolphin ranges from Lobito Bay , Angola in the north to False Bay , South Africa in the south . Within Australian waters , dusky dolphins have been recorded in colder waters off Kangaroo Island , eastern Tasmania , and Bass Strait , although they are uncommon and those that are sighted there are possibly transients from New Zealand . They are also found around Campbell , Auckland , and Chatham in the western South Pacific , Tristan da Cunha in the South Atlantic and Île Amsterdam , and Île Saint @-@ Paul in the southern Indian Ocean .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
Dusky dolphins prefer cool , upwelling waters , as well as cold currents . They largely live in inshore waters and can be found up to the outer continental shelf and in similar zones in offshore islands . They can move over great distances ( around 780 km ) , but have no well @-@ defined seasonal migrations . However , dolphins off Argentina and New Zealand make inshore and offshore seasonal and diurnal movements . In Argentina , dusky dolphins associate closely with southern right whales and South American sea lions . They have been found around bottlenose dolphins , but apparently do not interact with them , and may share feeding areas with Risso 's dolphins . They also associate with various seabirds , such as kelp gulls , cormorants , terns , shearwaters , petrels , and albatrosses . In New Zealand , dusky dolphins mingle with common dolphins . Dusky dolphins have also been observed with southern right whale dolphins and pilot whales off southwestern Africa .
= = = Vocalisations and echolocation = = =
In general , three different types of sounds are produced by dolphins ( and other toothed whales ) . These are click trains , which are made of numerous individual clicks , usually broadband signals that change from low value to high value quickly , burst pulses , which are individual clicks with high repetition and can be heard by humans only as a buzzing sound , and whistles , which are signals that are pure @-@ tones and whose frequency varies depending on the time . Dusky dolphins produce all three sounds , but most commonly make burst pulses . Whistling is more common when dusky dolphins mingle with other dolphin species such as common dolphins . Their echolocation signals are broadband and of short duration , much like those other whistle @-@ producing toothed whales . They tend to have bimodal frequency spectra which peak between 40 and 50 kHz at low frequency and between 80 and 110 kHz at high frequency . The species ' echolocation signals are about 9 – 12 dB lower than for the larger white @-@ beaked dolphin .
= = = Foraging and predation = = =
Dusky dolphins prey consume a variety of fish and squid species . Common fish species eaten include anchovies , lantern fish , pilchards , sculpins , hakes , horse mackerel , hoki and red cod . They are generally coordinated hunters . Their very flexible foraging strategies can change depending on the environment . In certain parts of New Zealand , where deep oceanic waters meet the shore , dusky dolphins forage in deep scattering layers at night . They arrive at the hunting site individually , but form groups when in the layer . The dolphins use their echolocation to detect and isolate an individual prey . Groups of foraging dolphins tend to increase when the layer is near the surface and decrease when it descends .
When hunting in shallower waters in New Zealand and Argentina , dusky dolphins tend to forage during the day . The dolphins chase schools of fish or squid and herd them into stationary balls . They may control the school with light reflected from their white bellies . Dolphins herd prey against the surface , but also horizontally against the shore , a point of land , or the hull of a boat . During these times , dusky dolphins are believed to increase prey availability for other predators , including other dolphins , seabirds , sharks , and pinnipeds . In Argentina , dusky dolphins may use bird aggregations to locate and herd prey . Conversely , pinnipeds and sharks take advantage of the dolphin hunts . Dusky dolphins are themselves preyed on by killer whales and large sharks . Dolphins avoid killer whales by swimming into shallower water . Dusky dolphins are also susceptible to parasitism by certain nematode , cestode , and trematode species , mostly the genera Nasitrema and Anisakis , and Phyllobothrium delphini , Braunina cordiformis , and Pholeter gasterophilus .
= = = Social behaviour and reproduction = = =
Dusky dolphins live in a fission @-@ fusion society , with most group size increases occurring during foraging and decreases in group sizes occurring during resting and traveling . In the Golfo San José off the Valdes Peninsula , dolphins commonly switch between small traveling groups and large sociosexual groups , and encounter a variety of associates . Studies of dolphins off Kaikoura , New Zealand , showed the dolphins normally live in large groups that split into smaller subgroups . These subgroups are composed of mating adults ( mating groups ) , mothers with calves ( nursery groups ) and nonbreeding adults . Dusky dolphins have a promiscuous mating system in which both males and females mate with multiple partners . Mating groups are generally made of around 10 males and a single female . These mating groups can be found in both shallow and deep water but more often gather near shore .
In the mating groups , the males pursue a female in high @-@ speed chases . Females seem to prefer males with great speed and agility rather than size , strength , or aggression . Females may extend the chase as long as possible so only the best male remains . Females may try to evade males that are not vigorous or lack social skill . Males also may form alliances to catch females . Unlike male bottlenose dolphins , male dusky dolphins cannot monopolise females . The time when female dusky dolphins first reproduce varies between regions . New Zealand dolphins first reproduce at about seven to years , with possibly six to seven years for Argentine dolphins . A study of dusky dolphins off the coast of Peru showed the reproductive cycle lasts around 28 @.@ 6 months , with mother dolphins pregnant for 12 @.@ 9 months , lactating for a further 12 months , and resting for 3 @.@ 7 months before the cycle begins again . During copulation , females tend to be on the top . As with all species where females mate with multiple partners , male dusky dolphins have large testicles for sperm competition . Dusky dolphins sometimes engage in sexual behaviour for reasons other than reproduction , perhaps for greeting , communication , or strengthening social bonds . Homosexual behaviour between males has been observed . Dolphins having sex for social reasons tend to be more relaxed .
Females with calves tend to gather in nursery groups in shallow water . Nursery groups likely provide mothers and calves more time to rest , which is important for both . While the behaviours of nursery groups vary by month , resting is the predominant behaviour during most months . The formation of nursery groups in shallow waters also allows members to hunt prey species that inhabit in these waters . Both adults and calves have been observed to chase and catch fish , and the adults may be teaching the calves how to hunt . In contrast to shallower waters , hunting in deep water at night may be too dangerous for calves . Calves are particularly vulnerable to predators like killer whales and use of shallow water by nursery groups may be a way to avoid predation . Nursery groups tend to avoid mating groups . Adult males in these groups will aggressively herd and chase females . They can separate calves from their mothers and harass them , as well . Calves may also become even more vulnerable to predators as they become exhausted and disoriented . Mother dolphins may look after calves that are not their own .
= = = Aerial behaviour = = =
Dusky dolphins perform a number of aerial displays , including leaps , backslaps , headslaps , tailslaps , spins , and noseouts . They also perform head @-@ over @-@ tail leaps which have been called the most " acrobatic " of the displays . A headfirst re @-@ entry is performed when a dolphin leaps entirely water and positions its back in a curve while it flips the tail to land back in the water head @-@ first . " Humping " is similar , except the snout and tail remain in the water when the dolphin is the arch . Leaps , head @-@ over @-@ tail leaps , backslaps , headslaps , tailslaps , and spins are often done over and over again . Young dusky dolphins apparently are not born with the ability to perform the leaps and must learn to master each one . Calves appear to learn the leaps in this order : noisy leaps , head first re @-@ entries , coordinated leaps , and acrobatic leaps . Adults may perform different leaps in different contexts , and calves may independently learn how to perform leaps , but learn when to perform these when interacting others .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Status = = =
The dusky dolphin , protected in much of its range , is listed as Data Deficient by the IUCN because ; " ... assessment of global population status is not possible with the currently available estimates of abundance and removals . The subpopulation off Peru has probably been overexploited , but present data do not allow estimation of present decline " . Dusky dolphins may fall victim to the small cetacean fisheries of Peru and Chile . The expansion of these fisheries could have started in Peru when the anchoveta fishery collapsed in 1972 . Dolphins have also been caught in gill nets in New Zealand , but catches appear to have dropped since the 1970s and 1980s . In Peru , dusky dolphins are killed in large numbers ( 10 @.@ 000 @-@ 15 @.@ 000 per year ) and used as shark bait or for human consumption . The dolphins are also thought to have been harpooned off South Africa , but the numbers are not considered large .
The dusky dolphin is listed on Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals ( CMS ) as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co @-@ operation organised by tailored agreements .
= = = Mussel farming = = =
The effect of mussel farming on dusky dolphins has been studied in Admiralty Bay , New Zealand . Dusky dolphins are commonly seen in this area , which is also where the greatest density of farming activity is proposed . Apparently , dolphins rarely enter existing farms , and when they do , they usually swim quickly up the lanes and between rows of lines and floats .
= = = Tourism = = =
Dusky dolphins are popular attractions for whale @-@ watching tours . Since 1997 , dolphin @-@ watching activities have increased in Patagonia , with dusky dolphins ( along with Commerson 's dolphins ) as the target species . Tourists interested in seeing dusky dolphins grew from 1 @,@ 393 in 1997 to 1 @,@ 840 in 2000 . Encounters with dolphins increased from 25 % during 1999 to 90 % in 2001 . Dolphin watching in this areas started as an alternative to whale watching , which was mostly based on that of the southern right whale . Dusky dolphin watching is also popular in New Zealand , whose dolphin @-@ watching industry begin in the late 1980s , as a side attraction to sperm whale watching . Whale and dolphin watching tours have grown with around 75 permitted dolphin tour operators . New Zealand has several locations to view and swim with dusky dolphins , notably in Kaikoura and Marlborough Sounds .
While dusky dolphin tourism is a larger industry in New Zealand than it is in Argentina , the effects of tourism on the dolphins seem to be lower in the former than the latter . New Zealand tours are operated under permits , and are limited in number and have conditions and guidelines related to approach procedures and swim operations . By contrast , no direct regulation of dolphin watching is done in Argentina . As such , dolphin activities are often disturbed by touring vessels .
= = = General = = =
Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals . Perrin , W. F. , Wursig , B and J. G.M. Thewissen . , editors . ( 2008 ) Academic Press ; 2nd edition , ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 373553 @-@ X
The Dusky Dolphin : Master Acrobat off Different Shores . Würsig , B. , and Würsig , M. , editors . ( 2010 ) Academic Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 373723 @-@ 0 .
Whales , Dolphins and . Porpoises , K. S , Norris. editor , ( 1977 ) University of California Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 03283 @-@ 7
Sensory Abilities of Cetaceans . Thomas , J. ; Kastelein , R. , editors . ( 1990 ) Plenum Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 43695 @-@ 7 .
Cetacean Societies . Mann , J. , editor . ( 2000 ) University of Chicago Press , ISBN 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 50341 @-@ 0 .
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= Bellaire , Texas =
Bellaire is a city in southwest Harris County , Texas , United States , within the Houston – Sugar Land – Baytown metropolitan area . As of the 2010 U.S. Census , the city population was 16 @,@ 855 and is surrounded by the cities of Houston and West University Place .
Bellaire is known as the " City of Homes , " owing to its mostly residential character ; however , there are offices along the 610 Loop within the city limits .
= = History = =
Bellaire was founded in 1908 by William Wright Baldwin , who was the president of the South End Land Company . Baldwin , a native of Iowa , was well known as the vice president of the Burlington Railroad . Bellaire was founded on what was part of William Marsh Rice 's 9 @,@ 449 acres ( 38 @.@ 24 km2 ) ranch . Baldwin surveyed the eastern 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) of the ranch into small truck farms . He named those farms " Westmoreland Farms " . Baldwin started Bellaire in the middle of " Westmoreland Farms " to serve as a residential neighborhood and an agricultural trading center . South End Land Company advertised to farmers in the Midwestern United States . Baldwin stated that the town was named " Bellaire " , or " Good Air " for its breezes " . Bellaire may have been named after Bellaire , Ohio , a town served by one of Baldwin 's rail lines .
Six miles of prairie was a buffer zone between Houston and Bellaire . Originally the town was bounded by Palmetto , First , Jessamine , and Sixth ( now Ferris ) Streets . In 1910 Edward Teas , a horticulturist , moved his nursery to Bellaire from Missouri so Teas could implement Sid Hare 's landscaping plans . Bellaire was incorporated as a city with a general charter in 1918 , ten years after its founding . Bellaire had a population of 200 at the time . Because of the 1918 incorporation , Houston did not incorporate Bellaire 's territory into its city limits , while Houston annexed surrounding areas that were unincorporated .
Bellaire 's population had reached 1 @,@ 124 in 1940 . After 1940 , Bellaire had a rapid population explosion in the post @-@ World War II building boom . On December 31 , 1948 , the city of Houston had annexed the land around the city of Bellaire , stopping the city of Bellaire 's land growth . Bellaire remained independent of Houston ; Bellaire adopted a home rule charter with a council @-@ manager government in April 1949 . By 1950 the city 's residents had numbered 10 @,@ 150 . Bellaire High School was established in 1955 .
According to a Bellaire resident quoted in the Houston Post , prior to 1992 , the tax base of the city of Bellaire had been decreasing . After neighbor West University Place eased restrictions on developers , new houses were constructed in West University Place , and the city gained a larger tax base . Bellaire decided to also liberalize its development restrictions to allow for new development by streamlining its no @-@ growth building permit process . According to Karl Lewis , a vice president and sales manager at John Daugherty Realtors , when the prices of West University Place land reached about $ 20 per square foot , area home buyers began to consider Bellaire , which had an average price of $ 10 – 12 per square foot . Don Stowers of the Houston Press said that Bellaire and West University Place had " comparable " attributes such as independent fire and police departments , zoning , recreation facilities and parks , and schools " among the best in Houston . " Michael Blum , president of Blum & Associates Realty , said " Bellaire is a bargain . " Blum added that Bellaire was affordable compared to similar American neighborhoods and that Bellaire had proximity to business districts , " excellent " municipal services , and " superior " schools . Affluent families increasingly moved to Bellaire . The price of an average house in Bellaire increased from $ 75 @,@ 000 to $ 500 @,@ 000 from 1986 to 2006 .
In 2002 the City of Bellaire attempted to acquire all or part of the 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) Teas Nursery , Bellaire 's oldest business and the oldest nursery in Greater Houston , for park development . The company fought the city 's take @-@ over attempt . During that year the owners of Teas sold 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) at the rear of the property to Lovett Homes , a home developer . Frank Liu , the owner of Lovett Homes , said that it had an option to buy the remaining 5 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 m2 ) . When the City of Bellaire denied a replat application sent by Teas Nursery , in June 2002 the nursery filed a lawsuit against the city and its zoning commission . In 2005 the lawsuit was settled out of court .
During the Hurricane Rita evacuation , a bus filled with residents from Brighton Gardens , a nursing home in Bellaire , caught on fire and exploded in the city of Wilmer . The September 23 , 2005 , explosion killed 24 people out of the 38 residents and employees in the bus . The resulting lawsuit was settled in June 2009 . On March 23 , 2008 , a tour bus carrying Tejano singer Emilio Navaira crashed in Bellaire . By 2008 , an increasing number of houses sold for over $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
On December 31 , 2008 , Bellaire police officers confronted Robbie Tolan , the son of former Major League Baseball player Bobby Tolan , in the driveway of his house at the 800 block of Woodstock . Officers suspected Tolan , who was unarmed , of stealing a sports utility vehicle in the driveway and shot Tolan in the chest ; Tolan 's family owned the vehicle . Tolan was hospitalized with injuries to one lung and a liver . The incident sparked allegations of racial profiling . Members of minority groups reported that Bellaire police racially profiled people . In 2002 , José Cruz , Jr . , son of baseball player José Cruz , was stopped since his vehicle was missing a front license plate . He was arrested by Bellaire police and spent one night in jail after Bellaire law enforcement told him that he had a warrant for his arrest . The Houston Chronicle said that the Bellaire police decision to arrest Cruz was a mistake . In January 2009 , Cruz accused the police of racial profiling . Mayor Cindy Siegel said that she was unaware of racial profiling by police . Siegel announced that the city will investigate racial profiling and hire an independent consultant to look at traffic stop data . The local National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) branch said that it established a pact with the City of Bellaire ; people may report civil rights violations from Bellaire Police to the branch if the people do not wish to contact the City of Bellaire . However , the NAACP branch has not yet provided the city with any civil rights violations . On April 6 , 2009 , a Harris County grand jury indicted Sergeant Jeffrey Cotton , the police officer , for aggravated assault by a public servant . If convicted , Cotton could face up to life in prison . In addition the family sued the police department and the police officer . The upcoming trial in Harris County District Court on criminal felony charges against Cotton began on January 25 , 2010 . Jury selection was scheduled to begin on May 3 , 2010 . The officer was found not guilty in his criminal trial in May 2010 .
Teas Nursery closed in 2010 ; the company president , Tom Teas , intended for the property to be redeveloped into single @-@ family houses . The Teas Nursery business was either going to move to a new location or be liquidated . In December the Rubenstein family bought the Teas property ; the family planned to donate it to the City of Bellaire for community purposes . The Teas property has two historic buildings . Scott Rubenstein , who handled negotiations for the Rubenstein family , described the Teas lot as " the last largely undeveloped tract in the city and , frankly , in the inner loop of the city of Houston where you can do something that can be used by people from all around the city . " Mayor of Bellaire Cindy Seigel said " I am just thrilled we ’ ll be able to preserve a historical property that is an important piece of Bellaire ’ s history . "
In January 2010 Siegel announced that she would oppose a plan to locate a permanent , privately funded Houston Dynamo stadium at the intersection of South Rice and Westpark , near Bellaire . In April 2010 it was announced that the Dynamo stadium , now known as BBVA Compass Stadium , would be built in East Downtown Houston .
= = Geography and climate = =
Bellaire is located at 29 ° 42 ′ 11 ″ N 95 ° 28 ′ 06 ″ W. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 3 @.@ 6 square miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km2 ) , all of it land .
The city is surrounded by Houston , West University Place , and Southside Place .
= = = Cityscape = = =
Bellaire 's housing lots are 75 feet ( 23 m ) by 130 feet ( 40 m ) , allowing for houses larger than those that could be built on typical 50 feet ( 15 m ) by 120 feet ( 37 m ) West University Place lots . A Bellaire lot can accommodate a house with a detached garage and a swimming pool , while the typical West University Place lot could accommodate a newly constructed Georgian house described by Don Stowers of the Houston Post as " lot @-@ hugging . " The more spacious and inexpensive housing lots prompted area home seekers to consider Bellaire .
The original Bellaire housing stock typically consisted of 3 bedroom , 1 bathroom post @-@ World War II houses described by Stowers as " smallish . " Because of the attributes , developers did not hesitate to tear these houses down and build new houses . Some individuals chose to renovate their houses instead of having them torn down . Many individuals who would otherwise renovate the houses reconsidered their decisions as the land value increased . In some cases the land value was higher than the value of the structure on the lot . Some subdivisions had larger houses , particularly the Carroll subdivision south of Bellaire Boulevard and the Braeburn Country Club Estates subdivision between Chimney Rock and Rice . Many of the houses in those subdivisions were built in the 1950s and early 1960s , and many were on .5 acres ( 0 @.@ 20 ha ) lots . Karl Lewis , the vice president and sales manager of John Daugherty Realtors , said that many of the houses were " still quite attractive " and " similar to the large Tanglewood homes . " In 1992 smaller lots in Bellaire were about $ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 84313 @.@ 49 in today 's money ) and up , while larger lots were $ 300 @,@ 000 ( $ 505880 @.@ 96 in today 's money ) to $ 500 @,@ 000 ( $ 843134 @.@ 93 in today 's money ) .
In a 2007 Houston Press article John Nova Lomax , a journalist , said that parts of Bellaire 's downtown had " a certain raffish 1950s charm – the Bellaire Broiler Burger , for example – but it ’ s boring . " Lomax stated in a 2008 Houston Press article that , due to the growth and dominance of Houston , municipal enclaves with their own services , including Bellaire , " are little more than glorified neighborhoods . "
Many Bellaire streets , such as " Holly , " " Holt , " " Maple , " and " Pine , " are named after trees . The word " Holt " means a small grove or a forest of trees .
One community in Bellaire , South dale , was developed by William G. Farmington , the developer of Tanglewood . South dale was originally developed in the late 1940s with two bedroom houses . The houses were marketed to World War II veterans . The houses were about four times less expensive than the around $ 25 @,@ 000 @-@ each ( $ 246225 @.@ 76 in today 's money ) Tangle wood houses . Another subdivision in Bellaire is named " Broad Acres . "
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 16 @,@ 855 people , 6 @,@ 053 households , and 4 @,@ 688 families residing in the city . The population density was 4 @,@ 319 @.@ 0 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 668 @.@ 3 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 72 @.@ 6 % non @-@ Hispanic White , 1 @.@ 6 % African American , 0 @.@ 2 % Native American , 14 @.@ 1 % Asian , and 2 @.@ 2 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino people of any race comprised 9 @.@ 5 % of the population .
There were 6 @,@ 053 households out of which 44 @.@ 2 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 67 @.@ 5 % were married couples living together ( 56 @.@ 1 % of which had children ) , 7 @.@ 2 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 22 @.@ 6 % were non @-@ families . 19 @.@ 2 % of all households were made up of individuals and 7 @.@ 9 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 78 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 21 .
In the city the population was spread out with 31 @.@ 3 % under the age of 19 , 5 @.@ 6 % from 20 to 29 , 10 @.@ 6 % from 30 to 39 , 17 @.@ 2 % from 40 to 49 , 24 @.@ 9 % from 50 to 64 , and 10 @.@ 4 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 41 @.@ 6 years . For every 100 females there were 94 @.@ 6 males .
= = Government and infrastructure = =
= = = Local government = = =
Bellaire currently has a city manager style of government . The home rule government was established on April 2 , 1949 , replacing the general law form of government . The city council is made up of the mayor and six city council members . All are elected at large . The mayor is elected for two @-@ year terms , while each city council member is elected for four @-@ year terms . The mayor may not serve for more than four terms in that position . A council members may have no more than two terms as a city council member . Bellaire has zoning ordinances that dictate types of structures and uses throughout sections of the city . As of 2015 , the mayor is Dr. Phil Nauert . The six council members are , in order of position , Roman F. Reed ( 1 ) , Jim Avioli , Sr. ( 2 ) , Gus Pappas ( 3 ) , Pat McLaughlan ( 4 ) , Andrew S. Friedberg ( 5 ) , and Mandy Nathan ( 6 ) .
The Bellaire Fire Department is housed at 5101 Jessamine Street . The fire station includes two fire engines ( a main engine and a volunteer / backup engine ) , two medic units ( a main medic unit and a backup unit ) , an on shift commander vehicle , a vehicle for each the chief and assistant chief , a cascade unit , and a hazardous materials trailer . The fire department operates the Citizens Fire Academy , a fire and life safety program for Bellaire citizens held on Wednesdays and Saturdays . The old fire station was demolished on December 4 , 2009 , with demolition continuing on Monday December 7 , 2009 , and operations are temporarily relocated at the Chevron building . A new fire station was scheduled to in the location of the previous fire station . The groundbreaking for the new station was held on December 17 , 2009 .
The Bellaire Police Department is housed at 5110 Jessamine Street . As of 2008 the Chief of Police is Byron Holloway . The police department 's patrol division , the organization 's largest division , includes patrol , detention , motorcycle , and bicycle units . The support services division includes court , records , and communications divisions . The police department offers the " House Watch Program , " where interested residents allow police to check their houses while they are away on vacation .
= = = = Local politics = = = =
Zoning and land use controversies , common throughout Bellaire 's history , resulted in the 1977 recall of the mayor and three council members . The City of Bellaire voted against banning smoking in bars and restaurants on Monday January 15 , 2007 . Mayor Cindy Siegel and Pat McLaughlan , one council member , voted for the ban , while the other five members , including Peggy Faulk , voted against the ban . The National Restaurant Association asked Bellaire to consider adopting a smoking ban to put it in sync with the City of Houston , which adopted a similar ordinance in 2005 . In December 2009 the city voted to ban texting while driving . Bans of texting while driving were passed in Bellaire and West University Place , Texas within hours of one another . In 2010 the city voted 5 @-@ 2 to ban the feeding of cats on public property and establish a rule requiring the permission of the owner of a piece of private property in order to feed cats on private property . The city received negative e @-@ mail feedback from various locations , including Switzerland .
In 2011 Phil Nauert was elected as the new Mayor of Bellaire . In 2014 , long @-@ time City Manager Bernie Satterwhite retired and was replaced by Paul Hofmann .
= = = County , state , and federal government = = =
Bellaire is within Harris County Precinct 3 . As of 2008 Steve Radack serves as the commissioner of that precinct . It is in Constable Precinct One . As of 2008 Jack Abercia heads the constable precinct .
Bellaire is located in District 134 of the Texas House of Representatives . As of 2011 , Sarah Davis represents the district . Bellaire is within District 17 of the Texas Senate .
Bellaire is in Texas 's 7th congressional district ; as of 2008 John Culberson is the representative . The designated United States Postal Service office is the Bellaire Post Office along Bellaire Boulevard in Bellaire . Bellaire first received a post office in 1911 .
= = Transportation = =
Bellaire is a member city of the Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County , Texas ( METRO ) . The city is served by bus lines 2 ( Bellaire ) , 17 , 33 ( Post Oak Crosstown ) , 49 ( Chimney Rock Crosstown ) , and 65 ( Bissonnet ) . The Bellaire Transit Center , located at 5100 Bellaire Boulevard at South Rice Avenue , has four lines ( 2 , 33 , 49 , 65 ) . As of 2010 METRO has proposed to build the Bellaire Station as part of the METRORail University Line .
In Bellaire 's early history , Bellaire Boulevard and a historic street car line connected Bellaire to Houston . The street car line , which ran a four @-@ mile ( 6 km ) stretch from central Bellaire to Houston 's Main Street , started construction in 1909 . The streetcar line consisted of one railway track and an overhead electric wire . A waiting pavilion and a turnaround loop were located at the terminus in Bellaire . The Houston Electric Company had simultaneously constructed a south end line from Eagle Avenue to what is now Fannin Street to connect to the Bellaire Boulevard line . Service , with one required transfer at Eagle Avenue , began on December 28 , 1910 . The streetcar was nicknamed the " Toonerville Trolley " . On September 26 , 1927 , the trolley line was abandoned and replaced by a bus line . This was due to frequent derailments caused by a worn @-@ out track and the advent of the automobile . In 1985 , a similar streetcar was acquired in Portugal and brought to Bellaire for permanent display .
= = Economy = =
The City of Bellaire has property zoned for light industrial , commercial , and mixed @-@ use residential and commercial uses . Bellaire has some high @-@ rise office buildings along Interstate 610 . Frost Bank 's Houston @-@ area offices are located in Bellaire . AT & T Inc. operates its Houston @-@ area headquarters in an office building at 6500 West Loop South in Bellaire ; the building was with SBC Corporation before it absorbed the former AT & T. The Houston Metropolitan Chamber , previously the Greater Southwest Houston Chamber of Commerce , assists economy activity in Bellaire . The main offices of the Greater Southwest Houston Chamber of Commerce were previously located in Bellaire . Chevron has a 33 @-@ acre ( 130 @,@ 000 m2 ) campus at 4800 Fournace Place in Bellaire that is the headquarters for the Chevron Pipe Line Company along with several other business units . Prior to the merger between Chevron and Texaco , the facility belonged to Texaco . Texaco built the 502 @,@ 000 square feet ( 46 @,@ 600 m2 ) square foot facility . South Texas Dental has its corporate headquarters in Bellaire .
In 1953 the Consulate @-@ General of Sweden moved to Bellaire . At one point the Consulate @-@ General of Honduras in Houston was located in Suite 360 at 6700 West Loop South in Bellaire . As of 2009 the Honduran Consulate @-@ General and the Swedish Honorary Consulate are located in Houston .
Bellaire had 8 @,@ 120 employed civilians as of the 2000 Census , including 3 @,@ 835 females . Of the civilian workers , 5 @,@ 368 ( 66 @.@ 1 % ) were private for profit wage and salary workers . Of them 689 ( 8 @.@ 5 % of the total Bellaire civilian workforce ) were employees of their own corporations . 952 ( 11 @.@ 7 % ) were private non @-@ profit wage and salary workers . 446 ( 5 @.@ 5 % ) worked for local governments . 479 ( 5 @.@ 9 % ) were state government workers . 111 ( 1 @.@ 4 % ) were federal workers . 754 ( 9 @.@ 3 % ) were self @-@ employed ; none of them worked in agriculture , forestry , fishing , or hunting . 10 ( .1 % ) were unpaid family workers .
= = Parks and recreation = =
Bellaire has several parks within the city limits operated by the city . Bellaire Zindler Park , a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 30 @,@ 000 m2 ) park , was given its current name in honor of Marvin Zindler , a Houston journalist ; it was originally named Bellaire Park . Bellaire Zindler Park includes a neighborhood pool , two lighted tennis courts , a gazebo , a picnic area , a jogging trail , an open playground , the Bellaire Recreation Center , and the Bellaire Civic Center , which includes auditoriums and meeting rooms . The .875 @-@ acre ( 3 @,@ 540 m2 ) Vic Driscoll Park consists entirely of open green space . The 2 @.@ 1 @-@ acre ( 8 @,@ 500 m2 ) Evergreen Park includes a neighborhood pool and a playground and picnic area . The 4 @.@ 7 @-@ acre ( 19 @,@ 000 m2 ) Feld Park includes an adult softball field , a playground , two lighted tennis courts , and the Feld Scout House . The .2 @-@ acre ( 810 m2 ) Joe Gaither Park includes a play structure with swings and green space . The 3 @.@ 1 @-@ acre ( 13 @,@ 000 m2 ) Horn Field ( Avenue B at Holly Street ) includes two lighted baseball fields , youth soccer ( football ) fields , and a T @-@ Ball field . The .489 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 980 m2 ) Jacquet Park consists of a playground and picnic area . The 1 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 6 @,@ 100 m2 ) Lafayette Park includes a playground and picnic area , an open play area , and the Officer Lucy Dog Park , a dog park . The .75 @-@ acre ( 3 @,@ 000 m2 ) Locust Park consists of an open play area and a shaded picnic area . The 1 @.@ 795 @-@ acre ( 7 @,@ 260 m2 ) Loftin Park consists of open green space . The 2 @.@ 547 @-@ acre ( 10 @,@ 310 m2 ) Mulberry Park at 700 Mulberry Lane includes a playground area , a picnic shelter , a youth baseball field , and three lighted tennis courts . The 6 @.@ 6 @-@ acre ( 27 @,@ 000 m2 ) Paseo Park along Bellaire Boulevard includes an esplanade , the Bellaire Trolley and the Special Event area . The 7 @-@ acre ( 28 @,@ 000 m2 ) Pin Oak Park along the West Loop South ( 610 Loop ) includes two lighted baseball fields , one lighted soccer and American football field , one jogging track , and three basketball / tennis courts . The 4 @.@ 1 @-@ acre ( 17 @,@ 000 m2 ) Russ Pitman Park includes the Henshaw House , the Nature Discovery Area , a playground area , a sheltered picnic area , a self @-@ guided nature trail , two pavilions , and an aviary . The dedication ceremony of the future Evelyn 's Park was held on June 25 , 2011 .
As of 1996 Bellaire prohibits smoking in public parks and dogs in all non @-@ dog public parks ; as of that year smoking in public parks brings a fine of $ 500 . The ordinance was adopted around 1996 on a 4 @-@ 3 vote .
Bellaire holds annual Fourth of July parades and annual " ' snow ' in the park " Christmas celebrations .
Bellaire 's Little League baseball team entered the Little League World Series in 2000 ; the team lost to the team of Maracaibo , Venezuela . In 2002 Bellaire 's little league team was placed in the same league as the West University Place team . Previously they played in separate leagues .
= = Education = =
= = = Primary and secondary public schools = = =
The city is served by Houston Independent School District ( HISD ) . Bellaire is within Trustee District V.
Pupils who live in Bellaire inside of the 610 Loop are zoned to Paul W. Horn Academy for elementary school , while students in Bellaire outside of the 610 Loop are zoned to either Condit Elementary School or Lovett Elementary School , the latter of which is in Houston . In addition , all Bellaire pupils are zoned to Pershing Middle School in the Braeswood Place neighborhood of Houston and Bellaire High School in Bellaire . In addition , a middle school called Pin Oak Middle School , which was built in 2002 , is located in Bellaire . Students zoned to Johnston , Long , and Pershing Middle Schools may choose to attend Pin Oak instead ; therefore Bellaire students may attend Pin Oak . Pin Oak was named a National Blue Ribbon School in 2008 .
In 2012 HISD opened the Mandarin Chinese Language Immersion Magnet School Chinese language @-@ immerson magnet school in Bellaire , in the Gordon Elementary School building . It is HISD 's first Chinese immersion school . In the future the school will move to the St. George Place area of Houston .
Gabriela Mistral Early Childhood Center is the closest public early childhood center to the city of Bellaire and Kolter Elementary School is the closest school with a tuition @-@ based early childhood program . Only economically disadvantaged students , homeless students , students who are not proficient in English , or children of active @-@ duty members of the U.S. military or whose parent has been killed , injured , or missing in action while on active duty may be enrolled in tuition @-@ free HISD preschools . Students who are eligible for HISD 's preschools may attend any Early Childhood Center in Houston ISD for free . Students not eligible may enroll in tuition @-@ based HISD preschool programs .
HISD is building a new campus for Condit Elementary School , and this campus , designed by VLK Architects , will have a capacity of 750 students . The groundbreaking ceremony was held on November 10 , 2014 .
= = = = History = = = =
Bellaire 's first school opened in 1909 ; the school moved to a new site in 1914 and an addition opened in 1927 ; when the addition opened the school was renamed " Condit . " Horn opened in 1949 , Pershing opened in 1927 , Bellaire High School opened in 1955 . Pin Oak opened in 2002 . Pershing 's current campus opened in January 2007 . The current Horn and Lovett buildings were scheduled to open in August 2011 . The rebuilds of Horn , Lovett , and Herod Elementary of Houston together had a cost of $ 49 million and were a part of a $ 1 billion bond program approved by HISD voters in 2007 .
Maud W. Gordon Elementary School in Bellaire does not have a zoning boundary ; before 2012 it drew excess students from apartments west of Bellaire , in Houston , to relieve other schools in Houston west of Bellaire such as Benavidez , Cunningham , Elrod , and Milne . From its opening to 1953 to 1983 Gordon served as a neighborhood school . After its closure Gordon temporarily housed the Post Oak School and later served as administrative offices . It re @-@ opened as a relief school in 1988 for Elrod and Cunningham schools . It was scheduled to re @-@ open in September of that year .
On April 29 , 1992 , during an attendance boundary hearing committee for Southwest Houston , residents of a small portion of Bellaire zoned to Cunningham Elementary School , a school in Houston that was one block away from the city limits of Bellaire , advocated for a rezoning to Condit Elementary School , a facility in the City of Bellaire that was about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away from that section . Condit was about 50 % White and had a middle class student body while Cunningham was 95 % Hispanic . On May 21 , 1992 , the HISD board voted to rezone that portion to Condit .
Around the early 1990s portions of Bellaire west of the 610 Loop were zoned to Jane Long Middle School , while portions inside the 610 Loop were zoned to Pershing . During that decade , the Bellaire Area School Improvement Committee , or BASIC , was formed to improve the reputation of HISD in Bellaire and to improve Bellaire area schools . The committee opened after HISD 's failed attempt to acquire property in Bellaire for the West University relief school . An attempt to buy land at Bissonnet Street at Newcastle Drive in the City of Bellaire for a school to relieve West University Elementary School failed since City of Bellaire officials and parents living in Bellaire complained when they learned that they would not be zoned to the new school while losing what Tim Fleck of the Houston Press described as " a prime chunk of taxable property . "
After its formation , BASIC installed a gifted and talented magnet at Jane Long , a school which Donald R. McAdams , a former HISD school board member and author of Fighting to Save Our Urban Schools-- and Winning ! : Lessons from Houston , described as a school that was " unacceptable " to Bellaire residents since it was less than 10 % white . McAdams added that even with the new program , to many parents in Bellaire , Long was " never going to be acceptable " due to the overwhelming Hispanic presence . Therefore , there was a proposal to convert Gordon into a small middle school for Bellaire . The school would have space for about 500 students and would be at least 50 % White , so it was popular among many Bellaire residents , particularly those outside of the 610 Loop . However those inside the 610 Loop did not want to lose access to Pershing , a full service middle school that was about 40 % White . An attendance boundary committee for at HISD met from December 1992 to March 1993 . McAdams wrote that the committee was " an all @-@ out war " between the two sides . In February 1993 pro @-@ Gordon persons argued that HISD should purchase a commercial building north of Long and renovate it into an elementary school which would relieve Gordon Elementary and other overcrowded are schools . McAdams wrote that the staff members of HISD superintendent Frank Petruzielo " liked the idea , but unfortunately , on close examination the building proved to be inadequate . " In April 1993 the HISD board declared that the Gordon campus would continue to be an elementary school . McAdams wrote that the Gordon supporters and many Bellaire residents were " furious " .
= = = Primary and secondary private schools = = =
Three independent ( private ) schools , including Episcopal High School ( 9 @-@ 12 ) , The Post Oak School ( Montessori K @-@ 8 ) , and the Veritas Christian Academy ( K @-@ 8 ) , are located in Bellaire . Episcopal High School opened in fall 1984 ; its campus previously housed Marion High School and the Congregation of the Sisters of the Incarnate Word and Blessed Sacrament , a Roman Catholic school operated by the Sisters of the Incarnate Word and Blessed Sacrament and within the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston @-@ Houston . The current campus of The Post Oak School opened in 1986 ; the school had been previously housed in the Gordon Elementary School campus . Pilgrim Lutheran School is located just south of Bellaire on Chimney Rock Road . Holy Ghost School , a Catholic private K @-@ 8 school , is located in Houston and adjacent to the Bellaire city limits . Private schools near Bellaire in areas of Houston include Saint Agnes Academy , Strake Jesuit College Preparatory , St. Francis Episcopal Day School ( Texas ) , and St. Thomas ' Episcopal School .
= = = Community colleges = = =
Bellaire is served by the Houston Community College System ( HCCS ) . The community college district operates the HCCS Gulfton Center , located at 5407 Gulfton Drive in the Gulfton area of Houston . Gulfton Center , a 35 @,@ 100 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 260 m2 ) campus building owned by HCCS , opened in 1990 after Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Co. sold the building to HCCS for $ 700 @,@ 000 ( 1990 dollars ) . The West Loop Center , an HCCS @-@ owned campus at 5601 West Loop South which opened in Spring 1999 , is in Houston and in close proximity to Bellaire . Both the Gulfton and West Loop campuses are part of the district 's Southwest College .
= = = Public libraries = = =
The city of Bellaire also operates its own library , the Bellaire City Library , at 5111 Jessamine Street . The Friends of the Bellaire Library , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non @-@ profit organization , was established in 1951 to support the City of Bellaire Library .
= = Media = =
The Houston Chronicle is the area regional newspaper . Residents receive the Bellaire / West U / River Oaks / Meyerland local section .
The Village News and Southwest News is the oldest local paper currently published in Bellaire ; offices are at 5160 Spruce Street . The Bellaire Examiner is a newspaper also distributed free to residents . The Bellaire Buzz is a monthly magazine about people , products and services in the community . It is mailed free of charge to all residents the first week of each month . BellaireConnect.com is a community web site for Bellaire and its surrounding neighborhoods . InstantNewsBellaire.com is an online newspaper covering the Bellaire community . Bellaire Essentials is an informational community magazine that is delivered monthly to all homes in the city .
= = Notable people = =
José Cruz , Jr .
Ezra Charles
= = Gallery = =
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= Alien Spidy =
Alien Spidy is a platformer video game for Microsoft Windows , Macintosh , Xbox 360 ( through Xbox Live Arcade ) , and PlayStation 3 ( through PlayStation Network ) . It was developed by Enigma Software Productions and published by Kalypso Media . Players control an extraterrestrial spider who has crash @-@ landed on Earth , as he seeks to repair his spacecraft and rescue a fellow extraterrestrial spider .
Announced on 8 November 2011 , Alien Spidy was published on 20 March 2013 for the Xbox 360 , Microsoft Windows , and Macintosh , and on 8 May 2013 for the PlayStation 3 . It received mixed to negative reviews upon release ; critics praised the game 's aesthetics but found the gameplay frustrating due to imprecise controls and an unforgiving level of difficultly that hampered progression through the game .
= = Gameplay = =
Alien Spidy is a physics @-@ based platformer video game . Players control the eponymous Spidy , an extraterrestrial spider , and navigate him through a series of levels that are filled with deadly obstacles . Spidy can run and jump , and has the ability to shoot a web , allowing him to grapple and swing from object to object within the environment . Interspersed throughout each level are a large number of orbs , which Spidy can collect to score points . Finishing the level quickly , collecting a large number of orbs , collecting several orbs in quick succession , and finding score multipliers all increase the player 's score for that level . Players can also lose points by dying , collecting certain orbs that decrease the player 's score , or going for too long without collecting an orb . Players earn between one and five stars on each level , based on their score . Levels are grouped into several stages , including a forest , a pond , a cave system , and outer @-@ space . In order to progress from one stage to the next , players must collect a certain number of stars . Players can collect special power @-@ up orbs scattered throughout levels . These orbs allow Spidy to perform feats he is otherwise incapable of , including traveling underwater and jumping to extreme heights . There are 69 levels in the game , and most of them take between 90 seconds and three minutes .
= = = Plot = = =
Alien Spidy has a minimal plot . The story follows the Spidy , a spider from the planet Aracnia , who has crash @-@ landed on Earth during an attempt to rescue a lady spider , Virgi . Spidy must locate Virgi and collect pieces of his spacecraft in order to return to Aracnia .
= = Development = =
On 8 November 2011 , the game was announced in a press release , with Enigma Software Productions as the developer and Kalypso Media as the publisher . The press release indicated that the game would be released in the second quarter of 2012 .
Alien Spidy was advertised as a PlayStation Vita game early in its development history , with Sony using gameplay footage of the game on the Vita at a presentation at Gamescom 2011 . The game was never released on that platform , however . In an interview , Enigma Software CEO Daniel Parente claimed that the game was developed for all major platforms , and after bringing Kalypso Media on board as a publisher , the latter chose which platforms to release the game on , and when . The project manager at Kalypso Media for Alien Spidy , Andrew McKerrow , noted that the developer attempted to secure a publisher by pitching the game on a large number of platforms . In a separate interview with Daniel Parente , conducted in October 2012 , Enigma Software 's CEO called the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 the game 's lead platforms , stating that the game was " designed to be played with a gamepad " .
It took eight months for Enigma to build the physics behind the web @-@ based grapple and swing game mechanic . During early builds of the game , the motion was slower , but the development team sped up the movement , feeling it was truer to the character . The Sonic the Hedgehog series served as an inspiration for the game 's pace . Significant effort was put into creating the game 's visual style and making Spidy a relatable , charismatic character . Daniel Parente cited Limbo , Braid , and Patapon as influences for the game 's aesthetics . Comics and cartoons served as influences for Spidy 's design . The character was given a pair of large yellow eyes , which allowed the character to emote . Two of the legs were removed , bringing the total from eight to six , which Andrew McKerrow described as an effort to avoid triggering the fears of people with arachnophobia and " make the character a little more friendly looking and little less creepy " . It was only after making these changes to Spidy that the developers decided to make Spidy an extraterrestrial , as that would justify the character design 's deviations from regular spiders .
The game was delayed several times . In August 2012 , the website XBLA Fans reported that the game would be delayed into the fall of that year . By October , a preview on the gaming website Twinfinite listed the release date as 31 December 2012 . The game was released on the Xbox 360 , Microsoft Windows , and Macintosh on 20 March 2013 , and was released on the PlayStation 3 on 8 May 2013 .
= = Reception = =
Alien Spidy received mixed to negative reviews upon release . At Metacritic , a video game review aggregator , the Xbox 360 version of the game received an average score of 55 out of 100 , based on 19 reviews .
The game 's visuals were praised by reviewers . GamesRadar 's Lorenzo Veloria opined that " Adorable characters , beautiful visuals , and upbeat music stand out as the high points of Alien Spidy " . A large number of reviewers called the game and its characters " cute " . While a few of the reviewers praised the game 's music , Jeremy Peeples of Hardcore Gamer found that it lacked staying power . He noted , however , that the music could be muted without also muting the sound effects , allowing people to play their own music .
Critics near universally took issue with the game 's controls . Critics found that the webs that they shot did not go where they wanted them to go , and multiple reviewers described navigation as " trial and error " . Reviewers also found that they could not always jump when they wanted to , and one reviewer found that power @-@ ups failed to activate when she wanted them to . Reviewers also complained that it was extremely difficult to get enough stars to progress from one stage to the next , forcing players to replay the same levels over and over again . Because points are subtracted each time Spidy dies , the problems with the control scheme exacerbate how difficult it is to get enough stars to progress .
Opinions on the game 's mid @-@ level checkpoint system were mixed . Matt Cullen of Canadian Online Gaming noted that the checkpoints meant that players were not sent too far back into the level after each death , saving time . Official Xbox Magazine 's Taylor Cocke , however , noted that the checkpoints save players ' point progress , meaning that players would have to start the level over if their performance wasn 't good enough before they reached the checkpoint .
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= Australian raven =
The Australian raven ( Corvus coronoides ) is a passerine bird in the genus Corvus native to much of southern and northeastern Australia . Measuring 46 – 53 centimetres ( 18 – 21 in ) in length , it has all @-@ black plumage , beak and mouth , as well as strong grey @-@ black legs and feet . The upperparts are glossy , with a purple , blue or green sheen , and its black feathers have grey bases . The Australian raven is distinguished from the Australian crow species by its throat hackles , which are prominent in adult birds . Older adult individuals have white irises , younger adults have a white irises with an inner blue rim , while younger birds have dark brown irises until fifteen months of age , and hazel irises with an inner blue rim around each pupil until age two years and ten months . Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield described the Australian raven in 1827 , its species name highlighting its similarity with the carrion crow ( C. corone ) . Two subspecies are recognised , which differ slightly in calls and are quite divergent genetically .
The preferred habitat is open woodland and transitional zones . It has adapted well to urban environments and is a common city bird in Sydney , Canberra and Perth . An omnivorous and opportunistic feeder , it eats a wide variety of plant and animal material , as well as food waste from urban areas . In eastern Australia its range is strongly correlated with the presence of sheep , and it has been blamed for killing lambs . However , this is very rare , and the raven most often scavenges for afterbirth and stillborn animals as well as newborn lamb faeces . The Australian raven is territorial , with pairs generally bonding for life . Breeding takes place between July and September , with almost no variation across its range . The nest is a bowl @-@ shaped structure of sticks sited high in a tree , or occasionally in a man @-@ made structure such as a windmill or other building .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The Australian raven was first described by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827 , when they reported George Caley 's early notes on the species from the Sydney district . Its specific epithet coronoides " crow @-@ shaped " is derived from the Greek corone / κορόνη " crow " and eidos / είδος " shape " or " form " . The two naturalists regarded the Australian raven as very similar in appearance to the carrion crow ( C. corone ) of Europe , though they noted it was larger with a longer bill . They did not give it a common name . The location where the type specimen was collected is not recorded , but thought to be in the Parramatta district . Christian Ludwig Brehm described Corvus affinis in 1845 , later determined to be this species . In his 1865 Handbook to the Birds of Australia , John Gould recognised only one species of corvid in Australia , Corvus australis , which he called the white @-@ eyed crow . He used Johann Friedrich Gmelin 's 1788 name , which predated Vigors and Horsfield 's description . In 1877 Richard Bowdler Sharpe recognised two species , but recorded that the feather bases of the type specimen of C. coronoides were white . He named C. coronoides as the " crow " and C. australis ( as Corone australis ) the " raven " . Scottish naturalist William Robert Ogilvie @-@ Grant corrected this in 1912 after re @-@ examining the type specimen , clarifying the species as C. coronoides ( raven , and incorporating little and forest ravens ) and C. cecilae ( Torresian crow ) .
Gregory Mathews described the western subspecies perplexus in 1912 , naming it the southwestern crow and noting that it was smaller than the nominate subspecies . He called C. coronoides coronoides the eastern crow , listing its range as New South Wales , and described what is now the Australian crow as another subspecies , C. coronoides cecilae , calling it the north @-@ western crow and recording its range as northwestern Australia . In the same work he listed the raven as Corvus marianae , with a type specimen from Gosford and listing its range as New South Wales . He listed the little raven and forest raven as subspecies . Mathews had erected C. marianae in 1911 as the name after declaring Corvus australis Gould to be preoccupied ; French @-@ American ornithologist Charles Vaurie acted as First Revisor under Article 24 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) Code and discarded C. australis as a junior homonym — in 1788 , Gmelin had used the same binomial name to describe the black nunbird — to preserve the stability of the name . This has been followed by later authors .
German ornithologist Erwin Stresemann lumped all Australian corvids plus other species as far as India into a single species , C. coronoides , as he believed there was intergradation between all characteristics such as iris colour , colour of feather bases and plumage . This was hotly disputed by Mathews . The official RAOU checklist listed three species ( Australian raven , Torresian crow and little crow ) , with the little raven recognised as a fourth species in 1967 and forest raven in 1970 . Streseman described C. difficilis in 1943 from a single specimen , now thought to have been an unusual Australian raven or an Australian raven / Torresian crow hybrid .
Alternative names sometimes seen include southern raven , southern crow and Kelly , the last thought to have alluded to the Kelly Gang , though did not appear until the 1920s . Southern crow was considered by the RAOU before Australian raven was adopted as the official name for the species in 1926 . The term " crow " is colloquially applied to any or all species of Australian corvid . The Australian raven was called wugan by the local Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney Basin .
= = = Evolution and systematics = = =
The Australian raven 's closest relatives are the other two species of raven occurring in Australia : the little raven and forest raven . The Australian raven is also somewhat closely related to the Torresian and little crow , although not as closely related as it is to the other raven species . Initial single gene genetic analysis of the genus using mitochondrial DNA showed the three raven species to belong to one lineage and the two crows to another . The genetic separation between species is small and there was a suggestion the little raven may be nested within the Australian raven , though the authors conceded more genetic work was needed . Subsequent multigene analysis using nuclear DNA by Jønsson and colleagues in 2012 showed the eastern and western subspecies of the Australian raven to form two clades , almost as genetically distinct as the forest and little raven are to each other . This led the authors to propose that the subspecies be recognised as separate species .
Ian Rowley proposed that the common ancestor of the five species diverged into a tropical crow and temperate raven sometime after entering Australia from the north , which molecular evidence indicates occurred in the early Pliocene epoch around 4 million years ago . The raven diverged into the ancestor of the forest and little ravens in the east and Australian raven in the west , this split occurring around 2 million years ago in the early Pleistocene . As the climate became cooler and dryer , the aridity of central Australia split them entirely . Furthermore , the eastern birds diverged into nomadic little ravens and , in forested refuges , forest ravens . As the climate eventually became warmer , the western birds spread eastwards and almost outcompeted forest ravens on mainland Australia . Rowley noted that the western subspecies of the Australian raven had features intermediate between the eastern subspecies of Australian and little ravens .
Two subspecies are recognised :
C. c. coronoides , the nominate or eastern subspecies , is found across most of eastern Australia . Its range is also highly correlated with the presence of sheep . This is thought to be because of the frequency of dead animals , which can be an important source of food . Ornithologist Ian Rowley held that the eastern subspecies was expanding eastwards before European colonisation , and that this suggested it was of younger origin than the western subspecies , which appears static . The advent of agriculture facilitated further spread .
C. c. perplexus , the western subspecies , occurs from the head of the Great Australian Bight in South Australia westwards into Western Australia where its northern limits are Shark Bay and the mulga @-@ eucalypt boundary line . It is less specialised in its habitat , as it does not share its distribution with the little raven , and does not appear to correlate with the range of sheep . The western subspecies has a slightly lower @-@ pitched call than that of the eastern subspecies , with similarities to calls of the little raven . Of smaller size overall , it has a more slender bill and shorter hackles . There is otherwise no difference in plumage . Intermediate birds are found in the Eyre Peninsula , Gawler Ranges and vicinity of Lake Eyre in South Australia .
= = Description = =
Measuring 46 – 53 cm ( 18 – 21 in ) in length with a 100 cm ( 39 in ) wingspan and weighing around 650 g ( 1 @.@ 43 lb ) , the adult Australian raven is an all black @-@ bird with a black beak , mouth and tongue and sturdy black or grey @-@ black legs and feet . The tibia is fully feathered and the tarsus is long , and the feet large and strong . It has white irises . The plumage is glossy with a blue @-@ purple to blue @-@ green sheen , greenish over the ear coverts , depending on light . The underparts are not glossy . The Australian raven has throat feathers ( hackles ) that are lanceolate with rounded tips , while the other four species of Australian corvids have bifurcate tips , though this can be difficult to see in the field . The hackles are also longer than those of the other four species ; when they are raised ( such as when the bird is calling ) , they give the bird an unusual bearded appearance . The upper third of the upper mandible , including the nares and nasal groove , is covered with bristles , which can be up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) long . The heavy @-@ set beak is tipped with a slight hook , and is longer than the bird 's head . The wings are long and broad , with the longest of its ten primary feathers ( usually the seventh but occasionally the eighth ) almost reaching the end of the tail when the bird is at rest . The tail is rounded or wedge @-@ shaped . The Australian raven can be distinguished from the two species of crow occurring in Australia by the grey base of the feathers , which is white in the latter species . The demarcation between pale and black regions on the feather is gradual in the ravens and sharply delineated in the crows . Feather bases are not normally visible when observing birds in the field , but can sometimes be seen on a windy day if the feathers are ruffled . Unlike the other four species , the Australian raven has a bare patch of skin under , and extending to beside , the bill . This can be hard to discern in the field . The three species of raven are more heavily set with a broader chest than the two crow species , with the forest raven the stockiest of all . Relative size of species is only useful when two species can be seen side by side , as the overlap in size is large and the difference in size small .
Juveniles resemble adults , but lack throat hackles , and sometimes have a pink fleshy gape . The bill is shorter and shallower ; its base can be pinkish and the tip can be light grey . The plumage is more ruffled and softer in appearance , lacks the glossy highlights and often having a brown tinge . The bare skin on the throat is pink in bird that have recently left the nest . Eye colour varies with age , gradually lightening from juvenile to adult . Nestlings up to four months old have blue @-@ grey irises , juveniles aged from four to fifteen months have dark brown irises , and immature birds have hazel irises with an inner blue rim around each pupil until age two years and ten months . Immature birds older than one year develop hackles , while some pink remains in the gape until the bird is two or three years of age .
= = = Vocalisations = = =
The territorial call of the Australian raven is a slow , high ah @-@ ah @-@ aaaah with the last note drawn out . It uses this call to communicate with other Australian ravens in the area . When giving this call , the species has a horizontal posture , holding its head forward and body parallel to the ground , while perched on a prominent position . It ruffles its hackles and lowers its tail , and sometimes holds its beak open between calls . In contrast , the little raven and forest raven hold their bodies in an upright posture . This call becomes louder if trespassers encroach upon the Australian raven 's territory . The five Australian species are very difficult to tell apart , with the call being the easiest way to do so , although the drawing @-@ out of the final note — long held to be solely recorded for the Australian raven — has been recorded for the other species and is hence not diagnostic .
The volume , pitch , tempo and order of notes can be changed depending on the message the Australian raven intends to convey . There are a variety of contact calls : a pair often makes a low murmuring sound when preening each other while roosting , and members of a flock carry on with a quiet chattering while at rest . Birds make a call and answer sequence if temporarily out of sight of one another while foraging . Birds in flocks make a single high @-@ pitched caa while flying over another territory as a transit call to signify they are just passing through . An Australian raven will give a longer caa with a downward inflexion to signify its return to the nest to its mate .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Australian raven is common throughout eastern Australia , and southern Western Australia ( the populations being connected by a narrow strip across the Nullarbor Plain ) , but it is rarer and more scattered in the north , with isolated sightings in Cape York at Coen , Windmill Creek and the Mitchell River , and becoming more common south of Rockhampton in central Queensland . It is found throughout New South Wales , though is uncommon in the northeast of the state . It is rare in the Australian Alps , being replaced there by the little raven . It occurs across Victoria and eastern South Australia , through the Eyre Peninsula and Nullarbor Plain into Western Australia , across the state north to the Wooramel River . It is found on some offshore islands such as Rottnest Island and Kangaroo Island . It is a rare vagrant to Lord Howe Island .
The Australian raven can be found in a wide range of natural and modified habitats . It requires available water and trees ( or buildings ) to roost in or perch on . Preferred habitats include eucalypt @-@ dominated sclerophyll forest , and farmland adjacent to trees . It is also found in heath and mangroves . In areas where it occurs with the little raven , namely over much of central New South Wales , Victoria and into South Australia , the Australian raven is restricted to more forested areas while the latter species prefers more open areas . Similarly , in inland Australia it can share range with the little crow , as the two do not appear to compete . However , the ranges of similar @-@ sized forest raven and Torresian crow only narrowly overlap with the Australian raven as all three compete with each other . In central and western regions , Australian ravens and Torresian crows vye for the scattered uncommon trees and outcrops , and only one or the other are found there . It co @-@ occurs with the forest raven in northeastern New South Wales from Port Stephens northwards . The Australian raven has adapted very well to human habitation in some cities and is the most common corvid in Canberra , Sydney and Perth ; in Melbourne and Adelaide it is replaced by the little raven , and by the Torresian crow in Brisbane . Its large range , abundance and increasing population mean it is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
= = Behaviour = =
Difficulties in distinguishing Australian corvids has hampered understanding of seasonal movements . The Australian raven is thought to be largely sedentary , with most movement of over 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) due to flocks of non @-@ breeding subadult birds . Juvenile birds leave their parents and join flocks when they are four or five months old . Smaller flocks of 8 – 30 birds stay within an area of around 260 square kilometres , while larger flocks of up to 300 birds may travel hundreds of kilometres seeking food .
A single breeding pair and their brood can occupy a territory of up to around 120 hectares ( 300 acres ) and remains there year @-@ round , though groups of ravens may enter this area to forage . Australian ravens will defend their territory by chasing , dive @-@ bombing and occasionally striking the backs of birds of prey , foxes or even people . They generally mate for life , though occasionally one male has been found to be mated with two females in adjacent territories . If the female dies , the male Australian raven maintains the territory and finds another mate , while if the male bird is lost , the female abandons the territory . No courtship behaviour has been observed , and species that mate for life often lack elaborate courting displays . Once they begin breeding at three years of age , they live another four to five years on average . During this time they produce two surviving young each year on average . The longest @-@ lived Australian raven recorded is an adult ( of at least 3 years of age ) that was banded and recaptured alive 12 years and 5 months later .
Australian ravens generally walk when moving around on the ground , though do hop when hurrying . They preen themselves frequently , particularly when roosting in the middle of the day . They also engage in allopreening , where birds will preen each other 's head and neck . This takes place particularly in autumn , winter and spring , and is important in pair bonding . Either member may initiate it , generally by landing near the other bird , shuffling next to its mate , then bending its head forward and presenting its nape .
= = = Feeding = = =
The Australian raven is omnivorous , though eats more meat than smaller corvids . Its diet in summer contains a high proportion of insects , while more plant items are eaten in autumn . Flesh makes up over half its diet in winter . Invertebrates commonly eaten include spiders , millipedes , centipedes ( which ravens behead before eating ) , grasshoppers , cicadas and caterpillars ( especially of the family Noctuidae ) , which are important in feeding nestlings . Australian ravens sometimes eat yabbies ( Cherax destructor ) from the edges of dams . Unusually for a ground @-@ feeding omnivore , earthworms are rarely eaten . Australian ravens have been reported killing birds of such size as young galahs ( Eolophus roseicapillus ) and starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris ) . Most mammals are eaten as carrion , as many species are too large for the raven to kill , though young rabbits are a frequent prey item . Australian ravens drink water frequently , up to ten times a day in hot weather . Birds have been observed dunking pieces of meat in water before eating them , as well as doing the same with hard biscuits to make them soggy and soft .
Australian ravens are intelligent birds , and like many other corvids have innovative methods of seeking out food . Foraging takes place in the early morning or late afternoon ; birds rest in the hotter part of the day . Food is taken mainly from the ground , birds either finding objects while flying overhead , or by walking along and looking . However , they occasionally feed in trees — Australian ravens forage eucalypt foliage for Christmas beetles ( Anoplognathus ) , and devote a substantial amount of time to look for nests and eggs to eat . They have also been known to take golf balls from fairways , possibly mistaking them for eggs . Ravens use their bill rather than their feet to explore or turn items on the ground ( rocks or sticks ) over , or hold or snatch food while flying . They have also been recorded using fence posts as anvils to bash snails against before eating them . Australian ravens most often eat food where they find it unless taking food back for nestlings . Occasionally they have been observed caching carrion or a killed animal in a hole nearby to store it . They can pack shredded meat in their mouth under their tongue . Australian ravens have adapted well to eating food scraps in urban areas , such as school playgrounds , rubbish tips , bins outside supermarkets or restaurants , abattoirs , piggeries and farmyards . In one isolated study , they were observed feeding on nectar from eucalypt flowers . Australian ravens sometimes forage in mixed @-@ species flocks with any of the other four species of Australian corvids . Sometimes they are aggressive with little ravens if both are at a food source and drive them off , though not if the smaller species greatly outnumbers the larger .
= = = Breeding = = =
Australian ravens begin breeding once they are three years old . Breeding season is from July to September , with no substantial difference in timing across its range around the country despite it inhabiting a range of diverse climates and habitats across 19 degrees of latitude . Rowley has pointed out this is unusual for a bird species with a wide range and has postulated that breeding is initiated by day length . Rarely , breeding can take place in May , June or October . Australian ravens generally nest in tall trees , never near to the ground as some species do . The nest also functions as a lookout post and so tall or emergent trees are selected . The ravens occasionally nest on buildings , telegraph poles , or tall windmills which allow the species to occupy areas lacking in tall trees . Windmills may have assisted the spread of the species in North Queensland and the Northern Territory . The highest recorded corvid nest in Australia was found atop the AWA Tower in Sydney .
Nests are generally large and untidy , consisting of a bowl or platform of sticks lined with grasses , barks , and feathers that can be up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . As they are relatively heavy , they are built on larger forks in trees rather than out in the canopy . Building the nest is often time @-@ consuming initially as the birds try ( and often fail ) to wedge sticks , which are 30 – 60 cm ( 12 – 24 in ) long and 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 1 ⁄ 2 in ) thick , into the tree fork to make a platform . Thinner sticks and rootlets are used to make the bowl before the bowl is lined with feathers . Both birds build the nest , with the female taking over the lining of the nest while the male brings her material . New nests are built each year generally , as the re @-@ use of old ones might spread disease or parasites — nests become caked with faeces as the nestlings grow and the parents cannot keep up with its removal . Furthermore , old nests often disintegrate within twelve months due to their exposed locations . The female develops a brood patch — a patch of bare skin on the bird 's underparts that reddens and becomes much more extensive from around three weeks before the first egg is laid . The skin itself is oedematous and wrinkled , and does not get re @-@ feathered until December after the breeding season has finished .
Their lofty locations makes monitoring of Australian raven nests difficult . A clutch can comprise up to six eggs , though usually four or five are laid , with five being the commonest number . Measuring 45 by 30 mm ( 1 3 ⁄ 4 by 1 1 ⁄ 4 in ) , eggs are pale green or bluish @-@ green and splotched with darker olive , brown and blackish markings . Eggs are quite variable , and thus which Australian corvid laid them cannot be reliably identified . Incubation of the eggs is done solely by the female over roughly 20 days . Incubation is intermittent initially , becoming constant by the time the third or fourth egg is laid . Only one brood is raised per year , though a second clutch may be laid if the first clutch is lost early in the season . Late clutches have poor survival rates , possibly due to chicks getting dehydrated on hot days as the year progresses or being eaten by wedge @-@ tailed eagles . The chicks are altricial and nidicolous ; that is , they are born helpless , naked and blind , and remain in the nest for an extended period . They have pink skin until 5 days of age , when feathers under the skin turn it grey . They lose their egg tooth at the same time . Their eyes begin opening at 5 to 6 days of age and are fully open by 11 to 12 days , by which time their feathers begin emerging . At 14 days , their primary feathers begin emerging , and they are fully feathered by 35 – 36 days old . They leave the nest at 40 – 45 days of age , and stay with the parents for three to four months after that . They follow their parents and beg for food for the first month outside the nest but are feeding themselves by the third month . Young birds are often attacked when they enter neighbouring territories , and melees ensue as their parents try to defend them and herd them back .
= = = Parasites and predators = = =
A circovirus — given the name raven circovirus or RaCV — was isolated from an Australian raven suffering from feather lesions in 2006 . It has affinities with canary circovirus ( CaCV ) and pigeon circovirus ( PiCV ) . Its clinical significance is unknown . Tick infestation is rare in the Australian raven , with Ixodes holocyclus and Amblyomma triguttatum recorded . Lice and hippoboscid flies have been recorded yet little @-@ researched , and an infestation by the fly Passeromyia longicornis was recorded in one nest .
The wedge @-@ tailed eagle ( Aquila audax ) preys on adult , nestling , and fledgling Australian ravens , while the little eagle ( Hieraaetus morphnoides ) also takes nestlings , and powerful owl ( Ninox strenua ) has been recorded killing adults ; other birds of prey are seen as threats , yet there is no evidence they have successfully preyed on the ravens . The introduced red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) competes with the Australian raven for carrion and can drive it off . It may also kill young birds that it catches on the ground . The channel @-@ billed cuckoo ( Scythrops novaehollandiae ) has been recorded as a brood parasite .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Australian ravens die most often by being shot or poisoned — generally by farmers . Despite their fondness for roadkill , fewer ravens are hit by vehicles than Australian magpies . Research in the 1950s and 60s showed that 64 % of Australian ravens perished in their first year of life . Immature birds are most at risk of dying as they are more likely to come into conflict with farmers . The Australian Raven is a peaceful bird , showing no aggression toward humans or other birds without reason . However , the Australian raven is frequently blamed for the loss of young lambs . Scientific observation in the country 's southeast showed that the killing of healthy lambs was rare , but that sick animals were predisposed to being attacked . Australian ravens mostly eat faeces ( often from the lamb 's anus ) , afterbirth or stillborn lambs . Newborn lamb faeces is nutritious , containing around 21 – 44 % protein , 9 – 37 % fat and 10 – 30 % carbohydrate . It has the consistency of treacle and often sticks to the lamb 's hindquarters or tail . The raven bites a sleeping lamb 's tail , holding on and walking behind it when it wakes up . A healthy lamb would respond by running away or butting the bird , but a sick one might not respond and be attacked further as it alerts the bird that it is vulnerable . Wounded lambs can also succumb to Clostridium infection as these bacteria are present on raven bills . Ravens bring some benefits to agricultural areas as they clean away carrion and eat insects that are potentially damaging to crops . In areas of Western Australia , the species is classified as a Declared Pest of Agriculture under the provisions of the Agriculture and Related Resources Protection Act 1976 , meaning that shooting on private land in rural areas is legal , although should be considered only after other options have been exhausted .
= = = In indigenous culture = = =
In Australian Aboriginal mythology , Crow is a trickster , culture hero and ancestral being . In the Kulin nation in central Victoria he was known as Waa ( also Wahn or Waang ) and was regarded as one of two moiety ancestors , the other being the more sombre eaglehawk Bunjil . Legends relating to Crow have been observed in various Aboriginal language groups and cultures across Australia .
To the Noongar people of southwestern Australia , the Australian raven was Waardar , " the Watcher " and was wily and unpredictable . Noongar people were socially divided into two moieties or kinships : waardarng @-@ maat and marrnetj @-@ maat , or members of the Australian raven and long @-@ billed corella ( Cacatua tenuirostris ) respectively .
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= Clifton Suspension Bridge =
The Clifton Suspension Bridge is a suspension bridge spanning the Avon Gorge and the River Avon , linking Clifton in Bristol to Leigh Woods in North Somerset . Since opening in 1864 , it has been a toll bridge . The income from the tolls continues to provide funds for its maintenance . The bridge is built to a design by William Henry Barlow and John Hawkshaw , based on an earlier design by Isambard Kingdom Brunel , and contributed to by Sarah Guppy . It is a grade I listed building and forms part of the B3129 road .
The idea of building a bridge across the Avon Gorge originated in 1753 . Original plans were for a stone bridge and later iterations were for a wrought iron structure . In 1831 , an attempt to build Brunel 's design was halted by the Bristol riots , and the revised version of his designs was built after his death and completed in 1864 . Although similar in size , the bridge towers are not identical in design , the Clifton tower having side cut @-@ outs , the Leigh tower more pointed arches atop a 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) red sandstone @-@ clad abutment . Roller @-@ mounted " saddles " at the top of each tower allow movement of the three independent wrought iron chains on each side when loads pass over the bridge . The bridge deck is suspended by 162 vertical wrought @-@ iron rods in 81 matching pairs .
The Clifton Bridge Company initially managed the bridge under licence from a charitable trust . The trust subsequently purchased the company shares , completing this in 1949 and took over the running of the bridge using the income from tolls to pay for maintenance . The bridge is a distinctive landmark , used as a symbol of Bristol on postcards , promotional materials , and informational web sites . It was also used as a backdrop to several films and television advertising and programmes . It has also been the venue for significant cultural events such as the first modern bungee jump in 1979 , the last ever Concorde flight in 2003 and a handover of the Olympic Torch relay in 2012 .
= = History = =
= = = Plans = = =
It is unknown when the first bridge was constructed across the Avon in Bristol , but the first stone bridge , Bristol Bridge , was built in the 13th century . It had houses with shopfronts built on it to pay for its maintenance . A 17th @-@ century illustration shows that these bridge houses were five stories high , including the attic rooms , and that they overhung the river much as Tudor houses would overhang the street . In the 1760s a bill to replace the bridge was carried through parliament by the Bristol MP Sir Jarrit Smyth . By the early 18th century , increase in traffic and the encroachment of shops on the roadway made the bridge fatally dangerous for many pedestrians . A new bridge , designed by James Bridges and finished by Thomas Paty was built in 1763 and 1768 . Resentment at the tolls exacted to cross the new bridge occasioned the Bristol Bridge Riot of 1793 . Other crossings were considered , but were restricted by Admiralty rules that stipulated that any bridge had to be at least 100 feet ( 30 m ) above the water to allow the passage of tall @-@ masted warships , to Bristol Harbour . To achieve this , any bridge constructed between Bristol Bridge and Avon Gorge , from Hotwells to Ashton Gate , would require massive embankments and viaducts . The alternative was to build across the narrowest point of the Avon Gorge , well above the height required for shipping .
In 1753 Bristolian merchant William Vick had left a bequest in his will of £ 1 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 140 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , invested with instructions that when the interest had accumulated to £ 10 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 370 @,@ 000 ) , it should be used for the purpose of building a stone bridge between Clifton Down ( which was in Gloucestershire , outside the City of Bristol , until the 1830s ) and Leigh Woods in Somerset . Although there was little development in the area before the late 18th century , as Bristol became more prosperous , Clifton became fashionable and more wealthy merchants moved to the area . In 1793 William Bridges published plans for a stone arch with abutments containing factories , which would pay for the upkeep of the bridge . The French Revolutionary Wars broke out soon after the design was published , affecting trade and commerce , so the plans were shelved . Sarah Guppy patented designs for a suspension bridge across the gorge which she later gave to Brunel .
By 1829 , Vick 's bequest had reached £ 8 @,@ 000 , but it was estimated that a stone bridge would cost over ten times that . A competition was held to find a design for the bridge with a prize of 100 guineas . Entries were received from 22 designers , including Samuel Brown , James Meadows Rendel , William Tierney Clark and William Hazledine . Several were for stone bridges and had estimated costs of between £ 30 @,@ 000 and £ 93 @,@ 000 . Brunel submitted four entries . The judging committee rejected 17 of the 22 plans submitted , on the grounds of appearance or cost . They then called in Scottish civil engineer Thomas Telford to make a final selection from the five remaining entries . Telford rejected all the remaining designs , arguing that 577 feet ( 176 m ) was the maximum possible span . Telford was then asked to produce a design himself , which he did , proposing a 110 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 34 m ) suspension bridge , supported on tall Gothic towers , costing £ 52 @,@ 000 .
An Act of Parliament was passed to allow a wrought iron suspension bridge to be built instead of stone , and tolls levied to recoup the cost . A company was formed and funds raised during the first few months of 1830 , but the money raised was not sufficient for the construction . Despite this , the act received Royal Assent in May 1830 . Brunel produced a new proposal costing £ 10 @,@ 000 less than Telford 's design and gained support for it in the local press . James Meadows Rendel , William Armstrong and William Hill also submitted new , cheaper proposals , complaining that the committee had not set a budget . In 1831 a second competition was held , with new judges including Davies Gilbert and John Seaward examining the engineering qualities of the proposals . Thirteen designs were submitted ; Telford 's was the only one in which the chains achieved the weight per square inch required by the judges but it was rejected as being too expensive . The winner was declared to be a design by Smith and Hawkes of the Eagle Foundry in Birmingham . Brunel had a personal meeting with Gilbert and persuaded him to change the decision . The committee then declared Brunel the winner and he was awarded a contract as project engineer . The winning design was for a suspension bridge with fashionably Egyptian @-@ influenced towers . In 2010 , newly discovered letters and documents revealed that , in producing his design , Brunel had taken advice from his father , Sir Marc Isambard Brunel . The elder Brunel had recommended including a central support for the bridge , as he did not believe a single @-@ span bridge of such length could be constructed . His son chose to ignore his advice .
= = = Construction = = =
A ceremony to mark the start of the construction works was held on 21 June 1831 . A few days later work was halted by the Bristol riots , which took place after the House of Lords rejected the second Reform Bill , which aimed to eliminate some of the rotten boroughs and give parliamentary seats to Britain 's fast growing industrial towns such as Bristol . Five hundred to six hundred young men were involved in the riots and Brunel was sworn in as a special constable . The riots severely dented commercial confidence in Bristol ; subscriptions to the bridge company ceased , and along with it , further construction of the bridge .
After the passing of the Act for the Great Western Railway reestablished financial confidence , work resumed in 1836 , but subsequent investment proved woefully inadequate . Despite the main contractors going bankrupt in 1837 , the towers were built in unfinished stone . To enable the transfer of materials , a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 300 m ) iron bar , which was 1 @.@ 25 inches ( 32 mm ) in diameter , had been drawn by capstan across the gorge . A contract was placed with Dowlais Ironworks to supply 600 tons of bar iron , which was to be transported to the Copperhouse foundry to be forged into bar chains . By 1843 funds were exhausted and another £ 30 @,@ 000 was needed . As the work had exceeded the time limit stated in the Act , all work stopped . Brunel suggested building a deep water pier at Portbury , which would make the bridge an essential road link , but funds for this scheme were not forthcoming . In 1851 , the ironwork was sold and used to build the Brunel @-@ designed Royal Albert Bridge on the railway between Plymouth and Saltash . The towers remained and during the 1850s intrepid passengers could cross the gorge in a basket slung from the iron bar .
Brunel died in 1859 , without seeing the completion of the bridge . His colleagues in the Institution of Civil Engineers felt that completion of the Bridge would be a fitting memorial , and started to raise new funds . In 1860 , Brunel 's Hungerford suspension bridge over the Thames in London was demolished to make way for a new railway bridge to Charing Cross railway station . Its chains were purchased for use at Clifton .
A revised design was made by William Henry Barlow and Sir John Hawkshaw , with a wider , higher and sturdier deck than Brunel intended , with triple chains instead of double .
It has been argued that the size and technology of these revisions was so great that the credit for its design should go the Barlow and Hawkshaw . The towers remained in rough stone , rather than being finished in the Egyptian style . Work on the bridge was restarted in 1862 . Initially a temporary bridge was created by pulling ropes across the gorge and making a footway of wire ropes with wood planks held together with iron hoops . This was used by the workers to move a " traveller " , consisting of a light frame on wheels , to transport each link individually , which would eventually make up the chains supporting the bridge . The chains are anchored in tapering tunnels , 25 metres ( 82 ft ) long , on either side of the bridge and plugs of Staffordshire blue brick infilled to prevent the chains being pulled out of the narrower tunnel mouth . After completion of the chains , vertical suspension rods were hung from the links in the chains and large girders hung from these . The girders on either side then support the deck , which is 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) higher at the Clifton end than at Leigh Woods so that it gives the impression of being horizontal . The strength of the structure was tested by spreading 500 tons of stone over the bridge . This caused it to sag by 7 inches ( 180 mm ) , but within the expected tolerances . During this time a tunnel was driven through the rocks on the Leigh Woods side beneath the bridge to carry the Bristol Port Railway to Avonmouth . The construction work was completed in 1864 — 111 years after a bridge at the site was first planned .
= = = Operation = = =
On 8 December 1864 , the bridge was lit by magnesium flares for its ceremonial opening parade , but they were blown out by the wind . The custom of lighting the bridge has continued with more recent events , although later thousands of electric light bulbs were attached to the bridge instead of flares .
In 1860 the Clifton Bridge Company was set up to oversee the final stages of completion and manage the operation of the bridge . They paid £ 50 each year to the trustees who gradually purchased the shares in the company . The revenues from tolls were minimal initially as there was not much traffic ; however , this increased after 1920 with greater car ownership . In 1949 the trustees purchased all the outstanding shares and debentures . The bridge is managed by a charitable trust , originally formed by the Society of Merchant Venturers following Vick 's bequest . The trust was authorised to manage the bridge and collect tolls by Acts of Parliament in 1952 , 1980 and 1986 . A toll of £ 0 @.@ 50 has been levied on vehicles since 2007 , but the £ 0 @.@ 05 toll that the Act allows for cyclists or pedestrians is not collected . Human toll collectors were replaced by automated machines in 1975 . The tolls are used to pay for the upkeep of the bridge , including the strengthening of the chain anchor points , which was done in 1925 and 1939 , and regular painting and maintenance , which is carried out from a motorised cradle slung beneath the deck . By 2008 over 4 million vehicles crossed the bridge each year . In February 2012 , the bridge trustees applied to the Department for Transport to increase the toll to £ 1 , subsequently implemented on 24 April 2014 .
On 1 April 1979 , the first modern bungee jumps were made from the bridge by members of the University of Oxford Dangerous Sports Club . In 2003 and 2004 , the weight of crowds travelling to and from the Ashton Court Festival and Bristol International Balloon Fiesta put such great strain on the bridge that it was decided to close the bridge to all motor traffic and pedestrians during the events . The closure of the bridge for major annual events has continued each year since then .
On 26 November 2003 , the last ever Concorde flight ( Concorde 216 ) flew over the bridge before landing at Filton Aerodrome . In April 2006 , the bridge was the centrepiece of the Brunel 200 weekend , celebrating the 200th anniversary of the birth of Isambard Kingdom Brunel . At the climax of the celebration a firework display was launched from the bridge . The celebrations also saw the activation of an LED @-@ based lighting array to illuminate the bridge .
On 4 April 2009 , the bridge was shut for one night to allow a crack in one of the support hangers to be repaired . On 23 May 2012 , the London 2012 Olympic Torch relay crossed over the bridge , where two of the torchbearers came together in a " kiss " to exchange the flame in the middle of Brunel 's iconic landmark . The bridge carries four million vehicles per year , along part of the B3129 road . The bridge is a grade I listed building .
In November 2011 it was announced that a new visitor centre , costing nearly £ 2 million , was to be built at the Leigh Woods end of the bridge to replace the temporary building currently being used . The new facilities were scheduled to be completed before the 150th anniversary of the opening , which was celebrated on 8 December 2014 . In December 2012 it was announced that the bridge had received £ 595 @,@ 000 of funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund to improve the visitor centre .
= = Engineering = =
Although similar in size , the bridge towers are not identical in design , the Clifton tower having side cut @-@ outs , the Leigh tower more pointed arches . Brunel 's original plan proposed they be topped with then @-@ fashionable sphinxes , but the ornaments were never constructed .
The 85 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 26 m ) Leigh Woods tower stands atop a 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) red sandstone @-@ clad abutment . In 2002 it was discovered that this was not a solid structure but contained 12 vaulted chambers up to 35 feet ( 11 m ) high , linked by shafts and tunnels .
Roller @-@ mounted " saddles " at the top of each tower allow movement of the chains when loads pass over the bridge . Though their total travel is minuscule , their ability to absorb forces created by chain deflection prevents damage to both tower and chain .
The bridge has three independent wrought iron chains per side , from which the bridge deck is suspended by eighty @-@ one matching vertical wrought @-@ iron rods ranging from 65 feet ( 20 m ) at the ends to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) in the centre . Composed of numerous parallel rows of eyebars connected by bolts , the chains are anchored in tunnels in the rocks 60 feet ( 18 m ) below ground level at the sides of the gorge . The deck was originally laid with wooden planking , later covered with asphalt , which was renewed in 2009 . The weight of the bridge , including chains , rods , girders and deck is approximately 1 @,@ 500 tons .
= = Dimensions = =
Clearance : 245 ft ( 75 m ) above high water level
Dip of chains : 70 ft ( 21 @.@ 34 m )
Height of towers : 86 ft ( 26 m ) above deck
Overall length : 1 @,@ 352 ft ( 412 m )
Overall width : 31 ft ( 9 @.@ 45 m )
Span : 702 ft 3 in ( 214 @.@ 05 m )
= = Incidents = =
Two men were killed during the construction of the bridge . In 1885 , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old woman named Sarah Ann Henley survived a suicide attempt off the bridge when her billowing skirts acted as a parachute ; she subsequently lived into her eighties .
The Clifton Suspension Bridge is well known as a suicide bridge and is fitted with plaques that advertise the telephone number of The Samaritans . Between 1974 and 1993 , 127 people fell to their deaths from the bridge . In 1998 barriers were installed on the bridge to prevent people jumping . In the four years after installation this reduced the suicide rate from eight deaths per year to four . Nicolette Powell , the wife of UK rhythm and blues singer Georgie Fame , formerly the Marchioness of Londonderry , committed suicide from the bridge on 13 August 1993 .
In 1957 a Filton @-@ based RAF Vampire jet from 501 Squadron piloted by Flying officer John Greenwood flew under the deck while performing a victory roll before crashing in Leigh Woods , killing the pilot . The accident caused a landslip that led to the temporary closure of the nearby Bristol to Portishead railway line . A police helicopter flew under the bridge during a search in 1997 .
On 12 February 2014 the bridge was closed to traffic due to wind for the first time in living memory .
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= Social history of viruses =
The social history of viruses describes the influence of viruses and viral infections on human history . Epidemics caused by viruses began when human behaviour changed during the Neolithic period , around 12 @,@ 000 years ago , when humans developed more densely populated agricultural communities . This allowed viruses to spread rapidly and subsequently to become endemic . Viruses of plants and livestock also increased , and as humans became dependent on agriculture and farming , diseases such as potyviruses of potatoes and rinderpest of cattle had devastating consequences .
Smallpox and measles viruses are among the oldest that infect humans . Having evolved from viruses that infected other animals , they first appeared in humans in Europe and North Africa thousands of years ago . The viruses were later carried to the New World by Europeans during the time of the Spanish Conquests , but the indigenous people had no natural resistance to the viruses and millions of them died during epidemics . Influenza pandemics have been recorded since 1580 , and they have occurred with increasing frequency in subsequent centuries . The pandemic of 1918 – 19 , in which 40 – 50 million died in less than a year , was one of the most devastating in history .
Louis Pasteur and Edward Jenner were the first to develop vaccines to protect against viral infections . The nature of viruses remained unknown until the invention of the electron microscope in the 1930s , when the science of virology gained momentum . In the 20th century many diseases both old and new were found to be caused by viruses . There were epidemics of poliomyelitis that were only controlled following the development of a vaccine in the 1950s . HIV is one of the most pathogenic new viruses to have emerged in centuries . Although scientific interest in them arose because of the diseases they cause , most viruses are beneficial . They drive evolution by transferring genes across species , play important roles in ecosystems and are essential to life .
= = In prehistory = =
Over the past 50 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 years , as modern humans increased in numbers and dispersed throughout the world , new infectious diseases emerged , including those caused by viruses . Earlier , humans lived in small , isolated communities , and most epidemic diseases did not exist . Smallpox , which is the most lethal and devastating viral infection in history , first emerged among agricultural communities in India about 11 @,@ 000 years ago . The virus , which only infected humans , probably descended from the poxviruses of rodents . Humans probably came into contact with these rodents , and some people became infected by the viruses they carried . When viruses cross this so @-@ called " species barrier " , their effects can be severe , and humans may have had little natural resistance . Contemporary humans lived in small communities , and those who succumbed to infection either died or developed immunity . This acquired immunity is only passed down to offspring temporarily , by antibodies in breast milk and other antibodies that cross the placenta from the mother 's blood to the unborn child 's . Therefore , sporadic outbreaks probably occurred in each generation . In about 9000 BC , when many people began to settle on the fertile flood plains of the River Nile , the population became dense enough for the virus to maintain a constant presence because of the high concentration of susceptible people . Other epidemics of viral diseases that depend on large concentrations of people , such as mumps , rubella and polio , also first occurred at this time .
The Neolithic age , which began in the Middle East in about 9500 BC , was a time when humans became farmers . This agricultural revolution embraced the development of monoculture and presented an opportunity for the rapid spread of several species of plant viruses . The divergence and spread of sobemoviruses – southern bean mosaic virus – date from this time . The spread of the potyviruses of potatoes , and other fruits and vegetables , began about 6 @,@ 600 years ago .
About 10 @,@ 000 years ago the humans who inhabited the lands around the Mediterranean basin began to domesticate wild animals . Pigs , cattle , goats , sheep , horses , camels , cats and dogs were all kept and bred in captivity . These animals would have brought their viruses with them . The transmission of viruses from animals to humans can occur , but such zoonotic infections are rare and subsequent human @-@ to @-@ human transmission of animal viruses is even rarer , although there are notable exceptions such as influenza . Most viruses are species @-@ specific and would have posed no threat to humans . The rare epidemics of viral diseases originating in animals would have been short @-@ lived because the viruses were not fully adapted to humans and the human populations were too small to maintain the chains of infection .
Other , more ancient , viruses have been less of a threat . Herpes viruses first infected the ancestors of modern humans over 80 million years ago . Humans have developed a tolerance to these viruses , and most are infected with at least one species . Records of these milder virus infections are rare , but it is likely that early hominids suffered from colds , influenza and diarrhoea caused by viruses just as humans do today . More recently evolved viruses cause epidemics and pandemics – and it is these that history records . The influenza virus is one that seems to have crossed the species barrier from pigs to ducks and water fowl and hence to humans . It is possible that a fatal plague in the Middle East at the time of the late 18th Dynasty was associated with this transmission at Amarna .
= = In antiquity = =
Among the earliest records of a viral infection is an Egyptian stele thought to depict an Egyptian priest from the 18th Dynasty ( 1580 – 1350 BC ) with a foot drop deformity characteristic of a poliovirus infection . The mummy of Siptah – a ruler during the 19th Dynasty – shows signs of poliomyelitis , and that of Ramesses V and some other Egyptian mummies buried over 3000 years ago show evidence of smallpox . There was an epidemic of smallpox in Athens in 430 BC , in which a quarter of the Athenian army and many of the city 's civilians died from the infection .
Measles is an old disease , but it was not until the 10th century that the Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al @-@ Razi ( 865 – 925 ) – known as " Rhazes " – first identified it . Rhazes used the Arabic name hasbah for measles . It has had many other names including rubeola from the Latin word rubeus , " red " , and morbilli , " small plague " . The close similarities between measles virus , canine distemper virus and rinderpest virus have given rise to speculation that measles was first transmitted to humans from domesticated dogs or cattle . The measles virus appears to have fully diverged from the then @-@ widespread rinderpest virus by the 12th century .
A measles infection confers lifelong immunity . Therefore , the virus requires a high population density to become endemic , and this probably did not occur in the Neolithic age . Following the emergence of the virus in the Middle East , it reached India by 2500 BC . Measles was so common in children at the time that it was not recognised as a disease . In Egyptian hieroglyphs it was described as a normal stage of human development . One of the earliest descriptions of a virus @-@ infected plant can be found in a poem written by the Japanese Empress Kōken ( 718 – 770 ) , in which she describes a plant in summer with yellowing leaves . The plant , later identified as Eupatorium lindleyanum , is often infected with tomato yellow leaf curl virus .
= = Middle Ages = =
The rapidly growing population of Europe and the rising concentrations of people in its towns and cities became a fertile ground for many infectious and contagious diseases , of which the Black Death – a bacterial infection – is probably the most notorious . Except for smallpox and influenza , documented outbreaks of infections now known to be caused by viruses were rare . Rabies , a disease that had been recognised for over 4000 years , was rife in Europe , and continued to be so until the development of a vaccine by Louis Pasteur in 1886 . The average life expectancy in Europe during the Middle Ages was 35 years ; 60 % of children died before the age of 16 , many of them during their first 6 years of life . Physicians – what few there were – relied as much on astrology as they did on their limited medical knowledge . Some treatments for infections consisted of ointments prepared from cats that had been roasted in hedgehog fat . Among the plethora of diseases that caused childhood death were measles , influenza and smallpox . The Crusades and the Muslim conquests aided the spread of smallpox , which was the cause of frequent epidemics in Europe following its introduction to the continent between the fifth and seventh centuries .
Measles was endemic throughout the highly populated countries of Europe , North Africa and the Middle East . In England the disease , then called " mezils " , was first described in the 13th century , and it was probably one of the 49 plagues that occurred between 526 and 1087 . Rinderpest , which is caused by a virus closely related to measles virus , is a disease of cattle known since Roman times . The disease , which originated in Asia , was first brought to Europe by the invading Huns in 370 . Later invasions of Mongols , led by Genghis Khan and his army , started pandemics in Europe in 1222 , 1233 and 1238 . The infection subsequently reached England following the importation of cattle from the continent . At the time rinderpest was a devastating disease with a mortality rate of 80 – 90 % . The resulting loss of cattle caused famine .
= = Early to late modern period = =
A short time after Henry Tudor 's victory at the Battle of Bosworth on 22 August 1485 , his army suddenly went down with " the English sweat " , which contemporary observers described as a new disease . The disease , which was unusual in that it mainly affected the affluent , might have originated in France where Henry VII had recruited soldiers for his army . An epidemic hit London in the hot summer of 1508 . Victims died within a day , and there were deaths throughout the city . The streets were deserted apart from carts transporting bodies , and King Henry declared the city off limits except for physicians and apothecaries . The disease spread to Europe , arriving in Hamburg in July 1529 where one to two thousand victims died within the first few weeks . During the following months it wreaked havoc in Prussia , Switzerland , and northern Europe . The last outbreak was in England in 1556 . The disease – which killed tens of thousands of people – was probably influenza or a similar viral infection , but records from the time when medicine was not a science can be unreliable . As medicine became a science , the descriptions of disease became less vague . Although medicine could do little at the time to alleviate the suffering of the victims of infection , measures to control the spread of diseases were used . Restrictions on trade and travel were implemented , stricken families were isolated from their communities , buildings were fumigated and livestock killed .
References to influenza infections date from the late 15th and early 16th centuries , but infections almost certainly occurred long before then . In 1173 , an epidemic occurred that was possibly the first in Europe , and in 1493 , an outbreak of what is now thought to be swine influenza , struck Native Americans in Hispaniola . There is some evidence to suggest that source of the infection was pigs on Columbus 's ships . During an influenza epidemic that occurred in England between 1557 and 1559 , five per cent of the population – about 150 @,@ 000 – died from the infection . The mortality rate was nearly five times that of the 1918 – 19 pandemic . The first pandemic that was reliably recorded began in July 1580 and swept across Europe , Africa , and Asia . The mortality rate was high – 8 @,@ 000 died in Rome . The next three pandemics occurred in the 18th century , including that during 1781 – 82 , which was probably the most devastating in history . This began in November 1781 in China and reached Moscow in December . In February 1782 it hit Saint Petersburg , and by May it had reached Denmark . Within six weeks , 75 per cent of the British population were infected and the pandemic soon spread to the Americas .
The Americas and Australia remained free of measles and smallpox until the arrival of European colonists between the 15th and 18th centuries . Along with measles and influenza , smallpox was taken to the Americas by the Spanish . Smallpox was endemic in Spain , having been introduced by the Moors from Africa . In 1519 , an epidemic of smallpox broke out in the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan in Mexico . This was started by the army of Pánfilo de Narváez , who followed Hernán Cortés from Cuba and had an African slave suffering from smallpox aboard his ship . When the Spanish finally entered the capital in the summer of 1521 , they saw it strewn with the bodies of smallpox victims . The epidemic , and those that followed during 1545 – 1548 and 1576 – 1581 , eventually killed more than half of the native population . Most of the Spanish were immune ; with his army of fewer than 900 men it would not have been possible for Cortés to defeat the Aztecs and conquer Mexico without the help of smallpox . Many Native American populations were devastated later by the inadvertent spread of diseases introduced by Europeans . In the 150 years that followed Columbus 's arrival in 1492 , the Native American population of North America was reduced by 80 per cent from diseases , including measles , smallpox and influenza . The damage done by these viruses significantly aided European attempts to displace and conquer the native population .
By the 18th century , smallpox was endemic in Europe . There were five epidemics in London between 1719 and 1746 , and large outbreaks occurred in other major European cities . By the end of the century about 400 @,@ 000 Europeans were dying from the disease each year . It reached South Africa in 1713 , having been carried by ships from India , and in 1789 the disease struck Australia . In the 19th century , smallpox became the single most important cause of death of the Australian Aborigines .
In 1546 Girolamo Fracastoro ( 1478 – 1553 ) wrote a classic description of measles . He thought the disease was caused by " seeds " ( seminaria ) that were spread from person to person . An epidemic hit London in 1670 , recorded by Thomas Sydenham ( 1624 – 1689 ) , who thought it was caused by toxic vapours emanating from the earth . His theory was wrong but he was a skilled observer and kept meticulous records .
Yellow fever is an often lethal disease caused by a flavivirus . The virus is transmitted to humans by mosquitoes ( Aedes aegypti ) and first appeared over 3 @,@ 000 years ago . In 1647 , the first recorded epidemic occurred on Barbados and was called " Barbados distemper " by John Winthrop , who was the governor of the island at the time . He passed quarantine laws to protect the people – the first ever such laws in North America . Further epidemics of the disease occurred in North America in the 17th , 18th and 19th centuries . The first known cases of dengue fever occurred in Indonesia and Egypt in 1779 . Trade ships brought the disease to the US , where an epidemic occurred in Philadelphia in 1780 .
Many paintings can be found in the museums of Europe depicting tulips with attractive coloured stripes . Most , such as the still life studies of Johannes Bosschaert , were painted during the 17th century . These flowers were particularly popular and became sought after by those who could afford them . At the peak of this tulip mania in the 1630s , one bulb could cost as much as a house . It was not known at the time that the stripes were caused by a virus accidentally transferred by humans to tulips from jasmine . Weakened by the virus , the plants turned out to be a poor investment . Only a few bulbs produced flowers with the attractive characteristics of their parent plants .
Until the Irish Great Famine of 1845 – 1852 , the commonest cause of disease in potatoes was not the mould that causes blight , it was a virus . The disease , called " curl " , is caused by potato leafroll virus , and it was widespread in England in the 1770s , where it destroyed 75 per cent of the potato crop . At that time , the Irish potato crop remained relatively unscathed .
= = Discovery of vaccination = =
Lady Mary Wortley Montagu ( 1689 – 1762 ) was an aristocrat , a writer and the wife of a Member of Parliament . In 1716 , her husband , Edward Wortley Montagu , was appointed British Ambassador in Istanbul . She followed him there and two weeks after her arrival discovered the local practice of protection against smallpox by variolation – the injection of pus from smallpox victims into the skin . Her younger brother had died of smallpox , and she too had had the disease . Determined to spare her five @-@ year @-@ old son Edward from similar suffering , she ordered the embassy surgeon Charles Maitland to variolate him . On her return to London , she asked Maitland to variolate her four @-@ year @-@ old daughter in the presence of the king 's physicians . Later , Montagu persuaded the Prince and Princess of Wales to sponsor a public demonstration of the procedure . Six prisoners who had been condemned to death and were awaiting execution at Newgate Prison were offered a full pardon for serving as the subjects of the public experiment . They accepted and were variolated in 1721 . All the prisoners recovered from the procedure . To test its protective effect one of them , a nineteen @-@ year @-@ old woman , was ordered to sleep in the same bed as a ten @-@ year @-@ old smallpox victim for six weeks . She did not contract the disease .
The experiment was repeated on eleven orphan children , all of whom survived the ordeal , and by 1722 even King George I 's grandchildren had been inoculated . The practice was not entirely safe and there was a one in fifty chance of death . The procedure was expensive ; some medical practitioners charged between £ 5 and £ 10 and some sold the method to other practitioners for fees between £ 50 to £ 100 , or for half of the profits . Variolation became a lucrative franchise , but it remained beyond the means of many until the late 1770s . At the time nothing was known about viruses or the immune system , and no one knew how the procedure afforded protection .
Edward Jenner ( 1749 – 1823 ) , a British rural physician , was variolated as a boy . He had suffered greatly from the ordeal but survived fully protected from smallpox . Jenner knew of a local belief that dairy workers who had contracted a relatively mild infection called cowpox were immune to smallpox . He decided to test the theory ( although he was probably not the first to do so ) . On 14 May 1796 he selected " a healthy boy , about eight years old for the purpose of inoculation for the Cow Pox " . The boy , James Phipps ( 1788 – 1853 ) , survived the experimental inoculation with cowpox virus and suffered only a mild fever . On 1 July 1796 , Jenner took some " smallpox matter " ( probably infected pus ) and repeatedly inoculated Phipps 's arms with it . Phipps survived and was subsequently inoculated with smallpox more than 20 times without succumbing to the disease . Vaccination – the word is derived from the Latin vacca meaning " cow " – had been invented . Jenner 's method was soon shown to be safer than variolation , and by 1801 more than 100 @,@ 000 people had been vaccinated .
Despite objections from those medical practitioners who still practised variolation , and who foresaw a decline in their income , free vaccination of the poor was introduced in the UK in 1840 . Because of associated deaths , variolation was declared illegal in the same year . Vaccination was made compulsory in England and Wales by the 1853 Vaccination Act , and parents could be fined £ 1 if their children were not vaccinated before they were three months of age . The law was not adequately enforced , and the system for providing vaccinations , unchanged since 1840 , was ineffective . After an early compliance by the population only a small proportion were vaccinated . Compulsory vaccination was not well received and , following protests , the Anti @-@ Vaccination League and the Anti @-@ Compulsory Vaccination League were formed in 1866 . Following the anti @-@ vaccination campaigns there was a severe outbreak of smallpox in Gloucester in 1895 , the city 's first in twenty years ; 434 people died , including 281 children . Despite this , the British government conceded to the protesters and the Vaccination Act of 1898 abolished fines and made provision for a " conscientious objector " clause – the first use of the term – for parents who did not believe in vaccination . During the following year , 250 @,@ 000 objections were granted , and by 1912 less than half of the population of newborns were being vaccinated . By 1948 , smallpox vaccination was no longer compulsory in the UK .
= = = Louis Pasteur and rabies = = =
Rabies is an often fatal disease caused by the infection of mammals with rabies virus . In the 21st century it is mainly a disease that affects wild mammals such as foxes and bats , but it is one of the oldest known virus diseases : rabies is a Sanskrit word ( rabhas ) that dates from 3000 BC , which means " madness " or " rage " , and the disease has been known for over 4000 years . Descriptions of rabies can be found in Mesopotamian texts , and the ancient Greeks called it " lyssa " or " lytta " , meaning " madness " . References to rabies can be found in the Laws of Eshnunna , which date from 2300 BC . Aristotle ( 384 – 322 BC ) wrote one of the earliest undisputed descriptions of the disease and how it was passed to humans . Celsus , in the first century AD , first recorded the symptom called hydrophobia and suggested that the saliva of infected animals and humans contained a slime or poison – to describe this he invented the word " virus " . Rabies does not cause epidemics , but the infection was greatly feared because of its terrible symptoms , which include insanity , hydrophobia and death .
In France during the time of Louis Pasteur ( 1822 – 1895 ) there were only a few hundred rabies infections in humans each year , but cures were desperately sought . Aware of the possible danger , Pasteur began to look for the " microbe " in mad dogs . Pasteur showed that when the dried spinal cords from dogs that had died from rabies were crushed and injected into healthy dogs they did not become infected . He repeated the experiment several times on the same dog with tissue that had been dried for fewer and fewer days , until the dog survived even after injections of fresh rabies @-@ infected spinal tissue . Pasteur had immunised the dog against rabies , as he later did with 50 more .
Although Pasteur had little idea how his method worked , he tested it on a boy , Joseph Meister ( 1876 – 1940 ) , who was brought to Pasteur by his mother on 6 July 1885 . He was covered in bites , having been set upon by a mad dog . Meister 's mother begged Pasteur to help her son . Pasteur was a scientist , not a physician , and he was well aware of the consequences for him if things were to go wrong . He nevertheless decided to help the boy and injected him with increasingly virulent rabid rabbit spinal tissue over the following 10 days . Later Pasteur wrote , " as the death of this child appeared inevitable , I decided , not without deep and severe unease ... to try out on Joseph Meister the procedure , which had consistently worked on dogs " . Meister recovered and returned home with his mother on 27 July . Pasteur successfully treated a second boy in October that same year ; Jean @-@ Baptiste Jupille ( 1869 – 1923 ) was a 15 @-@ year @-@ old shepherd boy who had been severely bitten as he tried to protect other children from a rabid dog . Pasteur 's method of treatment remained in use for over 50 years .
Little was known about the cause of the disease until 1903 when Adelchi Negri ( 1876 – 1912 ) first saw microscopic lesions – now called Negri bodies – in the brains of rabid animals . He wrongly thought they were protozoan parasites . Paul Remlinger ( 1871 – 1964 ) soon showed by filtration experiments that they were much smaller than protozoa , and even smaller than bacteria . Thirty years later , Negri bodies were shown to be accumulations of particles 100 – 150 nanometres long , now known to be the size of rhabdovirus particles – the virus that causes rabies .
= = 20th and 21st centuries = =
At the turn of the 20th century , evidence for the existence of viruses was obtained from experiments with filters that had pores too small for bacteria to pass through ; the term " filterable virus " was coined to describe them . Until the 1930s most scientists believed that viruses were small bacteria , but following the invention of the electron microscope in 1931 they were shown to be completely different , to a degree that not all scientists were convinced they were anything other than accumulations of toxic proteins . The situation changed radically when it was discovered that viruses contain genetic material in the form of DNA or RNA . Once they were recognised as distinct biological entities they were soon shown to be the cause of numerous infections of plants , animals and even bacteria .
Of the many diseases of humans that were found to be caused by viruses in the 20th century one , smallpox , has been eradicated . The diseases caused by viruses such as HIV and influenza virus have proved to be more difficult to control . Other diseases , such as those caused by arboviruses , are presenting new challenges .
As humans have changed their behaviour during history , so have viruses . In ancient times the human population was too small for pandemics to occur and , in the case of some viruses , too small for them to survive . In the 20th and 21st century increasing population densities , revolutionary changes in agriculture and farming methods , and high speed travel have contributed to the spread of new viruses and the re @-@ appearance of old ones . Like smallpox , some viral diseases might be conquered , but new ones , such as severe acute respiratory syndrome ( SARS ) , will continue to emerge . Although vaccines are still the most powerful weapon against viruses , in recent decades antiviral drugs have been developed to specifically target viruses as they replicate in their hosts . The 2009 influenza pandemic showed how rapidly new strains of viruses continue to spread around the world , despite efforts to contain them .
Advances in virus discovery and control continue to be made . Human metapneumovirus , which is a cause of respiratory infections including pneumonia , was discovered in 2001 . A vaccine for the papillomaviruses that cause cervical cancer was developed between 2002 and 2006 . In 2005 , human T lymphotropic viruses 3 and 4 were discovered . In 2008 the WHO Global Polio Eradication Initiative was re @-@ launched with a plan to eradicate poliomyelitis by 2015 . In 2010 , the largest virus , Megavirus chilensis was discovered to infect amoebae . These giant viruses have renewed interest in the role viruses play in evolution and their position in the tree of life .
= = = Smallpox eradication = = =
Smallpox virus was a major cause of death in the 20th century , killing about 300 million people . It has probably killed more humans than any other virus . In 1966 an agreement was reached by the World Health Assembly ( the decision @-@ making body of the World Health Organisation ) to start an " intensified smallpox eradication programme " and attempt to eradicate the disease within ten years . At the time , smallpox was still endemic in 31 countries including Brazil , the whole of the Indian sub @-@ continent , Indonesia and sub @-@ Saharan Africa . This ambitious goal was considered achievable for several reasons : the vaccine afforded exceptional protection ; there was only one type of the virus ; there were no animals that naturally carried it ; the incubation period of the infection was known and rarely varied from 12 days ; and infections always gave rise to symptoms , so it was clear who had the disease .
Following mass vaccinations , disease detection and containment were central to the eradication campaign . As soon as cases were detected , the victims were isolated as were their close contacts , who were vaccinated . Successes came quickly ; by 1970 smallpox was no longer endemic in western Africa , nor , by 1971 , in Brazil . By 1973 , smallpox remained endemic only in the Indian sub @-@ continent , Botswana and Ethiopia . Finally , after 13 years of coordinated disease surveillance and vaccination campaigns throughout the world , the World Health Organisation declared smallpox eradicated in 1979 . Although the main weapon used was vaccinia virus , which was used as the vaccine , no one seems to know exactly where vaccinia virus came from ; it is not the strain of cowpox that Edward Jenner used , and it is not a weakened form of smallpox .
The eradication campaign led to the death of Janet Parker ( c . 1938 – 1978 ) and the subsequent suicide of the smallpox expert Henry Bedson ( 1930 – 1978 ) . Parker was an employee of the University of Birmingham who worked in the same building as Bedson 's smallpox laboratory . She was infected by a strain of smallpox virus that Bedson 's team had been investigating . Ashamed of the accident and having blamed himself for it , Bedson committed suicide .
Before the September 11 attacks on the United States in 2001 , the World Health Organisation proposed the destruction of all the known remaining stocks of smallpox virus that were kept in laboratories in the US and Russia . Fears of bioterrorism using smallpox virus and the possible need for the virus in the development of drugs to treat the infection have put an end to this plan . Had the destruction gone ahead , smallpox virus might have been the first to be made extinct by human intervention .
= = = Measles = = =
Before the introduction of vaccination in the US in the 1960s there were more than 500 @,@ 000 cases each year resulting in about 400 deaths . In developed countries children were mainly infected between the ages of three and five years old , but in developing countries half the children were infected before the age of two . In the US and the UK , there were regular annual or biannual epidemics of the disease , which depended on the number of children born each year . The current epidemic strain evolved in the first part of the 20th century – probably between 1908 and 1943 .
In London between 1950 and 1968 there were epidemics every two years , but in Liverpool , which had a higher birth rate , there was an annual cycle of epidemics . During the Great Depression in the US before the Second World War the birth rate was low , and epidemics of measles were sporadic . After the war the birth rate increased , and epidemics occurred regularly every two years . In developing countries with very high birth rates , epidemics occurred every year . Measles is still a major problem in densely populated , less @-@ developed countries with high birth rates and lacking effective vaccination campaigns .
By the mid @-@ 1970s , following a mass vaccination programme that was known as " make measles a memory " , the incidence of measles in the US had fallen by 90 per cent . Similar vaccination campaigns in other countries have reduced the levels of infection by 99 per cent over the past 50 years . Susceptible individuals remain a source of infection and include those who have migrated from countries with ineffective vaccination schedules , or who refuse the vaccine or choose not to have their children vaccinated . Humans are the only natural host of measles virus . Immunity to the disease following an infection is lifelong ; that afforded by vaccination is long term but eventually wanes .
The use of the vaccine has been controversial . In 1998 , Andrew Wakefield and his colleagues published a fraudulent research paper and he claimed to link the MMR vaccine with autism . The study was widely reported and fed concern about the safety of vaccinations . Wakefield 's research was identified as fraudulent and in 2010 , he was struck off the UK medical register and can no longer practise medicine in the UK . In the wake of the controversy , the MMR vaccination rate in the UK fell from 92 per cent in 1995 , to less than 80 per cent in 2003 . Cases of measles rose from 56 in 1998 to 1370 in 2008 , and similar increases occurred throughout Europe . In April 2013 , an epidemic of measles in Wales in the UK broke out , which mainly affected teenagers who had not been vaccinated . Despite this controversy , measles has been eliminated from Finland , Sweden and Cuba . Japan abolished mandatory vaccination in 1992 , and in 1995 – 1997 more than 200 @,@ 000 cases were reported in the country . Measles remains a public health problem in Japan , where it is now endemic ; a National Measles Elimination Plan was established in December 2007 , with a view to eliminating the disease from the country . The possibility of global elimination of measles has been debated in medical literature since the introduction of the vaccine in the 1960s . Should the current campaign to eradicate poliomyelitis be successful , it is likely that the debate will be renewed .
= = = Poliomyelitis = = =
During the summers of the mid @-@ 20th century , parents in the US and Europe dreaded the annual appearance of poliomyelitis ( or polio ) , which was commonly known as " infantile paralysis " . The disease was rare at the beginning of the century , and worldwide there were only a few thousand cases per year , but by the 1950s there were 60 @,@ 000 cases each year in the US alone and an average of 2 @,@ 300 in England and Wales .
During 1916 and 1917 there had been a major epidemic in the US ; 27 @,@ 000 cases and 6 @,@ 000 deaths were recorded , with 9 @,@ 000 cases in New York City . At the time nobody knew how the virus was spreading . Many of the city 's inhabitants , including scientists , thought that impoverished slum @-@ dwelling immigrants were to blame even though the prevalence of the disease was higher in the more prosperous districts such as Staten Island – a pattern that had also been seen in cities like Philadelphia . Many other industrialised countries were affected at the same time . In particular , before the outbreaks in the US , large epidemics had occurred in Sweden .
The reason for the rise of polio in industrialised countries in the 20th century has never been fully explained . The disease is caused by a virus that is passed from person to person by the faecal @-@ oral route , and naturally infects only humans . It is a paradox that it became a problem during times of improved sanitation and increasing affluence . Although the virus was discovered at the beginning of the 20th century , its ubiquity was unrecognised until the 1950s . It is now known that fewer than two per cent of individuals who are infected develop the disease , and most infections are mild . During epidemics the virus was effectively everywhere , which explains why public health officials were unable to isolate a source .
Following the development of vaccines in the mid @-@ 1950s , mass vaccination campaigns took place in many countries . In the US , after a campaign promoted by the March of Dimes , the annual number of polio cases fell dramatically ; the last outbreak was in 1979 . In 1988 the World Health Organisation along with others launched the Global Polio Eradication Initiative , and by 1994 the Americas were declared to be free of disease , followed by the Pacific region in 2000 and Europe in 2003 . At the end of 2012 , only 223 cases were reported by the World Health Organisation . Mainly poliovirus type 1 infections , 122 occurred in Nigeria , one in Chad , 58 in Pakistan and 37 in Afghanistan . Vaccination teams often face danger ; seven vaccinators were murdered in Pakistan and nine in Nigeria at the beginning of 2013 . In Pakistan , the campaign was further hampered by the murder on 26 February 2013 of a police officer who was providing security .
= = = AIDS = = =
The human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) is the virus that – when the infection is not treated – can cause AIDS ( acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ) . Most virologists believe that HIV originated in sub @-@ Saharan Africa during the 20th century , and over 70 million individuals have been infected by the virus . By 2011 , an estimated 35 million had died from AIDS , making it one of the most destructive epidemics in recorded history . HIV @-@ 1 is one of the most significant viruses to have emerged in the last quarter of the 20th century . When , in 1981 , a scientific article was published that reported the deaths of five young gay men , no one knew that they had died from AIDS . The full scale of the epidemic – and that the virus had been silently emerging over several decades – was not known .
HIV crossed the species barrier between chimpanzees and humans in Africa in the early decades of the 20th century . During the years that followed there were enormous social changes and turmoil in Africa . Population shifts were unprecedented as vast numbers of people moved from rural farms to the expanding cities , and the virus was spread from remote regions to densely populated urban conurbations . The incubation period for AIDS is around 10 years , so a global epidemic starting in the early 1980s is credible . At this time there was much scapegoating and stigmatisation . The " out of Africa " theory for the origin of the HIV pandemic was not well received by Africans , who felt that the " blame " was misplaced . This led the World Health Assembly to pass a 1987 resolution , which stated that HIV is " a naturally occurring [ virus ] of undetermined geographic origin " .
The HIV pandemic has challenged communities and brought about social changes throughout the world . Opinions on sexuality are more openly discussed . Advice on sexual practices and drug use – which were once taboo – is sponsored by many governments and their healthcare providers . Debates on the ethics of provision and cost of anti @-@ retroviral drugs , particularly in poorer countries , have highlighted inequalities in healthcare and stimulated far @-@ reaching legislative changes . In developing countries the impact of HIV / AIDS has been profound ; key organisations such as healthcare , defense and civil services have been severely disrupted . Life expectancy has fallen . In Zimbabwe , for example , life expectancy was 79 years in 1991 but by 2001 it had fallen to 39 years .
= = = Influenza = = =
When influenza virus undergoes a genetic shift many humans have no immunity to the new strain , and if the population of susceptible individuals is high enough to maintain the chain of infection , pandemics occur . The genetic changes usually happen when different strains of the virus co @-@ infect animals , particularly birds and swine . Although many viruses of vertebrates are restricted to one species , influenza virus is an exception . The last pandemic of the 19th century occurred in 1899 and resulted in the deaths of 250 @,@ 000 people in Europe . The virus , which originated in Russia or Asia , was the first to be rapidly spread by people on trains and steamships .
A new strain of the virus emerged in 1918 , and the subsequent pandemic of Spanish flu was one of the worst natural disasters in history . The death toll was enormous ; throughout the world around 50 million people died from the infection . There were 550 @,@ 000 reported deaths caused by the disease in the US , ten times the country 's losses during the First World War , and 228 @,@ 000 deaths in the UK . In India there were more than 20 million deaths , and in Western Samoa 22 per cent of the population died . Although cases of influenza occurred every winter , there were only two other pandemics in the 20th century .
In 1957 another new strain of the virus emerged and caused a pandemic of Asian flu ; although the virus was not as virulent as the 1918 strain , over one million died worldwide . The next pandemic occurred when Hong Kong flu emerged in 1968 , a new strain of the virus that replaced the 1957 strain . Affecting mainly the elderly , the 1968 pandemic was the least severe , but 33 @,@ 800 were killed in the US . New strains of influenza virus often originate in East Asia ; in rural China the concentration of ducks , pigs , and humans in close proximity is the highest in the world .
The most recent pandemic occurred in 2009 , but none of the last three has caused anything near the devastation seen in 1918 . Exactly why the strain of influenza that emerged in 1918 was so devastating is a question that still remains unanswered .
= = = Yellow fever , dengue and other arboviruses = = =
Arboviruses are viruses that are transmitted to humans and other vertebrates by blood @-@ sucking insects . These viruses are diverse ; the term " arbovirus " – which was derived from " arthropod @-@ borne virus " – is no longer used in formal taxonomy because many species of virus are known to be spread in this way . There are more than 500 species of arboviruses , but in the 1930s only three were known to cause disease in humans : yellow fever virus , dengue virus and Pappataci fever virus . More than 100 of such viruses are now known to cause human diseases including encephalitis .
Yellow fever is the most notorious disease caused by a flavivirus . The last major epidemic in the US occurred in 1905 . During the building of the Panama Canal thousands of workers died from the disease . Yellow fever originated in Africa and the virus was brought to the Americas on cargo ships , which were harbouring the Aedes aegypti mosquito that carries the virus . The first recorded epidemic in Africa occurred in Ghana , in West Africa , in 1926 . In the 1930s the disease re @-@ emerged in Brazil . Fred Soper , an American epidemiologist ( 1893 – 1977 ) , discovered the importance of the sylvatic cycle of infection in non @-@ human hosts , and that infection of humans was a " dead end " that broke this cycle . Although the yellow fever vaccine is one of the most successful ever developed , epidemics continue to occur . In 1986 – 91 in West Africa , over 20 @,@ 000 people were infected , 4 @,@ 000 of whom died .
In the 1930s , St. Louis encephalitis , eastern equine encephalitis and western equine encephalitis emerged in the US . The virus that causes La Crosse encephalitis was discovered in the 1960s , and West Nile virus arrived in New York in 1999 . As of 2010 , dengue virus is the most prevalent arbovirus and increasingly virulent strains of the virus have spread across Asia and the Americas .
= = = Hepatitis viruses = = =
Hepatitis is a disease of the liver that has been recognised since antiquity . Symptoms include jaundice , a yellowing of the skin , eyes and body fluids . There are numerous causes , including viruses – particularly hepatitis A virus , hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus . Throughout history epidemics of jaundice have been reported , mainly affecting soldiers at war . This " campaign jaundice " was common in the Middle Ages . It occurred among Napoleon 's armies and during most of the major conflicts of the 19th and 20th centuries , including the American Civil War , where over 40 @,@ 000 cases and around 150 deaths were reported . The viruses that cause epidemic jaundice were not discovered until the middle of the 20th century . The names for epidemic jaundice , hepatitis A , and for blood @-@ borne infectious jaundice , hepatitis B , were first used in 1947 , following a publication in 1946 giving evidence that the two diseases were distinct . In the 1960s , the first virus that could cause hepatitis was discovered . This was hepatitis B virus , which was named after the disease it causes . Hepatitis A virus was discovered in 1974 . The discovery of hepatitis B virus and the invention of tests to detect it have radically changed many medical , and some cosmetic procedures . The screening of donated blood , which was introduced in the early 1970s , has dramatically reduced the transmission of the virus . Donations of human blood plasma and Factor VIII collected before 1975 often contained infectious levels of hepatitis B virus . Until the late 1960s , hypodermic needles were often reused by medical professionals , and tattoo artists ' needles were a common source of infection . In the late 1990s , needle exchange programmes were established in Europe and the US to prevent the spread of infections by intravenous drug users . These measures also helped to reduce the subsequent impact of HIV and hepatitis C virus .
= = = Non @-@ human animal viruses = = =
Epizootics are outbreaks ( epidemics ) of disease among non @-@ human animals . During the 20th century significant epizootics of viral diseases in animals , particularly livestock , occurred worldwide . The many diseases caused by viruses included foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease , rinderpest of cattle , avian and swine influenza , swine fever and bluetongue of sheep . Viral diseases of livestock can be devastating both to farmers and the wider community , as the outbreak of foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease in the UK in 2001 showed .
First appearing in East Africa in 1891 , rinderpest , a disease of cattle , spread rapidly across Africa . By 1892 , 95 per cent of the cattle in East Africa had died . This resulted in a famine that devastated the farmers and nomadic people , some of whom were entirely dependent on their cattle . Two thirds of the population of Maasai people died . The situation was made worse by epidemics of smallpox that followed in the wake of the famine . In the early years of the 20th century rinderpest was common in Asia and parts of Europe . The prevalence of the disease was steadily reduced during the century by control measures that included vaccination . By 1908 Europe was free from the disease . Outbreaks did occur following the Second World War , but these were quickly controlled . The prevalence of the disease increased in Asia , and in 1957 Thailand had to appeal for aid because so many buffaloes had died that the paddy fields could not be prepared for rice growing . Russia west of the Ural Mountains remained free from the disease – Lenin approved several laws on the control of the disease – but cattle in eastern Russia were constantly infected with rinderpest that originated in Mongolia and China where the prevalence remained high . India controlled the spread of the disease , which had retained a foothold in the southern states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala , throughout the 20th century , and had eradicated the disease by 1995 . Africa suffered two major panzootics in the 1920s and 1980s . There was a severe outbreak in Somalia in 1928 and the disease was widespread in the country until 1953 . In the 1980s , outbreaks in Tanzania and Kenya were controlled by the use of 26 million doses of vaccine , and a recurrence of the disease in 1997 was suppressed by an intensive vaccination campaign . By the end of the century rinderpest had been eradicated from most countries . A few pockets of infection remained in Ethiopia and Sudan , and in 1994 the Global Rinderpest Eradication Programme was launched by the Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) with the aim of global eradication by 2010 . In May 2011 , the FAO and the World Organisation for Animal Health announced that " rinderpest as a freely circulating viral disease has been eliminated from the world . "
Foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease is a highly contagious infection caused by an aphthovirus , and is classified in the same family as poliovirus . The virus has infected animals , mainly ungulates , in Africa since ancient times and was probably brought to the Americas in the 19th century by imported livestock . Foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease is rarely fatal , but the economic losses incurred by outbreaks in sheep and cattle herds can be high . The last occurrence of the disease in the US was in 1929 , but as recently as 2001 , several large outbreaks occurred throughout the UK and thousands of animals were killed and burnt .
The natural hosts of influenza viruses are pigs and birds , although it has probably infected humans since antiquity . The virus can cause mild to severe epizootics in wild and domesticated animals . Many species of wild birds migrate and this has spread influenza across the continents throughout the ages . The virus has evolved into numerous strains and continues to do so , posing an ever @-@ present threat .
In the early years of the 21st century epizootics in livestock caused by viruses continue to have serious consequences . Bluetongue disease , a disease caused by an orbivirus broke out in sheep in France in 2007 . Until then the disease had been mainly confined to the Americas , Africa , southern Asia and northern Australia , but it is now an emerging disease around the Mediterranean .
= = = Plant viruses = = =
During the 20th century , many " old " diseases of plants were found to be caused by viruses . These included maize streak and cassava mosaic disease . As with humans , when plants thrive in close proximity , so do their viruses . This can cause huge economic losses and human tragedies . In Jordan during the 1970s , where tomatoes and cucurbits ( cucumbers , melons and gourds ) were extensively grown , entire fields were infected with viruses . Similarly , in Côte d 'Ivoire , thirty different viruses infected crops such as legumes and vegetables . In Kenya cassava mosaic virus , maize streak virus and groundnut viral diseases caused the loss of up to 70 per cent of the crop . Cassava is the most abundant crop that is grown in eastern Africa and it is a staple crop for more than 200 million people . It was introduced to Africa from South America and grows well in soils with poor fertility . The most important disease of cassava is caused by cassava mosaic virus , a geminivirus , which is transmitted between plants by whiteflies . The disease was first recorded in 1894 and outbreaks of the disease occurred in eastern Africa throughout the 20th century , often resulting in famine .
In the 1920s the sugarbeet growers in the western US suffered huge economic loss caused by damage done to their crops by the leafhopper @-@ transmitted beet curly top virus . In 1956 , between 25 and 50 per cent of the rice crop in Cuba and Venezuela was destroyed by rice hoja blanca virus . In 1958 , it caused the loss of many rice fields in Colombia . Outbreaks recurred in 1981 , which caused losses of up to 100 per cent . In Ghana between 1936 and 1977 , the mealybug @-@ transmitted cacao swollen @-@ shoot virus caused the loss of 162 million cacao trees , and additional trees were lost at the rate of 15 million each year . In 1948 , in Kansas , US , seven per cent of the wheat crop was destroyed by wheat streak mosaic virus , spread by the wheat curl mite ( Aceria tulipae ) . In the 1950s papaya ringspot virus – a potyvirus – caused a devastating loss of solo papaya crops on Oahu , Hawaii . Solo papaya had been introduced to the island in the previous century but the disease had not been seen on the island before the 1940s .
Such disasters occurred when human intervention caused ecological changes by the introduction of crops to new vectors and viruses . Cacao is native to South America and was introduced to West Africa in the late 19th century . In 1936 , swollen root disease had been transmitted to plantations by mealybugs from indigenous trees . New habitats can trigger outbreaks of plant virus diseases . Before 1970 , the rice yellow mottle virus was only found in the Kisumu district of Kenya , but following the irrigation of large areas of East Africa and extensive rice cultivation , the virus spread throughout East Africa . Human activity introduced plant viruses to native crops . The citrus tristeza virus ( CTV ) was introduced to South America from Africa between 1926 and 1930 . At the same time , the aphid Toxoptera citricidus was carried from Asia to South America and this accelerated the transmission of the virus . By 1950 , more than six million citrus trees had been killed by the virus in São Paulo , Brazil . CTV and citrus trees probably coevolved for centuries in their original countries . The dispersal of CTV to other regions and its interaction with new citrus varieties resulted in devastating outbreaks of plant diseases . Because of the problems caused by the introduction – by humans – of plant viruses , many countries have strict importation controls on any materials that can harbour dangerous plant viruses or their insect vectors .
= = Emerging viruses = =
Emerging viruses are those that have only relatively recently infected the host species . In humans , many emerging viruses have come from other animals . When viruses jump to other species the diseases caused in humans are called zoonoses or zoonotic infections .
= = = SARS = = =
Severe acute respiratory syndrome ( SARS ) is caused by a new type of coronavirus . Other coronaviruses were known to cause mild infections in humans , so the virulence and rapid spread of this novel virus strain caused alarm among health professionals as well as public fear . The fears of a major pandemic were not realised , and by July 2003 , after causing around 8 @,@ 000 cases and 800 deaths , the outbreak had ended . The exact origin of the SARS virus is not known , but evidence suggests that it came from bats .
= = = West Nile virus = = =
West Nile virus , a flavivirus , was first identified in 1937 when it was found in the blood of a feverish woman . The virus , which is carried by mosquitoes and birds , caused outbreaks of infection in North Africa and the Middle East in the 1950s and by the 1960s horses in Europe fell victim . The largest outbreak in humans occurred in 1974 in Cape Province , South Africa and 10 @,@ 000 people became ill . An increasing frequency of epidemics and epizootics ( in horses ) began in 1996 , around the Mediterranean basin , and by 1999 the virus had reached New York City . Since then the virus has spread throughout the US . In the US , mosquitoes carry the highest amounts of virus in late summer , and the number of cases of the disease increases in mid July to early September . When the weather becomes colder , the mosquitoes die and the risk of disease decreases . In Europe , many outbreaks have occurred ; in 2000 a surveillance programme began in the UK to monitor the incidence of the virus in humans , dead birds , mosquitoes and horses . The mosquito ( Culex modestus ) that can carry the virus breeds on the marshes of north Kent . This mosquito species was not previously thought to be present in the UK , but it is widespread in southern Europe where it carries West Nile virus .
= = = Nipah virus = = =
In 1997 an outbreak of respiratory disease occurred in Malaysian farmers and their pigs . More than 265 cases of encephalitis , of which 105 were fatal , were recorded . A new paramyxovirus was discovered in a victim 's brain ; it was named Nipah virus , after the village where he had lived . The infection was caused by a virus from fruit bats , after their colony had been disrupted by deforestation . The bats had moved to trees nearer the pig farm and the pigs caught the virus from their droppings .
= = = Viral haemorrhagic fevers = = =
Several highly lethal viral pathogens are members of the Filoviridae . Filoviruses are filament @-@ like viruses that cause viral haemorrhagic fever , and include the Ebola and Marburg viruses . The Marburg virus attracted widespread press attention in April 2005 after an outbreak in Angola . Beginning in October 2004 and continuing into 2005 , there were 252 cases including 227 deaths .
The Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa , which began in 2013 , is the most devastating since the emergence of HIV . The initial outbreak occurred in December 2013 in Meliandou , a village in southern Guinea . Among the first victims were a two @-@ year @-@ old boy , his three @-@ year @-@ old sister , their mother and grandmother . After the grandmother 's funeral , which was attended by her family and caregivers , the disease spread to neighbouring villages . By March 2014 the outbreak was severe enough to raise the concern of local health officials who reported it to the Guinean Ministry of Health . By the middle of the year the epidemic had spread to Liberia and Sierra Leone . As of June 2105 , the World Health Organisation reported over 27 @,@ 000 cases of the disease , which had resulted in more than 11 @,@ 000 deaths .
The natural source of Ebola virus is probably bats . Marburg viruses are transmitted to humans by monkeys , and Lassa fever by rats ( Mastomys natalensis ) . Zoonotic infections can be severe because humans often have no natural resistance to the infection and it is only when viruses become well @-@ adapted to new host that their virulence decreases . Some zoonotic infections are often " dead ends " , in that after the initial outbreak the rate of subsequent infections subsides because the viruses are not efficient at spreading from person to person .
The beginning of the 21st century saw an increase in the global awareness of devastating epidemics in developing countries , which , in previous decades had passed relatively unnoticed by the international health community .
= = Beneficial viruses = =
Sir Peter Medawar ( 1915 – 1987 ) described a virus as " a piece of bad news wrapped in a protein coat " . With the exception of the bacteriophages , viruses had a well @-@ deserved reputation for being nothing but the cause of diseases and death . The discovery of the abundance of viruses and their overwhelming presence in many ecosystems has led modern virologists to reconsider their role in the biosphere .
It is estimated that there are about 1031 viruses on Earth . Most of them are bacteriophages , and most are in the oceans . Microorganisms constitute more than 90 per cent of the biomass in the sea , and it has been estimated that viruses kill approximately 20 per cent of this biomass each day and that there are fifteen times as many viruses in the oceans as there are bacteria and archaea . Viruses are the main agents responsible for the rapid destruction of harmful algal blooms , which often kill other marine life , and help maintain the ecological balance of different species of marine blue @-@ green algae , and thus adequate oxygen production for life on Earth .
The emergence of strains of bacteria that are resistant to a broad range of antibiotics has become a problem in the treatment of bacterial infections . Only two new classes of antibiotics have been developed in the past 30 years , and novel ways of combating bacterial infections are being sought . Bacteriophages were first used to control bacteria in the 1920s , and a large clinical trial was conducted by Soviet scientists in 1963 . This work was unknown outside the Soviet Union until the results of the trial were published in the West in 1989 . The recent and escalating problems caused by antibiotic @-@ resistant bacteria has stimulated a renewed interest in the use of bacteriophages and phage therapy .
The Human Genome Project has revealed the presence of numerous viral DNA sequences scattered throughout the human genome . These sequences make up around eight per cent of human DNA , and appear to be the remains of ancient retrovirus infections of human ancestors . These pieces of DNA have firmly established themselves in human DNA . Most of this DNA is no longer functional , but some of these friendly viruses have brought with them novel genes that are important in human development . Viruses have transferred important genes to plants . About ten per cent of all photosynthesis uses the products of genes that have been transferred to plants from blue @-@ green algae by viruses .
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= All things =
" all things " is the 17th episode of the seventh season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . Written and directed by lead actress Gillian Anderson , it first aired on April 9 , 2000 , on the Fox network . The episode is unconnected to the wider mythology of The X @-@ Files and functions as a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story . Watched by 12 @.@ 18 million people , the initial broadcast had a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 1 . The episode received mixed reviews from critics ; many called the dialogue pretentious and criticized the characterization of Scully . However , viewer response was generally positive .
The series centers on Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called " X @-@ Files " . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal . The skeptical Scully was initially assigned to debunk his work , but the two have developed a deep friendship . In this episode , a series of coincidences lead Scully to meet Dr. Daniel Waterston ( Nicolas Surovy ) , a married man with whom she had an affair while at medical school . After Waterston slips into a coma , Scully puts aside her skepticism and seeks out alternative medicine to save Waterston .
The script for " all things " , the only episode of the series written by Anderson , was originally fifteen pages too long with no fourth act . It was only after Anderson worked with series creator Chris Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz that the script was finished . The cast and crew helped Anderson adjust to her directorial debut — the first time a woman directed an episode of The X @-@ Files . The episode makes heavy use of " The Sky Is Broken " , a song from Moby 's 1999 album Play , as well as a gong . The episode has been analyzed for its themes of pragmatism and feminist philosophy .
= = Plot = =
FBI special agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is getting dressed in front of a mirror . As she leaves , her colleague Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) lies in his bed , half of his body covered by bedsheets . The narrative flashes back to a few days earlier : Scully arrives at a hospital and , after a series of coincidences , meets her former professor , Daniel Waterston ( Nicolas Surovy ) , with whom she had an affair while attending medical school . He is ill and suffering from an undiagnosed heart condition . She questions whether she made the right decision to leave him and abandon her medical career to pursue a career in the FBI . She meets Waterston 's daughter , Maggie ( Stacy Haiduk ) , who is extremely resentful of Scully for the effect she had on Waterston 's family .
Mulder — on his way to England investigating heart chakra @-@ shaped crop circles — calls Scully and asks her to meet a contact of his , Colleen Azar ( Colleen Flynn ) , to obtain some information . As Scully speaks to Mulder on her cellphone while driving her car , a woman appears on a crosswalk . Scully brakes hard to avoid hitting the woman . As she does so , she narrowly avoids colliding with a diesel truck . She realizes that , had the woman not stepped in her path , the truck would have killed her . When she later arrives at the house of Azar , she observes that Scully is going through a personal crisis and tries to offer her guidance , but Scully is dismissive .
Later , Scully returns to apologize to Azar and agrees to listen to her ideas . Azar shares her knowledge of Buddhism , the concept of the collective unconscious , and the idea of personal auras . Azar believes these concepts might explain these strange occurrences . After a confrontation with Maggie at the hospital , Scully walks through Chinatown . Seeing the woman who appeared earlier at the crosswalk , she follows her to a small Buddhist temple before the mysterious woman seemingly vanishes . Inside the temple , Scully has a vision of what is ailing Waterston . She returns to the hospital with Azar to visit Waterston .
Azar and a healer provide alternative treatment for Waterston , who fully recovers . He announces that he still wants a relationship with Scully , but she realizes she is no longer the same person she was those many years ago and rejects him . As she sits outside the hospital on a bench , Scully thinks that she sees the mysterious woman again , but it turns out to be Mulder . Later , the two agents sit in Mulder 's apartment talking about the events of the last few days . Mulder begins to speak more existentially about what transpired , implying that fate has brought them together but , when he turns to look at Scully , he sees that she has fallen asleep .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
Sometime during the sixth season of The X @-@ Files , Anderson approached series creator Chris Carter and asked to write an episode . Anderson 's own beliefs in the power of spiritual healing and Buddhism provided inspiration ; she wanted to write a script in which Scully pursued a " deeply personal X @-@ File , one in which [ she ] is taken down a spiritual path when logic fails her " . She wrote the basic outline of what became " all things " in one sitting , and pitched the script to Carter the next day ; he later approved of the " personal and quiet " characteristics of the story .
The first draft of the script was 72 pages — 15 pages too long — and did not feature a fourth act . Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz worked closely with Anderson to finish the episode , although Carter and Spotnitz later acknowledged that the majority of the script " was all Gillian " . Despite her satisfaction with the final version , Anderson regrets a handful of the " necessary " script changes , most notably , the addition that Scully and Waterston 's affair was intimate . In the original script , the two came close to having an affair , but Scully ended the relationship when she discovered that Waterston was married .
In the commentary for the episode , Anderson elaborated on Scully and Waterston 's original backstory : after Scully and Waterston came close to having an affair , Scully left to study at Quantico to become an FBI agent . After she left , Waterston become depressed , and his family began to suspect the affair . The emotional turmoil was too much for Waterston 's wife , who killed herself , which made Waterston 's daughter , Maggie , resent Scully , as shown in the finished episode . Anderson felt that the removal of this backstory made it hard for the audience to understand why Maggie was so angry at Scully .
When Anderson first wrote the episode , she did not hint that Scully and Mulder had had sex . Spotnitz and the production crew , however , felt it was natural to suggest that Scully and Mulder 's relationship may have evolved into a romantic one . The idea of heart chakra crop circles was included because Anderson wanted " whatever Mulder was involved in that took him away from me , away from Washington , to somehow tie into what it was that I was going through — the journey that I was going through " . As such , Anderson dedicated much of her time researching both crop circles and heart chakras , but she later gave additional credit to Spotnitz , who she noted was also heavily involved during the researching process .
= = = Directing and music = = =
Around the same time that she approached Carter about writing an episode , Anderson was also receiving offers from several television networks to direct shows . She , however , had never directed before , and decided that she would first attempt to helm an episode of The X @-@ Files before branching out into other series . Anderson thus expressed her wish to direct the episode when she pitched the original idea for " all things " . Carter accepted her story , but did not appoint her as director until all the revisions and rewrites had been completed . Anderson worked with series director Kim Manners for the majority of the episode , later noting that if she had any questions , she would approach Manners first . To help Anderson , Manners gave her directing exercises , such as making a list of shots for every scene . The episode also marked the first time that a woman had helmed the direction of an episode of The X @-@ Files .
Anderson 's directing helped to energize the production , and the cast and crew worked more than usual to make sure that everything was in order for her . Production designer Corey Kaplan made sure that the episode featured a Buddhist temple at Anderson 's request , and casting director Rick Millikan helped Anderson choose the appropriate actors and actresses . Millikan later said that he particularly enjoyed working with Anderson , because it was " fun " for him to watch her go through the casting process , which was entirely new to her . On set , Anderson 's directing style was described as " right on the money " by Marc Shapiro in his book all things : The Official Guide to The X @-@ Files , Volume 6 . He later wrote that " Anderson wielded a deft hand in her directorial debut , prodding the actors to her will , making decisions on the fly , and handling the complex special effects sequences " . Fans of the show later wrote to express their appreciation of Anderson 's directing abilities . Anderson was also involved in post @-@ production editing , during which she was forced to cut the final conversation scene between Scully and Daniel Waterston by 10 minutes in order to meet the allotted episode length .
The meditation scene required clips from previous episodes to appear in flashback . Initially , Paul Rabwin and the special effects crew cut the necessary scenes and placed them in animated bubbles . According to Rabwin , at this point , the crew was just experimenting with ideas . Eventually , the crew decided that the bubbles were too " hokey " , so they adopted a more standard slit @-@ scan effect . In order to create the sequence of Scully visualizing Waterston 's heart condition , Nicolas Surovy had to lie naked on a platform surrounded by a blue screen . A sphere was matched via motion control as a marker for a prosthetic beating heart that was crafted and filmed separately . The two shots were then combined .
Anderson wanted to include " The Sky Is Broken " , a song from Moby 's 1999 album Play in the episode , having heard it while driving home from work . She later explained that the song 's lyrics " fit with [ the ] idea that was unfolding for the script " . Anderson crafted the first shot after the opening credits , which involved Scully getting ready while water dripped from a sink , to create a " continuation of sound , rhythmic sound " , because it was important to the show 's musical aspect . Anderson and series composer Mark Snow worked together in post @-@ production ; after filming , she sent Snow several CDs of music and asked him for compositions that were similar in style and feel . A certain melody that the two worked on later became " Scully 's Theme " , which was not broadcast until the eighth season episode " Within " . " all things " also featured the use of the gong , an instrument that Anderson called " very Tibetan " and " appropriate for this episode " .
= = Themes = =
In the chapter " Scully as a Pragmatist Feminist " of the book The Philosophy of The X @-@ Files , Erin McKenna argues that " all things " represents an " important shift " in Scully 's approach to science , knowledge acquisition , and the pursuit of the truth . She reasons that the events of the episode open Scully 's mind to new ways of knowing , specifically citing " auras , chakras , visions ... and the importance of coincidence " . McKenna notes that Scully 's shift in perspective is a shift to American pragmatism , a belief that reality is ever @-@ changing . Pragmatists believe " the truth is out there " — the motto of the series — in a manner similar to Mulder 's . In " all things " , Scully begins to embrace pragmatism , although she still clings to her skeptic roots . Mixing the two , Scully evolves from a mere skeptic who demands proof to validate a truth , to an empiricist who wants proof , but is open to other perspectives .
In addition , McKenna reasons that " all things " is heavily influenced by feminist philosophy and epistemology , schools of thought that try to criticize or re @-@ evaluate the ideas of traditional philosophy and epistemology from within a feminist framework . According to McKenna , feminism rejects dualistic ways of thinking , especially " typical male / female dualism " . Feminist philosophy , instead , calls for a pluralistic way of thinking , noting that there are many consistent sets of truths about the world . In the episode , Scully starts out " sure of her more rational scientific view and approach " . As the episode progresses , however , she decides to branch out . Eventually , she brings in a spirit healer to " corroborate or nullify the new beliefs she is encountering " . Despite dabbling in mysticism , a field generally stereotyped as feminine by the patriarchy , Scully engages in " protracted inquiry " , examining all sides of the issue , in order to return Waterston to health .
When Mulder and Scully talk at the end of the episode , Mulder questions the fact that he left " town for two days and [ Scully ] spoke to God in a Buddhist temple and God spoke back " . Scully retorts that , " I didn 't say God spoke back " . McKenna proposes that this is an example of Scully 's rational scientific approach meshing with her newer , feministic pragmatism . The two modes of understanding are not " to be seen ... as competing systems , but as complementary , as are Scully and Mulder themselves " . McKenna concludes that this is represented in the opening scene , in which Mulder and Scully are implied to have had sex . This is meant as a metaphor , showing the full merging of Scully 's and Mulder 's different philosophies into pragmatic feminism .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The episode originally aired in the United States on the Fox network on April 9 , 2000 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on July 9 , 2000 . In the U.S. , " all things " was watched by 12 @.@ 18 million viewers . It earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 5 , with an 11 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 5 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of households watching television , tuned into the episode . In the U.K. , " all things " was seen by 580 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the seventh @-@ most watched program on Sky1 for that week . On May 13 , 2003 , the episode was released on DVD as part of the complete seventh season .
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C " and called it " a curious failure " . He felt that the writing was " pretentious " and composed of " some weird , weird bullshit " . VanDerWerff wrote that , although the episode was unsuccessful , there was something so " pure and unadorned at its center that I can 't outright hate it " . Furthermore , he admired the show and Anderson for " making the attempt " . Kevin Silber of Space.com gave the episode a negative review , critical of the script and characterization . He said , " nothing much seems to happen , and what does occur is substantially driven by coincidence and arbitrariness " . He did not like Azar and disapproved of Scully 's philosophical " reverie " , calling it " facile , and hard to reconcile with the determined rationalism she 's displayed over the years in the face of events no less strange than those that occur here " .
In their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson rated the episode one star out of five , calling the premise and characters dull . The two criticized Anderson for looking at the " minutiae of life too intensely " , which made many of the actors and actresses come off as ciphers . Furthermore , Shearman and Pearson were critical of Anderson 's directing style , calling it " pretentious " , noting that the plot 's significance was drowned out by unnecessary artistic flourishes and needless pizzazz . Paula Vitaris from CFQ gave the episode a negative review , awarding it one star out of four . She called Anderson 's directing " heavy @-@ handed " and bemoaned the storyline because it " plays havoc with Scully 's motivations and character as established in the past seven years " .
Not all reviews were negative . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a largely positive review and called it " wonderful " . He praised Anderson 's tenacity in presenting a darker moment from Scully 's past and favorably compared the episode to " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " in terms of character development . Kinney Littlefield of The Orange County Register wrote that the " wistful , meditative episode " was " not bad for Anderson 's first directing effort " . He did , however , comment that it was not as " sly as the episode about an alien baseball player that Duchovny directed " . The Michigan Daily writer Melissa Runstrom , in a review of the seventh season , called the episode " interesting " .
While the episode received lukewarm reviews from critics , fans of the show reacted generally positively to " all things " , and the show 's producers received calls and letters from viewers stating that they " loved the vulnerability and quiet determination that Scully revealed in the unusual episode " .
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= Hurricane Doria ( 1967 ) =
Hurricane Doria was an unusual and erratic hurricane that existed during September 1967 . The fourth named storm and hurricane of the 1967 Atlantic hurricane season , Doria developed on September 8 off the east coast of Florida . It meandered until attaining tropical storm status , at which point the storm accelerated towards the northeast . On September 10 , Doria intensified into a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . After moving out to sea , the storm turned westward towards the United States . A compact cyclone , Doria weakened to a tropical storm shortly before moving ashore in the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . The storm ultimately dissipated on September 21 .
The storm , which ultimately made landfall near the Virginia – North Carolina border , produced high winds along the coast from New Jersey through North Carolina . A small boat sank off the coast of New Jersey , killing three of its occupants . Overall damage was estimated around $ 150 @,@ 000 ( 1967 USD ) , although the storm overall was considered beneficial .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Doria are traced back to an area of disturbed weather off the northeastern coast of Florida on September 4 . For several days , the low pressure system meandered as its central barometric pressure gradually fell . The storm is estimated to have organized into a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on September 8 . At the time , it was situated north of Grand Bahama Island . Drifting westward , the cyclone attained tropical storm intensity early the next day . Doria turned northeastward and accelerated as it moved away from Florida . On September 10 , the tropical storm achieved hurricane force . Cold air became entrained into the hurricane 's circulation by September 11 , causing it to weaken to a tropical storm . However , its forward motion slowed and it once again strengthened .
The hurricane moved eastward , seemingly out to sea . However , an area of high pressure over New England began to steer Doria westward on September 13 . The hurricane continued to strengthen , and it is estimated to have peaked with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum air pressure of 973 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 73 inHg ) . It maintained these winds for approximately 18 hours , before weakening slightly late on September 14 . In his 2007 book " Hurricanes and the Middle Atlantic States " , Rick Schwartz compared Doria to the 1933 Chesapeake – Potomac hurricane , citing similar intensities , tracks , and forward speeds . On September 16 , the storm weakened to a tropical storm in a colder , drier environment . As it turned southward , Doria quickly weakened . Initial forecasts suggested the possibility for the storm to maintain its severity and move ashore between Maryland and New Jersey .
Continually deteriorating , Doria made landfall near the Virginia – North Carolina border , and moved south over land . It reemerged over open waters on September 17 , and at around the same time , it weakened to a tropical depression . It curved southeastward as a weak depression , and several days later it was still identifiable as a storm system south of the island of Bermuda . It dissipated on September 21 . Doria had an unusual and capricious track , described as " one of the most erratic storms ever observed " .
= = Impact = =
In advance of the storm , hurricane warnings were issued for much of the East Coast of the United States . For 19 hours , about 260 mi ( 420 km ) of shoreline was under an advisory . At least 400 people were evacuated from their homes in southern New Jersey and 6 @,@ 600 from Ocean City , Maryland .
Doria was a small storm , although it brought high winds and moderate coastal flooding to some areas ; generally light rainfall was also observed . In North Carolina , 6 @.@ 09 in ( 155 mm ) of precipitation fell at Whiteville . Flash flooding and the overflowing of storm sewers ensued in the southeastern portions of the state ; there were also losses to crops , especially corn , cotton , and tobacco . In Virginia , strong winds were reported along the coast , with gusts up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) at Wallops Island . Along the east coast of the state , winds damaged trees , roofs , signs , and billboards . In Maryland , similar impact occurred in Ocean City , with damage sustained to signs and billboards and tore the roof of a prefabricated home ; a city boardwalk also sustained storm @-@ related damage .
A station at the Indian River Inlet in Delaware recorded a tide 6 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) above @-@ normal ; the highest sustained winds reported on land association with the storm , 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , also occurred there . Atlantic City , New Jersey , recorded a peak gust of 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , with rainfall amounting to 0 @.@ 53 in ( 13 mm ) . Damage from the storm was generally light . Off the coast of Ocean City , New Jersey , a cabin cruiser sank in 25 @-@ ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) seas . Three of the vessel 's occupants , a mother and her two sons , drowned . In Massachusetts , some small boats sank at the harbors . At Ipswich Bay , 10 people required rescue after two boats capsized . Minor beach erosion was reported at Nantucket . Overall damage was estimated at $ 150 @,@ 000 , which was considered minor . The storm 's passage was considered beneficial , due to adding sand to beaches and providing favorable rains .
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= Brehon B. Somervell =
Brehon Burke Somervell ( 9 May 1892 – 13 February 1955 ) was a General in the United States Army and Commanding General of the Army Service Forces in World War II . As such he was responsible for the U.S. Army 's logistics . Following his death , the Washington Post lauded him as " one of the ablest officers the United States Army has produced . "
Somervell graduated near the top of his United States Military Academy class of 1914 and was commissioned in the United States Army Corps of Engineers . During World War I he served with the Pancho Villa Expedition in Mexico and the American Expeditionary Force in France in logistical posts . He was also decorated for gallantry in the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive .
After the war he served in various engineering assignments . From 1936 to 1940 Somervell was head of the Works Project Administration in New York City , where he was responsible for a series of Great Depression relief works , including the construction of LaGuardia Airport .
As head of the Construction Division of the Quartermaster Corps in 1941 , Somervell took charge of the construction of a series of camps to house the large numbers of draftees who entering into the Army . Once again , Somervell was able to deliver vital projects on time . The most enduring of these projects was the Pentagon , which is today one of the most recognizable buildings in the world . From 1942 to 1945 , Somervell commanded the Army Service Forces , the logistical arm of the United States Army .
= = Early life = =
Brehon Burke Somervell was born on 9 May 1892 in Little Rock , Arkansas , the only child of William Taylor Somervell , a physician , and wife Mary née Burke , a schoolteacher . The two of them opened Belcourt Seminary , a girls ' finishing school in Washington , D.C. , in 1906 .
Somervell was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point , New York by Congressman Charles C. Reid of Arkansas . He entered West Point in 1910 and graduated sixth out of the 106 cadets in the class of 1914 . Like other high @-@ ranking cadets of the period , he was commissioned a second Lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers .
= = World War I = =
Somervell traveled to Europe for his two months ' graduation leave and was in Paris when World War I broke out . Reporting to the U.S. Embassy in Paris for volunteer duty , he became an assistant to the military attaché . He took charge of refugee funds and dispensed $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to help American citizens to get back home .
On return to the United States , he was posted to an engineer battalion at Washington Barracks , DC . Scoring high marks in his Garrison Officers ' School examinations , he was promoted to 1st Lieutenant on 28 February 1915 . During the Punitive Expedition into Mexico in 1916 , he was for a time depot manager at Columbus , New Mexico , the main logistical base of the expedition . Later , he joined the expedition in Mexico , working on roads and as a supply officer .
Somervell returned to Washington Barracks to attend the Engineer School but his course was interrupted by the declaration of war by the United States on Germany on 6 April 1917 . The course was abruptly terminated and Somervell , along with hundreds of other junior officers , was ordered to appear before an examination board that would determine his fitness for promotion . Following a favorable report from the board , Somervell was promoted to captain on 15 May 1917 . He helped organize the 15th Engineers , a rail transport unit , at Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . In July 1917 this became the first engineer regiment to be sent overseas , arriving in England in July 1917 and France later that month . The 15th Engineers worked on a several construction projects , including a munitions dump at Mehun @-@ sur @-@ Yèvre and an advanced depot and regulating station at Is @-@ sur @-@ Tille . Somervell got his projects completed by working his men around the clock and deploying every available resource regardless of the cost . For his role , Somervell was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal .
He was promoted to major on 15 August 1917 and lieutenant colonel on 1 October 1918 . While visiting some friends at the 89th Division , he volunteered his services to its chief of staff , Colonel John C. H. Lee , who accepted him as a temporary replacement for his Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 3 , in charge of operations , who had been captured a few days before . For leading a three @-@ man patrol to inspect damage to a bridge some 600 yards ( 550 m ) in front of American lines , Somervell was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross . He was one of only nine American officers , including Douglas MacArthur , Barnwell R. Legge , Sereno E. Brett or William J. Donovan , to have been awarded both the Distinguished Service Cross and the Distinguished Service Medal in the First World War . A few days later Lee arranged for Somervell to be permanently assigned to the 89th Division .
= = Between the wars = =
The 89th Division returned to the United States in May 1919 but Somervell remained behind as Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 4 , in charge of supply , of the U.S. Third Army , and the American Forces in Germany , as it was re @-@ designated on 2 July 1919 . There , he met Anna Purnell , the daughter of a Chicago businessman , who was there as a YMCA volunteer . The two were married in August 1919 . They had three children together , all daughters . While in Germany , Somervell also met Walker D. Hines , a prominent New York corporate lawyer , whom he assisted with a survey of shipping and navigation on the Rhine River . Somervell reverted to the permanent rank of major on 1 July 1920 .
Returning to the United States in July 1920 , Somervell was posted to the Office of the Chief of Engineers in Washington , D.C. His war record earned him a place at the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth , reserved for the Army 's best and most promising officers . He once again ranked near the top of his class . After graduation he was posted to the 1st New York Engineer District but soon obtained leave to assist Hines with a special study of navigation on the Rhine and Danube Rivers on behalf of the League of Nations , essentially a continuation of the work that the two men had done in 1920 . He then attended the Army War College from 1925 to 1926 .
From 1926 to 1930 he was District Engineer , Washington , D.C. Engineer District . As such he became involved in a conflict between proponents of the development of hydroelectric power through damming the Great Falls of the Potomac River and the Maryland @-@ National Capital Park and Planning Commission . Despite his advocacy , the falls remain undammed to this day . On 1 September 1930 , Somervell was transferred to the Lower Mississippi Valley Division as Assistant Chief Engineer . The next year he became assistant to , and then the District Engineer of the Memphis District . In 1933 , he teamed up with Hines again , for an economic survey of Turkey , which culminated in a seven @-@ volume report . Named as District Engineer for Ocala , Florida , Somervell got behind a project to build the Cross Florida Barge Canal . Somervell was chosen to head the project but although President Franklin D. Roosevelt allocated emergency funds for the canal in 1935 , opponents of the canal protested that it would cause seawater to seep into the groundwater , and work was stopped a year later . In the meantime , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 1 August 1935 .
In 1935 , Somervell was appointed as head of the Works Project Administration in New York City . Over the next three and a half years he spent $ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 a month on Great Depression relief works . He worked with the local politicians and labor leaders . He upheld the right of workers to form unions and improved relations with left @-@ wing groups , once declaring that " I wouldn 't know a Red if I saw one , and wouldn 't do anything about it if I did " . The biggest project was the construction of LaGuardia Airport . Somervell established a reputation as a man who could handle projects involving hundreds of thousands of people and hundreds of millions of dollars .
= = World War II = =
= = = Construction Division = = =
In December 1940 , Somervell became head of the Construction Division of the Quartermaster Corps , and was promoted to the temporary rank of brigadier general on 29 January 1941 . His immediate concern was the construction of a series of camps — which were scheduled for completion by April 1941 — to house the large numbers of draftees who were then entering the Army . Reasoning that time was more important than money , Somervell pushed the project through to completion . By February , he was responsible for a work force 485 @,@ 000 people employed on military construction projects . The job was completed on time but over $ 100 million over budget . He was also responsible for constructing new facilities to hold stores and munitions , for which $ 700 million was allocated by December 1940 . By December , 375 projects had been completed and 320 were still under way , with a total value of $ 1 @.@ 8 billion . He accepted promotion to brigadier general in the Army of the United States on February 14 , 1941 with the date of rank of January 29 , 1941 .
The best known of these projects was the Pentagon , an enormous office complex to house the War Department 's 40 @,@ 000 @-@ person staff together in one building . On the afternoon of Thursday , 17 July 1941 , Somervell summoned George Bergstrom and Major Hugh Casey . Bergstrom was a former president of the American Institute of Architects ; Casey a Corps of Engineers officer seconded to the Construction Division . The two had previously worked together closely on the design of cantonments . Somervell gave them until 9am on Monday morning to design the building , which he envisaged as a modern , four @-@ story structure with no elevators on the site of the old Washington Hoover Airport . Over that " very busy weekend " , Casey , Bergstrom and their staff roughed out the design for a four @-@ story , five @-@ sided structure with a floor area of 5 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 square feet ( 470 @,@ 000 m2 ) — twice that of the Empire State Building . The estimated cost was $ 35 million . President Roosevelt subsequently moved the site of the building , over Somervell 's objections , in order to prevent it being constructed in front of Arlington National Cemetery .
Somervell still pursued his own designs , making important changes , including the addition of a fifth story . The outbreak of war led to a new urgency , and by May 1942 , some 13 @,@ 000 workers were working around the clock on the building , which was completed in early 1943 at a cost of $ 63 million , the overrun being caused by the emphasis on speed and the addition of the extra floor . For his work with the Construction Division , Somervell was awarded an oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal .
Somervell hoped to become Chief of Engineers but was " not really in the running " , being too junior in rank . Instead , the job went to Brigadier General Eugene Reybold , the Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 4 on the War Department General Staff . Somervell 's post was abolished on the transfer of the Construction Division to the Corps of Engineers . Reybold , who considered Somervell " a firecracker but ruthless " who " didn 't care who he hit " , selected Brigadier General Thomas M. Robins to head the new Corps of Engineers Construction Division .
Somervell instead received Reybold 's former assignment , with promotion to the temporary rank of major general on January 28 , 1942 and was promoted to temporary lieutenant general on March 9 , 1942 . The posting was unusual because Somervell had never previously served on War Department General Staff . As Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 4 , Somervell pressed for the adoption of a comprehensive Army Supply Program that would set targets and priorities for all Army production . Such a program could be used as the basis for requests for appropriations , for expenditures , and for allocating scare materials .
= = = Army Service Forces = = =
Within weeks Army Chief of Staff , General George Marshall , implemented sweeping changes to the War Department designed to reduce the number of people reporting to him so as to free his time for planning and conducting a global war . Three huge new commands were created by Executive Order Number 9082 of 28 February 1942 , " Reorganizing the Army and the War Department " : the Army Air Forces under Lieutenant General Henry H. Arnold , the Army Ground Forces under Lieutenant General Lesley J. McNair and the Services of Supply , under Somervell . As such , he was not only promoted to the rank of lieutenant general over the heads of many more senior officers , but some of them , including Reybold , now found themselves his subordinates . He was answerable to two men : Marshall , and Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson . Somervell built up a good working relationship with both . Senator Harry S. Truman of the Truman Committee disapproved of Somervell 's cost overruns , declaring : " I will say this for General Somervell , he will get the stuff , but it is going to be hell on the taxpayer . He has a WPA attitude on the expenditure of money . " The Services of Supply were renamed the Army Service Forces in March 1943 , as the term " supply " was felt to be too narrow a description of the broad range of logistic activities carried out by the organization . As head of Army Service Forces , Somervell became responsible for the implementation of the Army Supply Program .
According to military historian John D. Millett , who served on Somervell 's Army Service Forces staff , Somervell was " impatient , tense , and decisive " . Some saw him as an " empire @-@ builder " . Millett noted the opinion of an observer that :
In the jurisdictional. wrangles that developed there was one argument ad hominem that was constantly used , to wit : that the A.S.F. and its dynamic Commanding General were constantly seeking as `Empire Builders ' to enlarge their job by encroaching on that of others . By dint of repetition it got considerable acceptance inside the Department and out . There was something in the drive of the Commanding General of the A.S.F. , his quickness on the mental trigger , his adroitness and his evident ambition to tackle tough jobs that in itself lent some support to this feeling of impending encroachment among those of a more deliberate pace . I should be surprised if the Chief of Staff ever had any such feeling though he must have been well aware of the feelings of others in his organization in this respect .
A 1943 attempt by Somervell to abolish the Technical Services failed amid the furor and panic created by false rumors that he was being considered for the post of Chief of Staff if Marshall was sent to Europe to command the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force . Somervell sometimes pushed extravagant white elephant projects , such as the Canol Road , which he continued long after the strategic imperative behind it had faded .
Somervell understood logistics and its paramount importance in modern warfare , and he spared no effort to ensure that the American fighting man had all he needed for victory . Near the end of the war , Somervell was promoted to general on March 9 , 1945 . He was the very few officers to be promoted to that rank during the war who had not commanded combat forces overseas .
When Somervell 's retirement was announced in December 1945 , Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson issued a press release that read :
In organizing and directing the worldwide supply lines on which our troops depended for their offensive power , General Somervell performed a service without parallel in military history . He was completely dedicated to the task of winning the war in the shortest possible time and with the smallest cost in America lives , and the energy and ability he applied to his task contributed in great measure to the force of our attack and the speed of our victory .
= = Decorations = =
Here is the ribbon bar of General Brehon B. Somervell :
= = Later life and legacy = =
Somervell retired from the Army on 30 April 1946 and moved to Ocala , Florida . His wife Anna had died in January , 1942 and he had married Mrs. Louise Hampton Wartmann , a former student at Belcourt , in March 1943 . Somervell accepted an offer to become president of Koppers , a Pittsburgh @-@ based company that mined coal and manufactured and sold coal @-@ based products . Applying the same managerial techniques that he had employed in the Army , he thoroughly reorganized the company , and doubled revenues and tripled profits over the next five years .
Somervell suffered a series of health problems in the 1950s . He had an appendectomy in 1953 and a hernia operation in 1954 . He suffered a severe heart attack in September 1954 and returned to his home Ocala to recuperate . In early 1955 he decided to resign as president and withdraw from day @-@ to @-@ day operations . He had a second , fatal heart attack at his home on 13 February 1955 . He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery , not far from his " brain child " , the Pentagon . Unfortunately , his other great creation , the Army Service Forces did not survive , being abolished in May 1946 . The Washington Post lauded him as " one of the ablest officers the United States Army has produced . " The USAT General Brehon B. Somervell , a US Army Reserve logistics support vessel that can carry up to 2 @,@ 000 short tons ( 1 @,@ 800 t ) of cargo , is named in his honor .
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= Littorio @-@ class battleship =
The Littorio class , also known as the Vittorio Veneto class , was a class of battleship of the Regia Marina , the Italian navy . The class was composed of four ships : Littorio , Vittorio Veneto , Roma , and Impero . Only the first three ships of the class were completed , however . Built between 1934 and 1942 , they were the most modern battleships used by Italy during World War II . The Littorio @-@ class ships were developed in response to the French Dunkerque @-@ class battleships , and were armed with 381 @-@ millimeter ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) guns and had a top speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) . The design was considered by the Spanish Navy , but the outbreak of World War II interrupted construction plans .
The first two ships , Littorio and Vittorio Veneto , were operational by the early months of Italy 's participation in World War II . They formed the backbone of the Italian fleet , and conducted several sorties into the Mediterranean to intercept British convoys , though without any notable success . The two ships were repeatedly torpedoed throughout their careers : Littorio was hit by a torpedo during the attack on Taranto in November 1940 and again in June 1942 and Vittorio Veneto was torpedoed during the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941 and while escorting a convoy to North Africa in September 1941 . Roma joined the fleet in June 1942 , though all three ships remained inactive in La Spezia until June 1943 , when all three were damaged in a series of Allied air attacks on the harbor .
In September 1943 , Italy capitulated and signed an Armistice with the Allies . Littorio was then renamed Italia . The three active battleships were transferred to Malta before they were to be interned in Alexandria . While en route to Malta , German bombers attacked the fleet with Fritz X radio @-@ guided bombs , damaging Italia and sinking Roma . Nevertheless , Italia and Vittorio Veneto reached Malta and were interned . The incomplete Impero was seized by the Germans after Italy withdrew from the war and used as a target , until she was sunk by American bombers in 1945 . Italia and Vittorio Veneto were awarded to the United States and Britain , respectively , as war prizes . Italia , Vittorio Veneto , and Impero were broken up for scrap between 1952 and 1954 .
= = Design = =
The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 allotted Italy an additional 70 @,@ 000 long tons ( 71 @,@ 000 t ) of total capital ship tonnage , which could be used in 1927 – 1929 , while other powers were observing the " holiday " in battleship construction prescribed by the treaty . France , which was given parity with Italy , also possessed 70 @,@ 000 tons of capital ship tonnage . Both countries were put under significant pressure from the other signatories to use their allotted tonnage to build smaller battleships with reduced caliber main batteries . The first Italian design , prepared in 1928 , called for a 23 @,@ 000 long tons ( 23 @,@ 000 t ) ship armed with a main battery of six 381 mm ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) guns in twin turrets . They opted for this design because this allowed three ships under the 70 @,@ 000 @-@ ton limit . This would have allowed the Italian fleet to keep at least two units operational at any given time . Protection and radius of action were sacrificed for speed and heavy armament , though the Italians did not value range , as they operated primarily in the confined waters of the Mediterranean .
Later in 1928 , the design staff prepared another ship , with a displacement of 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) , armed with six 406 mm ( 16 @.@ 0 in ) guns and protected against guns of the same caliber . At least one of these ships would have followed the three 23 @,@ 000 @-@ ton ships once the building holiday expired in 1931 . Funding was not allocated to begin construction , however , as the Italian Navy did not want to instigate an arms race with the French Navy . The London Naval Treaty of 1930 extended the building holiday to 1936 , though Italy and France retained the right to build 70 @,@ 000 tons of new capital ships . Both countries rejected British proposals to limit new battleship designs to 25 @,@ 000 long tons ( 25 @,@ 000 t ) and 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns . After 1930 , the Italian Navy abandoned the smaller designs altogether . By 1930 , Germany had begun to build the three Deutschland @-@ class ships , armed with six 280 mm ( 11 in ) guns , and France had in turn laid down two Dunkerque @-@ class battleships to counter them . The French vessels were armed with eight 330 mm ( 13 in ) guns . In late 1932 , Italian constructors responded with a design similar to the Deutschland class , but armed with six 343 mm ( 13 @.@ 5 in ) guns in triple turrets on a 18 @,@ 000 long tons ( 18 @,@ 000 t ) displacement .
The Italian Navy decided that the smaller design was impractical , and that a larger design should be pursued . A 26 @,@ 500 long tons ( 26 @,@ 900 t ) design was then prepared , which mounted eight 343 mm guns in twin turrets . This was ultimately abandoned in favor of a 35 @,@ 000 ton design to be armed with 406 mm guns . The 406 mm gun in turn was abandoned in favor of the 381 mm gun because there were no designs for the larger gun , which would delay construction ; a 381 mm gun had already been designed for the canceled Francesco Caracciolo class . Ultimately , nine 381 mm guns in three triple turrets were adopted as the primary battery for the ships , on a displacement in excess of 40 @,@ 000 long tons ( 41 @,@ 000 t ) , despite the fact that this violated the established naval treaties . Nevertheless , by the time these ships entered service , the international arms control system had fallen apart and the major naval powers had invoked the " escalator clause " that allowed for ships up to 45 @,@ 000 long tons ( 46 @,@ 000 t ) displacement .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships of the class varied slightly in dimensions . Littorio and Vittorio Veneto were 224 @.@ 05 meters ( 735 @.@ 1 ft ) long between perpendiculars and 237 @.@ 76 m ( 780 @.@ 1 ft ) long overall , while Roma and Impero were 240 @.@ 68 m ( 789 @.@ 6 ft ) long overall . All four ships had a draft of 9 @.@ 6 m ( 31 ft ) and a beam of 32 @.@ 82 m ( 107 @.@ 7 ft ) . Littorio displaced 40 @,@ 724 metric tons ( 40 @,@ 081 long tons ; 44 @,@ 891 short tons ) as designed and 45 @,@ 236 t ( 44 @,@ 522 long tons ; 49 @,@ 864 short tons ) at full load . Vittorio Veneto displaced 40 @,@ 517 t ( 39 @,@ 877 long tons ; 44 @,@ 662 short tons ) and 45 @,@ 029 t ( 44 @,@ 318 long tons ; 49 @,@ 636 short tons ) , respectively . Roma 's displacement increased slightly as compared to the other ships , to 40 @,@ 992 t ( 40 @,@ 345 long tons ; 45 @,@ 186 short tons ) and 45 @,@ 485 t ( 44 @,@ 767 long tons ; 50 @,@ 139 short tons ) , respectively . As Impero was not completed , her final displacement is unknown . As built , the ships were fitted with bulbous bows to increase their speed , but they were found to cause serious vibration , which forced a modification to the bow .
Littorio and Vittorio Veneto had a standard crew of 80 officers and 1 @,@ 750 enlisted men ; while serving as a flagship , the crew was increased by a command staff of between 11 and 31 additional officers . The standard crew for Roma and Impero was increased by 100 enlisted men . Aircraft facilities were located on the quarterdeck , where it was initially planned to base six La Cierva autogyros . Instead , a single catapult was fitted . The ships were equipped with three Ro.43 reconnaissance seaplanes or navalized Re.2000 fighters . The Re.2000 fighter was a wheeled aircraft and had to land on an airfield .
The ships ' propulsion system consisted of four Belluzzo geared steam turbines powered by eight oil @-@ fired Yarrow boilers . The engines were rated at 128 @,@ 200 shaft horsepower ( 95 @,@ 600 kW ) and a top speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) . On sea trials , both Littorio and Vittorio Veneto exceeded the design specifications for their power plant . Littorio reached 137 @,@ 649 shp ( 102 @,@ 645 kW ) and 31 @.@ 3 kn ( 58 @.@ 0 km / h ; 36 @.@ 0 mph ) , while Vittorio Veneto made 133 @,@ 771 shp ( 99 @,@ 753 kW ) and 31 @.@ 4 kn ( 58 @.@ 2 km / h ; 36 @.@ 1 mph ) , both at light loadings . In service , however , the ships averaged 28 kn ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . Figures for Roma 's speed trials have not been recorded . The ships carried 4 @,@ 140 t ( 4 @,@ 070 long tons ; 4 @,@ 560 short tons ) of fuel oil , which enabled a maximum range of 4 @,@ 580 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 480 km ; 5 @,@ 270 mi ) at a cruising speed of 16 kn ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . At 14 kn ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , the ships ' range increased slightly to 4 @,@ 700 nmi ( 8 @,@ 700 km ; 5 @,@ 400 mi ) . The entire machinery system accounted for about 5 @.@ 6 percent of the total displacement .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships ' main battery consisted of nine 381 mm L / 50 Ansaldo 1934 guns in three triple turrets , two in a superfiring pair forward and one aft . These long @-@ barrel , high @-@ velocity guns were chosen to compensate for the smaller 381 mm shell as compared to the 406 mm gun originally desired . The 381 mm guns had a maximum elevation of 35 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 42 @,@ 260 m ( 138 @,@ 650 ft ) . The guns fired a 885 kg ( 1 @,@ 951 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 870 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 900 ft / s ) . High explosive shells weighed 774 kg ( 1 @,@ 706 lb ) . The high muzzle velocity of the guns reduced their service life and increased the dispersion of the fall of shot . Shell rooms were located below the propellant magazines beneath the gun house in the turret structure . The guns ' rate of fire was one shot every 45 seconds .
The ships ' secondary battery consisted of twelve 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) L / 55 Ansaldo Model 1934 guns in four triple turrets . Two were placed abreast the No. 2 main battery turret and two on either side of the rear turret . These guns fired a 50 kg ( 110 lb ) AP shell at a muzzle velocity of 910 m / s ( 3 @,@ 000 ft / s ) . They could elevate to 45 degrees , permitting a maximum range of 25 @,@ 740 m ( 84 @,@ 450 ft ) . They had a rate of fire of slightly better than four rounds a minute . Four 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 40 guns supplemented the 152 mm guns . The ships ' anti @-@ aircraft armament was composed of a powerful battery of twelve 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 50 guns closely arranged amidships , twenty 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 54 guns , and sixteen 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) L / 65 guns . The 90 mm guns provided long @-@ range anti @-@ aircraft protection , and were mounted in quadriaxially stabilized single turrets . They had a rate of fire of 12 rounds per minute and had a ceiling of approximately 10 @,@ 800 m ( 35 @,@ 400 ft ) . The 37 mm and 20 mm guns were designed for close @-@ range defense and had effective ranges of 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) and 2 @,@ 500 m ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) , respectively .
= = = Armor = = =
The ships ' belt armor was designed to defeat 380 mm shells at ranges over 16 @,@ 000 m ( 52 @,@ 000 ft ) , and was inclined at 11 degrees . The belt was layered as follows : a 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) hardened steel belt was used to de @-@ cap armor @-@ piercing projectiles . A 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) wide gap separated the outer layer from the main belt armor , which was 280 mm ( 11 in ) thick and was backed with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of timber and 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) skin plating . Another 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) wide gap separated the main belt from a 36 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick splinter screen . Another 25 mm thick screen was placed further inboard . The main section of the belt armor was closed on either end by 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick transverse bulkheads . The bow was protected by a 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick belt , while the stern was given 125 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) of armor protection .
Horizontal protection over the magazine consisted of a 162 mm ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) thick armored deck . Over the machinery spaces , the deck was reduced in thickness to 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) , and on the outboard portions of the ships , the deck was reduced further to 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) . The aft steering rooms and auxiliary machinery spaces were protected by a 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) thick deck . The main conning tower was protected by 50 – 130 mm thick side armor .
Above the deck , the main battery barbettes that housed the turret assemblies for the 381 mm guns were protected with 350 mm ( 14 in ) thick armor , while below deck the thickness was reduced to 280 mm . The faces of the main battery turrets were 350 mm thick , with 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and roofs . The secondary gun turrets were housed in barbettes 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick above deck and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick below deck . The turret faces were 280 mm thick , with 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick sides . Below the third deck , neither the primary nor secondary barbettes were protected by armor . The anti @-@ aircraft guns were protected with gun shields ranging in thickness from 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) to 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) .
= = = = Pugliese torpedo defense system = = = =
All four ships incorporated a unique underwater protection system named after its designer , Umberto Pugliese . A 40 mm thick torpedo bulkhead extended inboard from the base of the main belt before curving down to meet the bottom of the hull . This formed a void which housed an empty drum 380 mm ( 15 in ) wide with 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) thick walls ; the rest of the void was filled with liquid . The drum ran the length of the torpedo defense system , and was designed to collapse to contain the explosive pressure of a torpedo hit . The torpedo bulkhead would prevent any splinters or explosive effects from entering the ships ' vitals . The system was designed to protect the ship from torpedo warheads up to 350 kg ( 770 lb ) .
The system did not perform as effectively as expected , however . This was due to two major defects in the design . The riveted joint that connected the interior torpedo bulkhead to the bottom of the hull was not strong enough to sustain the tremendous shear loadings associated with direct contact explosions . The joints failed even in cases of non @-@ contact explosions ; this prevented the hollow drum from collapsing as designed and resulted in massive flooding . The fineness of the hull shape prevented the 380 mm thickness from being maintained for the entire central citadel ; the width of the drum was reduced significantly abreast of the main battery , down to 228 mm ( 9 @.@ 0 in ) . The ability of the drum to absorb explosive shock correspondingly fell in relation to its size .
= = Construction = =
The keels for Vittorio Veneto and Littorio were laid on the same day , 28 October 1934 , at the Cantieri Riuniti dell 'Adriatico shipyard in Trieste and the Ansaldo shipyard in Genoa , respectively . Vittorio Veneto was launched on 22 July 1937 , with Littorio following exactly one month later on 22 August . While incomplete , Vittorio Veneto went to sea on 23 October 1939 to conduct machinery trials . She was delivered to the Italian Navy in Trieste , still incomplete , some six months later on 28 April 1940 . She departed Trieste on 1 May for final fitting out at the dockyard in La Spezia . After completion on 15 May 1940 , she went to Taranto to join the fleet . Littorio underwent the same pattern of machinery trials prior to completion ; she was delivered to the fleet on 6 May 1940 .
Two additional ships were laid down four years later . Roma was built by the CRDA shipyard , starting on 18 September 1938 . She was launched on 9 June 1940 and was completed on 14 June 1942 , after which she joined the fleet in La Spezia and replaced Littorio as the fleet flagship . Impero was laid down at the Ansaldo shipyard on 14 May 1938 . She was launched on 15 November 1939 , but she was never completed . After the entrance of Italy to World War II , the Italian Navy moved the unfinished ship from Genoa to Brindisi , out of fears of French attacks on the vessel . Work was not resumed .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
Littorio and Vittorio Veneto were declared operational on 2 August 1940 , and were assigned to the 9th Division of the 1st Squadron . On 31 August , the two ships , along with three of the older battleships steamed with a force of ten cruisers and thirty @-@ one destroyers to engage the Operation Hats convoy , but poor reconnaissance prevented the Italian force from engaging the British ships . The ships made another unsuccessful sortie to attack another Malta convoy on 29 September . During the attack on Taranto on 12 November 1940 , Littorio was hit twice by torpedoes , suffering serious damage . Significant flooding caused the ship to settle by the bow . The ship was dry @-@ docked on 11 December , with repairs completed by 11 March 1941 . Vittorio Veneto , however , emerged from the attack undamaged . While her sister was being repaired , she took over flagship duties and was transferred to Naples .
Vittorio Veneto sortied on 26 November and encountered British forces south of Sardinia . During the resulting Battle of Cape Spartivento , Swordfish torpedo bombers from the carrier HMS Ark Royal attacked Vittorio Veneto , though she evaded the torpedoes . She briefly engaged British cruisers with her rear main battery turret , without scoring any hits . During the engagement , one of her Ro.43 reconnaissance planes was shot down by a Skua fighter . On the night of 8 – 9 January 1941 , the Royal Air Force attacked Naples with heavy bombers , but failed to hit the ship . In February , Vittorio Veneto , Andrea Doria and Giulio Cesare attempted to attack what was believed to be a Malta convoy . The British squadron was in fact Force H , steaming to bombard Genoa . The two fleets did not make contact , however , and the Italians returned to port .
On 26 March 1941 , Vittorio Veneto departed port to attack British convoys to Greece . Germany pressured the Italian Navy to begin the operation , under the impression that they had disabled two of the three battleships assigned to the British Mediterranean Fleet . This resulted in the Battle of Cape Matapan the following day , during which Vittorio Veneto engaged British cruisers . She was then attacked by torpedo bombers from HMS Formidable ; the first wave failed , but the second scored a single hit on both Vittorio Veneto and the heavy cruiser Pola . The battleship was flooded with some 4 @,@ 000 t ( 3 @,@ 900 long tons ; 4 @,@ 400 short tons ) of water , though she got underway after ten minutes and eventually reached Taranto on 29 March . Repairs lasted until July .
Littorio and Vittorio Veneto had both returned to active duty by August 1941 , and on the 22nd the two ships sortied to attack a convoy . They returned to port without encountering any British forces , however . On 26 September , the two battleships attempted to intercept the Operation Halberd convoy , but they broke off the operation without attacking the convoy . While escorting a convoy to North Africa , Vittorio Veneto was torpedoed by the British submarine HMS Urge ; repairs lasted until Spring , 1942 . Shortly thereafter , on 13 December , Littorio escorted another convoy to North Africa . This operation resulted in the First Battle of Sirte , which ended inconclusively . She provided distant cover to another convoy on 3 – 6 January 1942 . On 21 March , she sortied to attack a British convoy , which led to the Second Battle of Sirte . During the engagement , she badly damaged the destroyers Havock and Kingston .
Repairs to Vittorio Veneto were completed in time for her to join Littorio on attacks on the convoys Vigorous and Harpoon , which had departed Alexandria and Gibraltar to reinforce Malta simultaneously in mid @-@ June . Combat was limited to the opposing light forces , and Littorio and Vittorio Veneto did not see action ; the British nevertheless broke off Operation Vigorous due to the ships ' presence and heavy air attacks . While returning to port , Littorio was hit by a bomb from an American B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bomber ; the bomb struck the forward gun turret , though it did minimal damage . Before returning to port , a British Wellington bomber torpedoed the ship . The torpedo struck her starboard bow , though she returned to port . Repairs were completed and on 12 December , both ships were moved from Taranto to La Spezia in response to the Allied landings in North Africa . Roma joined the fleet shortly after the attacks on the two convoys , and joined her sisters for the move to La Spezia . There , she replaced Littorio as the fleet flagship .
In June 1943 , a series of Allied air raids attacked La Spezia in an attempt to neutralize the three battleships . On 5 June , she was hit by two large bombs that struck her port side . She was transferred to Genoa for repairs , which were not completed before the Armistice that ended Italian participation in the war . Littorio was hit by three bombs on 19 June , a week after her sister was damaged . She was renamed Italia after Benito Mussolini 's regime collapsed . Roma was damaged during the 5 June attack and again in a third attack on 23 June . In September 1943 , following the withdrawal of Italy from the war , all three ships and a significant portion of the Italian fleet left port to be interned in Malta . While en route , German bombers laden with Fritz @-@ X radio @-@ guided bombs attacked the formation . One hit Italia in the bow forward the main battery turrets , causing serious damage . Two hit Roma ; one passed through the ship and exploded under her keel , and the second hit near the forward magazines . The bomb detonated the magazines , causing a massive explosion that destroyed the ship with heavy casualties .
Italia and Vittorio Veneto reached Malta , where they remained until 14 September , when they were transferred to Alexandria . They remained at the Great Bitter Lake in the Suez Canal for the rest of the war . On 6 June 1946 , Vittorio Veneto steamed to Augusta in Sicily , where , under the Treaty of Peace with Italy , she was allocated to Britain . On 14 October 1946 , she was moved to La Spezia , paid off on 3 January 1948 , and broken up for scrap . Italia left Great Bitter Lake on 5 February 1947 , to join her sister in Augusta . Allocated to the United States , she was stricken on 1 June 1948 and scrapped in La Spezia . The incomplete Impero had meanwhile been seized by the retreating Germans in 1943 , who used her as a target , until she was sunk by American bombers on 20 February 1945 . In October 1947 , the ship was raised and towed to Venice , where she was broken up .
= = The Littorio design in foreign navies = =
In 1939 , Spain 's General Francisco Franco briefly considered a naval building program after seizing power in the Spanish Civil War . Franco concluded several agreements with the Italian government that would have seen the building of four Littorio @-@ class battleships in Spain . The Italians promised to provide all necessary technical and material support for the construction of the ships . The Italian Navy pushed to modernize and enlarge the existing shipyards in Spain , so that they could handle a vessel as large as the Littorio class . The project was abandoned after Italy became involved in World War II , and as a result of limited Spanish industrial capacity .
In the early 1930s , the Soviet Navy began a naval construction program , and sought advice from foreign shipbuilders for a new class of battleships . On 14 July 1939 , Ansaldo completed a design proposal for the Soviet Navy , for a ship largely based on the Littorio class , designated U.P. 41 . The design was for a 42 @,@ 000 t ( 41 @,@ 000 long tons ; 46 @,@ 000 short tons ) ship armed with nine 406 mm guns in triple turrets . The Italians did not disclose the specifications of the Pugliese system and instead used a multiple @-@ torpedo bulkhead system . Regardless , the Soviet Navy did not use the U.P. 41 design as the basis for the Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleships they laid down in the late 1930s . They were , however , equipped with the Pugliese system , the details of which were revealed through Soviet espionage .
In preparing the design for the Design 1047 type of battlecruisers in early 1940 , the Dutch Navy inspected Vittorio Veneto , then under construction , in hopes of gathering some experience on the underwater protection system . The Italians refused to disclose the details of the Pugliese system , however .
= = Endnotes = =
Notes
Citations
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= Typhoon =
A typhoon is a mature tropical cyclone that develops in the western part of the North Pacific Ocean between 180 ° and 100 ° E. This region is referred to as the Northwestern Pacific Basin , and is the most active tropical cyclone basin on Earth , accounting for almost one @-@ third of the world 's annual tropical cyclones . For organisational purposes , the northern Pacific Ocean is divided into three regions : the eastern ( North America to 140 ° W ) , central ( 140 ° to 180 ° W ) , and western ( 180 ° to 100 ° E ) . The Regional Specialized Meteorological Center ( RSMC ) for tropical cyclone forecasts is in Japan , with other tropical cyclone warning centers for the northwest Pacific in Hawaii ( the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ) , the Philippines and Hong Kong . While the RSMC names each system , the main name list itself is coordinated among 18 countries that have territories threatened by typhoons each year . The Philippines use their own naming list for systems approaching the country .
Within the northwestern Pacific there are no official typhoon seasons as tropical cyclones form throughout the year . Like any tropical cyclone , there are six main requirements for typhoon formation and development : sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures , atmospheric instability , high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere , enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center , a pre @-@ existing low level focus or disturbance , and low vertical wind shear . The majority of storms form between June and November while tropical cyclone formation is at a minimum between December and May . On average , the northwestern Pacific features the most numerous and intense tropical cyclones globally . Like other basins , they are steered by the subtropical ridge towards the west or northwest , with some systems recurving near and east of Japan . The Philippines receive the brunt of the landfalls , with China and Japan being impacted slightly less . Some of the deadliest typhoons in history have struck China . Southern China has the longest record of typhoon impacts for the region , with a thousand @-@ year sample via documents within their archives . Taiwan has received the wettest known typhoon on record for the northwest Pacific tropical cyclone basins .
= = Nomenclature = =
= = = Etymology and usage = = =
The term Typhoon is the regional name in the northwest Pacific for a severe ( or mature ) tropical cyclone , whereas hurricane is the regional term in the northeast Pacific and northern Atlantic . Elsewhere this is called a tropical cyclone , severe tropical cyclone , or severe cyclonic storm .
The Oxford English Dictionary cites several Oriental words from Persian and Chinese giving rise to two early forms in English : touffon ( from Persian ) and tuffoon / tay @-@ fun ( from Chinese ) .
The Persian source is the word توفان tūfān ( " storm " ; also Arabic طوفان ( ṭūfān , " to turn round " ) , Hindi तूफ ़ ान ( tūfān ) ) from the verb tūfīdan ( Persian : توفیدن / طوفیدن , " to roar , to blow furiously " ) .
The Chinese source is the word tai fung ( simplified Chinese : 台风 ; traditional Chinese : 颱風 ; pinyin : táifēng ) , cited as a common dialect form of Mandarin dà " big " and fēng " wind " . In Mandarin the word for the windstorm is 大风 ( dàfēng , " big wind " ) and in Cantonese 大風 ( daai6 fung1 , " big wind " ) .
The Ancient Greek Τυφῶν ( Tuphôn , " Typhon , father of the winds " ) is unrelated but has secondarily contaminated the word .
= = = Intensity classifications = = =
A tropical depression is the lowest category that the Japan Meteorological Agency uses and is the term used for a tropical system that has wind speeds not exceeding 33 knots ( 38 mph ; 61 km / h ) . A tropical depression is upgraded to a tropical storm should its sustained wind speeds exceed 34 knots ( 39 mph ; 63 km / h ) . Tropical storms also receive official names from RSMC Tokyo . Should the storm intensify further and reach sustained wind speeds of 48 knots ( 55 mph ; 89 km / h ) then it will be classified as a severe tropical storm . Once the system 's maximum sustained winds reach wind speeds of 64 knots ( 74 mph ; 119 km / h ) , the JMA will designate the tropical cyclone as a typhoon — the highest category on its scale .
From 2009 the Hong Kong Observatory started to further divide typhoons into three different classifications : typhoon , severe typhoon and super typhoon . A typhoon has wind speed of 64 @-@ 79 knots ( 73 @-@ 91 mph ; 118 – 149 km / h ) , a severe typhoon has winds of at least 80 knots ( 92 mph ; 150 km / h ) , and a super typhoon has winds of at least 100 knots ( 120 mph ; 190 km / h ) . The United States ' Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) unofficially classifies typhoons with wind speeds of at least 130 knots ( 67 m / s ; 150 mph ; 241 km / h ) — the equivalent of a strong Category 4 storm in the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale — as super typhoons . However , the maximum sustained wind speed measurements that the JTWC uses are based on a 1 @-@ minute averaging period , akin to the U.S. ' National Hurricane Center and Central Pacific Hurricane Center . As a result , the JTWC 's wind reports are higher than JMA 's measurements , as the latter are based on a 10 @-@ minute averaging interval .
= = Genesis = =
There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis : sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures , atmospheric instability , high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere , enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center , a pre @-@ existing low level focus or disturbance , and low vertical wind shear . While these conditions are necessary for tropical cyclone formation , they do not guarantee that a tropical cyclone will form . Normally , an ocean temperature of 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 79 @.@ 7 ° F ) spanning through a depth of at least 50 metres ( 160 ft ) is considered the minimum to maintain the special mesocyclone that is the tropical cyclone . These warm waters are needed to maintain the warm core that fuels tropical systems . A minimum distance of 500 km ( 300 mi ) from the equator is normally needed for tropical cyclogenesis .
Whether it be a depression in the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) or monsoon trough , a broad surface front , or an outflow boundary , a low level feature with sufficient vorticity and convergence is required to begin tropical cyclogenesis . About 85 to 90 percent of Pacific typhoons form within the monsoon trough . Even with perfect upper level conditions and the required atmospheric instability , the lack of a surface focus will prevent the development of organized convection and a surface low . Vertical wind shear of less than 10 m / s ( 20 kn , 33 ft / s ) between the ocean surface and the tropopause is required for tropical cyclone development . Typically with Pacific typhoons , there are two outflow jets : one to the north ahead of an upper trough in the Westerlies , and a second towards the equator .
In general , westerly wind increases associated with the Madden – Julian oscillation lead to increased tropical cyclogenesis in all tropical cyclone basins . As the oscillation propagates from west to east , it leads to an eastward march in tropical cyclogenesis with time during that hemisphere 's summer season . On average , twice per year twin tropical cyclones will form in the western Pacific ocean , near the 5th parallel north and the 5th parallel south , along the same meridian , or line of longitude . There is an inverse relationship between tropical cyclone activity in the western Pacific basin and the north Atlantic basin , however . When one basin is active , the other is normally quiet , and vice versa . The main reason for this appears to be the phase of the Madden – Julian oscillation , or MJO , which is normally in opposite modes between the two basins at any given time .
= = Frequency = =
Nearly one @-@ third of the world 's tropical cyclones form within the western Pacific . This makes this basin the most active on Earth . Pacific typhoons have formed year round , with peak months from August to October . The peak months correspond to that of the Atlantic hurricane seasons . Along with a high storm frequency , this basin also features the most globally intense storms on record . One of the most recent busy seasons was 2013 . Tropical cyclones form in any month of the year across the northwest Pacific ocean , and concentrate around June and November in the northern Indian ocean . The area just northeast of the Philippines is the most active place on Earth for tropical cyclones to exist . Across the Philippines themselves , activity reaches a minimum in February , before increasing steadily through June , and spiking from July through October , with September being the most active month for tropical cyclones across the archipelago . Activity falls off significantly in November , although Typhoon Haiyan , the strongest Philippine typhoon on record , was a November typhoon . The most frequently impacted areas of the Philippines by tropical cyclones are northern and central Luzon and eastern Visayas . A ten @-@ year average of satellite determined precipitation showed that at least 30 percent of the annual rainfall in the northern Philippines could be traced to tropical cyclones , while the southern islands receive less than 10 percent of their annual rainfall from tropical cyclones . The genesis and intensity of typhoons are also modulated by slow variation of the sea surface temperature and circulation features following a near @-@ 10 @-@ year frequency .
= = Paths = =
Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the subtropical ridge closer to the equator , then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving north and northeast into the main belt of the Westerlies . When the subtropical ridge position shifts due to El Niño , so will the preferred tropical cyclone tracks . Areas west of Japan and Korea tend to experience many fewer September – November tropical cyclone impacts during El Niño and neutral years . During El Niño years , the break in the subtropical ridge tends to lie near 130 ° E , which would favor the Japanese archipelago . During La Niña years , the formation of tropical cyclones , along with the subtropical ridge position , shifts westward across the western Pacific ocean , which increases the landfall threat to China and greater intensity to Philippines . Those that form near the Marshall Islands find their way to Jeju Island , Korea .
Typhoon paths follow three general directions .
Straight track ( or straight runner ) . A general westward path affects the Philippines , southern China , Taiwan , and Vietnam .
A parabolic , recurving track . Storms recurving affect eastern Philippines , eastern China , Taiwan , Korea , Japan , and the Russian Far East .
Northward track . From point of origin , the storm follows a northerly direction , only affecting small islands .
A rare few storms , like Hurricane John , were redesignated as typhoons as its track originated from the Eastern / Central Pacific and moved its way into the western Pacific .
= = Basin monitoring = =
Within the Western Pacific , RSMC Tokyo @-@ Typhoon Center , part of the Japan Meteorological Agency has had the official warning responsibility for the whole of the Western Pacific since 1989 , and the naming responsibility for systems of tropical storm strength or greater since 2000 . However each National Meteorological and Hydrological Service within the western Pacific has the responsibility for issuing warnings for land areas about tropical cyclones affecting their country , such as the Joint Typhoon Warning Center for United States agencies , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) for interests in the island archipelago nation , and the Hong Kong Observatory for storms that come close enough to cause the issuance of warning signals .
= = = Name sources = = =
The list of names consists of entries from 14 Southeast and East Asian nations and the United States who have territories directly affected by typhoons . The submitted names are arranged into five lists , and each list is cycled with each year . Unlike tropical cyclones in other parts of the world , typhoons are not named after people . Instead , they generally refer to animals , flowers , astrological signs , and a few personal names . However , PAGASA retains its own naming list , which does consist of human names . Therefore , a typhoon can possibly have two names . Storms that cross the date line from the central Pacific retain their original name , but the designation of hurricane becomes typhoon . In Japan , people use the numerical designation of typhoons according to the sequence of their occurrence in the calendar year .
= = Records = =
The most active Western Pacific typhoon season was in 1964 , when 39 storms of tropical storm strength formed . The least activity seen in the northwest Pacific ocean was during the 2010 Pacific typhoon season , when only 14 tropical storms and seven typhoons formed . In the Philippines , the most active season , since 1945 , for tropical cyclone strikes was 1993 when nineteen tropical cyclones moved through the country . There was only one tropical cyclone that moved through the Philippines in 1958 . The 2004 Pacific typhoon season was the busiest for Okinawa since 1957 . Within Guangdong in southern China , during the past thousand years , the most active decades for typhoon strikes were the 1660s and 1670s .
The highest reliably @-@ estimated maximum sustained winds on record for a typhoon were those of Typhoon Haiyan at 195 miles per hour ( 314 km / h ) shortly before its landfall in the central Philippines on Nov. 8 , 2013 . The most intense storm based on minimum pressure was Typhoon Tip in the northwestern Pacific Ocean in 1979 , which reached a minimum pressure of 870 hectopascals ( 26 inHg ) and maximum sustained wind speeds of 165 knots ( 85 m / s , 190 mph , 310 km / h ) . The deadliest typhoon of the 20th century was Typhoon Nina , which killed nearly 100 @,@ 000 in China in 1975 due to a flood that caused 12 reservoirs to fail . After Typhoon Morakot landed in Taiwan at midnight on August 8 , 2009 , almost the entire southern region of Taiwan ( Chiayi County / Chiayi City , Tainan County / Tainan City ( now merged as Tainan ) , Kaohsiung County / Kaohsiung City ( now merged as Kaohsiung ) , and Pingtung County ) and parts of Taitung County and Nantou County were flooded by record @-@ breaking heavy rain . The rainfall in Pingtung County reached 2 @,@ 327 millimeters ( 91 @.@ 6 in ) , breaking all rainfall records of any single place in Taiwan induced by a single typhoon , and making the cyclone the wettest known typhoon .
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= Halo Original Soundtrack =
The Halo Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack for the video game Halo : Combat Evolved . Composed and produced by Martin O 'Donnell and Michael Salvatori for Bungie , the soundtrack was released on June 11 , 2002 . Most of the music from Halo : Combat Evolved is present on the CD , although some songs have been remixed by O 'Donnell in medley form for " more enjoyable " listening . The first piece O 'Donnell wrote , known as " Halo " , became the basis for Halo 's " signature sound " which has been heard in the other games of the main trilogy .
The soundtrack features a wide range of musical styles , including chanting , string orchestra , and percussion . Upon release , the soundtrack was well received by critics . Some complimented the wide range of musical styles , and most agreed that playing the game is not required to enjoy the soundtrack . A special edition of the soundtrack was released on October 28 , 2003 , featuring a DVD with a trailer , demo movie , and high quality music for Halo 2 .
= = Background = =
As the audio director for Bungie , Martin O 'Donnell was tasked with writing the music for Halo : Combat Evolved . He had scored previous Bungie projects , including Myth : The Fallen Lords , while working for his audio company , TotalAudio , along with Michael Salvatori . O 'Donnell was nervous about the project , saying he approached it , " with fear and trepidation " . O 'Donnell stated his main influences were music he liked — " a little Samuel Barber meets Giorgio Moroder " . Bungie 's Director of cinematics , Joseph Staten told O 'Donnell , " the music should give a feeling of importance , weight , and sense of the ' ancient ' to the visuals of Halo " .
O 'Donnell 's first piece of music , " Halo " , which would become " the signature theme for Halo " , was written and recorded in three days . O 'Donnell convinced Alex Seropian to allow him to produce an original piece of music for the game 's 1999 Macworld Conference & Expo demonstration . He drew inspiration for the theme from The Beatles ' " Yesterday " . O 'Donnell recruited Salvatori and three other colleagues he had recorded jingles with — Robert Bowker , Jeffrey Morrow , and Rob Trow — to produce the " chanting monks " that open the piece . Originally , he had intended the Qawwali accents to be sung by one of the professionals , but after singing an example of what he wanted , the others suggested using O 'Donnell 's own rendition instead . The theme premiered at the 1999 Macworld Conference & Expo .
The remaining themes were written , recorded , and produced throughout 2001 . The music was written with a variety of equipment including , " keyboards , synths , and samplers as well as digital recording equipment controlled by computers " . Live instrumentations , from members of the Chicago Symphony and Chicago Lyric Opera Orchestra , were added where needed . The soundtrack features a wide range of sounds , O 'Donnell described it as , " Gregorian chant , string orchestra , percussion and just a bit of a ' Qawwali voice ' " . Working closely with level designers , O 'Donnell divided the music " into chunks " . Based on these " chunks " , " [ Halo 's ] audio engine could play [ the music ] back dynamically based on the player 's actions " . For the soundtrack release , O 'Donnell rearranged the music featured in the game in order to make listening to the soundtrack " more enjoyable " .
Bungie had previously released soundtracks for their games due to fan request , but Microsoft was hesitant to commit to producing a soundtrack for Halo ; at the time most video games did not get a commercial soundtrack release . The publisher finally relented after pressure from O 'Donnell and the outside solicitation of musician Nile Rodgers .
= = Reception = =
Reception of the soundtrack was generally positive from critics . IGN praised the soundtrack for its wide use of instruments stating , " Where other videogame scores tend to miss their mark when combining electronic and organic elements , O 'Donnell and Salvatori seem to have found a rather stable balance between the two divergent sounds . " Adding , overall , the soundtrack is " one of the better videogame oriented musical experiences out there " and playing the game is not required to find enjoyment within the score . Reviewing for Monsters At Play , Michael Johnson called the soundtrack " 66 minutes of orchestral goodness " citing the wide range of music covered as a strong point . Nuketown gave the soundtrack 9 out of 10 , stating , " the soundtrack is a welcome and invigorating reminder of good times had blasting unstoppable alien hordes " . The release went on to sell over 40 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Track listing = =
All music was written and composed by Martin O 'Donnell and Michael Salvatori .
" Opening Suite " – 3 : 33
" Truth and Reconciliation Suite " – 8 : 25
" Brothers in Arms " – 1 : 29
" Enough Dead Heroes " – 3 : 00
" Perilous Journey " – 2 : 26
" A Walk in the Woods " – 1 : 52
" Ambient Wonder " – 1 : 57
" The Gun Pointed at the Head of the Universe " – 2 : 26
" Trace Amounts " – 1 : 51
" Under Cover of Night " – 3 : 41
" What Once Was Lost " – 1 : 40
" Lament for Pvt. Jenkins " – 1 : 14
" Devils ... Monsters ... " – 1 : 30
" Covenant Dance " – 1 : 57
" Alien Corridors " – 1 : 48
" Rock Anthem for Saving the World " – 1 : 17
" The Maw " – 1 : 06
" Drumrun " – 1 : 01
" On a Pale Horse " – 1 : 35
" Perchance to Dream " – 1 : 00
" Library Suite " – 6 : 47
" The Long Run " – 2 : 12
" Suite Autumn " – 4 : 22
" Shadows " – 0 : 59
" Dust and Echoes " – 2 : 49
" Halo " – 4 : 22
= = Personnel = =
All information is taken from the CD credits .
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= Icewind Dale II =
Icewind Dale II is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Black Isle Studios and published by Interplay Entertainment , released on August 27 , 2002 . Like its 2000 predecessor Icewind Dale , the game is set in the Forgotten Realms fantasy setting in the Icewind Dale region . The player assumes control of a group of mercenaries in a war between the Ten Towns of Icewind Dale and a coalition of persecuted races and religions .
The game is designed as an action @-@ oriented alternative to other Infinity Engine games , with less emphasis on exploration and story . It uses a real @-@ time adaptation of the Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) Third Edition ruleset . The Infinity Engine was extensively modified to comply with the Third Edition , but the team was forced to remove certain rules because of the engine 's outdated nature . It was the final game to be developed using the Infinity Engine .
The game was well received by critics , who praised its combat , pacing , and use of the Third Edition rules . However , some reviewers felt that the graphics and engine had become outdated , and could not compete with its contemporaries .
= = Gameplay = =
Icewind Dale II is a real @-@ time adaptation of the D & D Third Edition ruleset . The game is viewed from an isometric perspective , and a head @-@ up display ( HUD ) occupies the bottom of the screen . Accessible from the HUD are an automap and a journal that records quests and important events . The player uses a point @-@ and @-@ click interface to interact with the game ; for example , clicking on the ground moves the selected player character , and clicking on a passive non @-@ player character ( NPC ) will initiate dialogue . When conversations occur , the game presents multiple dialogue options . The game world is separated into area maps — obscured by fog of war — that are revealed as the area is explored . A multiplayer mode is available for up to six players over a local area network or the Internet . The " Heart of Fury " mode is also available , which increases the game 's difficulty and contains more powerful items . The game features over seven hundred items ; the designers included a system that randomizes the items the player obtains from enemies .
When beginning the game , the player may choose to play a pre @-@ selected party , or to create a party of up to six characters ; unlike the Baldur 's Gate series , Icewind Dale II does not permit the player to import characters from previous Icewind Dale games . While creating characters , the player chooses their gender , race , class , alignment , and attributes , among other things . The player can sometimes choose a subvariety of a race or class , such as Deep Gnome or Cleric of Ilmater . Race , alignment , and attributes affect the player character 's available dialogue options , as well as NPC responses . For example , some NPCs will be prejudiced against certain races , or a character of low intelligence will have limited dialogue options . Some sub @-@ races in the game are significantly more powerful than the core races present in AD & D Third Edition ; these sub @-@ races must earn more experience points than others before leveling up . Characters can reach a maximum level of thirty . It is possible to add additional characters to the party at any time , including during combat .
Icewind Dale II 's gameplay is focused on combat . The combat system is a real @-@ time adaptation of the turn @-@ based system used in D & D Third Edition , which caused the developers to remove certain aspects , such as " attacks of opportunity " . Dice rolls are simulated by the game . In place of the turn @-@ based rounds used in D & D , characters have independent rounds , during which they may execute one or more actions , depending on such factors as the duration of the action . The player can pause the game and issue orders to characters at any time . Each character can carry a limited amount of items .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Icewind Dale II takes place in the Forgotten Realms D & D campaign setting , on the continent of Faerûn . It centers on the northern Icewind Dale region , and is set thirty years after the original game . The game begins in the harbor town of Targos , one of the Ten Towns of Icewind Dale , which is under siege by a goblin army . The goblins are directed by the Legion of the Chimera , an army composed of outcast races and religious factions , such as goblinoids , half @-@ breeds , and followers of winter goddess Auril . Targos hires mercenaries to defend against the attack . Areas encountered in the game include : the Black Raven Monastery , built over an entrance to the Underdark ; the town of Kuldahar , constructed around a magical tree that emits heat ; the Severed Hand , an ancient elven fortress that was lost during a war with goblinoids ; and the Dragon 's Eye , a network of volcanic caverns inhabited by yuan @-@ ti . Other areas include the Underdark and the Jungles of Chult .
= = = Story = = =
The game begins as the player 's group of mercenaries arrives by ship to defend Targos . They report to the town palisade and fend off an assault by the goblin army . Afterwards , the mayor of Targos orders them to start an offensive on the goblin army . The group kills the chieftain of the army , and discovers that he was under the command of a woman named Sherincal . When they return to Targos , the mayor asks them to rendezvous with reinforcements from Neverwinter . The group travels to meet them in an airship piloted by Oswald Fiddlebender .
A storm causes the ship to crash , and the group awakens to discover that a glacier blocks the reinforcements ' path . While investigating the glacier , the group finds Sherincal , a half @-@ dragon , guarding the entrance to an Aurilite temple . They learn that Sherincal leads the Legion of the Chimera 's western forces , and that the leaders of the Legion of the Chimera , cambion twins named Isair and Madae , reside in the Severed Hand . Inside the Aurilite temple , the group finds a prisoner from Kuldahar , who asks them to warn Kuldahar of the threat posed by the Legion of the Chimera . After this , the group creates a passage through the glacier , and meets with the reinforcements .
As the group travels to Kuldahar , they meet a drow ( dark elf ) named Nym , who tells them that the pass to Kuldahar is guarded by the Legion of the Chimera , and that an alternate path through the Underdark exists . Later , Isair and Madae locate the group with information from Nym . They state their intention to attack Kuldahar , and warn the group to not interfere . The group then passes through the Black Raven Monastery to enter the Underdark . After exiting the Underdark , they are flown to Kuldahar by Oswald Fiddlebender .
When the group lands in Kuldahar , they discover it has been invaded by the Legion of the Chimera . They meet the Archdruid of Kuldahar , who tells them that a portal has been opened to allow yuan @-@ ti from the Jungles of Chult to assault Kuldahar . After the group prevents the attack , the Archdruid tells them that they may reach the Severed Hand through an exit at the bottom floor of the Dragon 's Eye . The group travels through Dragon 's Eye , and proceeds to the Severed Hand . Once inside , they learn that the war between the Ten Towns and the Legion of the Chimera was caused by the mayor of Bryn Shander , who had sent Isair and Madae poisoned food . They also discover that a mythal that was cast on the Severed Hand has been corrupted , and the structure will be transported to the plane of limbo . Eventually , the group finds Isair and Madae , and kills them .
= = Development = =
During summer 2001 , Black Isle Studios employed three development teams . These included the Icewind Dale team , the team developing Torn , and a team working on an unannounced project . Before and during Torn 's development , several members of its team expressed interest in developing another game using the Infinity Engine . The development team was not made aware of Black Isle Studios ' decision to develop Icewind Dale II until Torn 's cancellation . Lead designer J. E. Sawyer described , " I don 't know when the producers decided to make the game , but I was told that we were making the game when I learned that TORN was being cancelled ... on a Wednesday afternoon " , and that Feargus Urquhart " asked me to work with Steve Bokkes to create a story and area overview by Thursday afternoon . Steve and I talked about it for the rest of the day . I went home that night and worked on the overviews until the next day . I came in and turned the docs in , and after the Friday division meeting , the project was in development . " During this period , Interplay Entertainment relied on Black Isle Studios ' games to alleviate financial trouble , which put pressure to release games quickly . The decision to develop Icewind Dale II was based partly on the original Icewind Dale 's reception , and the development teams ' ability to create a game with the Infinity Engine relatively quickly . Sawyer said of the decision , " In all honesty , the reasons for making Icewind Dale II have to do with limiting risks and maximizing our chances for a popular title . " Conceptualization of Icewind Dale II progressed during the development of the Icewind Dale expansions , and production began late July 2001 , shortly after the completion of Icewind Dale : Trials of the Luremaster . After six months of development , Icewind Dale II was officially announced on February 4 , 2002 .
Icewind Dale II was originally planned to be an incomplete conversion to the D & D Third Edition ruleset , with many rules omitted . The kit system ( class specialization ) introduced in Baldur 's Gate 2 was to be used , but this idea was later abandoned . Sawyer and several other members of the team pushed for the game 's conversion to Third Edition . The development team was eventually granted an extension , which allowed them to complete the change to Third Edition rules . The Infinity Engine required extensive modification to comply with Third Edition rules , as it had originally been designed for Second Edition rules ; certain elements of the rules were removed due to interface and engine issues . The game 's interface was redesigned , and all @-@ new art was created . It features new item icons , with new spell icons by Brian Menze ; Menze had previously created Planescape : Torment 's spell icons . Jason Manley , the portrait artist for the previous Icewind Dale games , left Black Isle Studios in late 2001 ; several new works he painted before his departure were later used in Icewind Dale II . Black Isle Studios artist Justin Sweet was asked to substitute . The game 's resolution was increased to a minimum resolution of 800x600 , with an unofficially supported maximum resolution of 2048x1536 .
J. E. Sawyer managed rule implementation , but the areas of the game were divided between designers . For example , designer Chris Avellone created the opening sequence , designer Dave Maldonado developed the Black Raven Monastery and a large area of wilderness , and designers John Deiley and Damien Foletto created the ending areas . Partway through development , Sawyer left the team to work as the lead designer on another internal project ; Dave Maldonado and Chris Avellone were given his areas to finish . The developers wanted the game to contain more breaks from combat , with character interaction and puzzle solving , than the previous Icewind Dale . The decision to include more puzzles was influenced by the positive reception to the puzzles in Icewind Dale : Trials of the Luremaster .
The game went gold on August 5 , 2002 , and was released on August 27 . After the release of Icewind Dale II , Sawyer expressed dissatisfaction over the Icewind Dale series , saying that , " I wasn 't particularly thrilled with how my work on [ Icewind Dale ] came out ... " and , " ... [ Heart of Winter ] managed to actually be worse than my Icewind Dale stuff . " In regards to Icewind Dale II he said , " [ It ] came out better than I expected , but still , not exactly awe @-@ inspiring . " Chris Avellone later said , " Icewind Dale was a fun series , but it didn 't try to set the bar for anything other than a fun romp . People may remember enjoying it , but it wasn ’ t trying to break any new ground or do anything revolutionary . In some respects , it was almost a step back from other games we 'd done and focused more on exploration and dungeon crawls . " A Collector 's Edition containing bonus material , such as a full @-@ color cloth map and soundtrack CD , was also released . Icewind Dale II was the final game developed using the Infinity Engine .
= = = Audio = = =
The music of the game was composed by Inon Zur , whose previous works included Baldur 's Gate 2 : Throne of Bhaal and Fallout Tactics . Inon Zur worked with Jeremy Soule , the composer for Icewind Dale , to maintain the tone of the music . Inon Zur also worked closely with Interplay audio director Adam Levenson while composing the music ; Zur and Levenson had worked together on several previous titles . Inon Zur said that while composing the theme for the game , " I wrote and rewrote the main theme several times " , and " we tried to create a piece that would preserve the sound of the first Icewind Dale [ ... ] we made great efforts to convey the new elements also . Capturing all of this in 30 @-@ 45 seconds was not easy however I believe that we eventually found the right path for this game 's soundtrack . " Zur described the composing process , " After learning the storyboard and getting additional insight from the producers / music supervisor I 'll start to compose . The thematic idea ( main melody or rhythmical groove ) comes first . Then comes the accompaniment followed by the orchestration , " and that , " each piece should have its own unique flavour so every step is carefully examined . I have to make sure that the main idea of the piece is reflected in all these steps . " He called the composing experience " very pleasant and rewarding . "
The music was composed in five weeks , and the recording and mixing lasted three weeks . As the game 's music budget was low , a small Los Angeles orchestra was used to record the music ; the sound of the each instrument was doubled during production . Inon Zur described the music as having " some uniqueness to it , that basically it developed throughout the game [ with ] the [ inclusion ] of more instruments , taking flutes and percussion and combining them with the standard orchestra . " Zur later said , " I thought that we definitely met some high standards ; we compared our products to big budget films scores , " and , " in the end we were quite happy . " The game features voice work from Gabrielle Carteris , Peter Stormare , and Grey DeLisle , among others .
= = Reception = =
Icewind Dale II reached sixth on the NPD PC games sales chart in the last week of August 2002 , and climbed to fourth during the first week of September . Icewind Dale II 's reception was generally positive . Game Informer hailed it as , " one of the best RPGs ever released for the PC , " and GameSpot called it , " simply a great role @-@ playing game . " However , PC Format said , " it 's uninspired and uninspiring , giving itself a narrow remit and fulfilling that unspectacularly . " Certain reviewers compared Icewind Dale II to Neverwinter Nights . IGN said , " [ Compared to Neverwinter Nights ] the pace of IWD2 is more varied , its balance better , the gameplay more interesting , " and Game Informer considered the interface superior to that of Neverwinter Nights . PC Format said , " in the light of Neverwinter Nights in particular , there ’ s little that stands out in Icewind Dale II to recommend it , " and PC Zone said , " it 's not the BG2 killer we had all hoped for and neither does it stack up to Neverwinter Nights . "
Many reviewers praised the game 's combat and pacing . G4 called the game 's combat " sublime , " and said that " no Infinity Engine game thus far has had such interesting and intricate tactical combat . " GameSpot called it " expertly paced . " PC Zone complained that certain gameplay mechanics had become outdated , but that " the only real downer is the antiquated spell system and the inexplicable necessity to rest after every fight . " The game was also praised for its implementation of the Third Edition rules and interface . Computer Gaming World said that " IWD II has the Third Edition rules down , and in no other place in the game is it more apparent than with character development , " and PC Gamer said it had " a dazzling implementation of the D & D 3rd Edition rules . " GameSpot called the interface " a big improvement on the spread @-@ out interface of all previous Infinity Engine games , " and IGN said that " the customization improvements to the interface that seem so natural , they make you wonder why they weren 't thought of before . " Game Informer called the interface " absolutely inspired " and its inventory system " second to none . "
The game was criticized for its graphics and engine , which reviewers considered to be outdated . G4 called the engine " old " and " clunky " , and PC Format said that " the whole thing is limited by the creaking engine . " However , certain sources praised the engine . Game Informer called it " the best role @-@ playing engine that has ever been invented , " and GameSpot said that " ' immortal ' may be a better word to describe the engine , because the fact is , Icewind Dale II plays great . " In regards to the graphics , GameSpot said that " in many ways Icewind Dale II represents the best use of the Infinity Engine 's prerendered , isometric settings to date , [ but ] that doesn 't change the fact that Icewind Dale II generally looks dated . " IGN thought the sprites had become out @-@ dated , and that " the animations are crude by today 's standards . " New Straits Times agreed , saying that although some of the effects were attractive , the " dated Infinity engine " could not compare to contemporaries Dungeon Siege and Neverwinter Nights . However , Computer Gaming World believed that " it consistently offers the same striking and imaginative environments that establish the tone and immersive charm of the game , " and Computer Games Magazine said , " it may not look like much , but it 's got it where it counts . " The game 's pre @-@ rendered backgrounds received praise . IGN said that " the artwork is attractive , both conceptually and in its final form , " and Game Informer called them " beautiful " . Many reviewers complained about the game 's pathfinding AI , which PC Zone called " outrageously bad . "
Game Informer called the writing and story " on par with any fantasy novel . " PC Gamer said it had " some of the richest and most enjoyable dialogue since Planescape Torment , " and an " impressive storyline . " GameSpot called the story " engrossing , " and said that " the game is very well written , offering up a number of strong characters and serious themes . " PC Zone noted that , " thanks to the excellent NPCs , the battles have a lot more meaning , as there is a strong storyline behind the endless hacking and slashing . " PC Format thought that " IDII also suffers , like its predecessor , from a story irrevocably weakened by anonymous central characters – the six you create . " In regards to the audio , GameSpot said that " Inon Zur does a truly fantastic job that 's perhaps even better than Soule 's effort in the original Icewind Dale , " and that " the voice acting in Icewind Dale II is as great as you 've perhaps come to expect from a Black Isle Studios role @-@ playing game . " Computer Gaming World said that " [ the ] sound effects , music , and voiceovers are all excellent . "
Allen Rausch , writing for GameSpy 's 2004 retrospective " A History of D & D Video Games " , " While nobody would mistake it for " 2002 RPG of the Year " material , Black Isle Studios managed to give the Infinity engine a terrific game as its swan song . "
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= Wu Zuguang =
Wu Zuguang ( Chinese : 吴祖光 ; Wade – Giles : Wu Tsu @-@ kuang ; 21 April 1917 – 9 April 2003 ) was a Chinese playwright , film director and social critic who has been called a " legendary figure in Chinese art and literary circles " . He authored more than 40 plays and film scripts , including the patriotic drama City of Phoenix , one of the most influential plays during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , and Return on a Snowy Night , which is generally considered his masterpiece . He directed The Soul of the Nation , Hong Kong 's first colour film , based on his own historical drama Song of Righteousness .
He was also well known as an outspoken critic of China 's cultural policies , both of the Kuomintang ( KMT ) and the Communist governments , and was repeatedly persecuted as a result . He fled to Hong Kong in 1945 to avoid being captured by KMT agents , and returned to Beijing after the foundation of the People 's Republic China in 1949 . He was denounced as a " rightist " during the Anti @-@ Rightist Movement and performed hard labour in the " Great Northern Wilderness " for three years , and was again persecuted during the Cultural Revolution . His wife , the celebrated pingju actress Xin Fengxia , refused to divorce him and became disabled after undergoing beatings and penal labour . Despite these ordeals , Wu continued to criticize government censorship and to call for political freedom , and was widely admired for his moral conviction .
= = Early life = =
Wu was born on 21 April 1917 to a prominent scholar @-@ official family in Beijing , with ancestral roots in Changzhou , Jiangsu Province . His grandfather Wu Zhiying ( 吴稚英 ) was a muliao of the Qing dynasty reformer Zhang Zhidong and participated in the Xinhai Revolution . His father Wu Ying ( 吴瀛 ) was a founder and curator of the Beijing Palace Museum . His mother Zhou Qinqi ( 周琴绮 ) gave birth to 15 children , 11 of whom ( four sons and seven daughters ) survived to adulthood . She gave birth to Wu Zuguang , her first child , in the mansion of Wu Ying 's uncle Zhuang Yunkuan , a minister of the Republic of China government .
In 1935 , Wu entered Sino @-@ French University in Beijing . The next year , a relative who was running a drama school in Nanjing persuaded him to move there and teach at his school . There he met several people who would become prominent dramatists , including Cao Yu and Chen Zhice .
= = Wartime career = =
At the outset of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War in 1937 , Wu wrote the patriotic war play City of Phoenix ( 凤凰城 ) , which made him well @-@ known in China at age 20 . It was one of the most performed dramas during the eight @-@ year war . He later wrote several critically acclaimed plays , including Return on a Snowy Night , which is generally considered his masterpiece . His works are strongly influenced by the May Fourth New Culture Movement .
As eastern China fell to the Japanese , he moved to the wartime capital Chongqing , where he worked as an editor for the Xinmin Wanbao newspaper . In 1945 , he published Mao Zedong 's now famous poem " Snow : to the Tune of Garden in Full Spring " , which infuriated the Kuomintang government . He escaped to British Hong Kong to avoid being captured by KMT agents , and made a living writing screenplays and making films . He directed The Soul of the Nation ( 国魂 ) , Hong Kong 's first colour film , based on his historical drama , Song of Righteousness , about the Song dynasty patriot Wen Tianxiang . He also made Return on a Snowy Night into a film , as well as two others . In 1946 , Wu married the actress Lü En ( 吕恩 ) in Shanghai .
= = Early People 's Republic = =
After the Communist Party of China won the Civil War and established the People 's Republic of China in 1949 , Wu returned to Beijing . Like many intellectuals at the time , he held high hopes for the new People 's Republic which finally restored peace in a united China after decades of war and division . He wanted to return to writing plays , but was assigned by the government to direct Song of the Red Flag , a film about women textile workers . As he had no experience with factory life , it took him a year to finish the film , which he considered a " worthless failure . " He and Lü En divorced amicably in 1950 , due to differences in personality and interests .
In 1951 , his friend Lao She introduced him to the famous pingju opera performer Xin Fengxia , who had acted in one of Wu 's plays and admired his talent . They married that year , despite the fact that they were from differing socioeconomic backgrounds ; she had no formal education and was nearly illiterate , while he was from a prominent family of scholars . Wu helped her to study reading , writing , and calligraphy .
During this period he made the Peking opera film Goddess of the Luo River ( 洛神 ) and Mei Lanfang and His Stage Art , a documentary about Mei Lanfang . He also wrote the Peking operas Three Beatings of Tao Sanchun ( 三打陶三春 ) and San Guan Yan ( 三关宴 ) .
= = Persecution = =
During Mao Zedong 's Anti @-@ Rightist Movement , Wu was denounced as a " rightist " in 1957 and sent to the Great Northern Wilderness in Heilongjiang to be " reformed through labour . " His crime was to criticize the Communist Party 's control of the theatre and to argue that the neihang ( experts ) should have a greater role in such matters . He was called an enemy of the Party , even by his renowned colleague Tian Han . Tian later referenced Wu 's work approvingly , which is seen by some as an implicit apology , and was himself persecuted to death . Xin Fengxia was pressured to divorce him , but refused . Citing a legendary love story from one of her operas , she said " Wang Baochuan waited 18 years for Xue Pinggui , and I will wait 28 years for Wu Zuguang . " As a result , she was herself labeled a rightist and went through struggle sessions .
Wu returned to Beijing after three years of hard labour , but six years later , China fell into the even greater turmoil of the Cultural Revolution , which began in 1966 . Xin Fengxia and Wu Zuguang were both denounced at the beginning of the period . She became disabled below her left knee after a severe beating . Their friend Lao She drowned himself after being similarly tortured . During the tumultuous decade Wu and Xin both served years of forced labour . In December 1975 , she became paralyzed after suffering a stroke , and Wu took care of her for the rest of her life .
= = Post @-@ Cultural Revolution = =
After the end of the Cultural Revolution , Wu was politically rehabilitated in 1980 and inducted into the Communist Party , an event he described as " neither an occasion for laughter or tears " , and his publication ban was lifted after two decades . His play Itinerant Players ( 闯江湖 ) , based on Xin Fengxia 's experiences , was performed that year . In 1983 , Wu traveled to the University of Iowa in the U.S. to attend the International Writing Program .
Wu was in general loyal to Deng Xiaoping 's government , but continued to be an outspoken critic . In 1983 , he dismissed Deng 's Anti @-@ Spiritual Pollution Campaign as futile . In September 1986 , he read an essay at a meeting of the China Writers Association entitled " Against Those Who Wield the Scissors — a Plea for an End to Censorship " . It was enthusiastically received by the audience , but only a censored version was published , minus 1 @,@ 000 characters deemed " acrimonious " . After the December 1986 student demonstrations , he was pressured to leave the Communist Party in 1987 . Retired Politburo member Hu Qiaomu came to his home in person to demand his resignation from the Party . He obliged , as he did not think he was " the sort of person who should be in the Party . " In spring 1989 , Wu signed a petition calling for greater political freedom . Following the army crackdown of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 , Wu called for a reassessment of the incident , but was forbidden to speak at a CPPCC meeting .
Xin Fengxia died on 12 April 1998 , during a trip to Changzhou , Wu 's ancestral hometown . He was devastated by the loss and his health quickly deteriorated . He suffered three strokes in the next few years , and died on 9 April 2003 .
= = Children = =
Wu Zuguang and Xin Fengxia had three children . Their son Wu Huan is also a writer , painter , and calligrapher . After the deaths of Wu Zuguang , he organized the exhibition " A Hundred Years of the Wu Family " at the Poly Art Museum in Beijing . It was also held in France , Hong Kong , and Taiwan .
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= Zara Yaqob =
Zar 'a Ya`qob or Zera Yacob ( Ge 'ez ዘርአ : ያዕቆብ zar 'ā yāʿiqōb " Seed of Jacob , " modern zer 'a yā 'iqōb ) ( 1399 – 26 August 1468 ) was nəgusä nägäst ( 19 or 20 June 1434 – 1468 ) of Ethiopia ( throne name Kwestantinos I Ge 'ez ቈስታንቲኖስ qʷastāntīnōs or Constantine I ) , and a member of the Solomonic dynasty . Born at Tilq in the province of Fatagar ( now part of the Oromia Region , near the Awash River ) , Zara Yaqob was the youngest son of Dawit I and his youngest queen , Igzi Kebra .
The British expert on Ethiopia , Edward Ullendorff , stated that Zara Yaqob " was unquestionably the greatest ruler Ethiopia had seen since Ezana , during the heyday of Aksumite power , and none of his successors on the throne – excepted only the emperors Menelik II and Haile Selassie – can be compared to him . "
Paul B. Henze repeats the tradition that the jealousy of his older brother Tewodros I forced the courtiers to take Zara Yaqob to Tigray where he was brought up in secret , and educated in Axum and at the monastery of Debre Abbay . While admitting that this tradition " is invaluable as providing a religious background for Zar 'a @-@ Ya 'iqob 's career " , Taddesse Tamrat dismisses this story as " very improbable in its details . " The professor notes that Zara Yaqob wrote in his Mashafa Berhan that " he was brought down from the royal prison of Mount Gishan only on the eve of his accession to the throne . "
= = Reign = =
Upon the death of Emperor Dawit , his older brother Tewodros ordered Zara Yaqob confined on Amba Geshen ( around 1414 ) . Despite this , Zara Yaqob 's supporters kept him a perennial candidate for Emperor , helped by the rapid succession of his older brothers to the throne over the next 20 years , and left him as the oldest qualified candidate . David Buxton points out the effect that his forced seclusion had on his personality , " deprived of all contact with ordinary people or ordinary life . " Thrust into a position of leadership " with no experience of the affairs of state , he [ Zara Yaqob ] was faced by a kingdom seething with plots and rebellions , a Church riven with heresies , and outside enemies constantly threatening invasion . " Buxton continues ,
In the circumstances it was hardly possible for the new king to show adaptability or tolerance or diplomatic skill , which are the fruit of long experience in human relationships . Confronted with a desperate and chaotic situation he met it instead with grim determination and implacable ferocity . Towards the end of his life , forfeiting the affection and loyalty even of his courtiers and family he became a lonely figure , isolated by suspicion and mistrust . But , in spite of all , the name of this great defender of the faith is one of the most memorable in Ethiopian history .
Although he became Emperor in 1434 , Zara Yaqob was not crowned until 1436 at Axum , where he resided for three years . It was not unusual for Ethiopian rulers to postpone their coronation until later in their reigns .
After he became Emperor , Zara Yaqob married princess Eleni , who had converted from Islam before their marriage . Eleni was the daughter of the king of Hadiya , one of the Sidamo kingdoms south of the Abay River . Although she failed to bear him any children , Eleni grew into a powerful political person . When a conspiracy involving one of his Bitwodeds came to light , Zara Yaqob reacted by appointing his two daughters , Medhan Zamada and Berhan Zamada , to these two offices . According to the Chronicle of his reign , the Emperor also appointed his daughters and nieces as governors over eight of his provinces . These appointments were not successful .
He defeated Badlay ad @-@ Din , the Sultan of Adal at the Battle of Gomit in 1445 , which consolidated his hold over the Sidamo kingdoms in the south , as well as the weak Muslim kingdoms beyond the Awash River . Similar campaigns in the north against the Agaw and the Falasha were not as successful .
After witnessing a bright light in the sky ( which most historians have identified as Halley 's Comet , visible in Ethiopia in 1456 ) , Zara Yaqob founded Debre Berhan and made it his capital for the remainder of his reign .
In his later years , Zara Yaqob became more despotic . When Takla Hawariat , abbot of Dabra Libanos , criticized Yaqob 's beatings and murder of men , the emperor had the abbot himself beaten and imprisoned , where he died after few months . Zara Yaqob was convinced of a plot against him in 1453 , which led to more brutal actions . He increasingly became convinced that his wife and children were plotting against him , and had several of them beaten . Seyon Morgasa , the mother of the future emperor Baeda Maryam I , died from this mistreatment in 1462 , which led to a complete break between son and father . Eventually relations between the two were repaired , and Zara Yaqob publicly designated Baeda Maryam as his successor .
= = The Ethiopian church = =
At the time Zara Yaqob assumed the throne , the Ethiopian church had been divided over the issue of Biblical Sabbath observance for roughly a century . One group , loyal to the Coptic bishops , believed that the day of rest should be observed only on Sunday , or Great Sabbath ; another group , the followers of Ewostatewos , believed with their founder that both the original seventh @-@ day Sabbath ( i.e. , Saturday , or Lesser Sabbath ) and Sunday should be observed .
He was successful in persuading two recently arrived Egyptian bishops , Mikael and Gabriel , into accepting a compromise aimed at restoring harmony with the House of Ewostatewos , as the followers of Ewostatewos were known . At the same time , he made efforts to pacify the House of Ewostatewos . While the Ewostathians were won over to the compromise by 1442 , the two Egyptian bishops only agreed to the compromise at the Council of Debre Mitmaq in Tegulet ( 1450 ) .
Emperor Zara Yaqob also continued as the defender of the Patriarch of Alexandria . When he heard in 1441 of the destruction of the Egyptian monastery of Dabra Mitmaq by Sultan Jaqmaq , he called for a period of mourning , then sent a letter of strong protest to the Sultan . He reminded Jaqmaq that he had Muslim subjects whom he treated fairly , and warned that he had the power to divert the Nile , but refrained from doing so for the human suffering it would cause . Jaqmaq responded with gifts to appease Zara Yaqob 's anger , but refused to rebuild the Coptic Churches he had destroyed .
According to Richard Pankhurst the Emperor was also " reputedly an author of renown " , having contributed to Ethiopian literature as many as three important theological works . One was Mahsafa Berha ( " The Book of Light " ) , an exposition of his ecclesiastical reforms and a defence of his religious beliefs ; the others were Mahsafa Milad ( " The Book of Nativity " ) and Mahsafa Selassie ( " The Book of the Trinity " ) .
= = Foreign affairs = =
Zara Yaqob sent a diplomatic mission to Europe ( 1450 ) , led by a Sicilian Pietro Rombulo who had previously been successful in a mission to India , specifically asking for skilled labor . Rombulo first visited Pope Nicholas V , but his ultimate goal was the court of Alfonso V of Aragon , who responded favorably . The Catholic Ecumenical Council of Florence ( 1438 – 1445 ) declared that Zara Yaqob was the legendary rumored king Prester John .
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= Fujiwara no Teika =
Fujiwara Sadaie ( 藤原定家 ) , better @-@ known as Fujiwara no Teika , ( 1162 – September 26 , 1241 ) was a Japanese poet , critic , calligrapher , novelist , anthologist , scribe , and scholar of the late Heian and early Kamakura periods . His influence was enormous , and he is counted as among the greatest of Japanese poets , and perhaps the greatest master of the waka form – an ancient poetic form consisting of five lines with a total of 31 syllables .
Teika 's critical ideas on composing poetry were extremely influential and studied until as late as the Meiji era . A member of a poetic clan , Teika was born to the noted poet Fujiwara no Shunzei . After coming to the attention of the Retired Emperor Go @-@ Toba ( 1180 – 1239 ; r . 1183 – 1198 ) , Teika began his long and distinguished career , spanning multiple areas of aesthetic endeavor . His relationship with Go @-@ Toba was at first cordial and led to commissions to compile anthologies , but later resulted in his banishment from the retired emperor 's court . His descendants and ideas would dominate classical Japanese poetry for centuries afterwards .
= = Biography = =
= = = Birth = = =
Teika was born to a minor and distant branch of the aristocratic and courtly clan , the Fujiwara , in 1162 , sometime after the Fujiwara regents had lost their political pre @-@ eminence in the Imperial court during the Hōgen Rebellion . His branch of the clan sought prestige and power in the court by aligning itself with the Mikohidari family , and by specializing in artistic endeavors , principally poetry . Such specialization was not unusual ; branches of extended clans were not in a position to compete directly in politics with the head branch of the clan ( or indeed other clans because of their junior status ) , but could compete in more restricted aesthetic pursuits . ( The Mikohidari , also known as the Miko , were a cadet branch of the Fujiwaras , through Fujiwara no Michinaga 's sixth son , Fujiwara no Nagaie ( 1005 – 1064 ) ; the Mikohidari were themselves aligned with the more senior Kujō branch of the original Fujiwara , who opposed the Rokujō family )
Teika 's grandfather was the venerable poet Fujiwara no Toshitada . His father was Fujiwara no Shunzei ( 1114 – 1204 ) , a well known and greatly respected poet ( and judge of poetry competitions ) , who had compiled the seventh Imperial anthology of waka ( the Senzai Wakashū ) . His sister would also become a well @-@ respected poet of waka and renga , known as Kengozen or Shunzei 's Daughter , whom he would occasionally seek out for poetic advice . His elder brother , Fujiwara no Nariee ( sometimes romanized as " Nariie " ; 藤原成家 ) , would be somewhat successful in court , but not nearly as much as his sister . Teika 's foster @-@ brother , the priest Jakuren or " Sadanaga " c . 1139 – 1202 would be successful as a poet although his career was cut tragically short ; he had been adopted by Shunzei when Shunzei 's younger brother " retired from the world " .
= = = Career = = =
Teika 's goals as the senior male of his branch were to inherit and cement his father 's position in poetry , and to advance his own reputation ( thereby also improving the political fortunes of his own clan in the court ) . While his life would be marked by repeated illness and wildly shifting fortunes – only partially moderated by his father 's long @-@ lasting influence in court ( Shunzei would live to the advanced age of 90 ) , the young and poetically inclined Retired Emperor Go @-@ Toba 's patronage would prove to lead to some of Teika 's greatest successes .
= = = = Go @-@ Toba 's patronage = = = =
The Retired Emperor Go @-@ Toba announced , in the second year of his abdication ( 1200 , the second year of the Shōji era ) that he would be conducting a poetry contest . Retired Emperors frequently became more influential after their retirement from the office of Emperor rather than as the actual Emperor , since they were free from the highly restricting ceremonial requirements and politics of the court . Go @-@ Toba was 20 when he abdicated ; he was the consummate amateur , skilled at playing the lute , considered an authority on traditional learning and courtly precedent , excellent at playing Go , and fond of equestrian pursuits such as horseback archery , shooting at running dogs , and swordsmanship .
Go @-@ Toba regarded all these pursuits as hobbies , taking one up and dropping another . One of these was his support of poetry , especially the waka . Immediately after his abdication , he had announced that he would hold two poetry contests , each requiring a number of preeminent poets to compose some 100 waka in a particular thematic progression , known as the hyakushu genre of poem sequences . The first contest ( Go @-@ Toba In shodo hyakushu後鳥羽院初度百首 - " Ex @-@ Emperor Go @-@ Toba 's First Hundred @-@ Poem Sequences " ) was considered a crucial political nexus ; if a clan 's poet did well and impressed the powerful ( and youthful ) Go @-@ Toba , the clan would benefit considerably .
Teika 's diary records that he looked forward to this chance to improve himself . He was 38 , and had reached middle age . While he was recognized as a talented poet , his career was stagnant ; he had been in the Palace Guards of the Left for twenty years , and had not been promoted for nearly 10 . He was " Lesser Commander of the Palace Guards of the Left " with little prospect of further advancement .
He had wider political problems : The influence of his patrons , the Kujōs , over the Emperors had declined drastically . Minamoto no Michichika ( d . 1202 ) had insinuated himself into Imperial circles through Go @-@ Toba 's former nursemaid ; with this leverage , Michichika 's adopted daughter ( the then Shogun 's daughter , who had decided to marry his daughter off to the Emperor , using Michichika as a go @-@ between – contrary to the Shogun 's usual policy if favoring Kujo Kanezane . The Shogun 's lack of confidence allowed Michichika to push Go @-@ Toba into firing Kanezane as kampaku in 1196 ) became Go @-@ Toba 's concubine ( making Michichika the Retired Emperor Go @-@ Toba 's father in law ) , and she bore him his first heir in 1195 ; the shame of this usurpation led Go @-@ Toba 's first wife , Ninshi , to retire from the court . As Ninshi was the daughter of the Kujō 's leader Kujo no Kanezane , the Kujō 's influence in court diminished considerably , even to the extent of Kanezane and Yoshitsune ( d . 1206 ; once the regent and prime minister ) being driven from the court in 1196 ; with the diminution of their influence , so dimmed Teika 's prospects . Teika expressed his disappointment through poetry , such as this example , written when he was " passed over for promotion in the spring list " in 1187 ( he would eventually be promoted in 1190 , but as his good and encouraging friend Saigyo died that year , it was cold comfort ) :
In fact , Teika was initially not invited , the instigation of the rival Rokujō clan 's leader , Suetsune and the connivance of Michichika . Suetsune and Teika were bitter enemies ; just a few months before , Teika had humiliated Suetsune by calling him " that fake poet " and publicly refusing to participate in a poetry competition with Suetsune . His revenge was well @-@ done ; Teika was furious , writing in his Meigetsuki : : " I never heard of such a thing as choosing only senior poets [ writes Teika about the pretext used to exclude him ] . I can just see Suetsune at the bottom of this , contriving by some bribe that I be left out . It has to be Suetsune , Tsuneie , that whole family . Well , I have no regrets , for there is no possible hope for me now . But I did write in confidence to Kintsune so this may all come out eventually . He has replied that there is still room for hope . "
" I gather that it was probably not the Emperor who decided on the rules for the hundred @-@ poem competition . It was due entirely to the machinations of Michichika . One feels like flicking him away in disgust . "
Teika 's appeals to the unrelenting Michichika failed , and so Shunzei stepped in with an eloquent letter ( the well @-@ known Waji sojo ; " Appeal in Japanese " – writing in Japanese as opposed to the official Chinese was considered a mark of sincerity ) addressed to Go @-@ Toba , arguing that such an exclusion was without precedent , and motivated by base jealousy on their opponent 's part :
" Of late the people who call themselves poets have all been mediocrities . The poems they compose are unpleasant to hear , wordy and lacking in finesse . "
As Keene writes , " He denounced by name Teika 's enemy Suetsune , calling him an ignoramus , and urged Gotoba not to be misled by his machinations . " Gotoba relented at this appeal from a man he greatly respected ( the second time Shunzei had so interceded on Teika 's behalf ; the first time was in 1185 when Teika had lost his temper and struck a superior – the lesser general Masayuki – with a lamp ) . He allowed Teika , along with two other " young " poets , Fujiwara no Ietaka ( 1159 – 1237 ; 1158 – 1237 , according to Brower ) , adopted son of Jakuren and pupil to Shunzei , and Takafusa ( 1148 – 1209 ) to enter the contest . Teika was overjoyed at this turn of events :
" Early this morning came a message from Lord Kintsune that last evening the Ex @-@ Emperor ordered my inclusion among the participants for the hundred @-@ poem sequences ..... To have been added to the list for this occasion fills me with inexpressible joy . Though they can hinder me no more , I am still convinced that the trouble was all due to the machinations of those evil men . And that it has turned out this way is a fulfillment of all my hopes and prayers for this life and the next . "
Teika furiously worked for more than two weeks to complete the full sequence , and when he finally turned his Shoji hyakushu in a day late , Go @-@ Toba was so eager he read the poems immediately . Go @-@ Toba 's personal secretary , Minamoto Ienaga , kept a diary ( the Minamoto Ienaga nikki ) which eulogistically concerned itself with Go @-@ Toba 's poetic activities , and he records that it was Teika 's hundred @-@ poem sequence , and more specifically , poem number 93 which was directly responsible for Teika 's being granted the special permission necessary to be admitted to the Retired Emperor 's court ( distinct from the reigning emperor 's court ; this special admittance was crucial to any future patronage ) ; this is scarcely surprising as the 100 @-@ poem sequences submitted were of uniformly high quality ( more poems originating in the sequences Go @-@ Toba commissioned were included in the Shin Kokinshū than from any other source except the enormous " Poetry Contest in 1 @,@ 500 Rounds " ) .
Interestingly , this poem is both a fine example of the jukkai ( " personal grievances " ) genre and as Minamoto no Ienaga first pointed out , also an allusion to the poem ( preserved , along with Go @-@ Shirakawa 's reply , in the Imperial anthology Senzai Wakashū ) Shunzei had sent Retired Emperor Go @-@ Shirakawa 14 years previously , imploring him to forgive Teika for striking a superior with a candlestick ; " the allusion conveys the hope that just as Shunzei 's poem obtained his erring son 's restoration to rank and office under Go @-@ Shirakawa , now Teika 's own poem will win him admission to Go @-@ Toba 's Court despite his connection with the " disgraced " Kujō faction . "
Teika and Go @-@ Toba would have a close and productive relationship ; Teika would be favored in such ways as being appointed by Go @-@ Toba as one of the six compilers ( and de facto head compiler by virtue of his dedication and force of personality in addition to his already established reputation as a poet ) of the eighth Imperial Anthology of waka poetry , the esteemed Shin Kokinshū ( c . 1205 , " New Collection of Japanese Poetry , Ancient and Modern " ) which Go @-@ Toba ordered to be written after the success of the hundred @-@ poem sequences ( which furnished a base for the collection ) . In order to compile it , Go @-@ Toba had resurrected the defunct institution , the Poetry Bureau in the seventh month of 1201 , with fifteen yoryudo , or " contributing members " , and three added later ) , who participated in the many poetry contests and similar activities that soon began taking place in the Bureau ; of the Fellows , six ( Minamoto Michitomo , Fujiwara Ariie , Teika , Fujiwara Ietaka , Fujiwara Masatsune and Jakuren , who would not live to finish the task , and was not replaced . Minamoto Ienaga was apparently detached from being Go @-@ Toba 's personal secretary to instead serve as the secretary for the compilation committee ; his and Teika 's diaries have survived , affording an unprecedentedly good view of the inner workings of how an imperial anthology was created ) were chosen to compile the Shin Kokinshū in the eleventh month of 1201 .
As if the honor of helping to compile the Shin Kokinshū and of having a remarkable 46 of his poems ( including three from the Shoji hyakushu ) included were not enough , Teika would later be appointed in 1232 by the Retired Emperor Go @-@ Horikawa to compile – by himself – the ninth Imperial Anthology , the Shinchokusen Wakashū ( c . 1235 ; " New Imperial Collection " ) . Teika was the first person to have ever been a compiler of two Imperial anthologies .
= = = = Teika and Go @-@ Toba quarrel = = = =
This favorable patronage and collaboration eventually soured even as Teika 's relation with Emperor Juntoku and Minamoto no Sanetomo deepened , over many things such as differences in how one should use " association and progression " ( as Brower terms it ) in poetic sequences . In 100 @-@ poem sequences and the like , the poems were usually in one of several groups ( the four seasons were common ones , as was love ) ; the poems generally formed an integrated sequence in which they dealt with the same subject matter , proceeding from stage to stage ( for instance , a sequence on Love might proceed from loneliness , to falling in love , to a mature relationship , and then the sorrow when it ends ) or which refer to elements of previous poems ( a technique later central to renga sequences ) . Go @-@ Toba used such techniques consistently and often , whereas Teika 's use was more erratic . During the compilation of the Shin Kokinshū , there were other differences , apparently over how wide @-@ ranging a net to throw for poems :
" In a situation like the present , where he [ Go @-@ Toba ] has included poems by a great many people one has never heard of , whose names have remained in almost total obscurity for generations , and persons who have only recently begun to attract attention had as many as ten poems apiece included – in such a situation it is no particular distinction for me to have forty @-@ odd [ 46 ] poems chosen , or for Ietaka to have a score or more . The Ex @-@ Sovereign 's recent decisions make it appear he is choosing men rather than poems – a questionable procedure . "
Teika 's displeasure manifested itself in more petty ways , such as refusing to attend a banquet in 1205 ( 300 years after the Kokinshū was completed ) celebrating the official completion of the Shin Kokinshū because there was no precedent for such a banquet ( apparently he was not convinced by the precedent of the banquet celebrating the completion of the Nihon Shoki ) ; Go @-@ Toba reciprocated by cutting Teika out of the process of continually revising the Shin Kokinshū ( while it was officially complete by the date of the banquet , it was de facto incomplete as the Japanese Preface only existed in rough drafts and because Go @-@ Toba would continue revising the selection of poems for some time thereafter , only releasing the final edition approximately 6 years later , sometime after the ninth month of 1210 ; indeed , Go @-@ Toba would continue revising it until his death , although the later revisions are not extant ) .
In addition , there apparently were serious personality conflicts , which lead Go @-@ Toba to write once , after praising Teika 's poetry , that :
" The way Teika behaved , as if he knew all about poetry , was really quite extraordinary . Especially when he was defending his own opinion , he would act like the man who insisted a stag was a horse . He was utterly oblivious of others , and would exceed all reason , refusing to listen to anything other people had to say . "
( The stag and horse anecdote refers to the ancient Chinese Chao Kao ( d . 207 BCE ) , who revolted after an incident in which he brought a stag to the Imperial court , claimed it was actually a horse , and saw that more of the officials sycophantically agreed with him , rather than the emperor who pointed out that the horse was actually a stag . )
Donald Keene believes that as Teika grew more important , he resented Go @-@ Toba 's peremptory use of him . In his later years , Go @-@ Toba took issue not merely with Teika 's personality , but also with his poetry , complaining of Teika 's more liberal style that Teika ( among other things ) " by contrast , paid no attention whatsoever to the topic . For this reason in recent times even beginners have all come to be like this . It is outrageous . Only when one concentrates very hard upon a compound topic and composes a poem which centers upon the topic is the result of any interest . This modern style is sheer carelessness . It is absolutely essential to practice composing poems on compound topics in the correct way . "
In any event , the precipitating events were two incidents , one in 1207 and the next in 1220 . In 1207 , Go @-@ Toba decided to organize the creation of 46 landscape screens for the Saishō Shitennō Temple which he had built in 1205 ( interestingly , apparently " in order to enlist divine aid in the overthrow the feudal government " ) ; each of these screens would also have a waka on the famous landscape depicted , composed by a leading poet , who would compose the requisite 46 , with the best poems for each landscape selected . Of course , Teika was asked to contribute , but one ( on the " Wood of Ikuta " , a famous and picturesque woodland attached to the Ikuta Shrine of Settsu Province , modern @-@ day Kobe ; it was famous for being a battlefield between the Minamoto and Taira clans , as well as for its scenic beauty ) was rejected by Go @-@ Toba ; not because it was a bad poem , but because it was a " poor model " , as Keene puts it . Teika , already annoyed by the minimal notice for the contest and the lack of time for composing the poems ( he had to turn them in two days after he was first informed of the contest ) , began complaining about Go @-@ Toba and attacking his poetic judgement , both with regard to the Shin Kokinshū and the poems selected from the screens . Nothing came of this incident , but nevertheless , the damage had been done .
The second incident took place in the second month of 1220 and is described in a preface to the two poems concerned as recorded in Teika 's personal anthology , the Shū gusō ; during the six @-@ year period covering such events as Teika 's banishment from Go @-@ Toba 's court and Go @-@ Toba 's participation in the Jōkyū War of 1221 , Teika 's diary is silent . Teika was asked to participate in a poem competition on the 13th of the second month ; Teika declined , citing as a reason the anniversary of his mother 's death 26 years previous , in 1194 . Go @-@ Toba and his officials sent several letters to him , strongly urging him to come , and Teika eventually gave in , arriving with only two waka . The headnote to the two poems reads :
" Having been summoned to the palace for a poetry gathering on the thirteenth day of the second month in the second year of Shokyu [ 1220 ] , I had begged to be excused because of a ritual defilement , it being the anniversary of my mother 's death . I thought no more about it , but quite unexpectedly in the evening of the appointed day , the Archivist Iemitsu come with a letter from the ex @-@ emperor , saying that I was not the hold back on account of the defilement , but was to come in any case . I continued to refuse , but after the ex @-@ emperor had sent two more letters insisting on my presence , I hastily wrote down the following two poems and took them with me . "
The first waka was critical of Go @-@ Toba but otherwise fairly innocuous , but the second was quite pointed , obliquely attacking Go @-@ Toba both for forcing Teika to attend Go @-@ Toba 's contest when Teika was memorializing his mother and also for insufficiently promoting Teika ( the final line is a variation on a phrase dealing with " double griefs " ) :
Go @-@ Toba saw this attack as both ingratitude of the rankest sort and the culmination of a series of affronts , this latest being petty resentment at what Go @-@ Toba would have seen as a flimsy pretext for attempting to get out of the poetry competition . Accordingly , he banished Teika from his court , a banishment that would last for more than a year ; this feud distressed devotees of poetry .
= = = = Teika in the ascendancy = = = =
Possibly another a factor in this estrangement was politics – Teika had had the good fortune of being selected in 1209 as a poetry teacher to the new and young shogun , Minamoto no Sanetomo ; the Shogunate was a rival and superior authority to that of the Emperors and the Imperial court . It was probably to the unhappy Sanetomo that Teika addressed the prefatory essay to his didactic collection , Kindai shūka ( " Superior Poems of Our Time " ) , and his treatise on poetry Maigetsusho ( " Monthly Notes " ) . Go @-@ Toba would become an enemy of the then @-@ bedridden Teika . Fortunately for Teika , Go @-@ Toba would be exiled by the Kamakura shogunate in 1221 for the rest of life to the Oki Islands after Go @-@ Toba led a failed rebellion against the Shogunate ( the Jōkyū War ) which Go @-@ Toba had long hated ;
Teika 's political fortunes improved in this period , as it was after Go @-@ Toba 's exile that Teika was appointed compiler of the ninth imperial anthology , the Shinchokusen Wakashū ( " New Imperial Collection " ; completed c . 1234 ) . While it was a great honor , it was poorly received except by conservatives . According to Donald Keene , Shunzei 's Daughter " declared that if it had not been compiled by Teika she would have refused even to take it into her hands . " ( From a letter sent to Fujiwara no Tameie , Teika 's son ) . She and others also criticized it for apparently deliberately excluding any of the objectively excellent poems produced by the three Retired Emperors exiled in the aftermath of the Jōkyū War This absence has been variously attributed to vengefulness on the part of Teika , or simply a desire to not potentially offend the Kamakura shogunate .
In 1232 , Teika was advanced at the age of 70 to the court rank of " Gon Chūnagon " ( Acting Middle Counselor .
But even Teika 's improved fortunes could not insulate him entirely from the various famines and disasters that wracked the country in this period , and which greatly exacberated his illnesses :
" Today I had my servants dig up the garden ( the north one ) , and plant wheat there . Even if we only grow a little , it will sustain our hunger in a bad year . Don 't make fun of me ! What other stratagem does a poor old man have ? " ( Meigetsuki , 13th day of the 10th month , 1230 )
" Starving people collapse , and their dead bodies fill the streets . Every day the numbers increase .... The stench has gradually reached my house . Day and night alike , people go by carrying the dead in their arms , too numerous to count . " ( Meigetsuki , 2nd day of the 7th month , 1231 )
During the later portions of his life , Teika experimented with refining his style of ushin , teaching and writing it ; in addition to his critical works and the manuscripts he studied and copied out , he experimented with the then @-@ very young and immature form of renga – " They are an amusement to me in my dotage . " He died in 1241 , in Kyoto , and was buried at a Buddhist temple named " Shokokuji " .
= = = Rival descendants = = =
One of his 27 children by various women ( and one of two legitimate sons ) , Fujiwara no Tameie ( 1198 – 1275 ; he is remembered as a reluctant heir , in youth inclining rather to court football at the encouragement of Go @-@ Toba than to poetry ) , would carry on Teika 's poetic legacy . Tameie 's descendants would split into three branches : the conservative elder Nijō branch ( founded by Tameie 's elder son , Nijō Tameuji ( 1222 – 1286 ) ; the middle branch of the Kyōgoku founded by Fujiwara no Tamenori ( 1226 – 1279 ) , which , before it became extinct in 1332 with the death of Fujiwara no Tamekane , merged with the Reizei at the prompting of Nun Abutsu ; and the younger , more liberal Reizei branch , founded by Tameie ' younger son Fujiwara no Tamesuke ( b . 1263 ) by Abutsu ( d. circa 1283 ; a poet and a great diarist , especially remembered for her diary Isayoi Nikki ( " Diary of the Waning Moon " ) chronicling her legal battles to get the Kamakura shogunate to stop Tameuji from disinheriting Tamesuke of the Hosokawa estate near the capital that Tameie had left Tamesuke ) .
It is a testament to Teika 's importance that the poetic history of the next centuries is in large part a story of the battles between the rival branches ; indeed , it is this rivalry that is chiefly responsible for the great number of forgeries attributed to Teika . When the Reizei lost a court case concerning possession of the Hosokawa estate Tameie had willed to Tamesuke , they were ordered to hand over the valuable manuscripts and documents inherited from Teika and Tameie over to the Nijō ; they outwardly complied , but along with the few genuine documents whose existence the Nijō had already learned of , they mostly included forgeries which the Nijō had little choice but to accept . In retaliation , the Nijō manufactured a number of forgeries of their own , the better to buttress their claims .
After a period of Reizei ascendancy under Reizei Tamehide ( 冷泉為秀 , great @-@ grandson of Teika ) ( b . 1302 ? , d . 1372 ) , they suffered a decline and a consequent rise in the fortunes of the Nijō , as Tamehide 's son , Iametuni , became a Buddhist monk . However , the Nijō soon suffered setbacks of their own under the wastrel Nijō no Tameshige ( b . 1325 , d . 1385 ) , whose promising son , Nijō no Tametō ( b . 1341 , d . 1381 ) , died comparatively young , killed by a brigand .
In a further disaster for the Nijō , Tametō 's son , Nijō no Tamemigi was killed by a brigand as well in 1399 ( ? ) , effectively wiping out the Nijō as an organized force . Under the grandson of Tamehide , Tanemasa ( b . 1361 , d . 1417 ) , the Rezei achieved temporary victory in the time of Shōtetsu . Ironically , the once @-@ liberal Reizei would become associated during and after the Meji Era with the ultra @-@ conservatives of the " Palace School " .
= = Poetic achievements = =
" In this art of poetry , those who speak ill of Teika should be denied the protection of the gods and Buddhas and condemned to the punishments of hell . " -Shōtetsu
Teika selected the works for the Ogura Hyakunin Isshu , an anthology of a hundred poems by a hundred poets . His Ogura Hyakunin Isshu was later thought to be a book of waka theory in which all types of ideal waka and all techniques were laid out ; disputes over specific style and whether to be conservative or liberal that divided his descendants into a number of feuding schools / clans like the Reizei , Kyōgoku , and Nijō .
Teika made many manuscript copies of Japanese classics , including such landmarks of Japanese literature as The Tale of Genji , The Tales of Ise and the Kokinshū anthology . In his days , the ancient Japanese pronunciations were lost or difficult to understand , rendering the orthography of kana confused and uncertain . Teika researched old documents and recovered the earlier system of deciding between interpretations of kana , and developed a systematic orthography which was used until the modern Meiji period . He applied his kana system to his manuscripts , which were known for their accuracy and general high quality and called Teika bon ( " Teika text " ) . Using his method he was able to document the accurate pronunciation of earlier waka like the ones in the Kokin Wakashū . His manuscripts were also appreciated for his eponymous distinct and bold style of calligraphy . The Adobe font " Kazuraki SPN " , released in 2009 , is based upon the calligraphic style of Fujiwara Teika .
Teika is also remembered , like his father , as being something of an innovator – the Encyclopædia Britannica says :
" Teika employed traditional language in startling new ways , showing that the prescriptive ideal of " old diction , new treatment " [ kotoba furuku , kokoro atarashi ] inherited from Shunzei might accommodate innovation and experimentation as well as ensure the preservation of the language and styles of the classical past . "
The " old diction " here are phrases and words from the " Three Collections " : the Kokinshū , the Gosen Wakashū , and the Shūi Wakashū , but not much older than that ( for instance , the diction of the Man 'yōshū was considered too old ) . Teika wrote in his Maigetsusho that the best poems were spontaneous and original , but nevertheless traditional :
" But such a notion is quite erroneous . For if we were to call such verses as that superior , then any poem at all we might write could be a fine one . No , first the powers of invention must be freed by reciting endless possibilities over and over to oneself . Then , suddenly and spontaneously , from among all the lines one is composing , may emerge a poem whose treatment of the topic is different from the common run , a verse that is somehow superior to the rest . It is full of poetic feeling , lofty in cadence , skillful , with resonances above and beyond the words themselves . It is dignified in effect , its phrasing original , yet smooth and gentle . It is interesting , suffused with an atmosphere subtle yet clear . It is richly evocative , its emotion not tense and nervous but sensible from the appropriateness of the imagery . Such a poem is not to be composed by conscious effort , but if a man will only persist in unremitting practice , he may produce one spontaneously . "
The following is an example of how Teika used old and classic imagery such as Takasago and Onoe , as well as pine and cherry trees , in fresh ways :
His poems were described as remarkable for their elegance and exemplars of Teika 's ideals , in his early and later years ( respectively ; Teika considerably modified his personal beliefs during his 40s , after the death of Shunzei , and simplified his style of composition ) , of the styles of yoen – one of the ten orthodox styles Teika defined and defended in his poetic criticism , with some of the others being the onihishigitei ( " demon @-@ quelling force " ) style , the style of sabi or " loneliness " ( closely related to mono no aware ) , the style of yugen , or " mystery and depth " ; the yoen style was concerned with " ethereal beauty " , and ushin ( " deep feeling " or " conviction of feeling " . This shift in style from yoen to ushin was intended to achieve a certain sort of makoto , or integrity ; Teika sometimes referred to his aim as ushin ( " deep feeling " ) , which confusingly was also the name of one of the ten styles . The yoen style was one of the most popular in his time due in no small part to Teika 's of it ( yoen had first been described by Fujiwara no Mototoshi in the 1150s , but had been only marginally successful ) ; years later , the Symbolists would admire and emulate ( to a degree ) his use of language to evoke atmosphere in his brief poems in the yoen style . An excellent example ( and one later chosen for an Imperial anthology ) is the first poem below :
= = Partial bibliography = =
Shūi gusō ( 拾遺愚草 ) ; Teika 's personal anthology which includes over 3500 poems selected by himself . The two poems which offended Retired Emperor Go @-@ Toba so much and caused the rift between Teika and him are preserved here only .
Meigetsuki ( 明月記 ) ( " The Record of the Clear Moon " ; sometimes called " Diary of the Clear Moon " or possibly " Chronicle of the Bright Moon " ; as the second translation suggests , this was a diary Teika kept in classical Chinese between the ages of approximately 18 ( in 1180 ) to just before his death , around 1241 ; the entries for 1180 and 1181 may have been written when Teika was an old man , but the bulk of the diary covers the 47 years between 1188 and 1235 . As its comprehensiveness might suggest , it is an extremely valuable resource for understanding the court and Teika 's place in the Imperial court , even despite its incompleteness — available extant versions consist of 56 scrolls ( the Reizei family possesses in its family library holographs of 56 and copies of two more ) , while scholars estimate that the original consisted of over 180 scrolls . ) Among its many interesting passages ( some quoted previously ) about Teika 's career and life is a famous passage from the ninth month of 1180 about Teika 's indifference to political or military advancement , in which he aristocratically remarked that " Reports of disturbances and punitive expeditions fill one 's ears , but I pay them no attention . The red banners and the expeditions against the traitors are no concern of mine . " ( Here , " red banners " probably refers to the Imperial standard ; the last line is possibly a reference to a poem by Po Chu @-@ i in which he tells of how he has been effectively exiled and passes his time playing Go ) .
Hyakunin isshu ( 百人一首 ) ( c . 1235 " Single Poems by One Hundred Poets " ; this collection became the foundation of the modern Japanese New Year game karuta . )
Hyakunin Shūka ( 百人秀歌 ) ( 1229 – 1236 ? ; a 101 @-@ poem anthology arranged at the request of Utsunomiya Yoritsuna to be copied onto 101 strips of paper and pasted onto the walls of his villa ; it has 97 poems in common with Hyakunin isshu , suggesting that perhaps it is a misidentified and variant version of the Isshu . )
Shoji hyakushu ( 正治百首 ) ( 1200 ; " Hundred @-@ Poem Sequence of the Shoji era " )
Gotoba @-@ in Kumano Gokō Ki ( 熊野御幸記 ) ( 1201 ; " The Visit of the Cloistered Emperor to Kumano " ) . Portion of Meigetsuki which Teika wrote about a trip to Kumano he took with Go @-@ Toba and Michichika ; like his other diary , it is written in classical Chinese , except for the wakas along the way to the shrines there that Go @-@ Toba was so devoted to that this trip was but one of more than thirty . Teika seems not to have enjoyed the trip ; his diary often records concern over his health and matters of decorum such as the proper clothes to wear .
Eiga taigai or Eika no Taigai ( 詠歌大概 ) ( c . 1216 , 1222 ? ; " Essentials of Poetic Composition " ) . Besides normal advice and criticism of poetry such as pedantic rules on honkadori – poems used as a base in honkadori should always be old poems and from either the Kokinshū , Shūi Wakashū , or the Gosen Wakashū with no more than two and a half lines borrowed from the originals ; similarly , borrowed elements were to be moved within the new poem and the new poem should have a different theme ) , Teika also tellingly recommends certain classic works for aspiring poets to study : the Tales of Ise , Sanjurokkasen ( or " Poems of the Thirty @-@ Six Immortals " ) and the first two portions of The Collected Works of Po Chü @-@ i . Portions of the Eiga taigai have been translated into English
Kindai shūka ( 近代秀歌 ) ( c . 1209 ; " Superior Poems of Our Time " ; a collection of poems Teika felt to be excellent models , with a preface dealing with his critical philosophy , sent to Sanetomo to instruct him in how his poems should emulate the great ancient Japanese poets – teaching by example . This sequence was constructed when he was 47 , after the death of Shunzei , which depressed Teika , as evidenced by his writing in the Kindai shūka that he had " forgotten the color of the followers of words ; the well @-@ springs of inspiration have run dry . " )
Maigetsusho ( 毎月抄 ) ( c . 1219 ; " Monthly Notes " ; an epistle of corrections of one hundred poems , sent to a student of Teika 's . Besides the corrections , it bore a preface which is a major source of information regarding Teika 's view on the aesthetics of poetry ; Shōtetsu states that it was sent to Minamoto no Sanetomo ; Ton 'a holds rather that it had been sent to the " Kinugasa Great Inner Minister " , or Fujiwara no Ieyoshi . ) Besides Brower 's English translation , the Maigetsusho was also translated to French , Italian and Hungarian .
Matsuranomiya Monogatari ( 松浦宮物語 ) ( " The Tale of the Matsura Palace " ; an experimental novel believed to be written by Teika , though Teika 's manuscript claims that he was merely copying it . )
Teika hachidai sho ( 定家八代抄 ) ( Anthology of 1811 poems from the first 8 Imperial anthologies . )
Shuka no daitai ( 秀歌大体 ) ( " A Basic Canon of Superior Poems " )
Teika Jittai ( 定家十体 ) ( 1207 – 1213 ; an anthology of 286 poems , chiefly derived from the Shin Kokinshū ; long believed a forgery , but some modern scholars contend that it is a genuine work . )
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= Evan Rachel Wood =
Evan Rachel Wood ( born September 7 , 1987 ) is an American actress . She began acting in the 1990s , appearing in several television series , including American Gothic ( 1995 – 1996 ) and Once and Again ( 1999 – 2002 ) . Wood made her début as a leading film actress at the age of nine in Digging to China ( 1998 ) and became well known after her transition to a more adult @-@ oriented Golden Globe @-@ nominated role in the teen drama film Thirteen ( 2003 ) .
Wood continued acting mostly in independent films , including Pretty Persuasion ( 2005 ) , Down in the Valley ( 2006 ) , Running with Scissors ( 2006 ) , and in the big studio production Across the Universe ( 2007 ) . Since 2008 , Wood has appeared in more mainstream films , including The Wrestler ( 2008 ) , Whatever Works ( 2009 ) and The Ides of March ( 2011 ) . She has also returned to television , playing the supporting role of Queen Sophie @-@ Anne on True Blood from 2009 to 2011 and playing Kate Winslet 's character 's daughter in the HBO miniseries Mildred Pierce ( 2011 ) , a role for which she was nominated for the Golden Globe and Emmy Award for Best Supporting Actress .
Her personal life , particularly her relationship with Marilyn Manson , to whom she was previously engaged , has attracted press attention . In 2012 , she married English actor Jamie Bell , with whom she has one son . They separated in 2014 after two years of marriage .
= = Early life and family = =
Wood was born in Raleigh , North Carolina . Her father , Ira David Wood III , is a locally prominent actor , singer , theater director , and playwright ; he is the Executive Director of a local regional theatre company called Theatre in the Park . Her mother , Sara Lynn Moore ( b . March 6 , 1958 ) , is an actress , director , and acting coach . Wood 's brother , Ira David Wood IV , is also an actor ; she has two other brothers , Dana and Thomas , and a sister named Aden . Her paternal aunt , Carol Winstead Wood , was a Hollywood production designer .
Wood and her brothers were actively involved in Theatre in the Park while growing up , including an appearance by her in the 1987 production of her father 's musical comedy adaptation of A Christmas Carol when she was just a few months old . Subsequently , she played the Ghost of Christmas Past in several productions at the theater , and she later starred as Helen Keller alongside her mother ( who played Anne Sullivan ) in a production of The Miracle Worker , under her father 's direction . Wood briefly attended Cary Elementary , a public school in Cary , North Carolina . She was subsequently home @-@ schooled and received her high school diploma at age 15 .
= = Career = =
= = = Early works : 1994 – 2000 = = =
Wood began her career appearing in several made @-@ for @-@ television films from 1994 onward , also playing an occasional role in the television series American Gothic . In 1996 , Wood 's parents separated and later divorced , and Wood moved with her mother to her mother 's native Los Angeles County , California . After a one @-@ season role on the television drama Profiler , Wood was cast in the supporting role of Jessie Sammler on the television show Once and Again .
Wood 's first major screen role was in the low @-@ budget 1998 film Digging to China , which also starred Kevin Bacon and Mary Stuart Masterson . The film won the Children 's Jury Award at the Chicago International Children 's Film Festival . Wood remembers the role as initially being hard , but notes that it " eventually led to her decision that acting is something she might never want to stop doing . " She also had a role in Practical Magic , a fantasy film directed by Griffin Dunne , starring Sandra Bullock and Nicole Kidman , that same year .
= = = 2001 – 2005 = = =
Wood made her teenage debut as a leading film actress in 2002 's Little Secrets , directed by Blair Treu , where she played aspiring 14 @-@ year @-@ old concert violinist Emily Lindstrom . For that role , she was nominated for Best Leading Young Actress at the Young Artist Awards . That same year , Wood played a supporting role in the Andrew Niccol @-@ directed science fiction satirical drama film , S1m0ne , which starred Al Pacino . Wood 's breakthrough movie role followed with the 2003 film Thirteen . She played the role of Tracy Louise Freeland , one of two young teens who sink into a downward spiral of hard drugs , sex , and petty crime . Her performance was nominated for a Golden Globe Award as Best Actress - Drama and for a Screen Actors Guild ( SAG ) Award for Best Actress . During the time of Thirteen 's release , Vanity Fair named Wood as one of the It Girls of Hollywood , and she appeared , along with the other actresses , on the magazine 's July 2003 cover . A supporting role opposite Cate Blanchett and Tommy Lee Jones in Ron Howard 's The Missing , in which she played the kidnapped daughter , Lilly Gilkeson , followed the same year , as well as a role in the CSI : Crime Scene Investigation episode " Got Murder ? " .
In 2005 , Wood appeared in the Mike Binder @-@ directed The Upside of Anger , opposite Kevin Costner and Joan Allen , a well @-@ reviewed film in which Wood played Lavender " Popeye " Wolfmeyer , one of four sisters dealing with their father 's absence . Her character also narrated the film . Wood 's next two starring roles were in dark independent films . In the 2005 Grand Jury Prize Sundance Film Festival nominee Pretty Persuasion , a black comedy / satirical focusing on themes of sexual harassment and discrimination in schools and attitudes about females in media and society , Wood played Kimberly Joyce , a manipulative , sexually active high @-@ schooler . One critic commented , " Wood does flip cynicism with such precise , easy rhythms and with such obvious pleasure in naughtiness that she 's impossible to hate . "
In Down in the Valley , which was directed by David Jacobson , Wood 's character , Tobe , falls in love with an older man , a cowboy who is at odds with modern society ( Edward Norton ) . Of her performance , it was written that " Wood conveys every bit of the adamant certainty and aching vulnerability inherent in late adolescence . " Wood has commented on her choice of sexually themed roles , saying that she is not aiming for the " shock factor " in her film choices .
In 2005 , Wood starred in the music videos for Bright Eyes ' " At the Bottom of Everything " and Green Day 's " Wake Me Up When September Ends " .
= = = 2006 – present = = =
In September 2006 , Wood received Premiere magazine 's " Spotlight Award for Emerging Talent . " Also in 2006 , she was described by The Guardian as being " wise beyond her years " and as " one of the best actresses of her generation . " Later in 2006 , Wood appeared with an all @-@ star ensemble cast as Natalie Finch in the Golden Globe @-@ nominated 2006 comedy @-@ drama film Running with Scissors . Directed by Ryan Murphy and starring Annette Bening , the film was based on the memoir by Augusten Burroughs , which is a semi @-@ autobiographical account of Burroughs ' childhood in a dysfunctional family . Wood was awarded the 2007 Cannes Film Festival Chopard Trophy for Female Revelation for her performance .
Wood had roles in two films released in September 2007 . King of California , which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival , a story of a bipolar jazz musician ( Michael Douglas ) and his long @-@ suffering teenage daughter , Miranda ( Wood ) , who are reunited after his two @-@ year stay in a mental institution and who embark on a quixotic search for Spanish treasure . One review praised Wood 's performance as " excellent " .
Across the Universe , a Julie Taymor @-@ directed musical that was nominated for a Golden Globe and an Academy Award and was set in Liverpool , New York City , and Vietnam , focused on the tribulations of several characters during the counter @-@ cultural revolution of the 1960s . It was set to the songs of The Beatles . Wood , who has described the music of The Beatles as a major part of her life , played Lucy , who develops a relationship with Jude ( Jim Sturgess ) . The film featured her singing musical numbers and she describes the role as her favorite , calling director Julie Taymor " one of the most amazing directors out there . " One critic wrote that " Wood brings much @-@ needed emotional depth . " Wood provided the voice of an alien named Mala , a mechanically inclined free @-@ thinker , in Battle for Terra , a 2008 computer @-@ animated science fiction film about a peaceful alien planet that faces destruction from colonization by the displaced remainder of the human race . The film won the 2008 Grand Prize at the Ottawa International Animation Festival . The film showed at the San Francisco International Film Festival , where she received an award at the Midnight Awards along with Elijah Wood .
Wood starred in 2008 's Vadim Perelman @-@ directed The Life Before Her Eyes , based on the Laura Kasischke novel of the same name , about the friendship of two teens of opposite character who are involved in a Columbine @-@ like shooting incident at their school and are forced to make an impossible choice . Wood played the younger version of Uma Thurman 's character , Diana . One critic cited her performance as " hands @-@ down extraordinary " . Wood stated that she intended the film to be the last one in which she played a teenager .
In the same year , she also co @-@ starred in director Darren Aronofsky 's The Wrestler , winner of the Golden Lion Award for Best Film at the Venice Film Festival , about Randy " Ram " Robinson ( Mickey Rourke ) , a professional wrestler from the 1980s who is forced to retire after a heart attack threatens to kill him the next time he wrestles . Wood played Stephanie , Randy " Ram " Robinson 's estranged daughter . Of her performance , one critic wrote , " Once her character stops stonewalling her father and hears him out , Wood provides a fine foil for Rourke in their turbulent scenes together . "
Wood co @-@ starred in Woody Allen 's Whatever Works , which premiered at the 2009 Tribeca Film Festival , playing the young wife of Larry David 's character . In May 2009 , she played Juliet in six fundraising performances of William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet at the Theater In The Park . The production was directed by her brother , who also starred . Wood had a recurring role in the second and third seasons of the HBO supernatural drama series , True Blood , from 2009 to 2011 as Sophie @-@ Anne Leclerq . She appeared at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards on September 12 , 2010 . Wood had a role in the film The Conspirator , which premiered at Ford 's Theatre in Washington D. C. in April , 2011 , directed by Robert Redford ( about the conspiracy surrounding the assassination of Abraham Lincoln ) . She also had a role in The Ides of March . She portrayed the title character 's daughter in the 2011 HBO miniseries Mildred Pierce , for which she was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie .
Wood played Gabi in the 2013 psychological romantic thriller film Charlie Countryman with Shia LaBeouf and Rupert Grint .
She is featured with Chris Evans in a 2016 ad for Gucci Guilty Eau fragrances . "
In June 2016 , the Human Rights Campaign released a video in tribute to the victims of the 2016 Orlando gay nightclub shooting ; in the video , Wood and others told the stories of the people killed there .
= = Personal life = =
Wood began dating British actor Jamie Bell in 2005 after they co @-@ starred in the music video for Green Day 's song " Wake Me Up When September Ends . " They got matching tattoos of each other 's initials ; in Wood 's case , a " J " on her left ankle . After a year together , the relationship ended in 2006 . Wood later commented that , " We had matching tattoos because we knew our love would last forever . Trouble is , it didn 't , things happened , we split . But I don 't regret the tattoo . It reminds me of a great , great period in my life . "
In January 2007 , Wood 's relationship with Marilyn Manson became public . The two met at a party at the Chateau Marmont Hotel ; Wood has stated that she was attracted to Manson 's frequent use of black eye liner and once described their relationship as " healthy and loving " . Two portraits of Wood , painted by Manson , have been exhibited at the Celebritarian Corporation Gallery of Fine Art . Wood is also the inspiration behind Manson 's song " Heart @-@ Shaped Glasses " , and she appeared with Manson in the song 's music video . Manson has said that Wood 's appearance was the highest @-@ paid music video role ever . The couple split in November 2008 ; according to Wood , they " both decided to take some time apart so [ they ] could concentrate on work . " They later re @-@ united and it was reported in early January 2010 that the couple was engaged to be married . Wood and Manson ended their engagement in August 2010 .
In the summer of 2011 , Wood was reported to have rekindled her relationship with Jamie Bell , five years after they first broke up . The couple married in a small ceremony on October 30 , 2012 . They have one son , born in July 2013 . Wood had a natural home birth with her son , and publicly thanked Ricki Lake , creator of the documentary The Business of Being Born , for inspiring her decision . In May 2014 , Wood and Bell announced that they had separated after 19 months of marriage .
In August 2012 , Wood came out as bisexual via Twitter .
Wood 's mother is a convert to Judaism and Wood 's father is Christian . In 2003 , Wood described herself as Jewish . In 2012 , she stated , " I believe in God but I am not religious . I am spiritual . My definition of God isn 't in any religion . It 's very personal " .
Wood has a black belt in taekwondo .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= M @-@ 30 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 30 is a state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan that runs in a north – south direction from the Midland area to West Branch . The highway runs through rural parts of three counties in the Lower Peninsula . The southern end runs along the Michigan Meridian and parallel to the Tittabawassee River . Prior to 1962 , M @-@ 30 's southern terminus ended at a junction with M @-@ 46 in Merrill . Since then , the segment south of US Highway 10 ( US 10 ) was returned to local control and decommissioned . In May 2009 , M @-@ 30 was extended southerly from US 10 to M @-@ 20 , restoring some of the highway decommissioned in the 1960s to M @-@ 30 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 30 is a rural , two @-@ lane highway . M @-@ 30 follows Meridian Road starting at an intersection with M @-@ 20 ( Isabella Road ) outside of Midland . From this intersection , the highway runs north along the Michigan Meridian through forest lands to a crossing of the Tittabawassee River near Sanford . M @-@ 30 passes through the community and crosses the US 10 freeway near the location where the latter crosses a narrow section of Sanford Lake . The road continues north running parallel to the lake along the meridian to a point near Edenville . There , the highway turns westerly along Curtis Road and then back northerly on Midland Road to a crossing of the Tittabawassee and Wixom Lake .
Past the river and lake crossings , M @-@ 30 angles to the northeast to return to the Michigan Meridian . The area adjacent to the lake is farm land , but continuing north , the highway returns to the woodlands of the Au Sable State Forest . M @-@ 30 intersects M @-@ 61 at Wooden Shoe Village near Smallwood Lake . The highway continues to parallel the Tittabawassee River , crossing several of its smaller tributaries , until a point south of the Gladwin – Ogemaw County county line . The trunkline passes through a small unnamed , unincorporated community northwest of Hockaday near Indian and Elk lakes as the road turns to the northeast between the lakes in the area . M @-@ 30 crosses the county line near Edwards and continues northward . The highway turns to the northeast as it approaches West Branch , crossing under I @-@ 75 without an interchange . M @-@ 30 ends at Business Loop I @-@ 75 / M @-@ 55 on the west side of West Branch .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains M @-@ 30 like all other parts of the state trunkline highway system . As a part of these responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic using its roads in surveys using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . MDOT calculates the traffic level for a segment of roadway for any average day of the year in these surveys . For 2009 , the highest traffic levels were observed on the section north of US 10 at 7 @,@ 579 vehicles per day . The lowest AADT levels were the 2 @,@ 952 vehicles between the M @-@ 61 junction and the Gladwin – Ogemaw county line . The survey did not include the section south of US 10 . No segment has been listed as part of the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 30 was first designated by July 1 , 1919 . The original routing only ran from Winegars to West Branch . South of Winegars , the roadway is a portion of M @-@ 18 . An extension of M @-@ 18 in 1928 or 1929 south of Beaverton led to the redesignation and extension of M @-@ 30 south through Edenville and Sanford to end at M @-@ 46 . M @-@ 30 was completely paved as the last 15 miles ( 24 km ) of gravel roadway were completed between Sanford and the Midland – Saginaw county line in 1961 . The next year , when M @-@ 30 was truncated to end at the US 10 freeway in Sanford , the remaining portion south of US 10 was turned over to county control . On May 13 , 2009 , the Midland County Road Commission ( MCRC ) and the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) signed a Memorandum of Understanding that transferred control of Meridian Road south of US 10 to M @-@ 20 . The roadway transferred included a newly constructed bridge over the Tittabawassee River and other segments of roadway rebuilt by the MCRC .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Father 's Day ( Doctor Who ) =
" Father 's Day " is the eighth episode of the first series of the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who , first broadcast on 14 May 2005 on BBC One . It was written by Paul Cornell and directed by Joe Ahearne .
In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Christopher Eccleston ) agrees to take his companion Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) back to the day her father Pete ( Shaun Dingwall ) died in 1987 . When Rose intervenes and pulls her father out of the path of a car , time is wounded and dangerous Reapers attack , threatening to erase history . Pete eventually learns that to get rid of the Reapers , he must throw himself under the car that was originally meant to kill him .
Lead writer and executive producer Russell T Davies conceived " Father 's Day " as an emotionally driven time travel story to explore Rose 's character . He chose Cornell to write the episode ; Cornell had been a successful writer of spin @-@ off material during the years the programme was on hiatus . The monster element of the story was expanded based on suggestions from Cornell and BBC Head of Drama Jane Tranter , and the Reapers went through many designs . The episode was filmed in November 2004 at St Paul 's Church and streets in Cardiff . " Father 's Day " was watched by 8 @.@ 06 million viewers in the United Kingdom and received generally positive reviews . Critics praised the focus on character and emotion .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with a flashback of Jackie Tyler telling a younger Rose about her father Pete , who died in a hit @-@ and @-@ run accident on the way to a friend 's wedding .
In the TARDIS , the Doctor agrees to take Rose to the day her father died so that she can be there when it happens . Upon their arrival in London on Saturday 7 November 1987 , they witness the accident , but Rose is unable to move when The Doctor tells her to go comfort her dying father . Rose asks the Doctor if she can try again , and the Doctor allows it but warns Rose to not run until their former selves have left to prevent a paradox . As the accident is about to happen , Rose suddenly runs out and pushes Pete aside , saving his life . The younger versions of the Doctor and Rose vanish . Rose and the Doctor fight about her actions , with the Doctor rebuking her for potentially damaging the timeline . The Doctor takes Rose 's TARDIS key back and storms off without her . Rose decides to go with Pete to the wedding , while the Doctor walks back to the TARDIS only to find that it is now an empty shell . Strange flying beasts called Reapers appear and begin consuming people .
Rose and Pete drive to the wedding together , and the car that had been meant to kill Pete nearly collides with their car . They join the other guests , including Jackie who has brought the infant Rose with her . Rose is surprised to find that Jackie and Pete argue frequently . A young Mickey runs in to warn the guests about the Reapers , who think it is a joke until a Reaper appears above and attacks them . The Doctor runs to the church and directs everyone inside , noting that the age of the church will protect them against the Reapers . The Doctor explains to Rose that her actions have caused a paradox that normally the Time Lords would have prevented . Without them , the Reapers are sterilising the wound in time by consuming everyone within it . The Doctor further warns Rose not to touch her infant self , as it could cause further damage to time and allow the Reapers into the church . Feeling that his TARDIS key is still warm , the Doctor sets it up in the middle of the church and the TARDIS slowly begins materialising around it .
While waiting in the church , Jackie sees Pete talking to Rose and thinks he is having an affair . Pete and Rose talk alone , and he comes to realise that she is his daughter . When Rose is unable to answer questions about how good of a father he was , Pete realises he was meant to die in the accident . Jackie thinks Rose is Pete 's daughter with another woman , and in a fit of frustration Pete hands the baby Rose to adult Rose . The paradox worsens , and a Reaper is able to enter the church . The Doctor declares himself the oldest thing in the church and offers himself to the Reaper , who consumes him and disappears . The TARDIS key goes cold and drops to the ground . Pete realises that they now have no other choice and that he must die in order to restore the timeline . He bids Rose and Jackie an emotional farewell , races out of the church and throws himself under the car that was originally meant to kill him . The timeline is repaired , and those previously consumed by the beasts reappear . The Doctor sends Rose off to be with her dad as he dies , and she holds his hand until he is gone . Rose and the Doctor walk hand @-@ in @-@ hand back to the restored TARDIS .
The episode ends with a flashback similar to the opening , as Jackie explains to a young Rose that Pete did not die alone . She tells Rose about a young woman who stayed with him until he died . In a voice @-@ over , the adult Rose eulogises her father .
= = = Continuity = = =
Continuing the " Bad Wolf " arc of the series , a poster advertising a rave on a wall near where Pete was supposed to die in the beginning has the words " BAD WOLF " defacing it . Rose refers to the ending of this episode in " The Parting of the Ways " , telling Jackie that she met her father and was the girl who held Pete 's hand as he died . Although Pete Tyler dies in this episode , an alternative universe version of him appears in the second series episodes " Rise of the Cybermen " / " Age of Steel " and " Army of Ghosts " / " Doomsday " .
= = Production = =
According to producer Phil Collinson , showrunner Russell T Davies came up with the concept for " Father 's Day " at an early stage in the planning of the series , as it was a " perfect time travel story " . Davies wanted the storyline to be easy @-@ to @-@ follow and drawn from human emotions . Additionally , the previous seven episodes had established why Rose was a good companion , and so " Father 's Day " shows that she does make mistakes , but in a relatable way . Davies chose Paul Cornell to write the episode ; Cornell was a successful writer of Doctor Who spin @-@ off material , especially in novels for the Virgin New Adventures , which bridged the gap between the classic series and the new . Davies originally intended that the episode be a small budget @-@ saver character piece investigating the death of Rose 's father , but Cornell suggested the addition of the Reapers and BBC Head of Drama Jane Tranter encouraged the additions of monsters to the new series . Working titles for the episode included " Wounded Time " and " Wound in Time " . Davies came up with the final title of " Father 's Day " in February 2005 , shortly before the series began airing .
Davies and Cornell debated whether it should have been Rose 's plan all along to save her father ; this is left ambiguous in the episode . Billie Piper felt that it did not occur to Rose until after she began travelling . In the original script , in the scene where the Doctor opens the TARDIS doors and discovers only a police box interior , the police box fell apart . This was changed for reasons of cost , and Cornell has stated that he thinks the change is an improvement . Cornell also states that the character of Pete Tyler is based on his own father , who attempted many different jobs and schemes ( including , like Pete , selling health drinks ) before eventually finding success running a betting shop . Pete 's line " I 'm your dad , it 's my job for it to be my fault " is taken from something Cornell 's father once said to him . Originally Pete was to take a swig of wine before sacrificing himself , but this was removed because a correlation between alcohol and bravery was not thought to be a positive message .
The entire episode was shot in Cardiff , in November 2004 . The weather changed frequently during filming , and the cast began to fall ill ; Eccleston had a cold . The production team selected several streets that looked similar . Most of the streets were in the community of Grangetown . The streets did not require much work for them to resemble 1980s streets ; only a few satellite dishes were taken down . The church is St Paul 's Church , also in Grangetown . The set of the Tyler 's flat was redressed for the time period . For the 1980s style , members of the cast and crew brought in photographs of themselves from the ' 80s ; for example , peach dresses and " big hair " were incorporated , but these elements were not meant to be distracting . Camille Coduri , who played Jackie , wore a wig for this episode . Some of the conversation between Rose and her father in the car was cut because the car had made the dialogue delivery too " bouncy " . Piper was scared of holding the baby . Because the baby is present throughout the majority of the episode , but they were limited to how many hours they could work with the infant , an " artificial baby " was used as a placeholder in some scenes .
The Reapers went through many designs . Originally , they were supposed to be " men in cowls " based on the Grim Reaper ; the final design retains some of this image with its " scythe @-@ like tail " . The original design was deemed too similar to creatures seen in " The End of the World " , and so were reworked into something more " otherworldly " . They were not originally intended to fly . There was also discussion of how much they should resemble animals as opposed to the Grim Reaper ; the end result is a mixture of the two approaches . The final design had a " shark quality " , bat wings , and a mouth influenced by the praying mantis . Vulture sound effects were used for its screech . The model was made over two months , being finished at the end of February 2005 rather than at the beginning of January as scheduled . The special effects team then had two or three weeks to complete the " 40 @-@ odd shots " of the completely CGI Reapers in the episode . The episode ended up more expensive than intended because of the CGI .
= = Outside references = =
" The Lamb and Flag " , a pub from the sitcom Bottom , is referenced in the episode . When time is damaged , one of the effects is that mobile telephones all begin to repeat the message , " Watson , come here , I need you , " purportedly Alexander Graham Bell 's first words ever spoken over a telephone . However historical records believe the words to be " Watson , come here , I want you . " The error was not present in Paul Cornell 's original script , but crept in at some point during production . Producer Phil Collinson speculated that it was because the line was rerecorded ; it was originally recorded by someone who the production team felt put on too false of a Scottish accent , and so it was rerecorded with a real Scot .
The episode features two hits from 1987 , " Never Gonna Give You Up " performed by Rick Astley and " Never Can Say Goodbye " performed by The Communards , both of which have some relevance to the basic themes of the story . It also features the 2002 song " Don 't Mug Yourself " by The Streets , indicating the damage to the timeline . Rose believes Pete to be " a bit of a Del Boy " , referring to the character from 1980s comedy Only Fools and Horses .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Father 's Day " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 14 May 2005 on BBC One . The episode received UK overnight ratings of 7 @.@ 47 million viewers , an audience share of 42 @.@ 74 % . When time @-@ shifted viewers were taken into account , the number rose to 8 @.@ 06 million . It received an Appreciation Index of 83 .
" Father 's Day " was met with a generally positive reception . Piper stated that this was her favourite episode of the first series , and the most emotionally taxing for her to perform . SFX praised the way the concept of time was explored as well as the accurate representation of the ' 80s , and stated that Dingwall gave " one of the series ' best performances " as Pete Tyler . However , the reviewer thought that the Reapers were the let @-@ down of the episode , finding that " the episode doesn 't feel as much like horror as it should " . Arnold T Blumburg of Now Playing gave the episode an A for the emotional impact and the acting . Blumburg did note , however , that there were " enormous logical gaps " involving " glowing TARDIS keys and under @-@ explained paradoxes " . In 2013 , Radio Times reviewer Mark Braxton described it as " a time @-@ travel tale with immense heart " and highlighted the shift of identification from the Doctor to Rose and the acting of Piper and Dingwall . Braxton , on the other hand , felt that the Reapers were redundant and the episode would have done " equally well if you scythed the Reapers from the script " . Reviewing " Father 's Day " for The A.V. Club in 2013 , Alasdair Wilkins gave it a grade of " A " , finding the story powerful . In Who Is the Doctor , a guide to the revived series , Robert Smith praised the emotion and the dilemma , which he felt was not heavy @-@ handed . He was also positive about the direction and Dingwall 's performance , though he felt that removing the Doctor from the plot suggested that he would have done something else to resolve it , and he was not a fan of the scene where the Doctor tells two ordinary people how important their lives are , because it was " cheesy " and " disconnected " from the rest of the story . Coauthor Graeme Burk was also positive , writing that it may be " the best story this season " . He called the direction " wonderful " and the script " sublime " , and noted how the story was more about family than time travel .
" Father 's Day " was nominated for the 2006 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form , alongside other first series episodes " Dalek " and " The Empty Child " / " The Doctor Dances " . The latter won . " Father 's Day " topped the third place category in terms of votes .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Father 's Day " reviews at Outpost Gallifrey
" Father 's Day " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
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= Cyril Newall , 1st Baron Newall =
Marshal of the Royal Air Force Cyril Louis Norton Newall , 1st Baron Newall GCB , OM , GCMG , CBE , AM ( 15 February 1886 – 30 November 1963 ) was a senior officer of the British Army and Royal Air Force . He commanded units of the Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force in the First World War , and served as Chief of the Air Staff during the first years of the Second World War . From 1941 to 1946 he was the Governor @-@ General of New Zealand .
Born to a military family , Newall studied at the Royal Military College , Sandhurst , before taking a commission as a junior officer in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment in 1905 . After transferring to the 2nd Gurkha Rifles in the Indian Army , he saw active service on the North West Frontier , but after learning to fly in 1911 turned towards a career in military aviation . During the First World War he rose from flying instructor to command of 41st Wing RFC , the main strategic bombing force , and was awarded the Albert Medal for putting out a fire in an explosives store .
He served in staff positions through the 1920s and was Air Officer Commanding the Middle East Command in the early 1930s before becoming Air Member for Supply and Organisation in 1935 . Newall was appointed Chief of the Air Staff in 1937 and , in that role , supported sharp increases in aircraft production , increasing expenditure on the new , heavily armed , Hurricane and Spitfire fighters , essential to re @-@ equip Fighter Command . However , he was sacked after the Battle of Britain after political intrigue caused him to lose Churchill 's confidence . In 1941 he was appointed Governor @-@ General of New Zealand , holding office until 1946 .
= = Early life = =
Newall was born to Lieutenant Colonel William Potter Newall and Edith Gwendoline Caroline Newall ( née Norton ) . After education at Bedford School , he attended the Royal Military College , Sandhurst . After leaving Sandhurst , he was commissioned into the Royal Warwickshire Regiment on 16 August 1905 . He was promoted to lieutenant on 18 November 1908 , and transferred to the 2nd King Edward VII 's Own Gurkha Rifles on 16 September 1909 . He served on the North @-@ West Frontier , where he first encountered his future colleague Hugh Dowding ; at an exercise in 1909 , Dowding 's artillery section ambushed Newall 's Gurkhas whilst they were still breakfasting .
Newall began to turn towards a career in aviation in 1911 , when he learned to fly in a Bristol Biplane at Larkhill whilst on leave in England . He held certificate No. 144 issued by the Royal Aero Club . He later passed a formal course at the Central Flying School , Upavon in 1913 , and began working as a pilot trainer there from 17 November 1913 ; it was intended that he would form part of a flight training school to be established in India , but he had not yet left England when the First World War broke out .
= = First World War = =
On the outbreak of war , Newall was in England . On 12 September 1914 , he was given the temporary rank of captain , and attached to the Royal Flying Corps as a flight commander , to serve with No. 1 Squadron on the Western Front . He was promoted to the permanent rank of captain on 22 September , effective from 16 August . On 24 March 1915 he was promoted to major and appointed to command No. 12 Squadron , flying BE2c aircraft in France from September onwards . The squadron took part in the Battle of Loos , bombing railways and carrying out reconnaissance missions in October 1915 .
On taking command of the squadron , he chose to stop flying personally in order to concentrate on administration , a decision which was regarded dismissively by his men ; relations were strained until January 1916 , when he demonstrated his courage by walking into a burning bomb store to try to control the fire . He was awarded the Albert Medal for this act on the personal recommendation of General Hugh Trenchard , and in February 1916 was promoted to lieutenant colonel and given command of Training No. 6 Wing in England . In December 1916 he took command of No. 9 Wing in France , a long @-@ range bomber and reconnaissance formation , and in October 1917 took command of the newly formed No. 41 Wing . This was upgraded as the 8th Brigade in December , with Newall promoted accordingly to the temporary rank of brigadier @-@ general on 28 December 1917 . During 1918 , it joined the Independent Bombing Force , which was the main strategic bombing arm of the newly formed Royal Air Force . In June 1918 Newall was appointed the Deputy Commander of the Independent Bombing Force , serving under Trenchard .
Newall was awarded the Croix d 'Officier of the French Legion of Honour on 10 October 1918 , and appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George on 1 January 1919 , a Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 3 June 1919 and an Officer of the Belgian Order of Leopold on 18 April 1921 .
= = Between the wars = =
Newall was granted a permanent commission in the Royal Air Force as a lieutenant colonel on 1 August 1919 and promoted to group captain on 8 August 1919 . He became Deputy Director of Personnel at the Air Ministry in August 1919 and then Deputy Commandant of the apprentices ' technical training school in August 1922 . He married May Weddell in 1922 ; she died in September 1924 , and he remarried the following year to Olive Foster , an American woman . He had three children with Foster , a son and two daughters .
Newall was promoted to air commodore on 1 January 1925 , and took command of the newly formed Auxiliary Air Force in May 1925 . He was appointed to a League of Nations disarmament committee in December 1925 and then became Deputy Chief of the Air Staff and Director of Operations and Intelligence on 12 April 1926 . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1929 Birthday Honours and , having been promoted to air vice marshal on 1 January 1930 , he stood down as Deputy Chief on 6 February 1931 . He became Air Officer Commanding Wessex Bombing Area in February 1931 and then Air Officer Commanding Middle East Command in September 1931 . He then returned to the Air Ministry , where he became Air Member for Supply and Organisation on 14 January 1935 , during the beginnings of the pre @-@ war expansion and rearmament . He was advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in the 1935 Birthday Honours and promoted to air marshal on 1 July 1935 . He attended the funeral of King George V in January 1936 .
Philosophically , Newall remained a close follower of Trenchard during the interwar period ; his time in the Independent Bombing Force had left him convinced that strategic bombing was an exceptionally powerful weapon , and one that could not effectively be defended against . In this , he was a supporter of the standard doctrine of the day , which suggested that the destructive power of a bomber force was sufficiently great that it could cripple an industrial economy in short order , and that so merely its presence could potentially serve as an effective deterrent . He was promoted to air chief marshal on 1 April 1937 .
= = Chief of the Air Staff = =
On 1 September 1937 , Newall was appointed as Chief of the Air Staff , the military head of the RAF , in succession to Sir Edward Ellington . The promotion was unexpected ; of the prospective candidates mooted for the job , Newall has been widely seen by historians as the least gifted . The most prominent candidate was Hugh Dowding , the head of RAF Fighter Command and senior in rank to Newall by three months , who had been informally told by Ellington in 1936 that he was expected to be appointed as the new Chief of the Air Staff . The decision was taken by the Air Minister , Viscount Swinton , without consulting Ellington for advice .
During 1936 and 1937 , the Air Staff had been fighting with the Cabinet over the rearmament plans ; the Air Staff wanted a substantial bomber force and only minor increases in fighters , whilst the Minister for Defence Co @-@ ordination , Sir Thomas Inskip , successfully pushed for a greater role for the fighter force . Newall was promoted during the middle of this debate , and proved perhaps more flexible than might have been expected . In 1938 he supported sharp increases in aircraft production , including double @-@ shift working and duplication of factories , and pushed for the creation of a dedicated organisation to repair and refit damaged aircraft . He supported expenditure on the new , heavily armed , Hurricane and Spitfire fighters , essential to re @-@ equip Fighter Command . He even began to distance himself , albeit slightly , from orthodox bomber philosophy , noting to the Minister for Air that " no one can say with absolute certainty that a nation can be knocked out from the air , because no @-@ one has yet attempted it " . Discussing plans for reacting to a war with Italy , in early 1939 , he opposed a French proposal to force Italy 's surrender by the use of heavy bombing raids against the north , arguing that it would be unlikely to force the country out of the war without the need for ground combat .
Newall was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the 1938 Birthday Honours . He was still Chief of the Air Staff at the outbreak of the Second World War on 1 September 1939 ; his main contribution to the war effort was his successful resistance to the transfer of fighter squadrons to aid the collapsing French thus preserving a large portion of Fighter Command which would become crucial during the Battle of Britain . While he remained committed to the idea of a " knock @-@ out blow " offensive by Bomber Command , he also recognised that it was too weak to do so successfully , but still strongly opposed the use of the RAF for close air support .
Following the end of the Battle of Britain , Newall was quickly forced into retirement and replaced as Chief of the Air Staff by Sir Charles Portal . Contemporaries attributed this to the effects of overwork , which had certainly taken its toll , but there were also other aspects ; Newall had lost political support , particularly following a dispute with Lord Beaverbrook over the control of aircraft production and repair . Matters came to a head with the circulation of an anonymous memo attacking Newall , among other senior officers , as " a real weakness to the RAF and to the nation 's defences " . The author was Edgar McCloughry , a disaffected staff officer who saw himself as passed over for promotion and who had been brought into Beaverbrook 's inner circle . Beaverbrook pressed Churchill to dismiss Newall , gaining the support of influential ex @-@ RAF figures such as Trenchard and Salmond . Trenchard had come out against Newall for his failure to launch a decisive strategic bombing offensive , while Salmond saw Newall 's removal as the simplest way to replace Dowding as head of Fighter Command – despite Newall having also sought to sack Dowding .
He was promoted to Marshal of the Royal Air Force on 4 October 1940 and retired from the RAF later that month . He was awarded the Order of Merit on 29 October , and made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George on 21 November .
= = New Zealand and later life = =
In February 1941 Newall was appointed Governor @-@ General of New Zealand , a post he would hold for the remainder of the war . His time there was mostly quiet – described by one biographer as " a nice long rest " – and he toured the country extensively , referring to the war " in every public address " . Newall and his wife , who also carried out an extensive program of engagements , were broadly popular , but there were occasional tensions ; shortly after his arrival , it was widely ( but mistakenly ) rumoured that he had slighted the " men " of the Army in favour of the " gentlemen " of the RNZAF in a speech . A Freemason , Newall became Grand Master of New Zealand 's Grand Lodge while Governor @-@ General .
Politically , he had a lukewarm relationship with the Prime Minister , Peter Fraser – " I can 't persuade myself that he is all he quite appears to be " , Newall noted in a private report – but the two worked together effectively . Small problems occasionally flared up , such as that in October 1942 , when Fraser was reprimanded for not personally informing Newall of the resignation of four ministers . However , only one developed into a direct confrontation , when Newall became the last Governor @-@ General to refuse to follow the advice of his cabinet . Newall was presented with a government recommendation to remit four prisoners sentenced to be flogged , but refused to do so . He argued that if the government was opposed to flogging , it should repeal the legislation rather than simply remitting the sentences , and that it was constitutionally improper for the government to retain the law while ignoring it . Fraser , and his deputy Walter Nash , refused to accept this response , and the impasse stretched out for several days ; in the end , a compromise was reached where Newall remitted the sentences but the government undertook to repeal the legislation .
A second conflict emerged just before the end of his term , when in 1945 , the Labour government sought to abolish the country quota , a system that gave additional electoral seats in rural areas . Farming groups – predominantly National @-@ supporting – strongly opposed the move , and argued that such a major change could only be made after gaining approval in a general election . Newall sympathised , and advised Fraser to wait until after the election , but did not feel it was appropriate to intervene ; he assented to the bill .
Following his return from New Zealand in 1946 , Newall was raised to the peerage as Baron Newall , of Clifton upon Dunsmoor , in the county of Warwick . He spoke in the House of Lords rarely , making five speeches between 1946 and 1948 and one in 1959 , mostly addressing defence issues . Newall died at his home at Welbeck Street in London on 30 November 1963 , at which time his son Francis inherited his title .
= = Arms = =
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= Salyut 6 =
Salyut 6 ( Russian : Салют @-@ 6 ; lit . Salute 6 ) , DOS @-@ 5 , was a Soviet orbital space station , the eighth flown as part of the Salyut programme . Launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket , the station was the first of the ' second @-@ generation ' type of space station . Salyut 6 possessed several revolutionary advances over the earlier Soviet space stations , which it nevertheless resembled in overall design . These included the addition of a second docking port , a new main propulsion system and the station 's primary scientific instrument , the BST @-@ 1M multispectral telescope . The addition of the second docking port made crew handovers and station resupply by unmanned Progress freighters possible for the first time . The early Salyut stations had no means of resupply or removing accumulated garbage ( aside from the limited amount that cosmonauts could carry in their Soyuz spacecraft ) , nor could the propulsion system be refueled once it exhausted its propellant supply . Consequently , once the consumables launched with the station were used up , its mission had to be concluded and as a result , manned missions had a maximum duration of three months . Progress spacecraft could now bring fresh supplies and propellant and also be used to dispose of waste , which was then destroyed once the spacecraft was deorbited .
Five crew residencies took place over the station 's lifespan , in late 1977 @-@ early 1978 , late 1978 , mid @-@ 1979 , mid @-@ 1980 , and early 1981 , including cosmonauts from Warsaw Pact countries as part of the Intercosmos programme . These crews were responsible for carrying out the primary missions of Salyut 6 , including astronomy , Earth @-@ resources observations and the study of the effect of spaceflight on the human body . Following the completion of these missions and the launch of its successor , Salyut 7 , Salyut 6 was deorbited on 29 July 1982 , almost five years after its launch .
= = Description = =
Salyut 6 , launched on a Proton 8K82K rocket on 29 September 1977 , marked the switch from engineering development stations to routine operations , and united the most effective elements from each of the previous stations . Its navigation system , made up of the Delta semi @-@ automatic computer to depict the station 's orbit and the Kaskad system to control its orientation , was based on that used on Salyut 4 , as was its power system , which consisted of a trio of steerable solar panels together producing a peak of 4 kilowatts of power over 51 m ² . The station 's thermal regulation systems , which made use of a sophisticated arrangement of insulation and radiators , was also derived from that used on Salyut 4 . In addition , Salyut 6 made use of environmental systems first used on Salyut 3 , and controlled its orientation using gyrodynes first tested on that station .
The most important feature on Salyut 6 , however , was the addition of a second docking port on the aft end of the station , which allowed two spacecraft to be docked at once . This , in turn , allowed resident crews to receive shorter , ' visiting ' expeditions whilst they remained on board , and for crew handovers to take place . In addition , it allowed Soyuz spacecraft that had exceeded their operating lifespan to be returned to Earth and replaced by fresh ones ( the Soyuz 7K used from 1972 @-@ 81 had a maximum operating lifespan of three months ) . Such handovers , with one expedition vacating the station only after the next had arrived , permitted the long sought @-@ after aim of continuous occupation to move a step closer . The very first long @-@ duration crew to visit the station broke a long @-@ standing endurance record set on board the American Skylab station , staying 96 days in orbit , whilst the longest expedition lasted 185 days . Some of the visiting expeditions were flown as part of the Intercosmos programme , with non @-@ Soviet cosmonauts visiting the station . Vladimír Remek of Czechoslovakia , the first space traveller not from the US or USSR , visited Salyut 6 in 1978 , and the station hosted cosmonauts from Hungary , Poland , Romania , Cuba , Mongolia , Vietnam , and East Germany .
The rearward of the two ports was fitted with plumbing to allow the station to be refueled by unmanned Progress spacecraft . These freighters , which brought supplies and extra equipment to keep the station replenished , helped ensure that the crew were always able to carry out useful scientific work aboard the station . In all , twelve Progress flights delivered over 20 tonnes of equipment , supplies and fuel .
The addition of the extra docking port caused the adoption of the Almaz @-@ derived twin @-@ chamber propulsion system first used on Salyut 3 and 5 , with the two engine nozzles — each producing 2 @.@ 9 kilonewtons of thrust — mounted peripherally on either side of the aft port . Salyut 6 introduced a Unified Propulsion System , with both the engines and the station 's control thrusters running on unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide , drawn from a common set of pressurized tanks , allowing the refueling capabilities of the visiting Progress tankers to be exploited to the maximum effect . The entire engine and fuel storage assembly was contained within an unpressurized bay at the rear of the station , which was the same diameter as the main pressurized compartment . However , the replacement of the Soyuz engine used on previous stations with the bay meant that the station kept a similar overall length to its predecessors . The main engines could not be fired if the rear docking port was in use , hence any orbital maneuvers during this time had to be performed by the visiting spacecraft .
Salyut 6 's propulsion system experienced a serious malfunction during the second crew residency in 1978 and was not usable again for the remainder of the station 's lifespan . As a consequence , it was limited to firing its attitude control thrusters and visiting spacecraft had to perform orbital adjustments . After each crew residency ended , it was necessary for Progress and TKS spacecraft to boost the station into a high orbit so it wouldn 't decay until the next residency began .
To enable spacewalks , Salyut 6 was equipped with an inward @-@ opening EVA hatch on the side of the forward transfer compartment , which could be used as an airlock in a similar way to the system used on Salyut 4 . This compartment contained two new semi @-@ rigid spacesuits which allowed much greater flexibility than earlier suits , and could be donned within five minutes in case of an emergency . Finally , the station offered considerable improvements in living conditions over previous outposts , with machinery being soundproofed , the crews being provided with designated ' cots ' for sleeping and the equipping of the station with a shower and extensive gymnasium .
= = = Instruments = = =
The primary instrument carried aboard the station was the BST @-@ 1M multispectral telescope , which could carry out astronomical observations in the infrared , ultraviolet and submillimetre spectra using a 1 @.@ 5 metre @-@ diameter mirror which was operated in cryogenic conditions at around − 269 ° C. The telescope could be operated only when Salyut 6 was on the night side of the Earth , and had its cover closed for the rest of the time .
The second major instrument was the MKF @-@ 6M multispectral camera , which carried out Earth @-@ resources observations . An improved form of a camera first tested on Soyuz 22 , the camera captured an area of 165 × 220 kilometres with each image , down to a resolution of 20 metres . Each image was captured simultaneously in six bands in 1200 @-@ frame cassettes , which required regular replacement due to the fogging effects of radiation . Salyut 6 also featured a KATE @-@ 140 stereoscopic topographic mapping camera with a focal length of 140 milimetres , which captured images of 450 × 450 kilometres with a resolution of 50 metres in the visible and infrared spectra , which could be operated either remotely or by the resident crews . The photographic capabilities of the station were , therefore , extensive , and the Soviet Ministry of Agriculture had planted a number of specifically selected crops at test sites to examine the capabilities of the cameras .
To further expand its scientific capabilities , Salyut 6 was equipped with 20 portholes for observations , two scientific airlocks to expose equipment to space or eject rubbish , and various pieces of apparatus to carry out biological experiments . Later on during the flight , a Progress spacecraft delivered an external telescope , the KRT @-@ 10 radio observatory , which incorporated a directional antenna and five radiometers . The antenna was deployed on the rear docking assembly , with the controller remaining inside the station , and was used for both astronomical and meteorological observations .
= = Support craft = =
Salyut 6 was primarily supported by the manned Soyuz spacecraft , which carried out crew rotations and would also have been used in the event of an emergency evacuation . The ferries docked automatically to the station , making use of the new Igla automatic docking system , and were used by departing crews to return to Earth at the end of their flight .
The station was the first to be able to be resupplied by the newly developed unmanned Progress freighters , although they could only dock at the rear port , as the front port lacked the plumbing used to refuel the propulsion system . The freighters docked automatically to the station via the Igla , and were then opened and emptied by the cosmonauts on board , whilst transfer of fuel to the station took place automatically under supervision from the ground .
In addition to the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft , after the final crew had left , Salyut 6 was visited by an experimental transport logistics spacecraft called Kosmos 1267 in 1982 . The transport logistics spacecraft , known as the TKS , was originally designed for the Almaz programme , and proved that large modules could dock automatically with space stations , a major step toward the construction of multimodular stations such as Mir and the International Space Station .
= = Resident crews = =
The station received 16 cosmonaut crews , including six long @-@ duration crews , with the longest expedition lasting 185 days . Resident crew missions were identified with an EO prefix , whilst short @-@ duration missions were identified with EP .
On 10 December 1977 the first resident crew , Yuri Romanenko and Georgi Grechko , arrived on Soyuz 26 and remained aboard Salyut 6 for 96 days .
On 15 June 1978 , Vladimir Kovalyonok and Aleksandr Ivanchenkov ( Soyuz 29 ) arrived and remained on board for 140 days .
Vladimir Lyakhov and Valery Ryumin ( Soyuz 32 ) arrived on 25 February 1979 and stayed 175 days .
On 9 April 1980 Leonid Popov and Valery Ryumin ( Soyuz 35 ) arrived for the longest stay on Salyut 6 , 185 days . While aboard , on 19 July , they sent their greetings to the Olympians and wished them happy starts in the live communication between the station and the Central Lenin Stadium , where the opening ceremony of the 1980 Summer Olympics was held . They appeared on the stadium 's scoreboard and their voices were translated via loud speakers .
A repair mission , consisting of Leonid Kizim , Oleg Makarov , and Gennady Strekalov ( Soyuz T @-@ 3 ) worked on the space station for 12 days starting on 27 November 1980 .
On 12 March 1981 the last resident crew , Vladimir Kovalyonok and Viktor Savinykh , arrived and stayed for 75 days .
= = Station operations = =
= = = Docking operations = = =
Dates and times are 24 @-@ hour Moscow Time . Source :
= = = Station crews = = =
Dates and times are 24 @-@ hour Coordinated Universal Time .
= = = Spacewalks = = =
Dates and times are 24 @-@ hour Coordinated Universal Time . Source :
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= HMS Achilles ( 1863 ) =
HMS Achilles was an armoured frigate built for the Royal Navy in the 1860s . Upon completion in 1864 she was assigned to the Channel Fleet . The ship was paid off in 1868 to refit and be re @-@ armed . When she recommissioned in 1869 , she was assigned as the guard ship of the Fleet Reserve in the Portland District until 1874 . Achilles was refitted and re @-@ armed again in 1874 and became the guard ship of the Liverpool District in 1875 . Two years later , she was rejoined the Channel Fleet before going to the Mediterranean in 1878 . The ship returned to the Channel Fleet in 1880 and served until she was paid off in 1885 .
Achilles was recommissioned in 1901 as a depot ship at Malta under a succession of different names . She was transferred to Chatham in 1914 and was again renamed multiple times before she was sold for scrap in 1923 . Achilles had more changes of her rigging and armament than any other British warship , before or since .
= = Design and description = =
Achilles was the third member of the 1861 Naval Programme and was designed as an improved version of the earlier Warrior @-@ class armoured frigates with a complete waterline armour belt .
The ship was 380 feet 2 inches ( 115 @.@ 9 m ) long between perpendiculars , had a beam of 58 feet 3 inches ( 17 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 27 feet 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 3 m ) . She displaced 9 @,@ 820 long tons ( 9 @,@ 980 t ) and had a tonnage of 6 @,@ 121 bm . The hull was subdivided by watertight transverse bulkheads into 106 compartments and had a double bottom . Achilles was designed with a high centre of gravity and was very stiff . So much so that the ship only rolled 10 degrees during one storm that ripped the main and mizen topgallant masts off and split her topsails . Because of her great length she was not very manoeuvrable . Achilles had a crew of 709 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship had a single two @-@ cylinder trunk steam engine made by John Penn and Sons driving a single 24 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) propeller . Ten rectangular boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 25 psi ( 172 kPa ; 2 kgf / cm2 ) . During her sea trials on 15 March 1865 , Achilles had a maximum speed of 14 @.@ 32 knots ( 26 @.@ 52 km / h ; 16 @.@ 48 mph ) from 5 @,@ 722 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 267 kW ) . The ship carried 750 long tons ( 760 t ) of coal , enough to steam 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at 6 @.@ 5 knots ( 12 @.@ 0 km / h ; 7 @.@ 5 mph ) .
As built , Achilles was ship @-@ rigged with four masts , called bow , fore , main and mizen from fore to aft , and she was the only British warship ever to have four masts . They carried a total of 44 @,@ 000 square feet ( 4 @,@ 088 m2 ) of sail area , excluding the stunsails , the greatest area ever spread in a British warship . Her performance was unsatisfactory when the wind was before the beam and her bowsprit and bowmast were removed in June 1865 in an attempt to correct this problem . However , now she had too much weather helm so the bowsprit was replaced and the foremast was moved forward 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) in July 1866 . This reduced her sail area to 30 @,@ 133 square feet ( 2 @,@ 799 m2 ) . In 1877 Achilles was rerigged as a barque . Both of her funnels were retractable to reduce wind resistance while under sail alone .
= = = Armament = = =
The intended armament of Achilles changed no less than five times before it was finally mounted . She received four rifled 110 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns mounted on the upper deck , two of which served as chase guns at the bow and stern , and 16 smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 100 @-@ pounder Somerset cannon , eight on each side on the main deck . The breech @-@ loading guns were a new design from Armstrong and much was hoped for them . Firing tests carried out in September 1861 against an armoured target , however , proved that the 110 @-@ pounder was inferior to the 68 @-@ pounder smoothbore gun in armour penetration and repeated incidents of breech explosions during the Battles for Shimonoseki and the Bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 – 64 caused the navy to withdraw the gun from service shortly afterwards . In 1865 , six 68 @-@ pounder smoothbores were added , three on each side of the main deck , although she was not comprehensively rearmed until her 1868 refit .
Detailed data for the Somerset cannon is not available , but the 7 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 201 mm ) solid shot of the 68 @-@ pounder gun weighed approximately 68 pounds ( 30 @.@ 8 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 10 @,@ 640 pounds ( 4 @,@ 826 @.@ 2 kg ) . The gun had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 579 ft / s ( 481 m / s ) and had a range of 3 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of 12 ° . The seven @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 110 @-@ pounder Armstrong breech @-@ loader weighed 107 – 110 pounds ( 48 @.@ 5 – 49 @.@ 9 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 350 m / s ) and , at an elevation of 11 @.@ 25 ° , a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . The 110 @-@ pounder gun weighed 9 @,@ 520 pounds ( 4 @,@ 318 @.@ 2 kg ) . All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
Achilles was rearmed during her 1867 – 68 refit with 22 seven @-@ inch and eight 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The eight @-@ inch guns and 18 seven @-@ inch guns were mounted on the main deck and the remaining seven @-@ inch guns replaced the 110 @-@ pounders on the upper deck . The shell of the 15 @-@ calibre eight @-@ inch gun weighed 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) while the gun itself weighed nine long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 16 @-@ calibre seven @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 pounds ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour .
In 1874 the ship was rearmed with 16 nine @-@ inch rifled muzzle @-@ loaders replacing the 4 eight @-@ inch and 20 of the 22 seven @-@ inch guns . Fourteen of the nine @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) guns were mounted on the main deck and the other two replaced the seven @-@ inch chase guns . The two remaining seven @-@ inch guns stayed in their position on the quarterdeck . As the nine @-@ inch guns were considerably bigger than their predecessors , the gun ports had to be widened to accommodate them . The shell of the 14 @-@ calibre nine @-@ inch gun weighed 254 pounds ( 115 @.@ 2 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 12 long tons ( 12 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 420 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was rated with the ability to penetrate a 11 @.@ 3 inches ( 287 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle .
= = = Armour = = =
The ship had a wrought iron waterline armour belt that ran the full length of the ship . Amidships , it was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick for a length of 212 feet ( 64 @.@ 6 m ) and tapered to a thickness of 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) to the ends of the ship . The armour extended 5 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) below the waterline . The main deck was protected by a strake of armour , also 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch thick and 212 feet long . To protect against raking fire the upper strake was closed off by 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads at each end .
= = Construction and service = =
Achilles , named after the Greek mythological hero , was ordered on 10 April 1861 from the Chatham Dockyard . She was the first iron @-@ hulled warship to be built at a royal dockyard and her construction was delayed by the need to acquire the necessary machinery to handle iron and to train the workers to use it . The ship was laid down on 1 August 1861 in a drydock and was floated out rather than being launched on 23 December 1863 . Achilles was completed on 26 November 1864 at the cost of £ 469 @,@ 572 .
She served in the Channel Fleet until 1868 . After a refit and her first major re @-@ armament , Achilles became the guardship at Portland until 1874 when she was again re @-@ armed . Upon its completion in 1875 , the ship became guardship at Liverpool until 1877 when Captain William Hewett , VC , assumed command . In 1878 she was one of the ships in the Particular Service Squadron which Admiral Geoffrey Hornby took through the Dardanelles at the time of the Russian war scare in June – August 1878 during the Russo @-@ Turkish War . Achilles accidentally collided with the flagship of the Mediterranean Fleet , Alexandra , in October 1879 , but was only lightly damaged by Alexandra 's propeller . The ship rejoined the Channel Fleet in 1880 and was paid off in 1885 .
She lay derelict in the Hamoaze until April 1901 , when she was sent to Malta as a depot ship . To release her name for the new armoured cruiser , Achilles was renamed Hibernia in 1902 . She was renamed Egmont in March 1904 , and remained in Malta until 1914 . Her role in Malta was assumed by the stone frigate Fort St Angelo . She was brought home to Chatham that year , and served there as a depot ship under the successive names of Egremont ( 19 June 1916 ) and Pembroke ( 6 June 1919 ) . The ship was sold for scrap on 26 January 1923 to the Granton Shipbreaking Co .
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= M3 Gun Motor Carriage =
The M3 Gun Motor Carriage ( GMC ) was a United States Army tank destroyer equipped with one 75 mm gun and was produced by Autocar . After the fall of France , the U.S. Army decided to make a self @-@ propelled artillery piece from the M1897A4 gun on the M3 chassis , which was designated the T12 . After some improvement , it came into production as the M3 Gun Motor Carriage . However , the supply of M2A3 gun shields was insufficient for production needs , so a new gun shield was used . This was designated the M3A1 GMC .
The T12 / M3 first served in the Philippines Campaign in 1942 with the Provisional Field Artillery Brigade in the anti @-@ tank and the fire @-@ support role . It then served in North Africa in tank destroyer battalions . It was used ineffectively in the Battle of Kasserine Pass and several other engagements , but was used with success in the Battle of El Guettar . It also served in the Allied invasion of Sicily , but was eventually superseded by the M10 tank destroyer . A total of 2 @,@ 203 were produced , of which 1 @,@ 361 were converted back into M3A1 half @-@ tracks .
The M3 GMC also served in the Pacific theater , starting with the Battle of Saipan . It proved effective against the Japanese Type 95 Ha @-@ Go and Type 97 Chi @-@ Ha tanks . It later served in the Battle of Okinawa , the Battle of Peleliu and many other island battles .
= = Specifications = =
The M3 GMC was 20 @.@ 46 feet ( 6 @.@ 24 m ) long , 6 @.@ 45 feet ( 1 @.@ 97 m ) wide , 8 @.@ 17 feet ( 2 @.@ 49 m ) high ( including the gun shield ) , and weighed 20 @,@ 000 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . Its suspension consisted of semi @-@ elliptical longitudal leaf springs for the wheels and vertical volute springs for the tracks , while its transmission consisted of constant mesh . Its ground clearance was 11 @.@ 2 inches ( 280 mm ) .
It had a White 160AX 147 horsepower ( 110 kW ) , 386 cubic inch ( 6 @,@ 330 cc ) , 6 @-@ cylinder engine with a compression ratio of 6 @.@ 44 : 1 . It had a 150 mile ( 240 km ) range , 60 US gal ( 230 l ) fuel tank , a speed of 47 mph ( 75 km / h ) , and a power to weight ratio of 14 @.@ 7 hp per ton . It was armed with one 75 mm M1897A5 with 59 rounds , had 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 625 in ( 6 @.@ 4 – 15 @.@ 9 mm ) of armor , and a crew of five consisting of a commander , gunner , two loaders , and a driver . The M3 ( with the M2A3 mount ) could traverse 19 ° left and 21 ° right , elevate 29 ° and depress − 10 ° . The M3A1 ( using the M5 mount ) could traverse 21 ° in both directions , but could only depress − 6 @.@ 5 ° .
= = Development = =
After the fall of France , the U.S. Army studied the reasons behind the effectiveness of the German campaign against the French and British forces . One aspect that was highlighted by this study was the use of self propelled artillery ; however , by 1941 , there was little available in the U.S. Army 's arsenal that could be used in such a role . The Army had a number of M1897A5 guns , sufficient enough for the mass @-@ production for such a weapon , and the M3 half @-@ track was coming into production . After some debate , the Army decided to place M1897A5 guns on the M3 half @-@ track chassis , which was designated the T12 GMC . The M1897A5 gun was originally adapted for the M3 chassis by placing it in a welded box riveted to the chassis behind the driver 's compartment . It was accepted by the Army on 31 October 1941 .
A batch of 36 T12s were used for testing , while another 50 were built and transported to the Philippines . The 36 T12s were improved in multiple ways . The improvements included the inclusion of a mount that raised the gun shield , the replacement of the original gun shield with the M2A3 gun shield , and the addition of a 0 @.@ 5 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) M2 Browning machine gun , which was later removed . After the final improvements were finished , the prototype vehicles were sent to the Autocar Company for production .
= = = M3A1 = = =
As the existing supply of M2A3 gun shields was insufficient to meet requirements for the production of the M3 , the Ordnance Department developed the M5 gun shield , which replaced the M2A3 . The new design was designated as the M3A1 Gun Motor Carriage .
= = Service history = =
= = = American use = = =
The T12 / M3 GMC first saw action with the U.S. Army in the Philippines in 1941 – 42 , six months after it was designed . Three battalions of the Provisional Field Artillery Brigade operated T12s against the Japanese when they invaded the Philippines . During the early part of the campaign , the vehicle was used to provide direct covering fire and anti @-@ tank support . The Japanese captured a few vehicles in 1942 and used them in the defense of the Philippines .
By 1942 , M3 GMCs were being used by tank destroyer battalions in the North African Campaign , each of which consisted of 36 M3s and four 37 mm M6 GMCs . The M3 GMCs , which were designed for ambushing tanks , proved to be inadequate for this task in the battles of Sidi Bou Zid and Kasserine Pass , mainly due to poor tactics . Nevertheless , the M3 was later used in the Battle of El Guettar with success , claiming 30 German tanks , including possibly two Tiger tanks , at the cost of 21 M3s . Some M3s also saw service in Allied invasion of Sicily ( Operation Husky ) , but by that time , the M10 tank destroyer had replaced it in the U.S. Army . A total of 1 @,@ 360 M3 GMCs were also converted back into M3A1 half @-@ tracks .
The M3 also served with the U.S. Marines in the Pacific Theater of Operations and was first used in the invasion of Saipan . It proved highly effective against the Type 95 Ha @-@ Go and the Type 97 Chi @-@ Ha , in the fight against the Japanese 9th Tank Regiment on Saipan . It also served in the Battle of Peleliu and the Battle of Okinawa , and many other conflicts in the Pacific .
= = = Allied use = = =
The M3 GMC saw limited service with other countries as it was not widely supplied through the Lend @-@ Lease program . A small batch of 170 vehicles were supplied to Britain , which used them in armored car regiments . They were first used in the Tunisian Campaign with the Royal Dragoons . They were also used in Sicily , Italy , and later in France , but were gradually retired . The Free French Army also used M3s for training before receiving M10 tank destroyers .
= = Production = =
A total of 2 @,@ 202 M3 GMCs were produced from 1941 to 1943 . Only 86 vehicles were produced in 1941 , but this was increased in 1942 during which 1 @,@ 350 examples came off the production lines . A further 766 were completed in 1943 . Production was stopped due to the release of better tank destroyers , like the M10 GMC .
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= Óengus I =
Óengus son of Fergus ( Pictish : * Onuist map Urguist ; Old Irish : Óengus mac Fergusso , " Angus mac Fergus " ) , was king of the Picts from 732 until his death in 761 . His reign can be reconstructed in some detail from a variety of sources .
Óengus became the chief king in Pictland following a period of civil war in the late 720s . During his reign , the neighbouring kingdom of Dál Riata was subjugated and the kingdom of Strathclyde was attacked with less success . The most powerful ruler in Scotland for over two decades , he was involved in wars in Ireland and England . Kings from Óengus 's family dominated Pictland until 839 when a disastrous defeat at the hands of Vikings began a new period of instability , which ended with the coming to power of Cináed mac Ailpín .
= = Rise to power = =
Irish genealogies make Óengus a member of the Eóganachta of Munster , as a descendant of Coirpre Cruthnechán or " Cairbre the little Pict " , a mythological emanation or double of Coirpre Luachra mac Cuirc , legendary son of Conall Corc , and ancestor of the Eóganacht Locha Léin , rulers of the kingdom of Iarmuman . The branch of the kindred from which he came , known in the annals as the Eoghanachta Magh Geirginn , were said to be located in an area known as Circinn , usually associated with modern Angus and the Mearns . His early life is unknown ; Óengus was middle @-@ aged by the time he entered into history . His close kin included at least two sons , Bridei ( died 736 ) and Talorgan ( died 782 ) , and two brothers , Talorgan ( died 750 ) and Bridei ( died 763 ) .
King Nechtan son of Der @-@ Ile abdicated to enter a monastery in 724 and was imprisoned by his successor Drest in 726 . In 728 and 729 , four kings competed for power in Pictland : Drest ; Nechtan ; Alpín , of whom little is known ; and lastly Óengus , who was a partisan of Nechtan , and perhaps his acknowledged heir .
Four battles large enough to be recorded in Ireland were fought in 728 and 729 . Alpín was defeated twice by Óengus , after which Nechtan was restored to power . In 729 a battle between supporters of Óengus and Nechtan 's enemies was fought at Monith Carno ( traditionally Cairn o ' Mount , near Fettercairn ) where the supporters of Óengus were victorious . Nechtan was restored to the kingship , probably until his death in 732 . On 12 August 729 Óengus defeated and killed Drest in battle at Druimm Derg Blathuug , a place which has not been identified .
= = Piercing of Dal Riata = =
In the 730s , Óengus fought against Dál Riata whose traditional overlords and protectors in Ireland , the Cenél Conaill , were much weakened at this time . A fleet from Dál Riata fought for Flaithbertach mac Loingsig , chief of the Cenél Conaill , in his war with Áed Allán of the Cenél nEógan , and suffered heavy losses in 733 . Dál Riata was ruled by Eochaid mac Echdach of the Cenél nGabráin who died in 733 , and the king lists are unclear as to who , if anyone , succeeded him as overking . The Cenél Loairn of north Argyll were ruled by Dúngal mac Selbaig whom Eochaid had deposed as overking of Dál Riata in the 720s .
Fighting between the Picts , led by Óengus 's son Bridei , and the Dál Riata , led by Talorgan mac Congussa , is recorded in 731 . In 733 , Dúngal mac Selbaig " profaned [ the sanctuary ] of Tory Island when he dragged Bridei out of it . " Dúngal , previously deposed as overking of Dál Riata , was overthrown as king of the Cenél Loairn and replaced by his first cousin Muiredach mac Ainbcellaig .
In 734 Talorgan mac Congussa was handed over to the Picts by his brother and drowned by them . Talorgan son of Drostan was captured near Dún Ollaigh . He appears to have been the King of Atholl , and was drowned on Óengus 's order in 739 . Dúngal too was a target in this year . He was wounded , the unidentified fortress of Dún Leithfinn was destroyed , and he " fled into Ireland , to be out of the power of Óengus . "
The annals report a second campaign by Óengus against the Dál Riata in 736 . Dúngal , who had returned from Ireland , and his brother Feradach , were captured and bound in chains . The fortresses of Creic and Dunadd were taken . Muiredach of the Cenél Loairn was no more successful , defeated with heavy loss by Óengus 's brother Talorgan mac Fergusa , perhaps by Loch Awe . A final campaign in 741 saw the Dál Riata again defeated . This was recorded in the Annals of Ulster as Percutio Dál Riatai la h @-@ Óengus m . Forggusso , the " smiting of Dál Riata by Óengus son of Fergus " . With this Dál Riata disappears from the record for a generation .
It may be that Óengus was involved in wars in Ireland , perhaps fighting with Áed Allán , or against him as an ally of Cathal mac Finguine . The evidence for such involvement is limited . There is the presence of Óengus 's son Bridei at Tory Island , on the north @-@ west coast of Donegal in 733 , close to the lands of Áed Allán 's enemy Flaithbertach mac Loingsig . Less certainly , the Fragmentary Annals of Ireland report the presence of a Pictish fleet from Fortriu fighting for Flaithbertach in 733 rather than against him .
= = Alt Clut , Northumbria , and Mercia = =
In 740 , a war between the Picts and the Northumbrians is reported , during which Æthelbald , King of Mercia , took advantage of the absence of Eadberht of Northumbria to ravage his lands , and perhaps burn York . The reason for the war is unclear , but it has been suggested that it was related to the killing of Earnwine son of Eadwulf on Eadberht 's orders . Earnwine 's father had been an exile in the north after his defeat in the civil war of 705 – 706 , and it may be that Óengus , or Æthelbald , or both , had tried to place him on the Northumbrian throne .
Battles between the Picts and the Britons of Alt Clut , or Strathclyde , are recorded in 744 and again in 750 , when Kyle was taken from Alt Clut by Eadberht of Northumbria . The 750 battle between the Britons and the Picts is reported at a place named Mocetauc ( perhaps Mugdock near Milngavie ) in which Talorgan mac Fergusa , Óengus 's brother , was killed . Following the defeat in 750 , the Annals of Ulster record " the ebbing of the sovereignty of Óengus " . This is thought to refer to the coming to power of Áed Find , son of Eochaid mac Echdach , in all or part of Dál Riata , and his rejection of Óengus 's overlordship .
Unlike the straightforward narrative of the attacks on Dál Riata , a number of interpretations have been offered of the relations between Óengus , Eadberht and Æthelbald in the period from 740 to 750 . One suggestion is that Óengus and Æthelbald were allied against Eadberht , or even that they exercised a joint rulership of Britain , or bretwaldaship , Óengus collecting tribute north of the River Humber and Æthelbald south of the Humber . This rests largely on a confused passage in Symeon of Durham 's Historia Regum Anglorum , and it has more recently been suggested that the interpretation offered by Frank Stenton — that it is based on a textual error and that Óengus and Æthelbald were not associated in any sort of joint overlordship — is the correct one .
In 756 , Óengus is found campaigning alongside Eadberht of Northumbria . The campaign is reported as follows :
In the year of the Lord 's incarnation 756 , king Eadberht in the eighteenth year of his reign , and Unust , king of Picts led armies to the town of Dumbarton . And hence the Britons accepted terms there , on the first day of the month of August . But on the tenth day of the same month perished almost the whole army which he led from Ouania to Niwanbirig .
That Ouania is Govan is now reasonably certain , but the location of Newanbirig is less so . Although there are very many Newburghs , it is Newburgh @-@ on @-@ Tyne near Hexham that has been the preferred location . An alternative interpretation of the events of 756 has been advanced : it identifies Newanbirig with Newborough by Lichfield in the kingdom of Mercia . A defeat here for Eadberht and Óengus by Æthelbald 's Mercians would correspond with the claim in the Saint Andrews foundation legends that a king named Óengus son of Fergus founded the church there as a thanksgiving to Saint Andrew for saving him after a defeat in Mercia .
= = The cult of Saint Andrew = =
The story of the foundation of St Andrews , originally Cennrígmonaid , is not contemporary and may contain many inventions . The Irish annals report the death of " Tuathalán , abbot of Cinrigh Móna " , in 747 , making it certain that St Andrews had been founded before that date , probably by Óengus or by Nechtan son of Der @-@ Ilei . It is generally presumed that the St Andrews Sarcophagus was executed at the command of Óengus . Later generations may have conflated this king Óengus with the 9th century king of the same name . The choice of David as a model is , as Alex Woolf notes , an appropriate one : David too was an usurper .
The cult of Saint Andrew may have come to Pictland from Northumbria , as had the cult of Saint Peter which had been favoured by Nechtan , and in particular from the monastery at Hexham which was dedicated to Saint Andrew . This apparent connection with the Northumbrian church may have left a written record . Óengus , like his successors and possible kinsmen Caustantín and Eógan , is recorded prominently in the Liber Vitae Ecclesiae Dunelmensis , a list of some 3000 benefactors for whom prayers were said in religious institutions connected with Durham .
= = Death and legacy = =
Óengus died in 761 , " aged probably more than seventy , ... the dominating figure in the politics of Northern Britain " . His death is reported in the usual brief style by the annalists , except for the continuator of Bede in Northumbria , possibly relying upon a Dál Riata source , who wrote :
Óengus , king of the Picts , died . From the beginning of his reign right to the end he perpetrated bloody crimes , like a tyrannical slaughterer .
The Pictish Chronicle king lists have it that he was succeeded by his brother Bridei . His son Talorgan was later king , and is the first son of a Pictish king known to have become king .
The following 9th @-@ century Irish praise poem from the Book of Leinster is associated with Óengus :
Good the day when Óengus took Alba ,
hilly Alba with its strong chiefs ;
he brought battle to palisaded towns ,
with feet , with hands , with broad shields .
An assessment of Óengus is problematic , not least because annalistic sources provide very little information on Scotland in the succeeding generations . His apparent Irish links add to the long list of arguments which challenge the idea that the " Gaelicisation " of eastern Scotland began in the time of Cináed mac Ailpín ; indeed there are good reasons for believing that process began before Óengus 's reign . Many of the Pictish kings until the death of Eógan mac Óengusa in 839 belong to the family of Óengus , in particular the 9th century sons of Fergus , Caustantín and Óengus .
The amount of information which has survived about Óengus compared with other Pictish kings , the nature and geographical range of his activities and the length of his reign combine to make King Óengus one of the most significant rulers of the insular Dark Ages .
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= 1 : Nenokkadine =
1 : Nenokkadine ( English : 1 : Lonely One ) is a 2014 Indian Telugu @-@ language psychological thriller film written and directed by Sukumar . Produced by Ram Achanta , Gopichand Achanta , and Anil Sunkara as 14 Reels Entertainment and distributed by Eros International , the film features Mahesh Babu and Kriti Sanon in the lead roles ( Sanon 's Telugu cinema debut ) . Nassar , Pradeep Rawat , Kelly Dorji , and Anu Hasan appear in supporting roles . Mahesh 's son , Gautham Krishna , made his debut in the film as a younger version of the protagonist .
1 : Nenokkadine revolves around the search by Gautham ( a schizophrenic Indian rock musician missing 25 percent of his brain 's grey matter ) for his parents , whom he believes were murdered by three men . Sameera , a journalist , convinces him that he is an orphan and is hallucinating . When Gautham kills one of the " imaginary " men for his psychological satisfaction , he realises that the dead man is real and leaves for London to find his roots and the other two men behind his parents ' death .
Sukumar began working on 1 : Nenokkadine 's script after completing 100 % Love ( 2011 ) , making a bus driver 's tale about a boy who claimed that his parents were murdered on his bus the film 's base . R. Rathnavelu was the film 's director of photography , and Karthika Srinivas its editor . Devi Sri Prasad composed the soundtrack and background score . 1 : Nenokkadine was introduced on 12 February 2012 and principal photography , which began on 23 April 2012 , was completed in late December 2013 . It was filmed in London , Belfast , Bangkok and Indian cities including Hyderabad , Mumbai , Goa , Chennai and Bangalore .
Produced on a budget of ₹ 700 million , 1 : Nenokkadine was released on 10 January 2014 on about 1 @,@ 500 screens during the Makar Sankranti festival season . Grossing over $ 1 @.@ 27 million , 1 : Nenokkadine became the fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing Telugu film in history at the United States box office . The film won three awards from eight nominations at the 4th South Indian International Movie Awards , and two awards at the 11th CineMAA Awards . It was dubbed into Tamil and Malayalam as Number 1 and into Hindi as 1 : Ek Ka Dum ( English : One Man 's Courage ) .
= = Plot = =
Gautham is a schizophrenic Indian rock musician who is missing 25 percent of his grey matter . He hallucinates a mysterious person he believes is one of the three murderers of his parents . As a child , Gautham was convinced that he was an orphan and assumes that his parents are dead ; he does not remember their names or what they looked like .
At one of his concerts , Gautham sees one of the three men and chases him . Sameera , a journalist at the concert , films Gautham fighting his imaginary opponent . Gautham surrenders to the police after " killing " the man , confessing that he killed three men : one in Belfast , one in Pune and one just now in Hyderabad . He is released from custody after Sameera broadcasts the video on television . According to his doctor , if Gautham can hallucinate a person other than the three men , he can be treated . Gautham goes to Goa on vacation . Sameera stalks him , convincing him that two people are stalking him : a journalist who wants to interview him ( imaginary ) , and a person claiming to be his fan ( real ) . Gautham begins to fall in love with Sameera . He saves her from a group of people trying to murder her ; on an isolated island together Gautham learns the truth behind the fourth imaginary person and writes Sameera off as a disturbed journalist . By the time he learns about Sameera 's intentions , she has left for Hyderabad ; Gautham pursues her .
In Hyderabad , Gautham accidentally spoils Sameera 's birthday plans , infuriating her . Although he is convinced that he has made up an enemy to cope with being an orphan , a mysterious person tries to kill Sameera . Gautham saves her and proposes marriage , which she accepts . Sameera learns that the mysterious person is Antonio Rosarios , a Goa @-@ based crime boss who wants to kill her because she tried to expose the presence of hydrogen cyanide in seeds sold by Rosarios ' company , AG1 . Gautham meets Rosarios in the lobby of Sameera 's office building . Assuming that he is an illusion , he shoots Rosarios in his head . By the time Gautham realises Rosarios is real he is dead , and Gautham learns that his parents were murdered . He catches an aged taxi driver who was stalking him ( one of the three men he imagined ) , and learns that two London @-@ based Indians ( one of whom was Rosarios ) killed his parents ; his father gave the taxi driver a bag to give to Gautham . In the bag is an old Rubik 's Cube , a key and a British coin .
Gautham and Sameera go to London , where they and their driver Gulaab Singh escape from a murder attempt ; Gautham 's manager , Michael , is killed . The Rubik 's Cube , when solved a certain way , reveals a safe @-@ deposit @-@ box number in which Gautham finds a preserved rice sample . After escaping another murder attempt in a parking lot , he eludes the police and the two men with Sameera and Singh 's help . One of the men — a fan — seeks revenge for his father ( one of the other murderers , according to the aged taxi driver ) , who was killed by Gautham in Belfast when he performed there . Gautham learns that the aged taxi driver he met previously is a businessman and the murderer ; the person hit by the businessman 's car in Gautham 's presence was the actual , innocent taxi driver .
Gautham and the businessman confront each other , and the businessman says that he and Gautham 's father were good friends and fellow scientists . They worked on cultivating Golden rice , a variety which could grow in any weather . When Gautham 's father refused to sell it in favour of distributing it globally for free , the businessman and Rosarios killed his parents . When he refuses to tell Gautham about his parents , Gautham kills him . On his way to the airport , Gautham passes the school he had attended and hears children singing a rhyme . It reminds him of a similar rhyme he learned from his mother , and he remembers his way back to his house . At his house ( a dilapidated villa ) Gautham finds a photo of his parents , Chandrasekhar and Kalyani . He later introduces the rice variety at a global convention as " the second green revolution " , and the film ends with Gautham standing in his field of Golden rice .
= = Cast = =
Mahesh Babu as Gautham
Kriti Sanon as Sameera
Gautham Krishna as Young Gautham
Anu Hasan as Kalyani , Gautham 's mother
Anand as Chandrashekhar , Gautham 's father
Nassar as the actual businessman
Kelly Dorji as Antonio Rosarius
Pradeep Rawat as the actual taxi driver
Sayaji Shinde as Inspector John Baadshah
Posani Krishna Murali as Gulaab Singh
Srinivasa Reddy as Baadshah 's subordinate
Naveen Polisetty as the taxi driver 's son
Surya as Gautham 's doctor
Sophie Choudry in the item number " London Babu "
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After completing 100 % Love ( 2011 ) , Sukumar began working on a psychological thriller with Mahesh Babu in mind as the protagonist because he felt that Mahesh had universal appeal . An incident in which a bus driver talked about a young boy who said that his parents were murdered on his bus became the story 's base . Mahesh met Sukumar on the set of Businessman ( 2012 ) in Goa , and listened to the script for 25 minutes . Although Sukumar could not describe the story well in the noisy restaurant , Mahesh agreed to appear in the film within half an hour . Sukumar worked on 1 : Nenokkadine 's script for two months , and considered it his dream project .
Ram Achanta , Gopichand Achanta and Anil Sunkara of 14 Reels Entertainment , who produced Mahesh 's Dookudu ( 2011 ) and Aagadu ( 2014 ) , agreed to produce 1 : Nenokkadine after hearing the script . Asked about his frequent collaboration with them , Mahesh said that Sukumar clearly indicated the risk of budget escalation and longer production and said that he and Sukumar could be viewed as criminals if it was produced by someone else . Sunil Lulla and Andrew Hefferman were credited as co @-@ producers , and Koti Paruchuri was its executive producer . The film , introduced on 12 February 2012 in Hyderabad , received its title in May 2013 .
= = = Casting = = =
Mahesh agreed to be fit and healthy , since the film emphasised action scenes . He followed a 12 @-@ week Dynamic Transformation Plan ( DTP ) supervised by Kris Gethin , developing his abdominal muscles and losing weight . Mahesh then followed a Yoda Three Training regime ( Y3T ) , supervised by Neil Hill , further developing his muscles . His stylist , Ashwin Malwe , said that his appearance and style would be " sophisticated and classy " in the film . Sukumar had Mahesh wear eyeglasses , since the director felt that audiences tended to consider a bespectacled character to be perfectionistic and positive , and the actor 's hairstyle was changed .
Tamannaah was considered for the female lead , since the producers were impressed with her performance in 100 % Love . She declined the offer , citing scheduling conflicts , and the Producer 's Council told her not to sign for any new films until she completed her current assignments . After auditioning two actresses , Sukumar chose Kajal Aggarwal in March 2012 as the female lead . She was replaced by Kriti Sanon in October 2012 , due to scheduling conflicts . Sanon was signed for Heropanti ( 2014 ) after completing one shooting schedule for 1 : Nenokkadine , and divided her time between the films . Sanon , who was involved in several action scenes filmed on the sea , was apprehensive about a scene in which Mahesh took her from a yacht since she did not knew how to swim .
Mahesh 's seven @-@ year @-@ old son , Gautham Krishna , was chosen to play the younger version of the protagonist in his Telugu cinema debut . According to Sukumar , Gautham looked like the actor did as a child . When the director approached Mahesh and his wife , Namrata Shirodkar , Gautham Krishna was only six and they were apprehensive . His introduction scene was filmed silently by Peter Hein , since the boy was afraid of gunfire . Naveen Polisetty played a supporting role as Mahesh 's friend in the film , and Vikram Singh was signed as an antagonist . Nassar , Pradeep Rawat , Kelly Dorji , Sayaji Shinde and Anu Hasan were cast in other supporting roles .
Jacqueline Fernandez was approached to perform an item number in the film , but the producers failed to make a deal and instead signed Sophie Choudry after seeing her performance in " Aala Re Aala " from Shootout at Wadala ( 2013 ) . For her first Telugu song , Choudry joined the film 's set in September 2013 . Sukumar said about the item number , " It 's a superstar ’ s film and it should reach all . Item numbers are common these days and people expect to see them . The situation was that Mahesh had to go to a pub to get information about the person he was looking for . So there was occasion to put in an item number " .
= = = Crew = = =
R. Rathnavelu , who collaborated with Sukumar on Arya ( 2004 ) and Jagadam ( 2007 ) , was the film 's director of photography in his return to Telugu cinema after seven years . Rathnavelu called the film " more challenging aesthetically " and compared it to Enthiran ( 2010 ) , which he considered his technically @-@ toughest film . He created the film 's visual style in a week with a variety of cameras , such as Red Epic , Body Rigs , Doggies and an underwater scuba camera . For the climaxes , Rathnavelu shifted from chrome to black @-@ and @-@ white to full colour in synchronisation with the story 's mood .
Rathnavelu had to address the protagonist 's mood swings and hallucinations , replicating scenes with minor differences . The film was shot in locations with a variety of climates , and new technical crews were hired in those places . Sukumar said , " We looked at world technicians and saw them work and can use whatever we learnt " and called it a " new yet learning experience " [ sic ] .
Sukumar 's usual composer , Devi Sri Prasad , was chosen for the film 's soundtrack and score in Prasad 's first Mahesh film . He went through the script and discussed it with Sukumar , who felt that Prasad translated his vision in the background score . Prasad finished re @-@ recording the film 's second half in four days . Eleven @-@ year @-@ old journalist Smrithika Thuhina 's father was an associate director of the film , and Prasad emailed him the rhyme 's tune with several stills from the scene ; his daughter wrote the lyrics for the rhyme . P. Madhusudhan Reddy was the film 's audiographer .
Peter Hein choreographed 1 : Nenokkadine 's action sequences , and Prem Rakshith choreographed its songs . Jakka Hari Prasad and Palnati Surya Pratap worked on the film 's story , and Y. K. Arjun , Thota Srinivas and Potluri Venkateswara Rao developed the script . Jeremy Zimmerman was credited with the screenplay , assisted by Sunil Madhav . V. Srinivas Mohan was 1 : Nenokkadine 's visual @-@ effects producer and R. C. Kamalakannan and Adel Adili 's visual @-@ effects company , Makuta , worked on the film . Karthika Srinivas was its chief editor , assisted by Siva Saravanan .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on 23 April 2012 , with the filming of " Who R U ? " featuring Mahesh and Aggarwal supervised by Prem Rakshith on a set at Annapurna Studios in Hyderabad . Six hundred models performed in the song , and about 2 @,@ 000 people participated in the shoot . After its completion , an action sequence was filmed . The first shooting schedule wrapped up , and Mahesh returned to the set of Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu ( 2013 ) . The second schedule began on 31 May 2012 on house and colony sets at Saradhi Studios in Hyderabad , including scenes with Mahesh and others . Scenes of Mahesh at the police station were also part of the schedule .
Since the actor had allotted a block of time to Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu , 1 : Nenokkadine 's filming was delayed . When the former neared completion , he resumed work on 1 : Nenokkadine in late September 2012 in Hyderabad . Filming continued in Goa in mid @-@ October , after a four @-@ month hiatus , and a song with Mahesh and others was filmed in late October . The Goa schedule wrapped up on 1 November , with half the filming completed . Mahesh took a break to promote Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu , returning to the set on 23 January 2013 . The next shooting schedule , which began on 18 March , lasted for three weeks . Night scenes focusing on Mahesh and others were filmed in Kukatpally in mid @-@ April .
The next schedule , which began on 18 June , filmed in London and Belfast for 60 days . At the Causeway Pictures studio in Northern Ireland , 1 : Nenokkadine was the first Telugu film shot in Belfast . Hollywood stunt co @-@ ordinator Conrad Palmisano supervised stunts by Mahesh and others . Rathnavelu called the action scene in a London car park " one of the most satisfying " things he had ever done . The scene takes place during a power failure , with the headlights of motorcycles chasing the protagonist the only sources of light . To film the scene , Rathnavelu used LED lamps and three torchlights ; smoke was pumped into the air to create a backdrop . When scenes were filmed on one of London 's three main bridges , traffic was stopped on both sides of the bridge for more than eight hours .
After London , filming continued in Bangkok in August 2013 and in Hyderabad in September ; some scenes were filmed in and near Banjara Hills . The last shooting schedule began in Bangkok in early October 2013 , with action scenes supervised by Peter Hein . The remaining dialogue scenes were filmed in Bangalore in mid @-@ October 2013 . They were finished by late November , and the last song was filmed in Mumbai . Principal photography wrapped in late December 2013 .
= = Soundtrack = =
The film 's five @-@ song soundtrack was composed by Devi Sri Prasad , with lyrics by Chandrabose . Lahari Music acquired its marketing rights for ₹ 10 million , a record for a Telugu film . The soundtrack was released on 19 December 2013 with a promotional event at Shilpakala Vedika in Hyderabad . The event , watched by 14 @,@ 500 people , was shown live in 24 theatres across Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and was the first Indian soundtrack release event shown live in theatres . The rhyme from the film 's climax was released separately on 25 January 2014 .
= = Release = =
1 : Nenokkadine was released globally on 10 January 2014 on about 1 @,@ 500 screens , around the same time as Yevadu ( which was released two days later ) . The film was Mahesh 's third consecutive release during the Makar Sankranti festival season , following Businessman in 2012 and Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu in 2013 . Eros International acquired its global distribution rights for ₹ 720 million , and it was released and distributed by 14 Reels Entertainment . 1 : Nenokkadine was released on 900 screens across Andhra Pradesh and Telangana . Including multiplexes , 108 screens were booked in Hyderabad and there were 600 screenings on the film 's release day . It broke the record held by Attarintiki Daredi ( 2013 ) , which had been released on 100 screens in Hyderabad . 14 Reels Entertainment released the film in Auro 11 @.@ 1 cinema audio format , supported by Barco .
Karnataka distribution rights were sold to RNR Films , who had distributed Dookudu in the state , for ₹ 450 million . 1 : Nenokkadine was released on about 200 screens overseas , a record for a Telugu film . In addition to the United States and the United Kingdom , the film was released in Australia , the Netherlands , Switzerland , Malaysia and Germany ; it was the first Telugu film released in Ukraine . When reaction to the film 's length was mixed , the producers reduced its running time from 169 to 149 minutes . 1 : Nenokkadine had its global television premiere on 8 June 2014 on Gemini TV , with a TRP rating of 7 @.@ 32 . The film was dubbed into Hindi as 1 : Ek Ka Dum that year , and into Malayalam and Tamil as Number 1 in 2015 .
= = = Marketing = = =
A mobile app was released on 10 December 2013 on Google Play , and later on iOS ; 1 : Nenokkadine 's first look , posters , video promos and other promotional material were released through the app . On 19 December 2013 , users could download the film 's soundtrack and purchase bulk pre @-@ release tickets . Its digital @-@ media marketing was handled by Sharath Chandra , Anurag and Rohita of First Show Digital . The digital campaign placed third at the 2014 Indian Digital Media Awards in Mumbai , surpassing that for Krrish 3 . It accounted for 15 percent of total promotional activity , influencing the sale of 7 @,@ 500 tickets on the film 's release day . 1 : Nenokkadine 's YouTube channel had 12 million views ; on Facebook its page received 130 million views , reaching 40 million users and engaging 3 @.@ 9 million people .
South Indian actress Samantha Ruth Prabhu found a poster of Sanon crawling behind Mahesh " regressive " , triggering a backlash on Facebook and Twitter from Mahesh 's fans . Actor Siddharth and filmmaker Sekhar Kammula shared her view , receiving a similar response , and filmmaker Pritish Nandy said that the poster was " gross " and " regressive " . Sukumar later removed that sequence from the film to avoid further issues , although the Central Board of Film Certification did not object to its inclusion .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
1 : Nenokkadine received generally negative reviews from critics . According to The New Indian Express , its audience was " gripped through the whole film , but not for the right reasons " : " Ending with a heralding of a second ' Green Revolution ' and carrying on a legacy that aims at a food Utopia , you wish the movie continued with the schizophrenia and ended in an asylum " . Karthik Pasupulate of The Times of India gave the film three out of five stars : " The [ Telugu cinema ] format of six songs , five fights and loads of entertainment and melodrama makes it impossible to respectably adapt racy Hollywood styled suspense thrillers " . Radhika Rajamani of Rediff called the film " inordinately long , with repetitive scenes and slow and sluggish narration " , and a " sense of ennui set in after a point " ; however , Rajamani praised the lead actors ' performances . Sify gave the film 2 @.@ 75 out of five stars : " In 1 Nenokkadine , individual sequences are cool but the same cannot be said if we see it in totality . Apart from Mahesh Babu`s stunning performance , the drive of the film is completely off the track . It disappoints . " Suresh Kavirayani of Deccan Chronicle gave the film 2 @.@ 5 out of five stars : " To say it in a line , the film falls short of expectations and disappoints film goers , especially the fans of Mahesh Babu " . Kavirayani called Rathnavelu 's cinematography its " saving grace " , praising the lead pair 's performances . IndiaGlitz also gave 1 Nenokkadine 2 @.@ 5 out of five stars , saying that the film had the capacity to " tank without a trace if Mahesh Babu 's character did not come with a difference " ; the actor " looks that pained man every bit " , expressing " intense emotions without much effort " .
Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu wrote , " How often do we get to watch a Telugu film where the audience , along with the protagonist and supporting characters , is also required to think and distinguish between events unfolding in real and imaginary spaces ? " and called 1 Nenokkadine a " visually stunning " film . Sridhar Vivan of Bangalore Mirror gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of five stars : " As the film tries out a refined or reformed revenge saga , it needs to be seen whether 1 Nenokkadine works at the box office . If it does , it is a good sign for Telugu cinema " . A. S. Sashidhar of The Times of India wrote , " The first half of 1 : Nenokkadine is good and will keep you wanting for more . The story has a few interesting twists and turns , in the second half too to keep the audience glued to the screen " , and Sukumar " should be commended for superb attempt in choosing to make a film that has not been explored in Telugu movies " . Shekhar of Oneindia called the film a " brilliant psychological thriller " : " The first half of 1 : Nenokkadine is excellent and will impress all classes of audience . A few sentimental scenes slow down the pace of narration in the second half . But the superb climax that lasts for 15 minutes will compensate it . The viewers will surely walk out of theatre with contented hearts " .
= = = Box office = = =
1 : Nenokkadine earned a distributor share of ₹ 84 million at the AP @-@ Nizam box office on its first day , and ₹ 124 million over its opening weekend . Its United States opening box @-@ office total was $ 946 @,@ 552 ( ₹ 58 @.@ 2 million ) , which trade analyst Taran Adarsh called a " glorious start " and " one of the best openings ever by an Indian film " . 1 : Nenokkadine passed the $ 1 million mark in three days , the seventh Telugu film ( and Mahesh 's third , after Dookudu and Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu ) to earn a million dollars . On its fourth and fifth days the film earned ₹ 32 @.@ 5 million at the AP @-@ Nizam box office , for a five @-@ day total of about ₹ 150 million .
By the end of 1 : Nenokkadine 's first week it had earned a distributor share of ₹ 181 million at the AP @-@ Nizam box office , ₹ 21 million in Karnataka and ₹ 9 million in the rest of India . The film 's first @-@ week global box @-@ office total was ₹ 25 @.@ 2 million . In ten days 1 : Nenokkadine grossed over $ 1 @.@ 27 million in the United States , the fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing Telugu film in that country . The film earned about ₹ 289 million worldwide , on a budget of ₹ 700 million .
= = = Accolades = = =
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= Kongō @-@ class ironclad =
The Kongō @-@ class ironclads ( 金剛型 ) were a pair of armored corvettes built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) by British shipyards in the 1870s . A British offer to purchase the two ships during the Russo @-@ Turkish War in 1878 was refused . They became training ships in 1887 and made training cruises to the Mediterranean and to countries on the edge of the Pacific Ocean . The ships returned to active duty during the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 where one participated in the Battle of the Yalu River and both in the Battle of Weihaiwei . The Kongō @-@ class ships resumed their training duties after the war , although they played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . They were reclassified as survey ships in 1906 and were sold for scrap in 1910 and 1912 .
= = Background = =
Tensions between Japan and China heightened after the former launched its punitive expedition against Taiwan in May 1874 in retaliation of the murder of a number of shipwrecked sailors by the Paiwan aborigines . China inquired into the possibility of buying ironclad warships from Great Britain and Japan was already negotiating with the Brazilian government about the purchase of the ironclad Independencia then under construction in Britain . The Japanese terminated the negotiations with the Brazilians in October after the ship was badly damaged upon launching and the expeditionary force was about to withdraw from Taiwan . The crisis illustrated the need to reinforce the IJN and a budget request was submitted that same month by Acting Navy Minister Kawamura Sumiyoshi for ¥ 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 2 million to purchase three warships from abroad . No Japanese shipyard was able to build ships of this size so they were ordered from Great Britain . This was rejected as too expensive and a revised request of ¥ 2 @.@ 3 million was approved later that month . Nothing was done until March 1875 when Kawamura proposed to buy one ironclad for half of the money authorized and use the rest for shipbuilding and gun production at the Yokosuka Shipyard . No response was made by the Prime Minister 's office before the proposal was revised to use all of the allocated money to buy three ships , one armored frigate and two armored corvettes of composite construction to be designed by the prominent British naval architect Sir Edward Reed , formerly the Chief Constructor of the Royal Navy . Reed would also supervise the construction of the ships for an honorarium of five percent of the construction cost . The Prime Minister 's office approved the revised proposal on 2 May and notified the Japanese consul , Ueno Kagenori , that navy officers would be visiting to negotiate the contract with Reed .
Commander Matsumura Junzō arrived in London on 21 July and gave Reed the specifications for the ships . Reed responded on 3 September with an offer , excluding armament , that exceeded the amount allocated in the budget . Ueno signed the contracts for all three ships on 24 September despite this problem because Reed was scheduled to depart for a trip to Russia and the matter had to be concluded before his departure . Ueno had informed the Navy Ministry about the costs before signing , but Kawamura 's response to postpone the order for the armored frigate did not arrive until 8 October . The totals for all three contracts came to £ 433 @,@ 850 or ¥ 2 @,@ 231 @,@ 563 and did not include the armament . These were ordered from Krupp with a 50 percent down payment of £ 24 @,@ 978 . The government struggled to provide the necessary money even though the additional expenses had been approved by the Prime Minister 's office on 5 June 1876 , especially as more money was necessary to fully equip the ships for sea and to provision them for the delivery voyage to Japan .
= = Description = =
The Kongō class was 220 feet ( 67 @.@ 1 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 41 feet ( 12 @.@ 5 m ) . They had a forward draft of 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) and drew 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) aft . The ships displaced 2 @,@ 248 long tons ( 2 @,@ 284 t ) and had a crew of 22 officers and 212 enlisted men . To reduce biofouling , their hulls were sheathed with copper .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Kongō @-@ class ships had a single two @-@ cylinder double @-@ expansion horizontal return connecting rod @-@ steam engine made by Earle 's Shipbuilding and Engineering , driving a single two @-@ bladed 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) propeller . Six cylindrical boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 4 @.@ 22 bar ( 422 kPa ; 61 psi ) . The engine was designed to produce 2 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) to give the ships a speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) . During sea trials , the ships reached maximum speeds of 13 @.@ 75 – 13 @.@ 92 knots ( 25 @.@ 47 – 25 @.@ 78 km / h ; 15 @.@ 82 – 16 @.@ 02 mph ) . They carried a maximum of 345 – 390 long tons ( 351 – 396 t ) of coal , enough to steam 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ironclads were barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 14 @,@ 036 square feet ( 1 @,@ 304 m2 ) . To reduce wind resistance while under sail alone , the funnel was semi @-@ retractable . Their topmasts were removed in 1895 .
Both ships were reboilered at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal in 1889 : Hiei received two steel double @-@ ended cylindrical boilers while Kongō 's new boilers were of the same type as her original ones . The new boilers proved to be less powerful for both ships during sea trials , Kongō reached a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 46 knots ( 23 @.@ 08 km / h ; 14 @.@ 34 mph ) from 2 @,@ 028 ihp ( 1 @,@ 512 kW ) while Hiei was significantly slower at 10 @.@ 34 knots ( 19 @.@ 15 km / h ; 11 @.@ 90 mph ) from 1 @,@ 279 ihp ( 954 kW ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ships were fitted with three 172 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 8 in ) Krupp rifled breech @-@ loading ( RBL ) guns and six RBL 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) Krupp guns . All of the 172 @-@ millimeter guns were positioned as chase guns , two forward and one aft . The forward chase guns were pivot @-@ mounted and could traverse 122 degrees from straight ahead on their side of the ship . The aft gun could traverse a total of 125 degrees to each side . The 152 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted on the broadside . Each ship also carried two short 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns for use ashore or mounted on the ships ' boats .
The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 172 @-@ millmeter gun weighed 132 pounds ( 59 @.@ 9 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of about 1 @,@ 500 ft / s ( 460 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate 10 @.@ 3 inches ( 262 mm ) of wrought iron armor at the muzzle . Data for the 152 @-@ millimeter gun is not available .
During the 1880s , the armament of the Kongō @-@ class ships was reinforced with the addition of four quadruple @-@ barreled 25 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) Nordenfelt and two quintuple @-@ barreled 11 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) Nordenfeldt machine guns for defense against torpedo boats . Around the same time the ships each also received two 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes for Schwartzkopff torpedoes . The tubes were mounted above the waterline and one torpedo was provided for each tube . Their anti @-@ torpedo boat armament was again reinforced in 1897 by the addition of a pair of 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . After the end of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , their armament was reduced to six ex @-@ Russian 12 @-@ pounder guns and six 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounders .
The Kongō @-@ class corvettes had a wrought @-@ iron waterline armor belt 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships that tapered to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) at the ends of the ship .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
In February 1878 , during the Russo @-@ Turkish War , the British were not willing to accept the occupation of the Ottoman Turkish capital of Constantinople by Russian forces and began to prepare for war . The British government made informal inquiries about purchasing the two corvettes , but this was firmly rejected by the Japanese government . The ships sailed from Britain in February – March and arrived in Yokohama two months later . They were sailed to Japan by hired British crews as the IJN lacked the necessary experience . The ships were not formally turned over to the navy until 10 July when a formal ceremony was held in Yokohama attended by the Meiji Emperor and many senior government officials . The ships were opened for public tours after the ceremony .
Kongō hosted the Duke of Genoa when he visited Japan in late 1879 . Hiei made port visits in China and in the Persian Gulf the following year . In 1885 – 86 both ships were assigned to the Small Standing Fleet . They became training ships in 1887 and they both made a training cruise to the Mediterranean in 1889 – 90 with cadets from the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy . Hiei and Kongō ferried the 69 survivors of the wrecked Ertuğrul back to Turkey where the ships ' officers were received by Sultan Abdul Hamid II . The ships also carried a class of naval cadets . Until the end of the century , one or the other of the Kongō @-@ class ships made the annual cadet cruise , usually to countries bordering the Pacific Ocean . Kongō was in Honolulu on one of these cruises during the Hawaiian Revolution of 1893 , although the ship played no part in the affair . She returned to Hawaii the next year and briefly became the patrol ship there until the start of the First Sino @-@ Japanese War later in 1894 . Kongō did not participate in the Battle of the Yalu River , but Hiei was there . She was heavily engaged by Chinese ships and was damaged enough that she was forced to break off the action . Hiei was repaired after the battle and both ships were present during the Battle of Weihaiwei in early 1895 , although neither saw any significant combat .
The Kongō @-@ class ships were redesignated as 3rd @-@ class coast defense ships in 1898 although they continued their training duties . They played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War before they were reclassified as survey ships in 1906 . Kongō was stricken from the Navy List in 1909 and sold the next year for scrap . Hiei was struck from the Navy List two years after her sister ship and was sold before 25 March 1912 .
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= Jessica Jones ( season 1 ) =
The first season of the American web television series Jessica Jones , which is based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name , follows a former superhero who opens her own detective agency after an end to her superhero career at the hands of Kilgrave . It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) , sharing continuity with the films and other television series of the franchise . The season was produced by Marvel Television in association with ABC Studios and Tall Girls Productions , with Melissa Rosenberg serving as showrunner .
Krysten Ritter stars as Jones , while David Tennant plays Kilgrave . The two are joined by principal cast members Mike Colter , Rachael Taylor , Wil Traval , Erin Moriarty , Eka Darville , and Carrie @-@ Anne Moss . Jessica Jones entered development in late 2013 , with Rosenberg reworking a series she had previously developed for ABC . Ritter was cast as Jones in December 2014 , with production on Jessica Jones taking place in New York City from February to August 2015 . The season addresses issues of rape and assault with realism and a grounded tone , and was always intended to be far more " adult " than other Marvel projects , particularly in terms of sex . The show 's cinematography took inspiration from noir , while visual effects house Shade VFX focused on creating " invisible " effects that would support its realistic approach .
The first two episodes of the season premiered in New York City on November 17 , 2015 , with the full season of 13 episodes released on Netflix on November 20 to an estimated high viewership and critical acclaim . Critics praised the performances of Ritter and Tennant , as well as the series ' noir tone , approach to sexuality , and coverage of darker topics such as rape , assault and posttraumatic stress disorder . The season was awarded a Peabody Award in the category of " Entertainment and Children 's programs " . A second season of Jessica Jones was ordered on January 17 , 2016 .
= = Episodes = =
= = Cast and characters = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In October 2013 , Marvel and Disney announced that they would provide Netflix with live action series centered around Daredevil , Jessica Jones , Iron Fist , and Luke Cage , leading up to a miniseries based on the Defenders . Melissa Rosenberg was brought on to showrun the Jessica Jones series , to be reconfigured as a " page one do @-@ over " from an original project she had developed in December 2010 for ABC . In December 2014 , the official title was revealed to be Marvel 's A.K.A. Jessica Jones , but that was shortened to Marvel 's Jessica Jones in June 2015 . The season consists of 13 hour @-@ long episodes .
= = = Writing = = =
The writers for the series worked in Los Angeles , with one member of the writing team on set in New York for filming . Actress Carrie @-@ Anne Moss talked about how the scripts developed through the production of the series , explaining that the dialogue usually did not change much while filming , but scenes were altered to accommodate the filming locations when necessary . Rosenberg stated that , since Jones is a private investigator , there would be some procedural elements to the show , " but that ’ s not our focus . There are cases . In particular , there is a large case that carries over the season . " Elaborating on this , Marvel Television head Jeph Loeb said that the " fun about being a private detective is that the line between what ’ s legal and what ’ s not legal gets very blurred .... her drive is not always necessarily to solve the case , as much as it is to go , ' Okay , can I pay the rent ? How am I going to get through this day ? ' " He also added that inspiration for the series came from " the noir films from the ‘ 40s " and " film [ s ] like Chinatown . "
Describing the tone of the series , Loeb said , " When we first started talking about Daredevil , we promised that we were telling a story that was first a crime drama and then a superhero show . This is more of a psychological thriller . This speaks to when you think about what happened to Jessica and what sort of destroyed her life and how she tried to put it together , and then to have to confront the person who deconstructed her world , that ’ s a very powerful , emotional place to start from . " On approaching rape and trauma in the series , Rosenberg wanted to avoid actually showing rape , which she called " lazy storytelling " and often a way to " spice up " male characters , and preferred to just make the trauma a part of the characters ' everyday lives rather than an " issue " for the series to tackle . When asked about the adult nature of the series , including the use of sex , Rosenberg explained that Marvel would only not allow showing nudity and the use of the word ' fuck ' in the series .
= = = Casting = = =
The main cast for the season includes Krysten Ritter as Jessica Jones , Mike Colter as Luke Cage , Rachael Taylor as Patricia " Trish " Walker , Wil Traval as Will Simpson , Erin Moriarty as Hope Shlottman , Eka Darville as Malcolm Ducasse , Carrie @-@ Anne Moss as Jeri Hogarth , and David Tennant as Kilgrave .
Appearing in recurring roles for the season are Susie Abromeit as Pam , Colby Minifie and Kieran Mulcare as Robyn and Ruben , Clarke Peters as Oscar Clemons , Michael Siberry and Lisa Emery as Albert and Louise Thompson , and Robin Weigert as Wendy Ross @-@ Hogarth . Danielle Ferland , Gillian Glasco , Ryan Farrell , and Paul Pryce also recur as victims of Kilgrave who join a support group established by Jones , while Rosario Dawson and Royce Johnson reprise their roles of Claire Temple and Brett Mahoney , respectively , from Daredevil .
= = = Design = = =
Stephanie Maslansky returned as the costume designer for Jessica Jones from Daredevil , and was assisted on the first episode by Jenn Rogien , who crafted Jessica Jones ' leather jacket , faded jeans , and boots costume . On Jones 's costume , Maslansky said she " considers her clothing to be an armor and a shield and something that helps her maintain a distance from other people and privacy . It keeps her from having to deal with the rest of humanity in a certain sort of way . " At least 10 versions of Jones 's jacket were made , which started as an Acne Studios leather motorcycle jacket that had any " bells and whistles and any additional superfluous design details " removed . 20 pairs of jeans were used , with both sets of clothing being aged and distressed .
Because Jones 's costume does not evolve much throughout the series , Maslansky used flashbacks to show how her costume had evolved to the present day : for ' pre @-@ Kilgrave ' Jessica Jones , Maslansky gave the character " more pulled together " clothes , albeit " still kind of edgy " clothes that did not change who she was as a character , but were just " different " . For instance , in a flashback to Jones working in a corporate environment , she does not wear a suit , instead " wear [ s ] her jeans and find [ s ] a really cool jacket , maybe a vintage thing , maybe something that she borrowed from Trish " . For a flashback where Jones wears a large sandwich costume , a " variety " of costumes were ordered online , with the chosen suit then distressed to " look dirty and old " ; " a mere shadow of its former sandwich self , " becoming " more of a hoagie than a sandwich . " In another flashback , Jones imagines escaping Kilgrave 's control . The bright yellow dress the character wears in the dream sequence was chosen for its juxtaposition to the character 's real situation , with Maslansky calling it " so beautiful and so free and so light " .
For Kilgrave , Maslansky used many suits created by designer Paul Smith , rather than custom @-@ making them as she originally planned , as Smith " was all about purple " in the previous fashion season . On the suits , Maslansky added that the designers " wanted to find a place where we could utilize clothing in shades of purple , but not go so over the top that it would look silly and that he would stop feeling ominous or menacing . " Expanding on this , Maslansky called purple a traditionally " fairly friendly color , and he ’ s anything but friendly . So I had to find ways to make him be ominous and frightening and terrifying . I found that I needed the right proportion of shades of purple to other shades that were similar : navy , black , maroon . " Maslansky felt Luke Cage was also someone " who wears his clothing like an armor , " with his wardrobe consisting of T @-@ shirts , jeans , leather jackets or an army jacket . For a character like Trish Walker , who does not have the same kind of " statement costume " as Jones , Maslansky tried to create a certain character style . Maslansky said that Walker 's uniform is fashion , so " even when she was hanging around the house , she was wearing a pair of Rag and Bone jeans with a Chloé top , and this was her version of a T @-@ shirt and jeans . " Maslansky added that Robin was " a blast to dress " because of her " quirky " personality , yet she was still able to " put herself together aesthetically . " For Malcolm , as his story progressively became brighter throughout the season , so did his wardrobe , becoming " a little brighter and a little more hopeful . "
= = = Filming = = =
In February 2014 , Marvel announced that Jessica Jones would be filmed in New York City . In April , Marvel Comics ' editor @-@ in @-@ chief Joe Quesada stated that the show would be filming in areas of Brooklyn and Long Island City that still look like the old Hell ’ s Kitchen , in addition to sound stage work . The series went into production in February 2015 in The Bronx at Lehman College with the working title Violet , and aimed to film each episode over nine days , on average . Filming concluded in mid @-@ late August , with other locations in New York City used including : the East Village 's Horseshoe Bar for Luke 's Bar ; the 33rd Street PATH station and a PATH train ; the 101st Street area for the exterior of Jessica 's apartment ( with the interior apartment settings created on a sound stage ) ; Douglaston , Queens for Jessica 's childhood home ; the Angel Orensanz Center for Jessica and Luke 's fight in " AKA Take a Bloody Number " ; and Williamsburgh Savings Bank Tower and Pier 88 for locations in " AKA Smile " .
Concerning inspirations on the series , Loeb revealed that " Chinatown ... is one of the things that influenced Brian Michael Bendis and Michael Gaydos when they created the character . So those kind of beautiful , long , wide expansive shots , where people sort of come into frame and go back out of frame and someone ’ s in the foreground and then someone is way in the background and they ’ re having a conversation , that ’ s the stuff that makes it interesting . " Director of Photography Manuel Billeter and episodic director S. J. Clarkson took inspiration from the comics in terms of their color palette , while looking to the works of Wong Kar @-@ wai as reference to create " unconventional " compositions , with Billeter explaining , " There were a lot of foreground elements [ and ] headroom as well , and we never wanted to show an open frame . We wanted to create a sense of claustrophobia . " Billeter shot the season with a Red Epic Dragon camera in 4K resolution , with 5K used for some visual effects shots , and with Panavision PVintage lenses ; he focused mostly on static frames and " good composition " , but did occasionally employ a camera dolly or steadicam . For lighting , Billeter noted that many New York street lamps had been changed from sodium @-@ vapor lamps to LEDs , so he tried to recreate the " warm , dirty color of sodium vapor " for night exterior scenes .
Production designer Loren Weeks described Marvel 's Hell 's Kitchen as having " a little more [ East ] Village quality . " To achieve the explosion at Luke 's Bar , Weeks said , " We could not take out the windows [ at Horseshoe Bar ] , which are [ made up of ] multiple small colored glass and metal frames . We didn ’ t know frankly when we picked that location that we would have that explosion ... What we did was build a fireproof box in the entrance and we had a cannon in there which blew out debris and smoke and some fire . And then we did a lighting effect on the inside and then the rest of the explosion was handled by visual effects . " For the scenes on the PATH train and station , location manager Jason Farrar noted that production had exclusive use of the tracks and platform during the day when ridership was low to get their shots .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Shade VFX created over 600 effects shots for the season , with " invisible " effects " the showpiece , helping to push forward the darker elements the series . " Therefore , effects supervisor Karl Coyner and producer Julie Long worked closely with the crew on set to " execute stunts , set extensions , explosions , wetwork and fire sequences " while filming , rather than have Shade create those effects digitally . An effect that Shade was required to create was tinting Kilgrave 's skin purple " in a few key scenes " where he is using his powers , a nod to the comic iteration 's purple @-@ skinned appearance .
= = = Music = = =
At the 2015 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , Sean Callery revealed he was composing music for Jessica Jones , eventually stating that the music required for each episode ranged from 9 to 20 minutes , totaling approximately 415 minutes of music for the season . A soundtrack album for the season was released digitally on June 3 , 2016 .
All music composed by Sean Callery , unless otherwise noted .
= = = Marvel Cinematic Universe tie @-@ ins = = =
On existing in the MCU , specifically in the same world as the other Netflix series , Rosenberg said , " Jessica Jones is a very , very different show than Daredevil . We exist in a cinematic universe , [ and ] the mythology of the universe is connected , but they look very different , tonally they ’ re very different … That was my one concern coming in : Am I going to have to fit into Daredevil or what ’ s come before ? And the answer is no . " On references or " easter eggs " in the series , Rosenberg explained that " A little is always there and in the writer ’ s room we have some fanboys that know all this stuff and they ’ re all geeking out with different stuff .... a lot of references are to the [ Alias comic ] . " She also said that nods to the larger MCU are in the series , with each episode having a " little something in it . "
Jeryn Hogarth is closely associated with Iron Fist in the comics , and also worked with Luke Cage as part of those characters ' Heroes for Hire team . Like Daredevil , the series makes references to the events of The Avengers and the Avengers ( specifically Hulk and Captain America , though not by name ) . Jessica also mentions Angela del Toro as another private investigator , who in the comics is the hero White Tiger and has connections with K 'un @-@ Lun and Iron Fist . Paul Tassi , writing for Forbes , was disappointed with how the series fit into the larger MCU , feeling the series seemed " removed from the world of The Avengers " and did not acknowledge Daredevil enough given that " it ’ s supposed to be sharing at least this little corner of the Marvel Cinematic Universe with it . " Eric Francisco of Inverse countered that Jessica Jones 's lack of overt connections to the MCU was " the show 's chief advantage . Besides demonstrating how physically wide open the MCU 's scope really is , Jessica Jones also proves the MCU 's thematic durability . "
= = Release = =
Jessica Jones was released on November 20 , 2015 on the streaming service Netflix , in all territories where it is available , in Ultra HD 4K . In January 2015 , a month after Marvel announced a 2015 release for the series , Sarandos had said that it was " too hard to say now " if the series would actually release in 2015 , with Netflix 's plan to release a Marvel series approximately a year apart from each other after Daredevil 's April 2015 release . However , Netflix soon confirmed that the series would indeed release in 2015 , announcing the November 20 release date in September .
= = = Marketing = = =
Disney Consumer Products created a small line of products to cater to a more adult audience , given the show ’ s edgier tone . Paul Gitter , senior VP of Marvel Licensing for Disney Consumer Products explained that the focus would be more on teens and adults than very young people , with products at outlets like Hot Topic . Additionally , a Marvel Knights merchandise program was created to support the series , which creates new opportunities for individual product lines and collector focused products . Licensing partners wanted to pair up with Marvel , despite this not being a film project , given its previous successes .
In May 2015 , Marvel announced plans to reprint Alias , the comic that the series is based on , with new covers from David Mack , the original cover artist on the comic who is also providing artwork for the series ' opening credits . The reprints , which were all released digitally in June 2015 , and up to issue 15 in two trade paperbacks in September , were intended to both celebrate the history of Jessica Jones , and introduce new audiences to the character ahead of the release of the series . In late September through early October , Marvel and Netflix released short teasers for the series , which chronicled a day of Jones ' life . Also in early October , Marvel digitally released a 12 @-@ page one @-@ shot comic by the original Alias creative team — Bendis , Gaydos , and Mack — set in the universe of the television series . The one @-@ shot was created as an exclusive for New York Comic Con , where a print version was distributed . The comic sees Jessica Jones coming into contact with Daredevil character Turk Barrett , and includes a short sequence featuring Daredevil , to celebrate " the connective tissue that will build between the series . " Also during New York Comic Con , Marvel set up a street marketing campaign , and screened " AKA Ladies Night " on October 10 , while at the Marvel Booth fans could take their picture with the Alias Investigations desk , with Kilgrave 's eyes appearing in the background of the final animation . Marvel additionally partnered with Uber during the event to provide select riders with complimentary trips to or from the convention in custom designed SUVs .
A full trailer was released at the end of October , with Meagan Damore of Comic Book Resources feeling that it helped establish the same tone as Daredevil and introduced " Marvel 's creepiest villain yet " with Kilgrave . She also compared Jessica to some of the other female characters of the MCU — Black Widow , Melinda May , and Peggy Carter — feeling that Jessica stood out from the others because she does not have " a sense of togetherness " and was the most relatable because of her struggle with trauma , and that the series would have the amount of creative space required to explore the character that the other female characters were lacking . A second trailer was released on November 10 , 2015 . Sarene Leeds of The Wall Street Journal felt that this trailer highlighted empowerment , compared to the first that " was about illustrating the fear behind Jones ’ s past " . The season held its premiere in New York City on November 17 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Audience viewership = = =
As Netflix does not reveal subscriber viewership numbers for any of their original series , Symphony Technology Group compiled data for the series based on a sample size of 15 @,@ 000 people using software on their phones that measures television viewing by detecting a program 's sound . According to Symphony , from September to December 2015 , episodes of Jessica Jones averaged 4 @.@ 8 million viewers during a 35 @-@ day viewing cycle . The data was presented by Alan Wurtzel , NBCUniversal president of research and media development , in a presentation aimed to provide " perspective " when stating " digital platforms are hurting the traditional TV business " . Netflix CCO Ted Sarandos responded to the data by saying that " the whole methodology and the measurement and the data itself doesn ’ t reflect any sense of reality of anything that we keep track of . " A further study from Symphony , for the same time period , found Jessica Jones to be one of the four most watched series in the 18 to 24 demographic , ahead of any broadcast network series .
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 93 % approval rating with an average rating of 8 @.@ 1 / 10 based on 54 reviews . The website 's critical consensus reads , " Jessica Jones builds a multifaceted drama around its engaging antihero , delivering what might be Marvel 's strongest TV franchise to date . " Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned a score of 81 out of 100 based on 31 critics , indicating what the website considers to be " universal acclaim " .
The early screening of the first episode at New York Comic Con was met by a very positive reaction from the crowd . George Marston of Newsarama gave the first episode a 10 out of 10 , saying the series " strikes a balance between self @-@ aware noir and Marvel ’ s first flirtations with psychological horror .... not just another hit for Marvel and Netflix , but a landmark moment for female superheroes on TV . " Eric Goldman of IGN felt that " Jessica Jones starts out with a strong premiere episode that ... easily goes further than anything in the MCU in terms of sexuality . " He called Ritter " a commendably tough , sardonic " Jessica Jones and praised the supporting cast for the strong impressions they made , later scoring the episode an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . Evan Valentine of Collider.com gave the episode 5 stars out of 5 , feeling that Tennant would " ascend to the same level as Tom Hiddleston ’ s Loki and Vincent D 'Onofrio ’ s Wilson Fisk as one of the cornerstones of villainy in the MCU " . Katharine Trendacosta of io9 also had positive thoughts on " AKA Ladies Night " , highlighting the episode 's use of light and color , especially with purple , and the way it portrays New York as how it " actually looks — not overly bright and shiny and clean , but not suffering a never @-@ ending power @-@ outage either " . Abraham Riesman noted the episode 's presentation of sexuality , which " was shockingly and refreshingly honest " , compared to Marvel 's other films and television series . He concluded by applauding the series ' bringing up of the topics of rape and PTSD .
Reviewing the first seven episodes of the series , Maureen Ryan of Variety gave positive thoughts on Jessica Jones , stating , " The show , which features an exceptional performance from Krysten Ritter and sure @-@ handed guidance from executive producer Melissa Rosenberg , is not just a contender for the title Best Marvel @-@ related TV property ; in a supremely crowded TV scene , it is one of the year ’ s most distinctive new dramas . " Jack Shepard of The Independent , also on the first seven episodes , felt the series " not only matches [ Daredevil ] but exceeds expectations . " Shepard gave exceptional praise to Tennant 's Kilgrave , feeling he was one of the best villains produced by Marvel , and possibly " the best on @-@ screen comic book villain since Heath Ledger ’ s Joker . " Forbes ' Merrill Barr stated that after seeing the first seven episodes , " the answer is a resounding yes " if lightning could strike twice for Marvel Television , claiming , " In no uncertain terms , Jessica Jones is the best thing Marvel Television has ever produced . It contains all the hopeful anticipation of [ Agents of ] S.H.I.E.L.D. , all the feminist @-@ overtones of Agent Carter and all the grittiness of Daredevil . "
Deadline.com 's Dominic Patten also had praise for the series , particularly Rosenberg 's influence on it , the coverage of topics such as " PTSD , abuse , assault , shame , and death " and the cast , highlighting Tennant 's Kilgrave as the actor 's best role as well as the MCU 's best villain . Mary McNamara from the Los Angeles Times felt Jessica Jones " rewrote the definition of superhuman " and was " a marvel " , lauding the series ' " breathtaking " examination of recovery from a sexually , emotionally and physically abusive relationship . Daniel Fienberg for The Hollywood Reporter was also positive , saying the series " looks and feels a bit like a cable anti @-@ hero series — but it 's really more of a post @-@ hero story , making it fascinating and unique in a marketplace that doesn 't lack for costumed do @-@ gooders of all types . " His one criticism was that " the show shares Jessica 's monomaniacal fixation on [ Kilgrave ] and the result is a sort of narrative claustrophobia ... Everything in these opening episodes ties back to Kilgrave and Kilgrave is such a twisted figure that it 's hard for any light to get in . " Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly was slightly more critical of the series , awarding it a " B " . Though Maerz felt Ritter was a good choice for Jessica and enjoyed the cinematography , she felt the series " could 've made for a gritty character drama if it weren 't for the noir clichés ( saxophone music , shadows through glass ) and a procedural structure that 's very CSI : Marvel . The show 's biggest weakness is the same as Jessica 's : It starts out with extraordinary potential , but somewhere along the way , it loses what make it special . "
Goldman , later reviewing the whole season , gave it a 9 @.@ 3 out of 10 . He commended all the actors , the relationship between Jessica and Trish , and the episode " Sin Bin " , though was critical of the character Robyn . Additionally , Goldman also felt the series spent " too many scenes devoted to Jeri ’ s marital strife " and that it hit its peak " a bit before the actual end of the season " similar to Daredevil , with most of the thrilling moments earlier in the season .
= = = Analysis = = =
Libby Hill of the Los Angeles Times commented on how Jessica Jones exposed modern day sexism and misogyny through Kilgrave 's use of the phrase " Smile " , calling the series " the most innocuous and incisive cultural critique " from Marvel to date . Hill likened an early scene that shows Kilgrave asking Jones to smile , and her obliging , to " similar well @-@ meaning scenarios [ that ] play out in the real world time and again each day " many in the form of gendered street harassment , that resonates with many women . Hill also added that " Kilgrave serves as an exaggerated representation of perceived consent , " due to the response he gives later in the series to Jessica about never knowing if someone is doing what they want or what he tells them to do . She concludes that " Jessica Jones is revolutionary because in acknowledging casual misogyny and exaggerating its most destructive tendencies , it exposes the pervasive toxicity therein . It does all of this without making a show of its politics , instead resting easy on the knowledge that all too many women will relate to the subtleties of its premise . " Amy C. Chambers , writing for The Science and Entertainment Laboratory , noted how the season moved away from sexism even more so than the comics , by changing Kilgrave 's abilities from phermone based , with a particular effect on women , to viral , with equal effect no matter gender , indicating that " powerlessness is not gendered . "
Kwame Opam at The Verge chose to examine rape and the nature of consent in the series . Comparing Jessica Jones to other television series that have depicted rape ( Game of Thrones , Orange Is the New Black , and Outlander ) , Opam felt that " since rape is one of the show ’ s core themes , we never need to see it ... rape is a foundational part of the text , and its presence is constant . Even if it ’ s invisible , it ’ s always there . " He also felt the series took the time to examine how rape happens and what it means , especially in terms of power and consent , concluding , " Jessica Jones moves the conversation about rape forward by treating it as a complex subject worth investigating , rather than as spice for a story ... Maybe we don ’ t need to see it anymore to grasp how violent it is . Maybe our energies are better spent thinking deeply about why it happens at all . " The Guardian 's Lili Loofbourow also discussed the series depiction of rape and consent , noting the complications that come with Kilgrave telling his victims how to feel rather than just how to act , and saying , " however exceptional Kilgrave ’ s power seems , the moral quagmire it produces is all too common . It ’ s the condition of the rape victim who had an orgasm during her assault . It ’ s the condition of the soldier trained to kill when he suspects his targets are innocent . It ’ s the condition of the battered woman who goes back to her abuser and stays “ of her own free will ” . It ’ s the condition of ... any person , really , who agrees , whatever the context , to consent to forgo consent in the future . " Loofbourow also discussed the character of Simpson , comparing his power @-@ inducing red pill to the anti @-@ feminist " red pillers " , and noting that his taking of the pills " renders him not just dangerously delusional , but so utterly at odds with nature and reality of any kind that he will forget to breathe unless he counteracts the pill ’ s effects . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Jessica Jones was included on multiple Best / Top TV Shows of 2015 lists , ranking on People 's ( 1st , along with Daredevil ) , Indiewire and The Star @-@ Ledger 's ( 2nd ) , NPR 's ( 3rd ) , ScreenCrush 's ( 4th ) , Digital Spy 's ( 5th ) , Complex 's ( 6th ) , Vulture 's ( 7th ) , Slate Magazine 's ( 9th ) , and TV Guide 's ( 11th ) . It was also included on un @-@ ranked lists from Maureen Ryan of Variety , Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times , The Week , and Wired . In December 2015 , IGN named Jessica Jones the Netflix 's best original series released to date , and it was named one of the Best New Shows of 2015 by Ryan , as well as the tenth best new show of 2015 by Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Jensen . The Atlantic named " AKA WWJD ? " one of the best television episodes of 2015 . Additionally , Jessica Jones was the second most trending television series search on Google for 2015 .
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= Deepak Tijori =
Deepak Tijori ( born 28 August 1961 ) is an Indian film director and actor who works in Bollywood films and is well known for his supporting roles in Aashiqui ( 1990 ) , Khiladi ( 1992 ) , Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar ( 1992 ) , Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa ( 1993 ) , Anjaam ( 1994 ) , Ghulam ( 1998 ) and Baadshah ( 1999 ) . He also starred as a lead actor in Pehla Nasha ( 1993 ) . Tijori started his directing career with Oops ! ( 2003 ) , a film about male strippers . This was followed by Fareb ( 2005 ) , Khamoshh ... Khauff Ki Raat ( 2005 ) , Tom , Dick , and Harry ( 2006 ) and Fox ( 2009 ) . Thriller at 10 – Fareb , a TV mini @-@ series produced by Tijori won the 2001 Indian Television Academy Awards in the category best mini @-@ series .
Tijori has also been the housemate on Bigg Boss 1 ( 2006 ) . His wife is a fashion designer and his brother @-@ in @-@ law Kabir Sadanand is a film director . In 2009 Tijori 's daughter was kidnapped for a few hours .
= = Early life and career = =
Tijori received his college education from Narsee Monjee College in his hometown Mumbai . While in college , Tijori joined an amateur theatre group . Aamir Khan , Ashutosh Gowariker , Paresh Rawal and Vipul Shah were also the members of the same group . His friends influenced him to pursue a career in film acting , in which during his early career he struggled . He said in an interview with Rediff.com " For three years , I sat outside offices trying to get a word with producers [ ... ] I managed to do some tiny roles , which were very pathetic . " He had worked for Cine Blitz magazine and also as a hotel manager .
= = = Acting career = = =
Tijori portrayed minor characters in Tera Naam Mera Naam ( 1988 ) , Parbat Ke Us Paar ( 1988 ) and Main Tera Dushman ( 1989 ) before appearing as one of the antagonist 's hitman in Shashilal K. Nair 's Kroadh ( 1990 ) . Tijori 's first important role came when Mahesh Bhatt cast him to play the role of protagonist 's friend in his romantic drama Aashiqui ( 1990 ) . The film turned out to be a commercial success and his hand gestures in the film were widely copied by the youth of that time . He played minor roles in Afsana Pyar Ka ( 1991 ) and Kaun Kare Kurbanie ( 1991 ) . In the same year , he was cast again by Bhatt to play supporting roles in two of his films ; romantic drama Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin and romantic thriller Sadak . The latter film was loosely based on Martin Scorsese 's Taxi Driver ( 1976 ) and Tijori played a man who is killed by a pimp after he runs away with one of the prostitutes . In 1992 , he featured in Abbas @-@ Mustan 's suspense thriller Khiladi alongside Akshay Kumar , Ayesha Jhulka and Sabeeha . Tijori played Boney and was paired with Sabeeha . Khiladi was a commercial success . Tijori 's next important role came with the Mansoor Khan @-@ directed coming @-@ of @-@ age sports drama Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar alongside Aamir Khan , in which Tijori played the role of Shekhar Malhotra , a successful and arrogant cyclist , who wins the Inter @-@ School Championship every year . Akshay Kumar had auditioned and Milind Soman was signed for Malhotra 's role before Tijori played it . Rediff.com ranked Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar , ninth in its Bollywood 's top 10 college movies list .
Tijori produced and played his only lead role in Gowariker @-@ directed murder mystery Pehla Nasha ( 1993 ) , alongside Pooja Bhatt and Raveena Tandon . Upon release , the film received poor reviews and failed at the box office . In the same year , he appeared as the antagonist in D Rama Naidu @-@ directed Santaan . Tijori starred alongside Shah Rukh Khan in Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa and Anjaam ( both 1994 ) . The latter one is considered one of the most violent films in Bollywood . In 1995 , he starred in another Mahesh Bhatt @-@ directed film Naajayaz . Tijori played a supporting role in action drama Mrityudata ( 1997 ) which did not receive favourable reviews from critics . He portrayed supporting characters in Aamir Khan @-@ starrer Ghulam ( 1998 ) and the Abbas @-@ Mustan @-@ directed comedy thriller Baadshah . In the latter , he featured as the titular undercover CBI agent .
In the same year , Tijori acted in Mahesh Manjrekar @-@ directed crime drama Vaastav : The Reality ( 1999 ) and the Gujarati language film Hu Tu Ne Ramtudi . He played supporting roles in the romantic comedy Dulhan Hum Le Jayenge ( 2000 ) , Vaastav : The Reality 's sequel Hathyar ( 2002 ) and Kabir Sadanand @-@ directed comedy Popcorn Khao ! Mast Ho Jao ( 2004 ) . In 2012 , he played a police officer in Ram Gopal Varma 's action film Department . Tijori had approached Varma for the villain 's role but he felt that Tijori 's image did not match the character 's and refused to give him the role . Tijori changed his look in one month 's time and was eventually cast by Varma . The following year , he was cast to play the antagonist in Devang Dholakia @-@ directed Tina and Lolo . He had to lose weight for his role . Tijori stated that he himself " was looking for a change " while referring to his salt @-@ and @-@ pepper look in the film . Dholakia said that he was " looking for a new suave villain " and Tijori suited the role . He featured in the crime thriller Raja Natwarlal ( 2014 ) and played the role of a terrorist in the Sadanand @-@ directed comedy Gollu Aur Pappu ( 2014 ) .
= = = Directorial career = = =
Tijori made his directorial debut in 2003 , with an adult film about male strippers Oops ! He was also credited as the producer and the writer . The film was produced on a budget of ₹ 2 @.@ 5 crore ( US $ 370 @,@ 000 ) and considered controversial because of the subject matter and initially it faced troubles with the Central Board of Film Certification . The film was released in two versions – Hindi and English . India Today called Tijori 's direction amateurish and termed the film " an example of brave new breed " . Oops ! did not receive favourable reviews but proved to be a turning point in actress Mink Brar 's career . His next directorial venture was Fareb ( 2005 ) , starring sisters Shilpa Shetty and Shamita Shetty . Like his previous film , Fareb too had troubles with the censor board and was given A certificate implying that it was to be viewed only by adult audience . It received negative reviews . In the same year , he directed the thriller Khamoshh ... Khauff Ki Raat featuring Shilpa Shetty , Juhi Chawla , Rakhi Sawant and debutante Kainaaz Perveez . The film received mixed response . The following year Tijori directed the comedy Tom , Dick , and Harry ( 2006 ) . In a review for India Today , Anupama Chopra called it the year 's worst film .
Tijori 's thriller Fox starring Arjun Rampal and Sunny Deol was delayed due to production issues . Upon release in September 2009 , the film received poor reviews . In the same year it was announced that Tijori would direct a Vikram Bhatt @-@ produced film titled Bhaag Johny . The cast included Muzzamil Ibrahim and 2 new actresses . During the film 's shooting , Ibrahim had to leave the film due to his differences with Tijori and subsequently the film was shelved for a brief period . The following year , Bhatt announced that he himself will direct the film , there would be a different lead actor and Tijori would play the role of a Pakistani policeman . Two years later it was reported that Tijori would direct Vikram Bhatt @-@ produced film Love Games . His next directorial was an adult suspense thriller titled Dare You , starring debutante Alisha Khan who was selected after an audition of more than 800 girls . The film 's poster was the first of its kind and featured the lead actress showing her middle finger . However , Tijori left the project due to creative differences with the film 's producers . In 2013 , he directed the film Rock 'In Love which featured Hanif Hilal and Sandeepa Dhar in lead role . Do Lafzon Ki Kahani starring Randeep Hooda is Tijori 's next directorial project .
= = = Bigg Boss = = =
He played the role of a housemate in the first season of Bigg Boss , as a replacement for Salil Ankola . Ankola had signed an agreement with Balaji Telefilms , which refrained him from participating or acting in television shows made by other production houses that " directly or indirectly compete with Balaji Telefilms . " On the seventh day , the Bombay High Court ordered Ankola to leave the house or face criminal charges . He was replaced by Tijori . During Tijori 's stay at the Bigg Boss house , his wife Shivani Tijori sent text messages to her friends , family members and media @-@ persons to help Tijori in getting out of the house . After he was evicted from the show , Tijori said that he would make a film based on the show . Tijori called the show " a laundered reality " but denied that it was scripted .
= = = Television career = = =
Tijori 's production house Tijori Films produced television serials . One of his most popular serials was Rishtey , a turning point in actor Murali Sharma 's career . Tijori directed the action sequences in several of his serials . He had also planned to produce 1984 — Black October , a film based on the assassination of Indira Gandhi and the riots that followed , along with Hollywood actors . He had hired a casting director for it . Tijori himself acted in TV serial Bombay Blue and produced thriller serials like Saturday Suspense , Khauff , Dial 100 and X @-@ Zone . Thriller at 10 – Fareb , a TV mini @-@ series produced by Tijori won the 2001 Indian Television Academy Awards in the category best mini @-@ series .
= = Personal life = =
Tijori 's wife Shivani is a fashion designer . Film director Kabir Sadanand and singer Kunika Lal are his brother @-@ in @-@ law and sister @-@ in @-@ law respectively . On 10 May 2009 , Tijori 's then 13 @-@ year @-@ old daughter was kidnapped for a few hours . Based on her testimony , a suspect was arrested and charged for the crime .
Goregaon ’ s Garden Estate Co @-@ operative Housing Society asked Tijori and his family to vacate their house in November 2012 , following complaints from their neighbours . The Tijori family had been living there since 2009 . The residents of the building accused them of behaving rudely , not paying charges on time , insulting the society 's office bearers and bringing disrepute to them . After a general meeting of the members , the society passed a resolution and sent a notice to Tijori , asking him to vacate his flats within the next 30 days . The resolution was sent to the local registrar . He responded by filing a criminal case against nine members of the society and in October 2014 , the registrar gave the decision in his favour . Tijori called the legal proceedings a " long nightmarish battle " and accused the society for charging wrongful maintenance money .
Tijori has featured in an advertisement for Vadilal . He was one of the judges of Miss India Worldwide 2006 and has also hosted the Miss India Worldwide 2009 . During the 2002 elections for Municipal Corporation of Delhi , he had campaigned for Indian National Congress .
= = Filmography = =
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= Triptych , May – June 1973 =
Triptych , May – June 1973 is a triptych completed in 1973 by the Irish @-@ born artist Francis Bacon ( 1909 – 1992 ) . The oil @-@ on @-@ canvas was painted in memory of Bacon 's lover George Dyer , who committed suicide on the eve of the artist 's retrospective at Paris 's Grand Palais on 24 October 1971 . The triptych is a portrait of the moments before Dyer 's death from an overdose of pills in their hotel room . Bacon was haunted and preoccupied by Dyer 's loss for the remaining years of his life and painted many works based on both the actual suicide and the events of its aftermath . He admitted to friends that he never fully recovered , describing the 1973 triptych as an exorcism of his feelings of loss and guilt .
The work is stylistically more static and monumental than Bacon 's earlier triptychs of Greek figures and friends heads . It has been described as one of his " supreme achievements " and is generally viewed as his most intense and tragic canvas . Of the three Black Triptychs Bacon painted when confronting Dyer 's death , Triptych , May – June 1973 is generally regarded as the most accomplished . In 2006 , The Daily Telegraph 's art critic Sarah Crompton wrote that " emotion seeps into each panel of this giant canvas ... the sheer power and control of Bacon 's brushwork take the breath away " . Triptych , May – June 1973 was purchased at auction in 1989 by Esther Grether for $ 6 @.@ 3 million , then a record for a Bacon painting .
= = Biographical context = =
Francis Bacon met George Dyer in a Soho pub . According to Bacon " George was down the far end of the bar and he came over and said ' You all seem to be having a good time , can I buy you a drink ? ' " ( Francis Bacon quoted in : Michael Peppiat , Francis Bacon : Anatomy of an Enigma , London 2008 , p . 259 ) . From that point on , Dyer became devoted to Bacon . He admired his intellect and power and was in awe of his self @-@ confidence . He felt as if he had found a purpose , as the prominent artist 's companion . Dyer was then about thirty years old and had grown up in the East End of London in a family steeped in crime . He had spent his life drifting between theft , juvenile detention center and jail . Typical of Bacon 's taste in men , Dyer was fit , masculine , and not an intellectual .
Bacon 's relationships prior to Dyer had all been with older men who were as tumultuous in temperament as the artist himself , but each had been the dominating presence . Peter Lacy , his first lover , would often tear up the young artist 's paintings , beat him up in drunken rages , and leave him on the street half @-@ conscious . Bacon was attracted to Dyer 's vulnerability and trusting nature . Dyer was impressed by Bacon 's self @-@ confidence and his artistic success , and Bacon acted as a protector and father figure to the insecure younger man . Dyer was , like Bacon , a borderline alcoholic and similarly took obsessive care with his appearance . Pale @-@ faced and a chain @-@ smoker , Dyer typically confronted his daily hangovers by drinking again . His compact and athletic build belied a docile and inwardly tortured personality ; the art critic Michael Peppiatt described him as having the air of a man who could " land a decisive punch " . Their behaviours eventually overwhelmed their affair , and by 1970 , Bacon was merely providing Dyer with enough money to stay more or less permanently drunk .
As Bacon 's work moved from the extreme subject matter of his early paintings to portraits of friends in the mid @-@ 1960s , Dyer became a dominating presence in the artist 's work . Bacon 's treatment of his lover in these canvasses emphasises his subject 's physicality while remaining uncharacteristically tender . More than any other of the artist 's close friends portrayed during this period , Dyer came to feel inseparable from his effigies . The paintings gave him stature , a raison d 'etre , and offered meaning to what Bacon described as Dyer 's " brief interlude between life and death " . Many critics have cited Dyer 's portraits as favourites , including Michel Leiris and Lawrence Gowling . Yet as Dyer 's novelty diminished within Bacon 's circle of sophisticated intellectuals , the younger man became increasingly bitter and ill at ease . Although Dyer welcomed the attention the paintings brought him , he did not pretend to understand or even like them . " All that money an ' I fink they 're reely ' orrible " , he observed with choked pride . He abandoned crime but soon descended into alcoholism . Bacon 's money allowed Dyer to attract hangers @-@ on who would accompany him on massive benders around London 's Soho . Withdrawn and reserved when sober , Dyer was insuppressible when drunk , and would often attempt to " pull a Bacon " by buying large rounds and paying for expensive dinners for his wide circle . Dyer 's erratic behaviour inevitably wore thin — with his cronies , with Bacon , and with Bacon 's friends . Most of Bacon 's art world associates regarded Dyer as a nuisance — an intrusion into the world of high culture to which their Bacon belonged . Dyer reacted by becoming increasingly needy and dependent . By 1971 , he was drinking alone and was only in occasional contact with his former lover .
In October 1971 , Dyer accompanied Bacon to Paris for the opening of the artist 's retrospective at the Grand Palais . The show was the high point of Bacon 's career to date , and he was now being described as Britain 's " greatest living painter " . Dyer was now a desperate man , and although he was " allowed " to attend , he was well aware that he was " slipping " , in every sense , out of the picture . To draw Bacon 's attention he earlier planted cannabis in Bacon 's flat , then phoned the police , and he had attempted suicide on a number of occasions . On the eve of the Paris exhibition , Bacon and Dyer shared a hotel room , and Bacon spent the next day surrounded by people eager to meet him . In mid @-@ evening he was informed that Dyer had taken an overdose of barbiturates and was dead . Though devastated , Bacon continued with the retrospective and displayed powers of self @-@ control " to which few of us could aspire " , according to Russell . Bacon was deeply affected by the loss of Dyer , and he had recently lost four other friends and his nanny . From this point on , death haunted his life and work . Though he gave a stoic appearance at the time , he was inwardly broken . He did not express his feelings to critics , but later admitted to friends that " daemons , disaster and loss " now stalked him as if his own version of the Eumenides . Bacon spent the remainder of his stay in Paris attending to promotional activities and funeral arrangements . He returned to London later that week to comfort Dyer 's family . The funeral proved to be an emotional affair for all , and many of Dyer 's friends , including hardened East @-@ End criminals , broke down in tears . As the coffin was lowered into the grave one attendant screamed " you bloody fool ! " . Although Bacon remained stoic throughout , in the following months Dyer preoccupied his imagination as never before . To confront his loss , he painted a number of tributes on small canvasses and his three " Black Triptych " masterpieces .
= = Description = =
In each panel , Dyer is framed by a doorway , and set against a flat , anonymous foreground coloured with black and brown hues . In the left frame , he is seated on a toilet with his head crouched between his knees as if in pain . Although his arched back , thighs and legs are according to the Irish critic Colm Tóibín , " lovingly painted " , Dyer is by now clearly a broken man . This central panel shows Dyer sitting on the toilet bowl in a more contemplative pose , his head and upper body writhing beneath a hanging lightbulb which throws a large bat @-@ like shadow formed in the shape of a demon or Eumenide . The art critic Sally Yard has noted that in the portrayal of Dyer 's flesh , " life seems to visibly drain ... into the substantial character of the shadow beneath him " . Dyer 's posture suggests he is seated on a lavatory bowl , though the object is not described . Schmied has proposed that in this frame the blackness of the background has enveloped the subject , and it " seems to be advancing forward over the threshold , threatening the viewer like a flood or a giant bat with flapping wings and extended claws . "
In the right panel , Dyer is shown with his eyes shut , vomiting into a hand basin . In the two outer frames his figure is shadowed by arrows , pictorial devices that Bacon often used to place a sense of energy into his paintings . In this work , the arrows point to a man about to die , and according to Tóibín they scream " Here ! " , " Him ! " . The arrow of the right panel , according to Tóibín , points to a " dead figure on the lavatory bowl , as though telling the Furies where to find him " . The triptych is centralised by the lightbulb , and by the fact that Dyer faces inwards in the two outer canvasses . The triptych 's composition and setting are poised to suggest instability , and the doors in each side panel are splayed outwards as if to look into the darkness of the foreground .
Triptych , May – June 1973 has been said to achieve its tension by locating voluptuously described figures in an austere , cage @-@ like space . The foreground of each panel is bounded by a wall , which runs parallel to a framing door . Each door admits a stark black into its frame , while the walls establish a link between each of the three Black Triptychs . In 1975 , the curator Hugh M. Davis noted that while Bacon 's earlier triptychs had been set in public spaces " open to all kinds of visitor " , the Black Triptychs are set in a " deeply private realm , to which only the individual — accompanied , perhaps , by one or two of his closest friends — has access " . In 1999 , Yard wrote that the sense of foreboding and ill @-@ omen conjured by the Eumenides of Bacon 's Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion ( 1944 ) reappears in the triptych as a " batlike void that snared the figure of George Dyer as he subsides into the supple curves of death " . John Russell observed that the painting 's background describes an area which is half studio , half condemned cell . A reviewer of the 1975 Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibition found a resemblance between the concept of the central panel and Albrecht Dürer 's engraving Melencolia I ( 1514 ) — in the figure 's pose , the bat form , and the panel 's radiance — suggesting that Bacon 's late triptychs evoke " memorable figural formulations " of classic Western culture .
Bacon later stated that " painting has nothing to do with colouring surfaces " , and in general he was not preoccupied with detailing his backgrounds : " When I feel that I have to some extent formed the image , I put the background in to see how it 's going to work and then I go with the image itself . " He told David Sylvester that he intended his " hard , flat , bright ground " to juxtapose with the complexity of the central images , and noted that " for this work , it can work more starkly if the background is very united and clear . I think that probably is why I have used a very clear background against which the image can articulate itself " . Bacon usually applied paint to the background quickly , and with " great energy " ; however , he thought of it as a secondary element . He used its colour to establish tone , but in his mind the real work began when he came to paint the figures .
Critics have argued whether the triptych should be read sequentially from left to right . Davies believes the work is a narrative , panoramic view of Dyer 's suicide , and that the triptych 's format implies a temporal continuity between each frame . Ernst van Alphen has argued that , notwithstanding spatial inconsistencies — the light bulb featured in the central panel is missing from the two outer canvasses , while the doorway view is reversed in the center panel — the triptych is a " plain representation of a story " .
= = The Black Triptychs = =
Bacon 's work from the 1970s has been described by the art critic Hugh Davies as the " frenzied momentum of a struggle against death " . Bacon admitted during a 1974 interview that he thought the most difficult aspect of aging was " losing your friends " . This was a bleak period in his life , and though he was to live for another seventeen years , he felt that his life was almost over , " and all the people I 've loved are dead " . His concern is reflected in the darkened flesh and background tones of his paintings from this period . His acute sense of mortality and awareness of the fragility of life were heightened by Dyer 's death in Paris . In the next three years he painted many images of his former lover , including the series of three " Black Triptychs " which have come to be seen as among his best work . A number of characteristics bind the triptychs together : the form of a monochromatically rendered doorway features centrally in all , and each is framed by flat and shallow walls . In each three Dyer is stalked by a broad shadow ; which takes the form of pools of blood or flesh in the outer panels and the wings of the angel of death in the left hand and central images . In its display caption for Triptych – August 1972 the Tate gallery wrote , " What death has not already consumed seeps incontinently out of the figures as their shadows . "
Each of the three Black Triptychs displays sequential views of a single figure , and each seems to be intended to be viewed as if stills from a film . The figures rendered are not drawn from any of Bacon 's usual intellectual sources ; they do not depict Golgotha , Handes , or Leopold Bloom . In these pictures Bacon strips Dyer from the context of both Dyer 's own life and the artist 's life , and presents him as a nameless , slumped , gathering of flesh , awaiting the onset of death . Describing the Black Triptychs in 1993 , the art critic Juan Vicente Aliaga wrote that " the horror , the abjection that oozed from the crucifixes has been transformed in his last paintings into quiet solitude . The masculine bodies entwined in a carnal embrace have given way to the solitary figure leaning over the washbasin , standing firm on the smooth ground , neutral , bald @-@ headed , his convex back deformed , his testicles contracted in a fold . "
When asked by the broadcaster Melvyn Bragg in 1984 if the portraits painted in the wake of Dyer 's death were depictions of his emotional reaction to the event , Bacon replied that he did not consider himself to be an " expressionist painter " . He explained that he was " not trying to express anything , I wasn 't trying to express the sorrow about somebody committing suicide ... but perhaps it comes through without knowing it " . When Bragg inquired if he often thought about death , the artist replied that he was always aware of it , and that although " it 's just around the corner for [ me ] , I don 't think about it , because there 's nothing to think about . When it comes , it 's there . You 've had it . " Reflecting on the loss of Dyer , Bacon observed that as part of aging , " life becomes more of a desert around you " . He told Bragg that he believed in " nothing . We are born and we die and that 's it . There is nothing else . " Bragg asked Bacon what he did about that reality , and after the artist told him he did nothing about it , Bragg pleaded , " No Francis , you try and paint it . "
Throughout his career , Bacon consciously and carefully avoided explaining the meaning behind his paintings , and pointedly observed that they were not intended as narratives , nor open to interpretation . When Bragg challenged him with the observation that Triptych , May – June 1973 was the nearest the artist had come to telling a story , Bacon admitted that " it is in fact the nearest I 've ever done to a story , because you know that is the triptych of how [ Dyer ] was found " . He went on to say that the work reflected not just his reaction to Dyer 's death , but his general feelings about the fact that his friends were then dying around him " like flies " . A borderline alcoholic himself , Bacon continued to explain that his dead friends were " generally heavy drinkers " , and that their deaths led directly to his composition of a series of meditative self @-@ portraits which emphasised his own aging and awareness of the passage of time .
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= Julius Franks =
Julius Franks , Jr . ( September 5 , 1922 – November 26 , 2008 ) was a civil rights leader and an All @-@ American guard who played football at the University of Michigan from 1941 to 1942 . Franks wore # 62 as a varsity letterman in 1941 and # 63 in 1942 . Franks was the first ( or second depending on the source ) African @-@ American University of Michigan player to become an All @-@ American in football . Illness cut short his collegiate athletic career .
After Michigan , Franks pursued a career in dentistry . He also became an active community leader who contributed his time to public service and who helped to integrate Grand Rapids , Michigan by financing home construction in a majority Caucasian neighborhood .
= = First African @-@ American All @-@ American football player at Michigan = =
Franks , who was born in Macon , Georgia and raised in Hamtramck , Michigan , was named to the Detroit , Michigan , all @-@ city team after the 1939 high school football season . He is the son of Julius Franks , Sr. and Nellie Mae Solomon and father of Daryl , Cheryl , Bobby , Beverly A Grant , Fredrick . After graduating from high school , he attended the University of Michigan , where he became the third African @-@ American to play for the Michigan Wolverines football team . In 1942 , he became the first African @-@ American at Michigan to earn All @-@ American honors . He is described as the second to be All @-@ American by some accounts . Head coach Fritz Crisler said Franks was one of the hardest @-@ working players he ever coached . The 1942 Wolverines ' offensive line , which included Franks , Al Wistert , Robert Kolesar , Merv Pregulman , and Elmer Madar , was known as the " Seven Oak Posts " . Franks credited the group 's success to scrimmaging as rookies against the 1940 offense that included Tom Harmon , Forest Evashevski , and Bob Westfall . Franks was played all 60 minute in his games as a junior in 1942 and was named a first @-@ team All American by the International News Service ( Hearst newspapers ) , Central Press , and Collier 's Weekly , and a second @-@ team All @-@ American by the Associated Press and New York Sun .
In 1943 , Franks and teammate Tom Kuzma came down with tuberculosis and were hospitalized at University Hospital for 25 months as they recuperated . Franks recalled that head coach Fritz Crisler was a regular visitor to his hospital room , and team star Tom Harmon also stopped to visit while on leave from military service . As a result of the hospitalization , Franks missed his senior year as a football player . He obtained his bachelor of science degree in 1947 .
In 1982 , Franks was named to the University of Michigan Hall of Honor in the fifth class of inductees that was inducted in 1983 . He was the twelfth Michigan football player to earn this honor .
= = Professional career and community service = =
In 1951 , Franks earned his D.D.S. from the University of Michigan Dental School , and practiced dentistry in Grand Rapids , Michigan for more than 40 years . Franks was a leader in the Urban League , United Way , American Red Cross , Boy Scouts of America , and Rotary Club . In 1964 , Michigan Governor George Romney appointed Franks to Western Michigan University 's first Board of Trustees , where he served as a trustee until 1983 . Franks served on several boards : Executive Communication , Vice President , President , 1951 – 87 ; Kent County Dental Society , 1951 – 92 ; Michigan & American Dental Association , 1951 – 96 ; trustee , Western Michigan University , 1964 – 82 ( trustee emeritus , 1983 ) ; Director , Boulevard Memorial Medical Center , 1974 – 84 ; Director , United Way Kent County , 1987 – 92 . In 1992 , Franks contracted Guillain @-@ Barré syndrome , which forced him into retirement .
In the 1960s , Franks helped to integrate Grand Rapids . In the early 1960s , African Americans were not welcome in Grand Rapids ' " white " middle @-@ class neighborhoods , and real estate agents would not show them houses . In 1962 , Franks ' friend , J.E. Adams , found vacant land designated as a potential park site . Adams , Franks , and friends Joseph Lee and Samuel Triplett created a plan to purchase the 20 acres ( 80 @,@ 937 m2 ) site and build a middle @-@ class neighborhood for African @-@ Americans . The announcement " caused an uproar that resulted in protests , lawsuits and threats . " When banks refused to finance the project , the four men purchased the land on their own for $ 60 @,@ 000 and started building . The first of 51 houses was completed in 1965 . Today , the neighborhood , known as Auburn Hills ( not to be confused with Auburn Hills , Michigan ) , has a population of 542 and the lowest crime rate in Grand Rapids . In 2006 , the Michigan Alumni Club gave Franks the " Paul G. Goebel , Sr. Distinguished Alumni in Athletics Award " . In later years , Franks was also a leader with the Urban League , United Way and other groups .
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