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= Denmark Street =
Denmark Street is a street on the edge of London 's West End running from Charing Cross Road to St Giles . It is near St Giles in the Fields Church and Tottenham Court Road station . The street was developed in the late 17th century and named after Prince George of Denmark . Since the 1950s it has been associated with British popular music , first via publishers and later by recording studios and music shops . A blue plaque was unveiled in 2014 commemorating the street 's importance to the music industry .
The street was originally residential , but became used for commercial purposes in the 19th century . At first , metalwork was a popular trade but it became most famous as Britain 's " Tin Pan Alley " housing numerous music publishers ' offices . This market declined in the 1960s to be replaced by music shops and independent recording studios . The Rolling Stones recorded at Regent Sound Studio at No. 4 and popular musicians often socialised around the Gioconda café at No. 9 , including David Bowie and the Small Faces . Elton John and Bernie Taupin wrote songs at offices on the street through the 1960s , while the Sex Pistols lived above No. 6 , and recorded their first demos there . The comic book store , Forbidden Planet and the Helter Skelter music bookshop have also been based on the street . In the 2010s , the surrounding area was redeveloped . Parts of Denmark Street are listed to protect them , but other parts , away from the street itself , are planned to be demolished .
= = Location = =
Denmark Street is located at the southern end of the London Borough of Camden , close to its boundary with the London Borough of Westminster . It is east of Soho Square , south of St Giles Circus and close to the St Giles in the Fields Church .
The street is 108 metres ( 354 ft ) long and connects Charing Cross Road with St Giles High Street . Vehicular traffic is now only allowed to travel westbound . The nearest London Underground station is Tottenham Court Road , between two and three minutes ' walk away .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The land on which Denmark Street lies was formerly part of the grounds for St Giles Hospital , founded as a house for lepers in the early 12th century by Henry I 's wife , Matilda ( Maud ) . In 1612 , it was recorded as being owned by Tristram Gibbs . The grounds were laid out for development during the reign of James II and developed by Samuel Fortrey and Jacques Wiseman in the late 1680s . Historical evidence suggests the street was formed between 1682 and 1687 , as it was not shown on Morden and Lea 's Map of 1682 . It was named after Prince George of Denmark , who had married Princess Anne in 1683 . By 1691 , 20 houses had been completed , of which eight remain standing .
Dr John Purcell , a London physician who published A Treatise on Vapours or Hysteric Fits , lived at number 10 in 1730 , while the Reverend Doctor John James Majendie – who became Canon of Windsor – lived there from 1758 to 1771 . The painter Johann Zoffany lived at number 9 . In the late 18th century , the Jacobite Sir John Murray , lived there until the day he was " carried off by a party of strange men " .
The area around the street was known as the rookery of St Giles , which developed in the 18th century as an unplanned slum to the west of the City , and described as a " Pandora 's box of pollution , plague and pestilence " . Though much of the area was cleared by the end of the 19th century , Denmark Street is the only street in London to retain 17th century terraced facades on both sides . In 2010 , a study by Camden London Borough Council suggested that only six other streets in London have a comparable heritage to Denmark Street . A small court connected by passages ( originally known as Dudley Court , then Denmark Court and now known as Denmark Place ) runs along the back of the north side of the street , connecting to it via an opening at No. 27 .
The street started being used for commercial purposes at the beginning of the 19th century and houses were converted for this use . Ground floors became used as shops , while upper floors and back rooms were used as workshops , particularly for metalwork . Augustus Siebe , the pioneer of the diving helmet , lived and worked on the street , and today there is an English Heritage blue plaque commemorating him on the house where he lived .
In the 1930s , several Japanese businesses were established in the street , which became known as " Little Tokyo " . Azakami and Co. at No. 6 sold books , newspapers , televisions and radios . The Tokiwa restaurant and hotel were based at No. 8 and No. 22 respectively having moved from Charing Cross Road in 1927 . Other businesses included a hairdresser , jewellers , tailor and gift shop .
= = = Tin Pan Alley = = =
= = = = 1920s – 50s = = = =
Lawrence Wright was the first music publisher to set up premises on Denmark Street in 1911 . He was initially based at No. 8 and moved to No. 11 after World War I. He subsequently founded the musicians ' journal Melody Maker in 1926 . The same year , another music publisher , Campbell Connelly , moved from their original offices in Tottenham Court Road to Denmark Street . The New Musical Express was founded at No. 5 in 1952 and remained there until 1964 . By the end of the 1950s , the street had established itself as Britain 's " Tin Pan Alley " and housed numerous music publishers and other venues connected with the business .
Larry Parnes became a successful manager and entrepreneur of pop singers during the mid @-@ 1950s , and regularly took material from songwriters and publishers based in Denmark Street . Lionel Bart , writer of the musical Oliver ! , started his writing career for publishers and was subsequently known as " the king of Denmark Street " .
= = = = 1960s = = = =
The music publishing trade on Denmark Street began to decline during the 1960s , as the traditional producers lost touch with changing tastes and groups like the Rolling Stones showed it was possible to write their own material . For example , Paul Simon was based in London at this time but Mills Music at number 20 , told him that his songs " Homeward Bound " and " The Sound of Silence " were uncommercial .
Recording studios began to be operated in the street . Regent Sound Studio at No. 4 was founded in July 1961 to serve as a unit for publishers to record their songs . The studio was based above the offices of Essex Music and was frequently used by then Stones manager Andrew Loog Oldham . The band recorded their first album at Regent in 1964 and the single " Not Fade Away " became their first major hit to be recorded there . Oldham liked the atmosphere in the studio as he could " stretch out a bit , experiment and learn from our mistakes " . The studios eventually expanded and moved into new premises on Tottenham Court Road , while the Denmark Street premises became the sales office . They were subsequently bought by Eddie Kassner at the end of the 1960s . Publishers Box & Cox had their offices at number 7 . Their greatest hit was " I 've Got a Lovely Bunch of Coconuts " . Southern Music , at No. 8 , also had a studio in the ground floor , which was used to record Donovan 's hit , " Catch The Wind " .
The Carter & Lewis songwriting partnership evolved when John Carter and Ken Lewis arrived in London in 1959 and decided " if you want to be in the music business , that [ Denmark Street ] was the place to be , that was the rule " . Session musicians such as Jimmy Page and John Paul Jones regularly played in Denmark Street studios . In 1964 , The Kinks with Page on guitar and Jon Lord ( later to form Deep Purple ) on piano , recorded " You Really Got Me " in one of the basement studios .
Musicians often socialised around the Gioconda café at No. 9 . David Bowie recruited his first backing band , The Lower Third , in the bar , while the Small Faces formed after the original members socialised around the Gioconda . Other regular patrons included David Bowie and Jimi Hendrix . In April 2014 , a number of music industry figures , including disc jockey Mike Read , unveiled a blue plaque above the premises that included a QR Code to access a multimedia presentation about the history of music .
= = = = 1970s = = = =
In 1970 Bernie Taupin and Elton John wrote " Your Song " , John 's first hit single , at No. 20 Denmark Street . John had started work at a music publisher in the street in 1963 , and Taupin wrote the lyrics while sitting on the roof ( " I sat on the roof and kicked off the moss " ) while waiting for John one morning . They mentioned the street in their 1974 song " Bitter Fingers " , on the semi @-@ autobiographical concept album Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy . Also in 1970 , a song named " Denmark Street " appeared on the Kinks ' album Lola versus Powerman and the Moneygoround , Part One .
Manager Malcolm McLaren asked architect Ben Kelly to refurbish a basement rehearsal room he had bought from Badfinger . The Sex Pistols rehearsed in this room , lived above No. 6 , and recorded their first demos there . Johnny Rotten drew cartoons of the members as graffiti which turned up later in an archaeological survey of the site . Scott Gorham bought his first guitar with Thin Lizzy on Denmark Street . He had turned up at the audition with a Japanese Les Paul Copy — when he got the job , Phil Lynott took him shopping on Denmark Street . After being told several guitars were too expensive , he settled on a Sunburst Gibson Les Paul Deluxe . Andy 's Guitars was established in 1978 at No. 27 and survived for many years before closing in 2007 because of increased shop rates .
The comic and science @-@ fiction bookshop , Forbidden Planet started at number 23 in 1978 before moving to New Oxford Street and becoming an international chain . When Douglas Adams attempted to attend a signing for the first The Hitch @-@ Hiker 's Guide to the Galaxy book in October 1979 , the queue to the shop was so long that Adams thought a demonstration was taking place elsewhere .
= = = = 1980s – present = = = =
By 1980 , there were a number of unlicensed nightclubs operating on Denmark Place , running adjacent to the street . The clubs were housed in buildings that had previously functioned as a hostel for musicians , which adjoined a music shop on the street , and the fire brigade had insisted that a fire escape be fitted . By the time the clubs were in operation , the shop had closed and the fire escape had fallen into disrepair . 18 Denmark Place was home to two such clubs ; on the first floor was " Rodo 's " , a salsa club popular with South American immigrants and above that " The Spanish Rooms " on the second floor which was a late night bar frequented by locals including Irish and Jamaican immigrants . On 14 August 1980 John Thompson , a local petty criminal , was ejected from The Spanish Rooms following a fight which may have been caused by a dispute about being overcharged . Thompson returned shortly thereafter and poured petrol into the ground floor of the building and ignited it . The inferno resulting from this act of arson killed 37 people from eight different nationalities and was described as the worst fire in London in terms of loss of life since World War II . Thompson was imprisoned having been convicted of murder and died in prison in 2008 on the anniversary of the tragedy .
Numbers 1 – 3 had become a Job Centre by the 1980s , specialising in vacancies for the catering industry . The serial killer Dennis Nilsen worked there and brought in a large cooking pot , in which he had boiled his victims heads , as a utensil for preparing a Christmas 1980 party .
The last major music publisher in the street , Peer Music , moved from No. 8 in 1992 , completing the gradual transformation of premises from publishers to instrument stores . In May 1990 , Andy Preston , owner of Andy 's Guitars , set up a traders association and attempted to have the street re @-@ branded as " Music Land " , similar to Drury Lane being marked Theatreland and Gerrard Street as Chinatown . Helter Skelter was set up as a bookshop dedicated to music titles in 1995 by Sean Body . The shop operated at the old Essex Music and Regent Sound building at No. 4 until rising rents forced it to close in 2004 .
= = Redevelopment = =
In 2009 , Denmark Street was identified in English Heritage 's " Heritage at Risk " register as being at risk in view of the nearby development of Crossrail . Particular attention was drawn to No. 26 , which is a Grade II listed building . In 2010 , Camden London Borough Council identified the street and adjacent properties as a Conservation Area .
In 2013 , the council announced that Denmark Street would be redeveloped by the architectural firm ORMS as part of a major development in conjunction with the Crossrail construction work around Tottenham Court Road tube station and Centre Point . The proposed development includes the construction of an 800 @-@ seat subterranean performance venue . Numbers 1 – 6 and 17 – 21 Denmark Place , which run parallel along the back of the street , and the York and Clifton Mansions will be demolished , along with partial demolition of No. 21 Denmark Street .
The scheme has been condemned by the local music industry and shopkeepers . Writer Henry Scott @-@ Irvine launched a petition to stop the planned redevelopment , which has gathered 10 @,@ 000 signatures . In an interview to Mojo , Scott @-@ Irvine said " This should be stopped " , adding that Denmark Street " should be given full heritage status like Covent Garden Market , Hatton Garden and Savile Row " . He discovered that , although demolition was scheduled to start in late 2014 , the plans were approved by the newly elected borough council . Consolidated Developments , developers for the new site , stated they were " committed to preserving and enhancing the rich musical heritage of Tin Pan Alley " .
In January 2015 , following the closure of the 12 Bar Club and clearance of Enterprise Studios on Denmark Place , a group of musicians and supporters squatted in the club 's premises and staged a demonstration in the street , protesting against redevelopment . Former Oasis manager and head of Creation Records , Alan McGee supported the protestors , saying " you really couldn ’ t say a bad word against any of them . And they know the law , so they can 't just be thrown out of there . " However , a report in the Independent judged the protest to be misguided , as most shops along the street are still trading .
= = Current occupants = =
On the corner of the street with Charing Cross Road is Chris Bryant 's Musical Instruments . Denmark Street Guitars claims to have over 3 @,@ 000 instruments in stock and to have the largest selection of guitars in the UK . Regent Sounds , formerly the recording studio , which specialises in Fender and Gretsch guitars and Essex Music at No. 4 ; the Alleycat Bar and Club sits in the basement below the store . No.Tom Vintage and Classic Guitars has a store at No. 6 . Macaris , a guitar retailer , was established in 1958 and specialises in Gibson models . As well as their shop at No. 25 , they have an additional shop nearby on Charing Cross Road .
The sheet music shop Argents is currently based at No. 19 . It was founded by The Zombies ' Rod Argent as a keyboard shop and was previously based next door , at No. 20 . Since then it has undergone two changes of owners and now specialises in sheet music and DVD sales , covering a wide variety of styles including jazz and classical .
Rose Morris have been established in Denmark Street since 1919 . Originally based at No. 11 , they now occupy No. 10 in the former offices of Southern Music Publishing . The company became the first British distributor of Rickenbacker guitars in 1962 , which had a surge in popularity after musicians noticed the Beatles ' John Lennon playing one . Rose Morris purchased instruments directly from Rickenbacker 's factory instead of their sales office , in order to keep up with demand . The British models carry unique serial numbers such as the 325 , the Rose Morris 1996 . The Early Music Shop 's London branch is based on the first floor of number 11 , above Rose Morris . The shop contains early music instruments including recorders and sheet music .
There has been a recording studio in the basement of No. 22 since Tin Pan Alley Studios was established in 1954 . It was originally founded by session violinist Ralph Elman , and was previously the premises of the Acid Jazz Records label . In 2013 , producer Guy Katsav took over management of the premises , renaming them Denmark Street Studios .
The 12 Bar Club was at No. 26 , a small live music venue with a capacity of about 100 people which was established in 1994 . The building was originally stables , built in 1635 , before becoming a blacksmiths until after World War I. It closed in January 2015 as part of the redevelopment work .
= = Listed buildings = =
Denmark Street has eight Grade II listed buildings . Though the refurbishment plans allow modernisation of these buildings , the council are keen to ensure that the affected properties remain solely in use for the music industry . A report added , " Music industry activities make a fundamental contribution to the special character of Denmark Street and support associated retail provision . "
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= Pokey Mom =
" Pokey Mom " is the tenth episode of the twelfth season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 14 , 2001 . In the episode , Marge befriends Jack Crowley , a convict who she believes has some artistic potential . With Marge 's help , Jack is granted parole and finds a mural @-@ painting job at Springfield Elementary School . Meanwhile , Homer suffers from a back injury and goes to see a chiropractor . Despite this his pain remains and it is not until he accidentally falls backwards onto a garbage can that his back injury disappears . Homer makes a successful business out of this injury @-@ healing garbage can , much to the dismay of chiropractors in town .
The episode was written by Tom Martin and directed by Bob Anderson , and it features guest appearances from Michael Keaton as Jack , Charles Napier as a prison warden , Robert Schimmel as a prisoner , and Bruce Vilanch as himself . " Pokey Mom " has been met with generally negative reviews from critics , being described as bland and drawn out . The staff members of the series received complaints from chiropractors after it aired , and some chiropractors have characterized the portrayal of the profession in the episode as stereotypical . Around 8 @.@ 79 million American homes tuned in to watch the episode during its original airing , and in 2009 it was released on DVD along with the rest of the episodes of the twelfth season .
= = Plot = =
The Simpson family attends a prison rodeo where Marge meets Jack Crowley , a convict whom she believes to have great artistic potential after becoming impressed with his work . She later teaches a class on being an artist to the prisoners and befriends Jack . With Marge 's help , Jack is granted parole under her custody . Marge soon finds a mural @-@ painting job at Springfield Elementary School for him . Jack paints a powerful , epic mural symbolizing school spirit with a warrior woman riding a puma , which the whole school likes , but Principal Skinner ( who hates it ) demands that he tone it down using Skinner 's own childish idea of kittens in a fantasy land . Jack reluctantly gives into Skinner 's wishes ; however , upon its unveiling , the new mural is panned by everyone in town ( even Ned Flanders ) . Skinner blames Jack and fires him .
Sometime later , the mural is set on fire by a mystery arsonist . There are no suspects ; however , everyone in the school immediately assumes that Jack did it to get back at Skinner . While the police are out searching for Jack , Marge stumbles upon him hiding in the school playground . He swears to her that he did not start the fire , and Marge believes him . She then distracts Skinner and Chief Wiggum so he can escape ; however , instead , he immediately sets fire to Skinner 's car as he did to the mural , and dances around it laughing maniacally . Jack is arrested , and Marge is furious that he looked her in the eye and flat @-@ out lied to her . When Jack attempts to lie to her again — claiming this time that although he did burn the mural , he did not burn Skinner 's car ( despite the fact that she had just seen him do it ) — she ends all her involvement with him , and on the way to jail , Jack and Wiggum make conversation .
Meanwhile , Homer begins suffering from a back injury and goes to see a chiropractor . However , he fails to follow the instructions given to him by the chiropractor and his suffering continues . Later , Homer accidentally falls backwards onto a round garbage can at home and discovers that it solved his back problems . He names the garbage can " Dr. Homer 's Miracle Spine @-@ o @-@ Cylinder " , and makes a business out of his discovery . It turns out to be a successful method of solving problems with pain , causing the chiropractic business to go in decline until the chiropractors in town denounce the method and destroy the garbage can at the Simpsons ' home .
= = Production = =
" Pokey Mom " was written by Tom Martin and directed by Bob Anderson as part of the twelfth season of The Simpsons ( 2000 – 2001 ) . According to then @-@ showrunner Mike Scully , the story of this episode originated from the fact that the staff members of The Simpsons wanted to do an episode about Marge but felt they did not want it to revolve around her getting a new job , as that had been seen on the show " too often " . They decided to explore one of Marge 's attributes that had been seen in earlier episodes , eventually choosing her interest in art . Martin conceived of the sub @-@ plot surrounding Homer following a visit to a chiropractor . He has said that the " heart " of that story is that the chiropractors in Springfield become opposed to Homer 's method of healing people and try to stop it after losing business , in reference to how chiropractors in real @-@ life " are a bit hated by the AMA ( American Medical Association ) " and how the AMA has tried to restrict their businesses in the past . Martin has also noted that the episode shows how " a lot of chiropractors are these great healers and they do great work , and then there 's some that are crooked . "
Several famous Americans made guest appearances in the episode . Actor Michael Keaton guest starred as Jack Crowley , while stand @-@ up comedian Robert Schimmel appeared as a prisoner in Marge 's art class that wants to smell her clothes . Actor Charles Napier voiced the prison warden that commentates the rodeo at the prison and later grants Jack his parole . Comedy writer and actor Bruce Vilanch guest starred in the episode as himself at the unveiling of Jack 's mural painting . There , Principal Skinner jokes to the audience that " when Superintendent Chalmers suggested a school mural , I almost thought he said a ' school Muriel ' , " referencing Chalmers ' sister Muriel . When no one laughs at his joke and the audience is dead silent , Skinner sarcastically says " Well , thank you , Bruce Vilanch , " to which Vilanch replies " Whoopi would 've made it work . " This is a reference to the fact that Vilanch has written comedy material for actress Whoopi Goldberg .
= = Release = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 14 , 2001 . It was viewed in approximately 8 @.@ 79 million households that night . With a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 6 , " Pokey Mom " tied with an episode of 60 Minutes for the 38th place in the ratings for the week of January 8 – 14 , 2001 . It was the third highest @-@ rated broadcast on Fox that week , following episodes of Temptation Island and Boston Public . On August 18 , 2009 , " Pokey Mom " was released on DVD as part of the box set The Simpsons – The Complete Twelfth Season . Staff members Tom Martin , Bob Anderson , Mike Scully , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , John Frink , Don Payne , Matt Selman , and Joel H. Cohen , as well as cast members Dan Castellaneta and Joe Mantegna , participated in the DVD audio commentary for the episode . Deleted scenes from the episode were also included on the box set .
Critics have given " Pokey Mom " generally negative reviews . Nancy Basile of About.com said she " loathed " it . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented that " Other than a nice guest turn from Michael Keaton , ' Mom ' doesn ’ t do much to stand out from the crowd . Oh , like much of Season 12 , it keeps us interested , but that ’ s not exactly a strong endorsement . ' Mom ' provides a watchable show but nothing more . " Den of Geek critic Matt Haigh wrote that the episode " starts well , but begins to feel tired and drawn out , and there just doesn 't seem to be much of a story there . "
Following the original broadcast of the episode , the staff members of the series received several complaints from chiropractors . The February 26 , 2001 issue of the magazine Dynamic Chiropractic featured an article about the episode that noted : " [ The Simpsons ] has poked fun at numerous people , and about every institution and profession imaginable . On January 17 , it was chiropractic 's turn . " In an article of the magazine Canadian Chiropractor , Steven R. Passmore ( D.C. , M.S. ) and Lorraine Kochanowski @-@ Sutter ( D.C. ) analyzed the portrayal of chiropractors in the media . They gave " Pokey Mom " as an example of how " chiropractors on sitcoms pok [ e ] fun at themselves as they prescribe the duration of a course of care . [ ... ] Dr. Steve on The Simpsons corroborates this stereotype when telling Homer that he will need to see him ' three times a week for many years . ' " Passmore and Kochanowski @-@ Sutter also noted that in the episode " we see a dreamcatcher on the wall behind Dr. Steve as he treats Homer . This strategically placed decoration could suggest that the chiropractor is in touch with native and / or natural healing , or it could be a jab at the field ’ s more esoteric practitioners . "
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= History of Sesame Street =
The preschool educational television program Sesame Street was first aired on public broadcasting television stations November 10 , 1969 , and will reach its 46th season in 2016 . The history of Sesame Street has reflected changing attitudes to developmental psychology , early childhood education and cultural diversity . Featuring Jim Henson 's Muppets , animation , live shorts , humor and celebrity appearances , it was the first television program of its kind to base its content and production values on laboratory and formative research , and the first to include a curriculum " detailed or stated in terms of measurable outcomes " . Initial responses to the show included adulatory reviews , some controversy and high ratings . By its 40th anniversary in 2009 , Sesame Street was broadcast in over 120 countries , and 20 independent international versions had been produced .
The show was conceived in 1966 during discussions between television producer Joan Ganz Cooney and Carnegie Corporation vice president Lloyd Morrisett . Their goal was to create a children 's television show that would " master the addictive qualities of television and do something good with them " , such as helping young children prepare for school . After two years of research , the newly formed Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) received a combined grant of $ 8 million from the Carnegie Corporation , the Ford Foundation and the U.S. federal government to create and produce a new children 's television show .
By the show 's tenth anniversary in 1979 , nine million American children under the age of six were watching Sesame Street daily , and several studies showed it was having a positive educational impact . The cast and crew expanded during this time , including the hiring of women in the crew and additional minorities in the cast . In 1981 , the federal government withdrew its funding , so the CTW turned to other sources , such as its magazine division , book royalties , product licensing and foreign income . During the 1980s , Sesame Street 's curriculum expanded to include topics such as relationships , ethics and emotions . Many of the show 's storylines were taken from the experiences of its writing staff , cast and crew , most notably the death of Will Lee — who played Mr. Hooper — and the marriage of Luis and Maria .
In recent decades , Sesame Street has faced societal and economic challenges , including changes in the viewing habits of young children , more competition from other shows , the development of cable television and a drop in ratings . After the turn of the 21st century , the show made major structural adaptations , including changing its traditional magazine format to a narrative format . Because of the popularity of the Muppet Elmo , the show incorporated a popular segment known as " Elmo 's World " . Sesame Street has won eight Grammys and over a hundred Emmys in its history — more than any other children 's show .
= = Background = =
In the late 1960s , 97 % of all American households owned a television set , and preschool children watched an average of 27 hours of television per week ; programs created for them were widely criticized for being too violent and for reflecting commercial values . Producer Joan Ganz Cooney called children 's programming a " wasteland " , and she was not alone in her criticism . Many children 's television programs were produced by local stations , with little regard for educational goals , or cultural diversity and the use of children 's programming as an educational tool was " unproven " and " a revolutionary concept " .
According to children 's media experts Edward Palmer and Shalom M. Fisch , children 's television programs of the 1950s and 1960s duplicated " prior media forms " . For example , they tended to show simple shots of a camera 's @-@ eye view of a location filled with children , or they recreated storybooks with shots of book covers and motionless illustrated pages . The hosts of these programs were " insufferably condescending " , though one exception was Captain Kangaroo , created and hosted by Bob Keeshan , which author Michael Davis described as having a " slower pace and idealism " that most other children 's shows lacked .
Early childhood educational research had shown that when children were prepared to succeed in school , they earned higher grades and learned more effectively . Children from low @-@ income families had fewer resources than children from higher @-@ income families to prepare them for school . Research had shown that children from low @-@ income , minority backgrounds tested " substantially lower " than middle @-@ class children in school @-@ related skills , and that they continued to have educational deficits throughout school . The field of developmental psychology had grown during this period , and scientists were beginning to understand that changes in early childhood education could increase children 's cognitive growth . Because of these trends in education , along with the great societal changes occurring in the United States during this era , the time was ripe for the creation of a show like Sesame Street .
= = Pre @-@ production ( 1966 – 1969 ) = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
Since 1962 , Cooney had been producing talk shows and documentaries at educational television station WNDT , and in 1966 had won an Emmy for a documentary about poverty in America . In early 1966 , Cooney and her husband Tim hosted a dinner party at their apartment in New York ; experimental psychologist Lloyd Morrisett , who has been called Sesame Street 's " financial godfather " , and his wife Mary were among the guests . Cooney 's boss , Lewis Freedman , whom Cooney called " the grandfather of Sesame Street " , also attended the party , as did their colleague Anne Bower . As a vice @-@ president at the Carnegie Corporation , Morrisett had awarded several million dollars in grants to organizations that educated poor and minority preschool children . Morrisett and the other guests felt that even with limited resources , television could be an effective way to reach millions of children .
A few days after the dinner party , Cooney , Freedman and Morrisett met at the Carnegie Corporation 's offices to make plans ; they wanted to harness the addictive power of television for their own purposes , but did not yet know how . The following summer , despite Cooney 's lack of experience in the field of education , Morrisett hired her to conduct research on childhood development , education and media , and she visited experts in these fields across the United States and Canada . She researched their ideas about the viewing habits of young children and wrote a report on her findings .
Cooney 's study , titled " Television for Preschool Education " , spelled out how television could be used to help young children , especially from low @-@ income families , prepare for school . The focus on the new show was on children from disadvantaged backgrounds , but Cooney and the show 's creators recognized that in order to achieve the kind of success they wanted , it had to be equally accessible to children of all socio @-@ economic and ethnic backgrounds . At the same time , they wanted to make the show so appealing to inner @-@ city children that it would help them learn as much as children with more educational opportunities . This was the show 's primary criterion for success .
Cooney proposed that public television , even though it had a poor track record in attracting inner @-@ city audiences , could be used to improve the quality of children 's programming . She suggested using the television medium 's " most engaging traits " , including high production values , sophisticated writing , and quality film and animation , to reach the largest audience possible . In the words of critic Peter Hellman , " If [ children ] could recite Budweiser jingles from TV , why not give them a program that would teach the ABCs and simple number concepts ? " Cooney wanted to create a program that would spread values favoring education to nonviewers — including their parents and older siblings , who tended to control the television set . To this end , she suggested that humor directed toward adults be included , which , as Lesser reported , " may turn out to be a pretty good system in forcing the young child to stretch to understand programs designed for older audiences " . Cooney also believed cultural references and guest appearances by celebrities would encourage parents and older siblings to watch the show together .
= = = Development = = =
As a result of Cooney 's proposal , the Carnegie Corporation awarded her a $ 1 million grant in 1968 to establish the Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) to provide support to the creative staff of the new show . Morrisett , who was responsible for fundraising , procured additional grants from the United States federal government , the Corporation for Public Broadcasting , and the Ford Foundation for the CTW 's initial budget , which totaled $ 8 million ; obtaining funding from this combination of government agencies and private foundations protected the CTW from economic pressures experienced by commercial networks . Sesame Street was an expensive program to produce because the creators decided they needed to compete with other programs that invested in professional , high quality production .
The producers spent eighteen months preparing the new show , something unprecedented in children 's television . The show had an " impressive " budget of $ 28 @,@ 000 per episode . After being named executive director of the CTW , Cooney began to assemble a team of producers : Jon Stone was responsible for writing , casting , and format ; David Connell took over animation and volume ; and Samuel Gibbon served as the show 's chief liaison between the production staff and the research team . Stone , Connell , and Gibbon had worked on Captain Kangaroo together , but were not involved in children 's television when Cooney recruited them . At first , Cooney planned to divide the show 's production of five episodes a week among several teams , but she was advised by CBS vice @-@ president Mike Dann to use only one . This production team was led by Connell , who had gained experience producing many episodes in a short period of time , a process called " volume production " , during his eleven years working on Captain Kangaroo .
The CTW hired Harvard University professor Gerald S. Lesser to design the show 's educational objectives and establish and lead a National Board of Advisers . Instead of providing what Lesser called " window dressing " , the Board actively participated in the construction of educational goals and creative methods . At the Board 's direction , Lesser conducted five three @-@ day curriculum planning seminars in Boston and New York City in summer 1968 . The purpose of the seminars was to ascertain which school @-@ preparation skills to emphasize in the new show . The producers gathered professionals with diverse backgrounds to obtain ideas for educational content . They reported that the seminars were " widely successful " , and resulted in long and detailed lists of possible topics for inclusion in the Sesame Street curriculum ; in fact , the seminars produced more suggested educational objectives than could ever be addressed by one television series .
Instead of focusing on the social and emotional aspects of development , the producers decided to follow the suggestions of the seminar participants and emphasize cognitive skills , a decision they felt was warranted by the demands of school and the wishes of parents . The objectives developed during the seminars were condensed into key categories : symbolic representation , cognitive processes , and the physical and social environment . The seminars set forth the new show 's policy about race and social issues and provided the show 's production and creative team with " a crash course " in psychology , child development , and early childhood education . They also marked the beginning of Jim Henson 's involvement in Sesame Street . Cooney met Henson at one of the seminars ; Stone , who was familiar with Henson 's work , felt that if they could not bring him on board , they should " make do without puppets " .
The producers and writers decided to build the new show around a brownstone or an inner @-@ city street , a choice Davis called " unprecedented " . Stone was convinced that in order for inner @-@ city children to relate to Sesame Street , it needed to be set in a familiar place . Despite its urban setting , the producers decided to avoid depicting more negativity than what was already present in the child 's environment . Lesser commented , " [ despite ] all its raucousness and slapstick humor , Sesame Street became a sweet show , and its staff maintains that there is nothing wrong in that " .
The new show was called the " Preschool Educational Television Show " in promotional materials ; the producers were unable to agree on a name they liked and waited until the last minute to make a decision . In a short , irreverent promotional film shown to public television executives , the producers parodied their " naming dilemma " . The producers were reportedly " frantic for a title " ; they finally settled on the name that they least disliked : Sesame Street , inspired by Ali Baba 's magical phrase , although there were concerns that it would be too difficult for young children to pronounce . Stone was one of the producers who disliked the name , but , he said , " I was outvoted , for which I 'm deeply grateful " .
The responsibility of casting for Sesame Street fell to Jon Stone , who set out to form a cast where white actors were in the minority . He did not begin auditions until spring 1969 , several weeks before five test shows were due to be produced . He filmed the auditions , and Palmer took them into the field to test children 's reactions . The actors who received the " most enthusiastic thumbs up " were cast . For example , Loretta Long was chosen to play Susan when the children who saw her audition stood up and sang along with her rendition of " I 'm a Little Teapot " . Stone reported that casting was the only aspect that was " just completely haphazard " . Most of the cast and crew found jobs on Sesame Street through personal relationships with Stone and the other producers . Stone hired Bob McGrath ( an actor and singer best known at the time for his appearances on Mitch Miller 's sing @-@ along show on NBC ) to play Bob , Will Lee to play Mr. Hooper , and Garrett Saunders to play Gordon .
= = = Use of research in production = = =
Sesame Street was the first children 's television program that used a curriculum with clear and measurable outcomes , and was the first to use research in the creation of the show 's design and content . Research in Sesame Street had three functions : to test if the show was appealing to children , to discover what could be done to make the show more appealing , and to report to the public and the investors what impact the show had on its young viewers . Ten to fifteen percent of the show 's initial budget of $ 8 million was devoted to research , and researchers were always present in the studio during the show 's filming . A " Writer 's Notebook " was developed to assist writers and producers in translating the research and production goals into televised material ; this connected the show 's curriculum goals and its script development . The Muppet characters were created to fill specific curriculum needs : Oscar the Grouch , for example , was designed to teach children about their positive and negative emotions . Lesser called the collaboration between researchers and producers , as well as the idea of using television as an educational tool , the " CTW model " . Cooney agreed , commenting , " From the beginning , we — the planners of the project — designed the show as an experimental research project with educational advisers , researchers , and television producers collaborating as equal partners " .
The producers of Sesame Street believed education through television was possible if they captured and sustained children 's attention ; this meant the show needed a strong appeal . Edward Palmer , the CTW 's first Director of Research and the man Cooney credited with building the CTW 's foundation of research , was one of the few academics in the late 1960s researching children 's television . He was recruited by the CTW to test if the curricula developed in the Boston seminars were reaching their audience effectively . Palmer was also tasked with designing and executing the CTW 's in @-@ house research and with working with the Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) . His research was so crucial to Sesame Street that Gladwell asserted , " ... without Ed Palmer , the show would have never lasted through the first season " .
Palmer and his team 's approach to researching the show 's effectiveness was innovative ; it was the first time formative research was conducted in this way . For example , Palmer developed " the distractor " , which he used to test if the material shown on Sesame Street captured young viewers ' attention . Two children at a time were brought into the laboratory ; they were shown an episode on a television monitor and a slide show next to it . The slides would change every seven seconds , and researchers recorded when the children 's attention was diverted away from the episode . They were able to record almost every second of Sesame Street this way ; if the episode captured the children 's interest 80 – 90 % of the time , the producers would air it , but if it only tested 50 % , they would reshoot . By the fourth season of the show , the episodes rarely tested below 85 % .
= = = July 1969 test episodes = = =
During the production of Sesame Street 's first season , producers created five one @-@ hour episodes to test the show 's appeal to children and examine their comprehension of the material . Not intended for broadcast , they were presented to preschoolers in 60 homes throughout Philadelphia and in day care centers in New York City in July 1969 . The results were " generally very positive " ; children learned from the shows , their appeal was high , and their attention was sustained over the full hour . However , the researchers found that although children 's attention was high during the Muppet segments , their interest wavered during the " Street " segments , when no Muppets were on screen . This was because the producers had followed the advice of child psychologists who were concerned that children would be confused if human actors and Muppets were shown together . As a result of this decision , the appeal of the test episodes was lower than the target .
The Street scenes , as Palmer described them , were " the glue " that " pulled the show together " , so producers knew they needed to make significant changes . On the basis of their experience on Captain Kangaroo , Cannell , Stone , and Gibbon thought the experts ' opinions were " nonsense " ; Cooney agreed . Lesser called their decision to defy the recommendations of their advisers " a turning point in the history of Sesame Street " . The producers reshot the Street segments ; Henson and his coworkers created Muppets that could interact with the human actors , specifically Oscar the Grouch and Big Bird , who became two of the show 's most enduring characters . In addition , the producers found Saunders ' role as Gordon not to be as likable by children watching the show , resulting in the character being recast by Matt Robinson , who was initially the show 's filmed segments producer . These test episodes were directly responsible for what Gladwell called " the essence of Sesame Street — the artful blend of fluffy monsters and earnest adults " .
= = Premiere and first season ( 1969 – 1970 ) = =
Two days before the show 's premiere , a thirty @-@ minute preview entitled This Way to Sesame Street aired on NBC . The show was financed by a $ 50 @,@ 000 grant from Xerox . Written by Stone and produced by CTW publicist Bob Hatch , it was taped the day before it aired . Newsday called the preview " a unique display of cooperation between commercial and noncommercial broadcasters " .
Sesame Street premièred November 10 , 1969 . It was widely praised for its originality , and was well received by parents as well as children . The show reached only 67 @.@ 6 % of the nation , but earned a 3 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating , meaning 1 @.@ 9 million households and 7 million children watched it each day . In Sesame Street 's first season , the ETS reported that children who watched the show scored higher in tests than less @-@ frequent viewers .
In November 1970 , the cover of Time magazine featured Big Bird , who had received more fan mail than any of the show 's human hosts . The magazine declared , " ... It is not only the best children 's show in TV history , it is one of the best parents ' shows as well " . David Frost , speaking about the versions of Sesame Street that were being produced in other countries , declared it was " a hit everywhere it goes " . An executive at ABC , while recognizing that Sesame Street was not perfect , said the show " opened children 's TV to taste and wit and substance " and " made the climate right for improvement " . Other reviewers predicted commercial television would be forced to improve its children 's programming , something that did not substantially occur until the 1990s . Sesame Street won a Peabody Award , three Emmys , and the Prix Jeunesse award in 1970 . President Richard Nixon sent Cooney a congratulatory letter , and Dr. Benjamin Spock predicted the program would result in " better @-@ trained citizens , fewer unemployables in the next generation , fewer people on welfare , and smaller jail populations " .
Sesame Street was not without its detractors ; there was little criticism of the show in the months following its premiere , but it increased at the end of its first season and beginning of the second season . In May 1970 , a state commission in Mississippi voted to not air the show on the state 's newly launched public television network . A member of the commission leaked the vote to The New York Times , stating that " Mississippi was not yet ready " for the show 's integrated cast . Cooney called the ban " a tragedy for both the white and black children of Mississippi " . The state commission reversed its decision after the vote made national news .
The producers of Sesame Street made a few changes in its second season . Segments that featured children became more spontaneous and allowed more impromptu dialogue , even when it meant cutting other segments . Since federal funds had been used to produce the show , more segments of the population insisted upon being represented on Sesame Street ; for example , the show was criticized by Hispanic groups for the lack of Latino characters in the early years of production . A committee of Hispanic activists , commissioned by the CTW in 1970 , called Sesame Street " racist " and said the show 's bilingual aspects were of " poor quality and patronizing " . The CTW responded to these critics by hiring Hispanic actors , production staff , and researchers . By the mid @-@ 70s , Morrow reported that " the show included Chicano and Puerto Rican cast members , films about Mexican holidays and foods , and cartoons that taught Spanish words " .
While New York Magazine reported criticism of the presence of strong single women in the show , organizations like the National Organization for Women ( NOW ) expressed concerns that the show needed to be " less male @-@ oriented " . For example , members of NOW took exception to the character Susan , who was originally a housewife . They complained about the lack of , as Morrow put it , " credible female Muppets " on the show ; Morrow reported that Henson 's response was that " women might not be strong enough to hold the puppets over the long hours of taping " . The show 's producers responded by making Susan a nurse and by hiring a female writer .
= = 1970s = =
By the mid @-@ 1970s , Sesame Street , according to Davis , had become " an American institution " . ETS conducted two " landmark " studies of the show in 1970 and 1971 which demonstrated Sesame Street had a positive educational impact on its viewers . The results of these studies led to the producers securing funding for the show over the next several years , and provided the CTW with additional ways to promote it . By the second season , Sesame Street had become so popular that the design of ETS ' experiments to track the show 's educational outcomes had to be changed : instead of comparing viewers with a control group of non @-@ viewers , the researchers studied the differences among levels of viewing . They found that children who watched Sesame Street more frequently had a higher comprehension of the material presented .
Producer Jon Stone was instrumental in guiding the show during these years . According to Davis , Stone " gave Sesame Street its soul " ; without him " there would not have been Sesame Street as we know it " . Frank Oz regarded Stone as " the father of Sesame Street " , and Cooney considered Stone " the key creative talent on Sesame Street and " probably the most brilliant writer of children 's material in America " . Stone was able to recognize and mentor talented people for his crew . He actively hired and promoted women during a time when few women earned top production jobs in television . His policies provided the show with a succession of female producers and writers , many of whom went on to lead the boom in children 's programming at Nickelodeon , the Disney Channel , and PBS in the 1990s and 2000s . One of these women was Dulcy Singer , who later became the first female executive producer of Sesame Street .
After the show 's initial success , its producers began to think about its survival beyond its development and first season and decided to explore other funding sources . The CTW decided to depend upon government agencies and private foundations to develop the show . This would protect it from the financial pressures experienced by commercial networks , but created problems in finding continued support . This era in the show 's history was marked by conflicts between the CTW and the federal government ; in 1978 , the US Department of Education refused to deliver a $ 2 million check until the last day of the CTW 's fiscal year . As a result , the CTW decided to depend upon licensing arrangements , publishing , and international sales for its funding . Henson owned the trademarks to the Muppet characters : he was reluctant to market them at first , but agreed when the CTW promised that the profits from toys , books , and other products were to be used exclusively to fund the CTW . The producers demanded complete control over all products and product decisions ; any product line associated with the show had to be educational , inexpensive , and not advertised during its airings . The CTW approached Random House to establish and manage a non @-@ broadcast materials division . Random House and the CTW named Christopher Cerf to assist the CTW in publishing books and other materials that emphasized the curriculum . In 1980 , the CTW began to produce a touring stage production based upon the show , written by Connell and performed by the Ice Follies .
Shortly after the premiere of Sesame Street , the CTW was approached by producers , educators , and officials in other nations , requesting that a version of the show be aired in their countries . Former CBS executive Mike Dann left commercial television to become vice @-@ president of the CTW and Cooney 's assistant ; Dann began what Charlotte Cole , vice president for the CTW 's International Research department , called the " globalization " of Sesame Street . A flexible model was developed , based upon the experiences of the creators and producers of the original show . The shows came to be called " co @-@ productions " , and they contained original sets , characters , and curriculum goals . Depending upon each country 's needs and resources , different versions were produced , including dubbed versions of the original show and independent programs . By 2009 , Sesame Street had expanded into 140 countries ; The New York Times reported in 2005 that income from the CTW 's international co @-@ productions of the show was $ 96 million .
Sesame Street 's cast expanded in the 1970s , better fulfilling the show 's original goal of greater diversity in both human and Muppet characters . The cast members who joined the show were Sonia Manzano ( Maria ) , who also wrote for the show , Northern Calloway ( David ) , Alaina Reed ( Olivia ) , Emilio Delgado ( Luis ) , Linda Bove ( Linda ) , and Buffy Sainte @-@ Marie ( Buffy ) . In 1975 , Roscoe Orman became the third actor to play Gordon , succeeding Hal Miller , who had briefly replaced Matt Robinson .
New Muppet characters were introduced during the 1970s . Count von Count was created and performed by Jerry Nelson , who also voiced Mr. Snuffleupagus , a large Muppet that required two puppeteers to operate . Richard Hunt , who , in Jon Stone 's words , joined the Muppets as a " wild @-@ eyed 18 @-@ year @-@ old and grew into a master puppeteer and inspired teacher " , created Gladys the Cow , Forgetful Jones , Don Music , and the construction worker Sully . Telly Monster was performed by Brian Muehl ; Marty Robinson took over the role in 1984 . Frank Oz created Cookie Monster . Matt Robinson created the " controversial " ( as Davis called him ) character Roosevelt Franklin . Fran Brill , the first female puppeteer for the Muppets , joined the Henson organization in 1970 , and originated the character Prairie Dawn . In 1975 , Henson created The Muppet Show , which was filmed and produced in London ; Henson brought many of the Muppet performers with him , so opportunities opened up for new performers and puppets to appear on Sesame Street .
The CTW wanted to attract the best composers and lyricists for Sesame Street , so songwriters like Joe Raposo , the show 's music director , and writer Jeff Moss were allowed to retain the rights to the songs they wrote . The writers earned lucrative profits , and the show was able to sustain public interest . Raposo 's " I Love Trash " , written for Oscar the Grouch , was included on the first album of Sesame Street songs , The Sesame Street Book & Record , recorded in 1970 . Moss ' " Rubber Duckie " , sung by Henson for Ernie , remained on the Top @-@ 40 Billboard charts for seven weeks that same year . Another Henson song , written by Raposo for Kermit the Frog in 1970 , " Bein ' Green " , which Davis called " Raposo 's best @-@ regarded song for Sesame Street " , was later recorded by Frank Sinatra and Ray Charles . " Sing " , which became a hit for The Carpenters in 1973 , and " Somebody Come and Play " , were also written by Raposo for Sesame Street .
In 1978 , Stone and Singer produced and wrote the show 's first special , the " triumphant " Christmas Eve on Sesame Street , which included an O Henry @-@ inspired storyline in which Bert and Ernie gave up their prized possessions — Ernie his rubber ducky and Bert his paper clip collection — to purchase each other Christmas gifts . Bert and Ernie were played by Frank Oz and Jim Henson , who in real life were , like the puppets they played , colleagues and friends . To Davis , this demonstrated the puppeteers ' remarkable ability to play " puppetry 's Odd Couple " . In Singer 's opinion , the special — which Stone also wrote and directed — demonstrated Stone 's " soul " , and Sonia Manzano called it a good example of what Sesame Street was all about . The special won Emmys for Stone and Singer in 1979 .
By the show 's tenth anniversary in 1979 , nine million American children under the age of six were watching Sesame Street daily . Four out of five children had watched it over a six @-@ week period , and 90 % of children from low @-@ income inner @-@ city homes regularly viewed the show .
= = 1980s = =
In 1984 , the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) deregulated commercial restrictions on children 's television . Advertising during network children 's programs almost doubled , and deregulation resulted in an increase in commercially oriented programming . Sesame Street was successful during this era of deregulation despite the fact that the United States government terminated all federal funding of the CTW in 1981 . By 1987 , the show was earning $ 42 million per year from its magazine division , book royalties , product licensing , and foreign income — enough to cover two @-@ thirds of its expenses . Its remaining budget , plus a $ 6 million surplus , was covered by revenue from its PBS broadcasts .
According to Davis , Sesame Street 's second decade was spent " turning inward , expanding its young viewers ' world " . The show 's curriculum grew to include more " affective " teaching — relationships , ethics , and positive and negative emotions . Many of the show 's storylines were taken from the experiences of its writing staff , cast , and crew . In 1982 , Will Lee , who had played Mr. Hooper since the show 's premiere , died . For the 1983 season , the show 's producers and research staff decided they would explain Mr. Hooper 's death to their preschool audience , instead of recasting the role : the writer of that episode , Norman Stiles , said , " We felt we owed something to a man we respected and loved " . They convened a group of psychologists , religious leaders , and other experts in the field of grief , loss , and separation . The research team conducted a series of studies before the episode to ascertain if children were able to understand the messages they wanted to convey about Mr. Hooper 's death ; the research showed most children did understand . Parents ' reactions to the episode were , according to the CTW 's own reports , " overwhelmingly positive " . The episode , which won an Emmy , aired on Thanksgiving Day in 1983 so parents could be home to discuss it with their children . Author David Borgenicht called the episode " poignant " ; Davis called it " a landmark broadcast " and " a truly memorable episode , one of the show 's best " . Caroll Spinney , who played Big Bird and who drew the caricatures prominently used in the episode , reported the cast and crew were moved to tears during filming .
In the mid @-@ 1980s , Americans were becoming more aware of the prevalence of child abuse , so Sesame Street 's researchers and producers decided to " reveal " Mr. Snuffleupagus in 1985 . " Snuffy " had never been seen by any of the adults on the show and was considered Big Bird 's " imaginary friend " . The show 's producers were concerned about the message being sent to children ; " If children saw that the adults didn 't believe what Big Bird said ( even though it was true ) , they would be afraid to talk to adults about dramatic or disturbing things that happened to them " .
For the 1988 and 1989 seasons , the topics of love , marriage , and childbirth were addressed when the show presented a storyline in which the characters Luis and Maria fall in love , marry , and have a child named Gabi . Sonia Manzano , the actress who played Maria , had married and become pregnant ; according to the book Sesame Street Unpaved , published after the show 's thirtieth anniversary in 1999 , Manzano 's real @-@ life experiences gave the show 's writers and producers the idea . Before writing began , research was done to gain an understanding of what previous studies had revealed about preschoolers ' understanding of love , marriage , and family . The show 's staff found that at the time that there was very little relevant research done about children 's understanding of these topics , and no books for children had been written about them . Studies done after the episodes about Maria 's pregnancy aired showed that as a result of watching these episodes , children 's understanding of pregnancy increased .
= = 1990s = =
Davis called the 1990s a " time of transition on Sesame Street " . Several people involved in the show from its beginnings died during this period : Jim Henson in 1990 at the age of 53 " from a runaway strep infection gone stubbornly , foolishly untreated " ; songwriter Joe Raposo from non @-@ Hodgkin 's lymphoma fifteen months earlier ; long @-@ time cast member Northern Calloway of cardiac arrest in January 1990 ; puppeteer Richard Hunt of AIDS in early 1992 ; CTW founder and producer David Connell of bladder cancer in 1995 ; director Jon Stone of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in 1997 ; and writer Jeff Moss of colon cancer in 1998 .
By the early 1990s , Sesame Street was , as Davis put it , " the undisputed heavyweight champion of preschool television " . Entertainment Weekly reported in 1991 that the show 's music had been honored with eight Grammys . The show 's dominance , however , was soon challenged by another PBS television show for preschoolers , Barney & Friends , and Sesame Street 's ratings declined . The producers of Sesame Street responded , at the show 's twenty @-@ fifth anniversary in 1993 , by expanding and redesigning the show 's set , calling it " Around the Corner " . New human and Muppet characters were introduced , including Zoe ( performed by Fran Brill ) , baby Natasha and her parents Ingrid and Humphrey , and Ruthie ( played by comedian Ruth Buzzi ) . The " Around the Corner " set was dismantled in 1997 . Zoe , one of the few characters that survived , was created to include another female Muppet on the show : her spunky and fearless personality was intended to break female stereotypes . According to Davis , she was the first character developed on the show by marketing and product development specialists , who worked with the researchers at the CTW . ( The quest for a " break @-@ out " female Muppet character continued into 2006 with the creation of Abby Cadabby , who was created after nine months of research . ) In 1998 , for the first time in the show 's history , Sesame Street pursued funding by accepting corporate sponsorship . Consumer advocate Ralph Nader , who had been a guest on the show , urged parents to protest the move by boycotting the show .
For Sesame Street 's 30th anniversary in 1999 , its producers researched the reasons for the show 's lower ratings . For the first time since the show debuted , the producers and a team of researchers analyzed Sesame Street 's content and structure during a series of two @-@ week @-@ long workshops . They also studied how children 's viewing habits had changed in the past thirty years . They found that although the show was produced for those between the ages of three and five , children began watching it at a younger age . Preschool television had become more competitive , and the CTW 's research showed the traditional magazine format was not the best way to attract young children 's attention . The growth of home videos during the ' 80s and the increase of thirty @-@ minute children 's shows on cable had demonstrated that children 's attention could be sustained for longer periods of time , but the CTW 's researchers found that their viewers , especially the younger ones , lost attention in Sesame Street after 40 to 45 minutes .
Beginning in 1998 , a new 15 @-@ minute segment shown at the end of each episode , " Elmo 's World " , used traditional elements ( animation , Muppets , music , and live @-@ action film ) , but had a more sustained narrative . " Elmo 's World " followed the same structure each episode , and depended heavily on repetition . Unlike the realism of the rest of the show , the segment took place in a stylized crayon @-@ drawing universe as conceived by its host . Elmo , who represented the three- to four @-@ year @-@ old child , was chosen as host of the closing segment because he had always tested well with this segment of their audience . He was created in 1980 and originally performed by Brian Muehl , and later Richard Hunt , but did not become what his eventual portrayer , Kevin Clash , called a " phenomenon " until Clash took over the role in 1985 . Eventually , Elmo became , as Davis reported , " the embodiment " of Sesame Street , and " the marketing wonder of our age " when five million " Tickle Me Elmo " dolls were sold in 1996 . Clash believed the " Tickle Me Elmo " phenomenon made Elmo a household name and led to the " Elmo 's World " segment . Michael Jeter was a favorite with younger audiences in his role as Mr. Noodle 's brother , Mister Noodle on Sesame Street from 1999 to 2003 .
= = 2000s and 2010s = =
In 2002 , Sesame Street 's producers went further in changing the show to reflect its younger demographic , fundamentally changing the show 's structure , which had relied on " Street scenes " interrupted by live @-@ action videos and animation . The target age for Sesame Street shifted downward , from four years to three years , after the show 's 33rd season . As co @-@ executive producer Arlene Sherman stated , " We basically deconstructed the show " . The producers expanded upon the " Elmo 's World " by changing from a magazine format to a narrative format , which made the show easier for young children to navigate . Sherman called the show 's new look " startlingly different " . Following its tradition of addressing emotionally difficult topics , Sesame Street 's producers chose to address the attacks of 9 / 11 during this season on its premiere episode , which aired February 4 , 2002 . This episode , as well as a series of four episodes that aired after Hurricane Katrina in 2005 , were used in Sesame Workshop 's Community Outreach program .
In 2006 , the United States Department of State called Sesame Street " the most widely viewed children 's television show in the world " . Over half of the show 's international co @-@ productions were made after 2001 ; according to the 2006 documentary The World According to Sesame Street , the events of 9 / 11 inspired the producers of these co @-@ productions . In 2003 , Takalani Sesame , a South African co @-@ production , elicited criticism in the United States when its producers created Kami , the first HIV @-@ positive Muppet , whose purpose was educating children in South Africa about the epidemic of AIDS . The controversy , which surprised the Sesame Workshop , was short @-@ lived and died down after Kofi Annan and Jerry Falwell praised the Workshop 's efforts . By 2006 , Sesame Street had won more Emmy Awards than any other children 's show , including winning the outstanding children 's series award for twelve consecutive years — every year the Emmys included the category . By 2009 , the show had won 118 Emmys throughout its history , and was awarded the Outstanding Achievement Emmy for its 40 years on the air .
By Sesame Street 's 40th anniversary , it was ranked the fifteenth most popular children 's show on television . When the show premiered in 1969 , 130 episodes a year were produced ; in 2009 , because of rising costs , twenty @-@ six episodes were made . In 2009 , the Children 's Television Workshop , which had changed its name to the Sesame Workshop ( SW ) in June 2000 to better reflect its entry into non @-@ television and interactive media , launched a website with a library of free video clips and free podcasts from throughout the show 's history . The 2008 – 2009 recession , which led to budget cuts for many nonprofit arts organizations , severely affected Sesame Street ; in spring 2009 , the SW had to lay off 20 % of its staff .
Sesame Street 's 40th anniversary was commemorated by the 2008 publication of Street Gang : The Complete History of Sesame Street , by Michael Davis , which has been called " the definitive statement " about the history of the show .
Starting in 2009 , the producers of Sesame Street took steps to bring back older viewers ; it was also successful in increasing its audience viewership among 3 @-@ to @-@ 5 year @-@ olds by the end of the 40th season . In 2012 , the show 's 43rd season , Elmo 's World was replaced with Elmo the Musical , which was targeted at the program 's older viewers . Subsequently in September 2014 , starting with the show 's 45th season , Sesame Workshop began distributing a half @-@ hour version of the program to PBS member stations . The new version , which complemented the existing hour @-@ long broadcast and focuses more on interstitial segments ( although certain segments such as Elmo the Musical or Abby 's Flying Fairy School are omitted from that version ) , was added because of increasing mobile and online viewing among children as well as growing competition for preschoolers on linear and online television , an increase in use of PBS Kids ' mobile video app during 2013 and decreasing broadcast viewership ; the half @-@ hour version airs weekday afternoons on PBS member television stations ( with the hour @-@ long version continuing to air in the morning ) and was made available for streaming online and on mobile devices through PBS ' website , mobile app and Roku channel .
On August 13 , 2015 , as part of a five @-@ year programming and development deal , Sesame Workshop announced that first @-@ run episodes of Sesame Street would move to premium television service HBO ( which had not aired any original children 's programming since 2005 ) in late 2015 . Sesame Workshop sought the deal because of declining revenue from viewer donations , and decreases in distribution fees paid by PBS member stations and licensing for merchandise sales ( particularly through Sesame Workshop 's dependence upon revenue from DVD sales ) , with the intent to having the show remain on PBS in some fashion ( HBO already had involvement in public television at the time of the deal , providing funding for the talk show Charlie Rose ) ; the deal also came in the wake of changing viewer habits of American children over the previous ten years . HBO will hold first @-@ run rights to all newer episodes of the series starting with season 46 , after which they will air on PBS member stations following a nine @-@ month exclusivity window , with no charge to the stations for airing the content ; however , HBO has not announced whether first @-@ run episodes will air on the pay service 's main channel or its multiplex channel HBO Family . The agreement also gives HBO exclusive rights to stream past and future Sesame Street episodes on HBO Go and HBO Now – assuming those rights from Amazon Video and Netflix . On August 14 , Sesame Workshop announced that it would phase out its in @-@ house subscription streaming service , Sesame Go , as a standalone service ; instead of shutting it down entirely , it intends to scale back its offerings to either provide access to a reduced slate of free content or act as a portal for Sesame Street 's website .
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= Hands All Over ( Maroon 5 song ) =
" Hands All Over " is a song recorded by American band Maroon 5 , for their 2010 third studio album of the same name . It was written by Adam Levine , Jesse Carmichael , Sam Farrar , while the production was done by Robert John " Mutt " Lange . A funk metal and rock song , " Hands All Over " features an instrumentation consisting of electronic tones , drums , guitar , piano and percussion accompanied with heavy backing vocals ; lyrically , the song speaks of sexiness .
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , with some of them calling it the best track on the album . It received comparison to the works of Prince , Nine Inch Nails and most notably to English band Def Leppard . Upon the release of the album , " Hands All Over " debuted on national charts in South Korea and Spain ; it peaked at number 20 on the Gaon Chart and 38 on the Spanish Singles Chart , respectively . A music video for the song was shot by Don Tyler was released on December 24 , 2010 . It features a nude animated woman flirting and dancing for the band members .
= = Background and production = =
Maroon 5 began writing material for their third studio album , Hands All Over , after completion of a world tour that was launched in support of their 2007 studio album It Won 't Be Soon Before Long . Months later , the band received a phone call from Robert John " Mutt " Lange , who had heard that the band were beginning to write a new album , and expressed an interest in producing it . In a press release on their official website , the album is described as " a killer hybrid of rock , pop , funk and R & B. " The band 's frontman Adam Levine described Mutt as one of the most successful producers who have ever lived . Jesse Carmichael , the band ’ s keyboardist , said , " Mutt really helped us play to the best of our ability . And it drove us to be bigger and better than ever . " Hands All Over was released on September 21 , 2010 in the United States . It received generally favorable reviews from music critics and debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 .
The album 's title track was written by Levine , Jesse Carmichael and Sam Farrar , while the production was done by Mutt . The additional production , engineering and programming was provided by Farrar and Noah " Mailbox " Passovoy . The song was recorded at Mutt 's studio in Vevey ( Lake Geneva ) , Switzerland by Olle Romo who also provided the Pro @-@ Tools . Mike Shipley did the additional recording and also mixed " Hands All Over " . Additional engineering of the song was done by Isha Erskine , while Eric Rose and Chad Hugo did the additional programming . Scott Cooke and Lenny Castro played the percussion . Brad Blackwood from Euphonic Masters was the mastering engineer .
= = Composition = =
" Hands All Over " is a funk metal and rock song with a length of three minutes and thirteen seconds ( 3 : 13 ) . It has an instrumentation consisting of drums , guitar , piano and percussion . Bill Lamb of About.com wrote for the song , " crunchy guitars and a rock star sway animate the title song " . Contactmusic 's Nima Baniamer stated that " Hands All Over " , follows a trend consisting of heavy percussions and more heavier backing vocals . Melinda Newman of HitFix wrote that the song " is a heavy thump of a song that sounds pure Lange with a big kick drum propelling it forward . " In a review of the album , Fraser McAlpine of BBC Music wrote that the track contains a " rude guitar sleaze " , while according to Ben Czajkowski of 411mania " Hands all Over " borders on anthemic rock with a biting guitar technique " .
Written in the key of C minor , the song is placed in common time , with a moderate funk tempo . " Hands " All Over " starts with dark and shadowed electronic undertones before " sudden " bursts of electronic guitars start playing before transitioning into a " rock @-@ studded " production . The track also contains a lot of electronic guitar solo 's in the chorus and the verses , in the verses and the bridges and so forth . According to a reviewer of Billboard , at some points during the duration of the song , the guitars " just bleed " throughout the verses . " Put your hands all over me " , " Levine bellows over burly power chords " according to Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone . Thomas Conner of Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that , lyrically , " Hands All Over " together with " Never Gonna Leave This Bed " speak of sexiness .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics . Jakob Dorof of Slant Magazine wrote that " Hands All Over " is " the one real gamble " ; despite the fact that it tries to hard to find a missing connection between the works of Prince , Queen and Nine Inch Nails , " it 's certainly one of the more interesting things the band has ever recorded . " Similarly , McAlpine of BBC Music wrote that on songs like " Hands All Over " and " Stutter " , the Maroon 5 shows a band " who are really at their best when they play pop music like the sleazy rockers they clearly are . " Contactmusic 's Banimaer stated that although the track is a little repetitive , it shows what kind of band Maroon 5 wants to be .
Rosen of Rolling Stone magazine wrote that it is a " big , silly arena @-@ rock song reminiscent of Def Leppard " . She further noted , " but Maroon 5 are too meticulous , a little too uptight , to make good on the song 's party @-@ hearty promise . Levine and crew could be blue @-@ eyed @-@ soul godheads , the 21st @-@ century Hall and Oates . But they need to loosen up first . " Leah Greenblat of Entertainment Weekly also spotted the Def Leppard influence on " Hands All Over " . Writing for the Bay of Plenty Times , Tamlyn Stewart said that the song is sexy and funky and is similar to the band 's works on their second studio album It Won 't Be Soon Before Long ( 2007 ) . Billboard 's reviewer labeled " Hands All Over " the best track among others including " Give a Little More " , " Misery " and " Out of Goodbyes " .
= = = Commercial = = =
Upon the release of Hands All Over , due to the strong digital downloads , " Hands All Over " appeared on the national charts in South Korea and Spain . The song debuted and peaked at number 20 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart . On the Spanish Singles Chart , " Hands All Over " peaked at number 38 and stayed on the chart for one week .
= = Music video = =
A music video for the song was released on December 24 , 2010 . It was directed by Don Tyler , who previously worked on videos for the bands A Day to Remember and Flyleaf . It was digitally released on June 14 , 2011 via iTunes Store and the same day was also uploaded on the band 's Vevo channel on YouTube . Shot in an animated technique , the video starts with an animated version of lead singer Levine singing on a microphone while hands are behind his back touching his body . As the video progresses , a nude animated woman is shown dancing around him and flirting with the other members of the band . Several animation effects such as angel wings and devil elements are shown behind Levine as he is singing , while the woman is also dancing for the other members . The video finishes with a close shot of Levine 's face .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Hands All Over , A & M / Octone Records .
= = Charts = =
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= Glassheart Tour =
The Glassheart Tour was the second headlining concert tour by British recording artist Leona Lewis . It was launched in support of her third studio album , Glassheart ( 2012 ) . Announced on 8 October 2012 , with an initial run of sixteen dates in the United Kingdom , the Glassheart Tour was extended to include five dates in Germany and one in Switzerland . English singer @-@ songwriter Ryan Keen served as the support act . It marks the first time that Lewis has performed material in Europe as part of a headline tour ; her previous tour The Labyrinth ( 2010 ) , only visited the UK .
Lewis was inspired by American hip hop artist and music producer Kanye West 's style of performance and noted British playwright William Shakespeare as inspiration for the tour . Lewis performed the set list with her band which consisted mostly of a string quartet and acoustic song arrangements . It was the acoustic performances and Lewis ' vocals that garnered the most praise from critics ; however , there was a mixed reaction to some of the arrangements such as the reggae influences on " Better in Time " . Critics were also divided over the lack of diversity from previous live performances though Lewis ' stage presence was commended .
= = Background and development = =
Lewis released her third studio album Glassheart on 12 October 2012 , almost a year after the original release date of November 2011 . The album had been conceptualised in July 2010 , following Lewis ' completion of her first tour , The Labyrinth . The album title Glassheart was inspired from a conversation that Lewis had with Ryan Tedder . During the conversation , Tedder asked Lewis about her past experiences with love and life in general . Lewis ' response led him to the word " Glassheart . " During an interview with Clyde 1 radio , Lewis said " Glassheart represents protecting your heart , yourself and protecting your emotions , its very poignant " . On 8 October 2012 , a week before the album 's UK release , Lewis announced her supporting tour of the same name . The tour is named after the album , and although Lewis said she is not American hip hop artist and music producer Kanye West 's " biggest fan " , she was inspired by his tour performances where he appeared on stage alone and just " did his thing " .
During an interview with Digital Spy , Lewis told Tom Eames that Glassheart has a running theme about " star @-@ crossed lovers that can 't be together " , and so it was likely that this idea would feature on the tour . Lewis also cited William Shakespeare as another source of inspiration . She spent the three days of the final tour rehearsals at The Backstage Centre in Purfleet , Essex ( UK ) . The Glassheart Tour was scheduled to visit twenty @-@ one venues across Germany and the United Kingdom . The tour was expected to begin on 15 April in Berlin . The list had expanded from an initial sixteen to include five dates in Germany . Lewis would then proceed with UK dates beginning in Glasgow , including two dates at London 's Royal Albert Hall before finishing on 18 May in Plymouth . Speaking about the tour , Lewis said " I can 't wait to get out there and play my new songs . I had such fun on my last tour and I 'm really excited about doing it again next year . " Barclaycard ran a competition which gave fans the chance to win tickets to 6 May concert at Birmingham 's National Indoor Arena .
= = Critics ' reviews = =
In a review for the Express & Star , Elizabeth Joyce said although Lewis was not like her contemporaries : " meat dress @-@ wearing " Lady Gaga or the Russell Brand @-@ marrying Katy Perry , " no one can reach those soft lows or soaring highs quite like her " . Joyce praised the concert for showing the best of Lewis ' vocal abilities . Focussing predominately on songs from Spirit ( 2007 ) and Glassheart ( 2012 ) , the concert was largely acoustic music with a band and string quartet . In particular Joyce praised Lewis ' performances of " First Time Ever I Saw Your Face " and " Bleeding Love " which earned her standing ovations , in addition to the " note perfect " rendition of " Run " . Katherine Hollisey @-@ McLean for the Worthing Herald largely agreed , commenting that if anyone expected Lewis to be " belting out song after song " they were right . Hollisey @-@ McLean praised the decisions to switch the song arrangements , for example adding reggae beats to " Better in Time " and performing the acoustic version of " Trouble " . She ended by saying that Lewis ' vocals were " flawless " and that her stage presence and confidence had vastly improved over the last seven years .
The Guardian 's Malcolm Jack was less impressed ; he stated that when Lewis tried to diversify the show by dancing or switching the arrangements , she risked becoming the British diva that pop music forgot . Jack said that during a " sassy dance routine " for " Forgive Me " Lewis came off as a " budget Beyoncé " , whilst on the " cringey windin ' and grindin ' reggae take on ' Better in Time ' song " she comes across like a " reasonably priced Rihanna " . Jack concluded by saying the show was in need of a shot of " adrenaline " . In writing for the Nottingham Post , Paul Hindle agreed , saying that when the tempo increased and choreography was introduced " Lewis looked endearingly uncomfortable " ; however , Hindle was positive about Lewis ' vocals , calling her vocal performance " virtuoso " . He concluded that Lewis ' " spellbinding rendition " of " Run " was a highlight of the concert , and that fans should not have left disappointed .
= = Set list = =
The following set list is representative of the show in Berlin on 15 April 2013 . It may not represent the setlist from all of the shows .
" Come Alive "
" Fireflies "
" A Moment Like This " ( Acoustic version )
" Collide "
" Forgive Me "
" Better in Time " ( contains elements of " Man Down " , a song originally performed by Rihanna )
" Happy "
" Sugar "
" I to You "
" Broken "
" Trouble " ( Acoustic version )
" Locked Out of Heaven " ( A cover originally performed by Bruno Mars )
" Footprints in the Sand "
" The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face "
" Bleeding Love "
" Glassheart "
" Run "
Notes
Lewis performed a cover of the Rihanna song " Diamonds " in Scarborough on 12 July 2013 .
= = Shows = =
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= New Jersey Route 177 =
Route 177 was the shortest state highway recorded in Somerset County , New Jersey and the second shortest around the entire state of New Jersey . ( New Jersey Route 59 is the shortest recorded route in the state at 0 @.@ 15 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 24 km ) long . ) Route 177 went for a short , 0 @.@ 24 miles ( 0 @.@ 39 km ) state @-@ maintained portion of Bridge Street in Somerville . One of only three state highways in Somerset County after the 1953 state highway renumbering , Route 177 was the only one to be decommissioned later on . ( The other two highways are Route 27 further south and Route 28 further north ) The short @-@ lived designation went from U.S. Route 206 in Somerville , up Bridge Street near the Old Cemetery to Fifth Street , where state maintenance terminated . In 1974 , the Department of Transportation turned maintenance of this short highway over to the borough of Somerville for future use .
= = Route description = =
Route 177 began at a traffic light intersection with U.S. Route 206 in the city of Somerville . At the intersection , southbound traffic on Route 206 had to use a jughandle to connect to Route 177 . The state highway went northeastward , progressing along as South Bridge Street through a curve . Heading northward , the route passed the Somerville Old Cemetery before intersecting with Fifth Street . There , state @-@ maintenance ended , and the designation of Route 177 terminated . Entering downtown Somerville , South Bridge Street continued northward into a large residential community . Passing to the east and west of several residential homes , South Bridge Street continued into the downtown portion , crossing the current @-@ day Raritan Valley Line tracks maintained by New Jersey Transit and served the Somerville train station . After a couple of blocks of residential homes and businesses , South Bridge Street came to an intersection with New Jersey Route 28 , where it switched to North Bridge Street .
= = History = =
The alignment of Route 177 was a former alignment of State Highway Route 31 through Somerville . The highway was instated in 1926 as U.S. Route 206 and 1927 as State Highway Route 31 by the New Jersey State Highway Department and the Federal Highway Administration respectively . By 1930 , Routes 206 and 31 was shifted off of Bridge Street , running along a partially completed bypass of Somerville . By 1938 , this was completed and Route 206 was shifted to the southern terminus of Bridge Street south of the old cemetery . Bridge Street remained unnumbered until the second state highway renumbering on January 1 , 1953 . That day , the unnumbered alignment became Route 177 , running from US 206 to Fifth Street , where it met US 206 's former alignment . The route remained intact for a couple of decades , as one of three state highways in Somerset County ( along with Route 28 and Route 27 ) until 1974 , when the route was decommissioned and turned over to the borough of Somerville .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Somerville , Somerset County .
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= Dan Leno =
George Wild Galvin ( 20 December 1860 – 31 October 1904 ) , better known by the stage name Dan Leno , was a leading English music hall comedian and musical theatre actor during the late Victorian era . He was best known , aside from his music hall act , for his dame roles in the annual pantomimes that were popular at London 's Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , from 1888 to 1904 .
Leno was born in St Pancras , London , and began to entertain as a child . In 1864 , he joined his parents on stage in their music hall act , and he made his first solo appearance , aged nine , at the Britannia Music Hall in Coventry . As a youth , he was famous for his clog dancing , and in his teen years , he became the star of his family 's act . He adopted the stage name Dan Leno and , in 1884 , made his first performance under that name in London . As a solo artist , he became increasingly popular during the late 1880s and 1890s , when he was one of the highest @-@ paid comedians in the world . He developed a music hall act of talking about life 's mundane subjects , mixed with comic songs and surreal observations , and created a host of mostly working @-@ class characters to illustrate his stories . In 1901 , still at the peak of his career , he performed his " Huntsman " sketch for Edward VII at Sandringham . The monarch was so impressed that Leno became publicly known as " the king 's jester " .
Leno also appeared in burlesque and , every year from 1888 to 1904 , in the Drury Lane Theatre 's Christmas pantomime spectacles . He was generous and active in charitable causes , especially to benefit performers in need . Leno continued to appear in musical comedies and his own music hall routines until 1902 , although he suffered increasingly from alcoholism . This , together with his long association with dame and low comedy roles , prevented him from being taken seriously as a dramatic actor , and he was turned down for Shakespearean roles . Leno began to behave in an erratic and furious manner by 1902 , and he suffered a mental breakdown in early 1903 . He was committed to a mental asylum , but was discharged later that year . After one more show , his health declined , and he died aged 43 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family background and early life = = =
Leno was born in St Pancras , London . He was the youngest of six children , including two elder brothers , John and Henry , and an elder sister , Frances . Two other siblings died in infancy . His parents , John Galvin ( 1826 – 1864 ) and his wife Louisa ( née Dutton ; 1831 – 1891 ) , performed together in a music hall double act called " The Singing and Acting Duettists " . They were known professionally as Mr. and Mrs. Johnny Wild . They were not very successful , and the family struggled in poverty .
Having had very little schooling , and being raised by performers , Leno learned to entertain as a child . In 1862 , Leno 's parents and elder brothers appeared at the Surrey Music Hall in Sheffield , then performed in northern cities later in the year . In 1864 , at the age of four , Leno joined his parents on stage for the first time , at the Cosmotheca Music Hall in Paddington , under the billing " Little George , the Infant Wonder , Contortionist , and Posturer " .
When Leno was still four , his father , an alcoholic , died at the age of 37 . The family moved to Liverpool a few months later , where his mother married William Grant ( 1837 – 1896 ) , on 7 March 1866 . Grant was a comedian of Lancastrian and Irish descent , who performed in music halls throughout the British provinces under the stage name of William Leno . He was a seasoned actor and had previously been employed by Charles Kean in his theatre company at the Princess 's Theatre in London . In 1866 , the family home in Marylebone was demolished to make way for St Pancras railway station and , as a result , Leno 's sister Frances was sent to live with an uncle , while his brother John , who performed occasionally with his parents , took full @-@ time employment . Leno , his mother , stepfather and brother Henry moved north and settled in Liverpool , where they performed in various halls and theatres , including the Star Music Hall , but they often returned to London to perform in the capital 's music halls .
= = = Early career = = =
In 1865 , Leno and his brother Henry , who first taught Leno to dance , formed a clog dancing double act known as " The Great Little Lenos " . This was the first time that Leno used his stepfather 's stage name , " Leno " , which he never registered legally . The same year , Leno also appeared in his first pantomime , in Liverpool , where he had a supporting part as a juvenile clown in Fortunatus ; or , The Magic Wishing Cap alongside his parents , who appeared as " Mr and Mrs Leno – Comic Duettists " . On 18 July 1866 , Leno , Henry and their parents appeared on the opening night of the Cambridge Music Hall in Toxteth , Liverpool , under the billing " Mr. and Mrs. Leno , the Great , Sensational , Dramatic and Comic Duettists and The Brothers Leno , Lancashire Clog , Boot and Pump Dancers " . The following year , the brothers made their first appearance without their parents at the Britannia music hall in Hoxton . Although initially successful , the pair would experience many bouts of unemployment and often busked outside London pubs to make a living . Tired of surviving on little or no money , Henry left the clog dancing act to take up a trade in London , forcing Leno to consider a future as a solo performer . Henry later founded a dance school . Soon , however , Henry was replaced intermittently in the act by the boys ' uncle , Johnny Danvers , who was a week older than Leno . Leno and Danvers were close from an early age .
Leno made his debut as a solo performer in 1869 , returning to the Britannia music hall in Hoxton , where he became known as " The Great Little Leno , the Quintessence of Irish Comedians " . The name was suggested by his stepfather , William , who thought the Irish connection would appeal to audiences on their upcoming visit to Dublin . Arriving in Ireland the same year , the Lenos were struggling financially and stayed with William 's relatives . In addition to his performances as part of the family act , young Leno appeared as a solo act under an Irish @-@ sounding stage name , " Dan Patrick " . This allowed him to earn a separate fee of 23 shillings per performance plus living expenses . The name " Dan " was chosen to honour Dan Lowery , a northern music hall comedian and music hall proprietor whom the Lenos had met a few months earlier . During this tour of Ireland , the Lenos appeared in Dublin in a pantomime written by Leno 's father : Old King Humpty ; or , Harlequin Emerald Isle and Katty of Killarney ( 1869 ) , in which Leno received praise from Charles Dickens , who was in the audience and told him : " Good little man , you 'll make headway ! "
In 1870 , the Lenos appeared in another pantomime by Leno 's father , Jack the Giant Killer ; or , Harlequin Grim Gosling , or the Good Fairy Queen of the Golden Pine Grove , in which Leno played the title character and also featured in the variety entertainment that preceded the pantomime . This was his last theatrical role until 1886 . Throughout the 1870s , Leno and his parents performed as " The Comic Trio ( Mr. & Mrs. Leno and Dan Patrick ) In Their Really Funny Entertainments , Songs and Dances " . In the family act with his parents and Danvers , young Leno often took the leading role in such sketches as his stepfather 's The Wicklow Wedding . Another of their sketches was Torpedo Bill , in which Leno played the title role , an inventor of explosive devices . His parents played a " washerwoman " and a " comic cobbler " . This was followed by another sketch , Pongo the Monkey . Opening at Pullan 's Theatre of Varieties in Bradford on 20 May 1878 , this burlesque featured Leno as an escaped monkey ; it became his favourite sketch of the period .
The teenage Leno 's growing popularity led to bookings at , among others , the Varieties Theatre in Sheffield and the Star Music Hall in Manchester . At the same time , Leno 's clog dancing continued to be so good that in 1880 he won the world championship at the Princess 's Music Hall in Leeds , for which he received a gold and silver belt weighing 44 @.@ 5 oz ( 1 @.@ 26 kg ) . His biographer , the pantomime librettist J. Hickory Wood , described his act : " He danced on the stage ; he danced on a pedestal ; he danced on a slab of slate ; he was encored over and over again ; but throughout his performance , he never uttered a word " .
= = = 1880s = = =
In 1878 , Leno and his family moved to Manchester . There , he met Lydia Reynolds , who , in 1883 , joined the Leno family theatre company , which already consisted of his parents , Danvers and Leno . The following year , Leno and Reynolds married ; around this time , he adopted the stage name " Dan Leno " . On 10 March 1884 , the Leno family took over the running of the Grand Varieties Theatre in Sheffield . The Lenos felt comfortable with their working class Sheffield audiences . On their opening night , over 4 @,@ 000 patrons entered the theatre , paying sixpence to see Dan Leno star in Doctor Cut ' Em Up . In October 1884 , facing tough competition , the Lenos gave up the lease on the theatre .
In 1885 , Leno and his wife moved to Clapham Park , London , and Leno gained new success with a solo act that featured comedy patter , dancing and song . On the night of his London debut , he appeared in three music halls : the Foresters ' Music Hall in Mile End , Middlesex Music Hall in Drury Lane and Gatti 's @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Road , where he earned £ 5 a week in total ( £ 487 in 2016 adjusted for inflation ) . Although billed as " The Great Irish Comic Vocalist and Clog Champion " at first , he slowly phased out his dancing in favour of character studies , such as " Going to Buy Milk for the Twins " , " When Rafferty Raffled his Watch " and " The Railway Guard " . His dancing had earned him popularity in the provinces , but Leno found that his London audiences preferred these sketches and his comic songs . Leno 's other London venues in the late 1880s included the Collins Music Hall in Islington , the Queen 's Theatre in Poplar and the Standard in Pimlico .
Leno was a replacement in the role of Leontes in the 1888 musical burlesque of the ancient Greek character Atalanta at the Strand Theatre , directed by Charles Hawtrey . It was written by Hawtrey 's brother , George P. Hawtrey , and it starred Frank Wyatt , Willie Warde and William Hawtrey . The Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News praised Leno 's singing and dancing and reported that : " He brings a good deal of fun and quaintness to the not very important part of Leontes . " Leno accepted the role at short notice , with no opportunity to learn the script . But his improvised comedy helped to extend the life of the show . When Leno and another leading actor left a few months later , the production closed .
= = = Music hall = = =
During the 1890s , Leno was the leading performer on the music hall stage , rivalled only by Albert Chevalier , who moved into music hall from the legitimate theatre . Their styles and appeal were very different : Leno 's characters were gritty working @-@ class realists , while Chevalier 's were overflowing in romanticism , and his act depicted an affluent point of view . The two represented the opposite poles of cockney comedy .
For his music hall acts , Leno created characters that were based on observations about life in London , including shopwalkers , grocer 's assistants , beefeaters , huntsmen , racegoers , firemen , fathers , henpecked husbands , garrulous wives , pantomime dames , a police officer , a Spanish bandit , a fireman and a hairdresser . One such character was Mrs. Kelly , a gossip . Leno would sing a verse of a song , then begin a monologue , often his You know Mrs. Kelly ? routine , which became a well @-@ known catchphrase : " You see we had a row once , and it was all through Mrs. Kelly . You know Mrs. Kelly , of course . ... Oh , you must know Mrs. Kelly ; everybody knows Mrs. Kelly . "
For his London acts , Leno purchased songs from the foremost music hall writers and composers . One such composer was Harry King , who wrote many of Leno 's early successes . Other well @-@ known composers of the day who supplied Leno with numbers included Harry Dacre and Joseph Tabrar . From 1890 , Leno commissioned George Le Brunn to compose the incidental music to many of his songs , including " The Detective " , " My Old Man " , " Chimney on Fire " , " The Fasting Man " , " The Jap " , " All Through A Little Piece of Bacon " and " The Detective Camera " . Le Brunn also provided the incidental music for three of Leno 's best @-@ known songs that depicted life in everyday occupations : " The Railway Guard " ( 1890 ) , " The Shopwalker " and " The Waiter " ( both from 1891 ) . The songs in each piece became instantly distinctive and familiar to Leno 's audiences , but his occasional changes to the characterisations kept the sketches fresh and topical .
" The Railway Guard " featured Leno in a mad characterisation of a railway station guard dressed in an ill @-@ fitting uniform , with an unkempt beard and a whistle . The character was created by exaggerating the behaviour that Leno saw in a real employee at Brixton station who concerned himself in other people 's business while , at the same time , not doing any work . " The Shopwalker " was full of comic one @-@ liners and was heavily influenced by pantomime . Leno played the part of a shop assistant , again of manic demeanour , enticing imaginary clientele into the shop before launching into a frantic selling technique sung in verse . Leno 's depiction of " The Waiter " , dressed in an oversized dinner jacket and loose @-@ fitting white dickey , which would flap up and hit his face , was of a man consumed in self @-@ pity and indignation . Overworked , overwrought and overwhelmed by the number of his customers , the waiter gave out excuses for the bad service faster than the customers could complain :
Yes , sir ! No , sir ! Yes , sir ! When I first came here these trousers were knee @-@ breeches . Legs worn down by waiting . Sir ! What did you say ? How long would your steak be ? Oh , about four inches I should say , about four inches . No , sir ! sorry sir . Can 't take it back now , sir . You 've stuck your fork in and let the steam out !
= = = Pantomime = = =
Leno 's first London appearance in pantomime was as Dame Durden in Jack and the Beanstalk , which he performed at London 's Surrey Theatre in 1886 , having been spotted singing " Going to Buy Milk " by the Surrey Theatre manager , George Conquest . Conquest also hired Leno 's wife to star in the production . The pantomime was a success , and Leno received rave reviews ; as a result , he was booked to star as Tinpanz the Tinker in the following year 's pantomime , which had the unique title of Sinbad and the Little Old Man of the Sea ; or , The Tinker , the Tailor , the Soldier , the Sailor , Apothecary , Ploughboy , Gentleman Thief .
After these pantomime performances proved popular with audiences , Leno was hired in 1888 by Augustus Harris , manager at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , to appear in that year 's Christmas pantomime , Babes in the Wood . Harris 's pantomime productions at the huge theatre were known for their extravagance and splendour . Each one had a cast of over a hundred performers , ballet dancers , acrobats , marionettes and animals , and included an elaborate transformation scene and an energetic harlequinade . Often they were partly written by Harris . Herbert Campbell and Harry Nicholls starred with Leno in the next fifteen Christmas productions at Drury Lane . Campbell had appeared in the theatre 's previous five pantomimes and was a favourite of the writer of those productions , E. L. Blanchard . Blanchard left the theatre when Leno was hired , believing that music hall performers were unsuitable for his Christmas pantomimes . This was not a view shared by audiences or the critics , one of whom wrote :
I am inclined to think " the cake " for frolicsome humour is taken by the dapper new @-@ comer , Mr. Dan Leno , who is sketched as the galvanic baroness in the wonderfully amusing dance which sets the house in a roar . The substantial " babes " , Mr. Herbert Campbell and Mr. Harry Nicholls , would have no excuse if they did not vie in drollery with the light footed Dan Leno .
Babes in the Wood was a triumph : the theatre reported record attendance , and the run was extended until 27 April 1889 . Leno considerably reduced his music @-@ hall engagements as a consequence . Nevertheless , between April and October 1889 , Leno appeared simultaneously at the Empire Theatre and the Oxford Music Hall , performing his one @-@ man show . By this time , Leno was much in demand and had bookings for the next three years . On 9 May 1889 he starred for George P. Hawtrey in a matinee of Penelope , a musical version of a famous farce The Area Belle , to benefit the Holborn Lodge for Shop Girls . In this benefit , he played the role of Pitcher opposite the seasoned Gilbert and Sullivan performer Rutland Barrington . The Times considered that his performance treated the piece " too much in the manner of pantomime " . During Leno 's long association with the Drury Lane pantomimes , he appeared chiefly as the dame . After Harris died in 1896 , Arthur Collins became the manager of the theatre and oversaw ( and often helped to write ) the pantomimes .
In their pantomimes , the diminutive Leno and the massive Campbell were a visually comic duo . They would often deviate from the script , improvising freely . This was met with some scepticism by producers , who feared that the scenes would not be funny to audiences and observed that , in any event , they were rarely at their best until a few nights after opening . George Bernard Shaw wrote of one appearance : " I hope I never again have to endure anything more dismally futile " , and the English essayist and caricaturist Max Beerbohm stated that " Leno does not do himself justice collaborating with the public " . He noted , however , that Leno " was exceptional in giving each of his dames a personality of her own , from extravagant queen to artless gossip " . In Sleeping Beauty , Leno and Campbell caused the audience to laugh even when they could not see them : they would arrive on stage in closed palanquins and exchange the lines , " Have you anything to do this afternoon , my dear ? " – " No , I have nothing on " , before being carried off again . Leno and Campbell 's pantomimes from 1889 were Jack and the Beanstalk ( 1889 and 1899 ) , Beauty and the Beast ( 1890 and 1900 ) , Humpty Dumpty ( 1891 and 1903 ) , Little Bo @-@ Peep ( 1892 ) , Robinson Crusoe ( 1893 ) , Dick Whittington and His Cat ( 1894 ) , Cinderella ( 1895 ) , Aladdin ( 1896 ) , Babes in the Wood ( 1897 ) and the Forty Thieves ( 1898 ) .
Leno considered the dame roles in two of his last pantomimes , Bluebeard ( 1901 ) and Mother Goose ( 1902 ) , written by J. Hickory Wood , to be his favourites . He was paid £ 200 ( £ 19 @,@ 582 in 2016 adjusted for inflation ) for each of the pantomime seasons . Leno appeared at Drury Lane as Sister Anne in Bluebeard , a character described by Wood as " a sprightly , somewhat below middle aged person who was of a coming on disposition and who had not yet abandoned hope " The Times drama critic noted : " It is a quite peculiar and original Sister Anne , who dances breakdowns and sings strange ballads to a still stranger harp and plays ping @-@ pong with a frying @-@ pan and potatoes and burlesques Sherlock Holmes and wears the oddest of garments and dresses her hair like Miss Morleena Kenwigs , and speaks in a piping voice – in short it is none other than Dan Leno whom we all know " . Mother Goose provided Leno with one of the most challenging roles of his career , in which he was required to portray the same woman in several different guises . Wood 's idea , that neither fortune nor beauty would bring happiness , was illustrated by a series of magical character transformations . The poor , unkempt and generally ugly Mother Goose eventually became a rich and beautiful but tasteless parvenu , searching for a suitor . The production was one of Drury Lane 's most successful pantomimes , running until 28 March 1903 .
= = = Later career = = =
In 1896 , the impresario Milton Bode approached Leno with a proposal for a farcical musical comedy vehicle devised for him called Orlando Dando , the Volunteer , by Basil Hood with music by Walter Slaughter . Leno 's agent declined the offer , as his client was solidly booked for two years . Bode offered Leno £ 625 ( £ 82 @,@ 880 in 2016 adjusted for inflation ) for a six @-@ week appearance in 1898 . Upon hearing this , the comedian overrode his agent and accepted the offer . Leno toured the provinces in the piece and was an immediate success . So popular was his performance that Bode re @-@ engaged him for a further two shows : the musical farce In Gay Piccadilly ! ( 1899 ) , by George R. Sims , in which Leno 's uncle , Johnny Danvers appeared ( The Era said that Leno was " attracting huge houses " and called him " excruciatingly funny " ) ; and the musical comedy Mr. Wix of Wickham ( 1902 ) . Both toured after their original runs . In 1897 , Leno went to America and made his debut on 12 April of that year at Hammerstein 's Olympia Music Hall on Broadway , where he was billed as " The Funniest Man on Earth " . Reviews were mixed : one newspaper reported that the house roared its approval , while another complained that Leno 's English humour was out of date . His American engagement came to an end a month later , and Leno said that it was " the crown of my career " . Despite his jubilation , Leno was conscious of the few negative reviews he had received and rejected all later offers to tour the United States and Australia .
The same year , the comedian lent his name and writing talents to Dan Leno 's Comic Journal . The paper was primarily aimed at young adults and featured a mythologised version of Leno – the first comic paper to take its name from , and base a central character on , a living person . Published by C. Arthur Pearson , Issue No. 1 appeared on 26 February 1898 , and the paper sold 350 @,@ 000 copies a year . Leno wrote most of the paper 's comic stories and jokes , and Tom Browne contributed many of the illustrations . The comedian retained editorial control of the paper , deciding which items to omit . The Journal was known for its slogans , including " One Touch of Leno Makes the Whole World Grin " and " Won 't wash clothes but will mangle melancholy " . The cover always showed a caricature of Leno and his editorial staff at work and play . Inside , the features included " Daniel 's Diary " , " Moans from the Martyr " , two yarns , a couple of dozen cartoons and " Leno 's Latest – Fresh Jokes and Wheezes Made on the Premises " . After a run of nearly two years the novelty wore off , and Leno lost interest . The paper shut down on 2 December 1899 .
A journalist wrote , in the late 1890s , that Leno was " probably the highest paid funny man in the world " . In 1898 , Leno , Herbert Campbell and Johnny Danvers formed a consortium to build the Granville Theatre in Fulham , which was demolished in 1971 . Leno published an autobiography , Dan Leno : Hys Booke , in 1899 , ghostwritten by T. C. Elder . Leno 's biographer J. Hickory Wood commented : " I can honestly say that I never saw him absolutely at rest . He was always doing something , and had something else to do afterwards ; or he had just been somewhere , was going somewhere else , and had several other appointments to follow . " That year , Leno performed the role of " waxi omo " ( a slang expression for a black @-@ face performer ) in the Doo @-@ da @-@ Day Minstrels , an act that included Danvers , Campbell , Bransby Williams , Joe Elvin and Eugene Stratton . The troupe 's only performance was at the London Pavilion on 29 May 1899 as part of a benefit . Leno 's song " The Funny Little Nigger " greatly amused the audience . His biographer Barry Anthony considered the performance to be " more or less , the last gasp of black @-@ face minstrelsy in Britain " .
Between 1901 and 1903 , Leno recorded more than twenty @-@ five songs and monologues on the Gramophone and Typewriter Company label . He also made 14 short films towards the end of his life , in which he portrayed a bumbling buffoon who struggles to carry out everyday tasks , such as riding a bicycle or opening a bottle of champagne . On 26 November 1901 , Leno , along with Seymour Hicks and his wife , the actress Ellaline Terriss , was invited to Sandringham House to take part in a Royal Command Performance to entertain King Edward VII , Queen Alexandra , their son George and his wife , Mary , the Prince and Princess of Wales . Leno performed a thirty @-@ five @-@ minute solo act that included two of his best @-@ known songs : " How to Buy a House " and " The Huntsman " . After the performance , Leno reported , " The King , the Queen and the Prince of Wales all very kindly shook hands with me and told me how much they had enjoyed it . The Princess of Wales was just going to shake hands with me , when she looked at my face , and couldn 't do it for some time , because she laughed so much . I wasn 't intending to look funny – I was really trying to look dignified and courtly ; but I suppose I couldn 't help myself . " As a memento , the king presented Leno with a jewel @-@ encrusted royal tie pin , and thereafter , Leno became known as " the King 's Jester " . Leno was the first music hall performer to give a Royal Command Performance during the king 's reign .
= = Personal life = =
In 1883 , Leno met Sarah Lydia Reynolds ( 1866 – 1942 ) , a young dancer and comedy singer from Birmingham , while both were appearing at King Ohmy 's Circus of Varieties , Rochdale . The daughter of a stage carpenter , Lydia , as she was known professionally , was already an accomplished actress as a teenager : of her performance in Sinbad the Sailor in 1881 , one critic wrote that she " played Zorlida very well for a young artiste . She is well known at this theatre and with proper training will prove a very clever actress . " She and Leno married in 1884 in a discreet ceremony at St. George 's Church , in Hulme , Manchester , soon after the birth of their first daughter , Georgina . A second child died in infancy , and John was born in 1888 . Their three youngest children – Ernest ( b . 1889 ) , Sidney ( b . 1891 ) and May ( b . 1896 ) – all followed their father onto the stage . Sidney later performed as Dan Leno , Jr . After Leno 's mother and stepfather retired from performing , Leno supported them financially until their deaths .
Leno owned 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) of land at the back of his house in Clapham Park , and was self @-@ sufficient , producing cabbages , potatoes , poultry , butter and eggs . He would also send these as gifts to friends and family at Christmas . In 1898 , Leno and his family moved to 56 Akerman Road , Lambeth , where they lived for several years . A blue plaque was erected there in 1962 by the London County Council .
= = = Charity and fundraising = = =
The Terriers Association was established in 1890 to help retired artists in need of financial help . Leno was an active fundraiser in this and in the Music Hall Benevolent Fund , of which he became President . He was an early member of the entertainment charity Grand Order of Water Rats , which helps performers who are in financial need , and served as its leader , the King Rat , in 1891 , 1892 and 1897 . Near the end of his life , Leno co @-@ founded The Music Hall Artistes Railway Association , which entered a partnership with the Water Rats to form music hall 's first trade union . Some of Leno 's charity was discreet and unpublicised .
In the late 1890s , Leno formed a cricket team called the " Dainties " , for which he recruited many of the day 's leading comedians and music hall stars . They played for charity against a variety of amateur teams willing to put up with their comedic mayhem , such as London 's Metropolitan Police Force ; Leno 's and his teammates ' tomfoolery on the green amused the large crowds that they drew . From 1898 to 1903 , the Dainties continued to play matches across London . Two films of action from the matches were produced in 1900 for audiences of the new medium of cinema . In September 1901 , at a major charity match , the press noted the carnival atmosphere . The comedians wore silly costumes – Leno was dressed as an undertaker and later as a schoolgirl riding a camel . Bands played , and clowns circulated through the crowd . The rival team of professional Surrey cricketers were persuaded to wear tall hats during the match . 18 @,@ 000 spectators attended , contributing funds for music hall and cricketers ' charities , among others .
= = = Decline and mental breakdown = = =
Leno began to drink heavily after performances , and , by 1901 , like his father and stepfather before him , he had become an alcoholic . He gradually declined physically and mentally and displayed frequent bouts of erratic behaviour that began to affect his work . By 1902 , Leno 's angry and violent behaviour directed at fellow cast members , friends and family had become frequent . Once composed , he would become remorseful and apologetic . His erratic behaviour was often a result of his diminishing ability to remember his lines and inaudibility in performance . Leno also suffered increasing deafness , which eventually caused problems on and off stage . In 1901 , during a production of Bluebeard , Leno missed his verbal cue and , as a result , was left stuck up a tower for more than twenty minutes . At the end of the run of Mother Goose in 1903 , producer Arthur Collins gave a tribute to Leno and presented him , on behalf of the Drury Lane Theatre 's management , with an expensive silver dinner service . Leno rose to his feet and said : " Governor , it 's a magnificent present ! I congratulate you and you deserve it ! "
Frustrated at not being accepted as a serious actor , Leno became obsessed with the idea of playing Richard III and other great Shakespearean roles , inundating the actor – manager Herbert Beerbohm Tree with his proposals . After his final run of Mother Goose at the Drury Lane Theatre in early 1903 , Leno 's delusions overwhelmed him . On the closing evening , and again soon afterwards , he travelled to the home of Constance Collier , who was Beerbohm Tree 's leading lady at His Majesty 's Theatre , and also followed her to rehearsal there . He attempted to persuade her to act alongside him in a Shakespearean season that Leno was willing to fund . On the second visit to her home , Leno brought Collier a jewellery box holding a diamond @-@ encrusted plaque . Recognising that Leno was having a mental breakdown , she sadly and gently refused his offer , and Leno left distraught .
Two days later , he was admitted into an asylum for the insane . Leno spent several months in Camberwell House Asylum , London , under the care of Dr. Savage , who treated Leno with " peace and quiet and a little water colouring " . On his second day , Leno told a nurse that the clock was wrong . When she stated that it was right , Leno remarked , " Well if it 's right , then what 's it doing here ? " Leno made several attempts to leave the asylum , twice being successful . He was found each time and promptly returned .
= = = Last year and death = = =
Upon Leno 's release from the institution in October 1903 , the press offered much welcoming commentary and speculated as to whether he would appear that year in the Drury Lane pantomime , scheduled to be Humpty Dumpty . Concerned that Leno might suffer a relapse , Arthur Collins employed Marie Lloyd to take his place . By the time of rehearsals , however , Leno persuaded Collins that he was well enough to take part , and the cast was reshuffled to accommodate him . Leno appeared with success . Upon hearing his signature song , the audience reportedly gave him a standing ovation that lasted five minutes . He received a telegram from the King congratulating him on his performance . Leno 's stage partner Herbert Campbell died in July 1904 , shortly after the pantomime , following an accident at the age of fifty @-@ seven . The death affected Leno deeply , and he went into a decline . At that time , he was appearing at the London Pavilion , but the show had to be cancelled owing to his inability to remember his lines . So harsh were the critics that Leno wrote a statement , published in The Era , to defend the show 's originality . On 20 October 1904 , Leno gave his last performance in the show . Afterwards , he stopped at the Belgrave Hospital for Children in Kennington to leave a donation of £ 625 ( £ 60 @,@ 527 in 2016 adjusted for inflation ) .
Leno died at his home in London on 31 October 1904 , aged 43 , and was buried at Lambeth Cemetery , Tooting . The cause of death is not known . His death and funeral were national news . The Daily Telegraph wrote in its obituary : " There was only one Dan . His methods were inimitable ; his face was indeed his fortune ... Who has seen him in any of his disguises and has failed to laugh ? " Max Beerbohm later said of Leno 's death : " So little and frail a lantern could not long harbour so big a flame " . His memorial is maintained by the Grand Order of Water Rats , which commissioned the restoration of his grave in 2004 .
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= 1980 National League West tie @-@ breaker game =
The 1980 National League West tie @-@ breaker game was a one @-@ game extension to Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) 1980 regular season , played between the Houston Astros and the Los Angeles Dodgers to decide the winner of the National League 's ( NL ) West Division . The game was played on October 6 , 1980 , at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles , California . It was necessary after the Dodgers overcame a three @-@ game deficit in the final three games of the season and both teams finished with identical win – loss records of 92 – 70 . The Dodgers won a coin flip late in the season which , by rule at the time , awarded them home field for the game .
The Astros won the game , 7 – 1 , with Houston starter Joe Niekro throwing a complete game . This victory advanced the Astros to the 1980 NL Championship Series ( NLCS ) , in which they lost to the Philadelphia Phillies , ending the Astros ' season . In baseball statistics , the tie @-@ breaker counted as the 163rd regular season game for both teams , with all events in the game added to regular season statistics .
= = Background = =
The Cincinnati Reds won the West division the previous season with the Astros finishing 1 @.@ 5 games back in second , and the Dodgers 11 @.@ 5 back in third . However , the Reds went on to lose the 1979 NLCS in three games to the Pittsburgh Pirates , ending their season . The Astros acquired Joe Morgan and Nolan Ryan via free agency during the offseason and the Dodgers signed Dave Goltz . Dave Kindred of the Washington Post , George Vecsey of The New York Times , and Astros ' relief pitcher Joe Sambito all credited Morgan 's leadership with the Astros ' success in 1980 .
The Reds maintained early success in 1980 with an eight @-@ game winning streak to open the season and held at least a share of first place in the division until April 30 . They were not as successful over the remainder of the season , only occasionally taking the division lead and last holding it on August 16 . The Astros held the lead for the majority of the season thereafter , including a three @-@ game lead over Los Angeles entering the final series of the season . The series matched the Astros with the Dodgers for three games at Dodger Stadium . The Dodgers won all three games , all by a single run , stopping the Astros from clinching a division championship as the two teams sat tied at 92 – 70 . Kindred described the Astros as losing each game of the series by " fail [ ing ] to make elementary fielding plays . " The final game included a run @-@ scoring pinch hit single by Manny Mota , who had been almost exclusively a coach and not a player that season , and a home run by Ron Cey which also scored Steve Garvey , who had reached base in the previous at bat on an error . The Dodgers needed each of these runs as they won the game 4 – 3 .
= = Game summary = =
Box score for Monday October 6 , 1980 — 3 : 10 p.m. ( PT ) at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles , California
The Astros took their lead early , scoring in the top of the first inning . Terry Puhl led off the game reaching base on an error by the second baseman . Enos Cabell followed Puhl with a single and , while Joe Morgan batted , stole second base to put runners at second and third . Morgan struck out and José Cruz appeared to hit into a fielder 's choice but a catching error by the catcher allowed Puhl to score , Cabell to advance to third base , and Cruz to reach safely all with no out recorded . Cabell then scored on a César Cedeño ground out to make the game 2 – 0 . Art Howe singled to advance Cruz to third , but Dodgers ' starting pitcher Dave Goltz escaped the inning without further scoring .
The Astros ' Joe Niekro retired the Dodgers in order in the first and second innings . The Astros added to their lead in the top of the third as Cedeño singled , stole second ( after Cruz had been caught stealing earlier in the inning ) , and scored on Art Howe 's home run to make the game 4 – 0 . Niekro allowed two successive singles to lead off the bottom of the inning , but proceeded to retire three straight Dodgers without allowing either runner to score . The Astros further added to their lead in the fourth , as Puhl singled on a bunt to third base and then stole second and third base while Cabell batted . Both he and Morgan walked to load the bases with one out . Puhl scored on a Cruz sacrifice fly , Cedeño walked to re @-@ load the bases , and finally a Howe single gave the Astros another two runs to make the game 7 – 0 .
The Dodgers scored their only run in the bottom of the fourth as Dusty Baker singled , advanced to second on an error , and scored on another single . They threatened again in the sixth inning , loading the bases , though they failed to score . That was the only inning after the fourth in which a Dodgers ' runner reached scoring position . Niekro steadied again after the sixth , allowing just one baserunner on a two @-@ out ninth @-@ inning single over the remaining three innings .
= = Aftermath = =
Houston 's win clinched the team 's first postseason berth in franchise history . The Astros lost the five @-@ game NLCS to the Phillies 3 – 2 , ending their season . Due to the 1981 Major League Baseball strike , the following season was split into halves and the winner of each half advanced to the postseason . The Dodgers won the first half and the Astros the second and so met in the first National League Division Series . The Dodgers won , and went on to win the 1981 World Series . The Astros did not return to the NLCS until 1986 and did not win a NL pennant until 2005 , leading to a loss in the 2005 World Series .
In baseball statistics , tie @-@ breakers count as regular season games , with all events in them added to regular season statistics . Niekro , for example , reached his 20th win to break a tie with Jim Bibby for the 2nd most wins in the NL that season . Similarly , Steve Garvey played in his 163rd game of the season , leading the league with a figure which could not have been equaled by anyone not on the Astros or Dodgers . Dusty Baker won a Silver Slugger Award and Steve Howe , who pitched the final two scoreless innings of the tie @-@ breaker for the Dodgers in relief , won the Rookie of the Year Award for their performances in the regular season . Additionally six Dodgers ( Garvey , Davey Lopes , Bill Russell , Reggie Smith , Jerry Reuss , and Bob Welch ) and two Astros ( J. R. Richard and Cruz ) were named to the National League 's All @-@ Star team .
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= Hutchinson Letters Affair =
The Hutchinson Letters Affair was an incident that increased tensions between the colonists of the Province of Massachusetts Bay and the British government prior to the American Revolution . In June 1773 letters written several years earlier by Thomas Hutchinson and Andrew Oliver , governor and lieutenant governor of the province at the time of their publication , were published in a Boston newspaper . The content of the letters was propagandistically claimed by Massachusetts radical politicians to call for the abridgement of colonial rights , and a duel was fought in England over the matter .
The affair served to inflame tensions in Massachusetts , where implementation of the 1773 Tea Act was met with resistance that culminated in the Boston Tea Party in December 1773 . The response of the British government to the publication of the letters served to turn Benjamin Franklin , one of the principal figures in the affair , into a committed Patriot .
= = Background = =
During the 1760s , relations between Great Britain and some of its North American colonies became strained by a series of Parliamentary laws ( including the 1765 Stamp Act and the 1767 Townshend Acts ) , intended to raise revenue for the crown , and to assert Parliament 's authority to pass such legislation despite a lack of colonial representation . These laws had sparked strong protests in the Thirteen Colonies ; the Province of Massachusetts Bay in particular saw significant unrest and direct action against crown officials . The introduction of British Army troops into Boston in 1768 further raised tensions that escalated to the Boston Massacre in 1770 .
In the years after the enactment of the Townshend Acts , Massachusetts Lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson and his colonial secretary ( and brother @-@ in @-@ law ) Andrew Oliver wrote a series of letters concerning the acts , the protests against them , and containing suggestions on how to respond , to Thomas Whately , an assistant to Prime Minister George Grenville . Whateley died in 1772 , and his papers were turned over to his brother William . Whateley at one point gave access to his brother 's papers to John Temple , another colonial official who sought to recover letters of his own from those papers .
Hutchinson was appointed governor of Massachusetts in 1770 , following the critical publication by opposition politicians of letters written by his predecessor , Francis Bernard . Over the next two years Hutchinson engaged in an extended and rancorous written debate with the provincial assembly and the governor 's council , both of which were dominated by radical leadership hostile to Parliamentary authority . The debate centered on the arbitrariness of executive prerogative and the role of Parliament in colonial governance , and greatly deepened divisions in the province .
The Massachusetts debate reached a pitch in England when the colonial secretary , Lord Dartmouth , insisted that Benjamin Franklin , then acting as agent for Massachusetts in London , demanded that the Massachusetts assembly retract its response to a speech the governor gave early in 1772 as part of this ongoing debate . Franklin had acquired a packet of about twenty letters that had been written to Whately . Upon reading them , Franklin concluded that Hutchinson and Oliver had mischaracterized the situation in the colonies , and thus misled Parliament . He felt that wider knowledge of these letters would then focus colonial anger away from Parliament and at those who had written the misleading letters . Franklin sent the letters to Thomas Cushing , the speaker of the Massachusetts assembly , in December 1772 . He insisted to Cushing that they not be published or widely circulated . He specifically wrote that they should be seen only by a few people , and that he was not " at liberty to make the letters public . "
The letters arrived in Massachusetts in March 1773 , and came into the hands of Samuel Adams , then serving as the clerk of the Massachusetts assembly . By Franklin 's instructions , only a select few people , including the Massachusetts Committee of Correspondence , were to see the letters . Alarmed at what they read , Cushing wrote Franklin , asking if the restrictions on their circulation could be eased . In a response received by Cushing in early June , Franklin reiterated that they were not to be copied or published , but could be shown to anyone .
= = Publication = =
A longtime opponent of Hutchinson 's , Samuel Adams narrowly followed Franklin 's request , but managed to orchestrate a propaganda campaign against Hutchinson without immediately disclosing the letters . He informed the assembly of the existence of the letters , after which it designated a committee to analyze them . Strategic leaks suggestive of their content made their way into the press and political discussions , causing Hutchinson much discomfort . The assembly eventually concluded , according to John Hancock , that in the letters Hutchinson sought to " overthrow the Constitution of this Government , and to introduce arbitrary Power into the Province " , and called for the removal of Hutchinson and Oliver . Hutchinson complained that Adams and the opposition were misrepresenting what he had written , and that nothing he had written in them on the subject of Parliamentary supremacy went beyond other statements he had made . The letters were finally published in the Boston Gazette in mid @-@ June 1773 , causing a political firestorm in Massachusetts and raising significant questions in England .
= = Content of the letters = =
The letters were written primarily in 1768 and 1769 , principally by Hutchinson and Oliver , although the published letters also included some written by Charles Paxton , a customs official and Hutchinson supporter , and Hutchinson 's nephew Nathaniel Rogers . The letters written by Oliver ( who became lieutenant governor when Hutchinson became governor ) proposed a significant revamping of the Massachusetts government to strengthen the executive , while those of Hutchinson were ruminations on the difficult state of affairs in the province . Historian Bernard Bailyn confirms Hutchinson 's own assertion that much of the content of his letters expressed relatively little that had not already been publicly stated .
According to Bailyn , Hutchinson 's ruminations included the observation that it was impossible for colonists have the full rights they would have in the home country , essentially requiring an " abridgement of what are called English liberties " . Hutchinson , unlike Oliver , made no specific proposals on how the colonial government should be reformed , writing in a letter that was not among those published , " I can think of nothing but what will produce as great an evil as that which it may remove or will be of a very uncertain event . " Oliver 's letters , in contrast , specifically proposed that the governor 's council , whose members where then elected by the assembly with the governor 's consent , be changed to one whose members were appointed by the crown .
= = Consequences = =
In England , speculation ran rampant over the source of the leak . William Whately accused John Temple of taking the letters , which Temple denied , challenging Whately to a duel . Whately was wounded in the encounter in early December 1773 , but neither participant was satisfied , and a second duel was planned . In order to forestall that event , Franklin on Christmas Day published a letter admitting that he was responsible for the acquisition and transmission of the letters , to prevent " further mischief " . He justified his actions by pointing out that the letters had been written between public officials for the purpose of influencing public policy .
When Hutchinson 's opponents in Massachusetts read the letters , they seized on key phrases ( including the " abridgement " phrase ) to argue that Hutchinson was in fact lobbying the London government to make changes that would effect such an abridgement . Combined with Oliver 's explicit recommendations for reform , they presented this as a clear indication that the provincial leaders were working against the interests of the people and not for them .
Bostonians were outraged at the content of the published letters , burning Hutchinson and Oliver in effigy on Boston Common . The letters were widely reprinted throughout the British North American colonies , and acts of protest took place as far away as Philadelphia . The Massachusetts assembly and governor 's council petitioned the Board of Trade for Hutchinson 's removal . In the Privy Council hearing concerning Hutchinson 's fate , in which the aftermath of the Boston Tea Party was also discussed , Franklin stood silently while he was lambasted by Solicitor General Alexander Wedderburn for his role in the affair . He was accused of thievery and dishonor , and called the prime mover in England on behalf of Boston 's radical Committee of Correspondence . The Board of Trade dismissed Franklin from his post as colonial Postmaster General , and dismissed the petition for Hutchinson 's removal as " groundless " and " vexatious " . Parliament then passed the so @-@ called " Coercive Acts " , a package of measures designed to punish Massachusetts for the tea party . Hutchinson was recalled , and the Massachusetts governorship was given to the commander of British forces in North America , Lieutenant General Thomas Gage . Hutchinson left Massachusetts in May 1774 , never to return . Andrew Oliver suffered a stroke and died in March 1774 .
Gage 's implementation of the Coercive Acts further raised tensions that led to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in April 1775 . Franklin , who had been politically neutral with respect to the colonial radicals prior to his appearance before the Board of Trade , returned to America in early 1775 , committed to independence . He went on to serve in the Second Continental Congress and became a leading figure in the American Revolution .
= = Who gave Franklin the letters ? = =
A number of candidates have been proposed as the means by which Benjamin Franklin acquired the letters . John Temple , despite his political differences with Hutchinson , was apparently able to convince the latter in 1774 that he was not involved in their acquisition . He did , however , claim to know who was involved , but refused to name him , because that would " prove the ruin of the guilty party . " Several historians ( including Bernard Bailyn and Bernard Knollenberg ) have concluded that Thomas Pownall was the probable source of the letters . Pownall was Massachusetts governor before Francis Bernard , had similar views to Franklin on colonial matters , and had access to centers of colonial administration through his brother John , the colonial secretary . Other individuals have also been suggested , but all appear to have an only tenuous connection to Franklin or the situation . Historian Kenneth Penegar believes the question will remain unanswerable unless new documents emerge to shed light on the episode .
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= Massive Attack ( song ) =
" Massive Attack " is a song by American rapper Nicki Minaj and American recording artist Sean Garrett . Written by Minaj , co @-@ written and produced by Garrett and Alex da Kid , " Massive Attack " was released on April 13 , 2010 . It was initially intended to be the first single from Minaj 's debut studio album Pink Friday , but the release was later scrapped in favor of " Your Love " . The song was a distinct change in Minaj 's previous work on mixtapes and features , thus receiving mixed to positive reviews from critics , commending lyrical content and distinctiveness , and critiquing that it did not fit her " Barbie " persona well . An accompanying music video which features a helicopter chase , and militaristic jungle and desert scenes , was positively received .
Commercially , the song had limited success , reaching number 65 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart but only managing to bubble under the Billboard Hot 100 at 22 . Later in an interview with Billboard magazine , Garrett revealed that the song would not be included on Pink Friday and that the poor performance of the song was out of his control , " I was only able to do as much as I was allowed to do . Sometimes you have to step back and get off the wheel . I didn 't have control of the entire creative process . A lot of [ other ] artists trust me enough and allow me to do what I know is best to do as a producer " .
= = Background = =
In an interview with Rap @-@ Up in March 2010 , Minaj revealed the title to the song , and Garrett later hinted around details around his single with Minaj , stating ,
" I just did Nicki ’ s first single featuring me . It ’ s gonna be a fucking bomb . It ’ s very , very explosive ! It ’ s a club banger . It ’ s a lot broader than what people would expect her to come with . The record puts her in the game in a way that says she should ’ ve been here a long time ago . She has a real way of how she wants to do this . It ’ s just gonna be a surprise when it comes . She just wants to make it as huge as possible . "
Additionally , co @-@ producer Alex da Kid said , " I started on the train and finished in the studio . I knew it was special from the start . It wasn 't like I was aiming for Nicki with this track ; I had a idea I thought was crazy . Nicki heard it and the rest was history . " In an interview with MTV News , Minaj stated when she first heard the song she felt she was in Africa and fell in love with the drum beats , and commented , " It 's a very rare . ... You 're not gonna get the song the first time you hear it . After the second or third time , you 're gonna be like , ' Whoa , what is this ? ' It sounds nothing like anything that 's out right now . " She also called the song " next @-@ level futuristic " , and said that she chose Garrett for the song in that he would be the best to " illustrate Nicki Minaj " , as he got her and her personality " . In an interview on the set of the video shoot for " Massive Attack " , Minaj said , " I 'm excited for people to hear me ... doing more than one verse . It 's really creative . I wanted to be theatrical , but I am very serous about what I do . " Also on the set of the video , Garrett said , " We wanted to give her something that was global , " he continued . " We wanted to give her something that was urban ; we wanted to give her something that was mainstream pop , you know what I mean , that the world could get a chance to see her out on this pedestal . And of course , you know , I had to come along with her , because I 've got an album dropping soon . " The song made its debut March 29 , 2010 on WQHT . The song leaked onto the Internet on March 30 , 2010 , the day before its music video premiere on 106 & Park . The single 's art cover was revealed on April 1 , 2010 , featuring a still of Minaj in the music video as a ninja and comic book font designs . Alex da Kid said that a lot of artists wanted the beat such as Jamie Foxx and Young Jeezy but he gave it to Nicki because it fit her " quirky , left @-@ field vibe . "
Alex da Kid was also interviewed by Rap @-@ Up , and when asked about the commercial flop of the song and he said , " My whole thing [ is that ] I don ’ t want to do anything that ’ s the same as what ’ s out there , I think ' Massive Attack ' may have been too different . If we would 've put a big feature on it , like a Kanye or Rihanna or someone , I think it might 've done a bit better . It needed something familiar about it . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
The song fuses hip @-@ hop and dance as Minaj delivers her lyrics in a Caribbean accent . It is composed in a " futuristic " style with heavy drum beats . It carries a " chaotic " beat with " screechy Euro @-@ club synths " compared to Timbaland . Minaj references E.T. The Extra Terrestrial , Mr. Miyagi , The Phantom of the Opera , and Simba and Mufasa of The Lion King film in her lines .
= = Critical reception = =
Monica Herrera of Billboard gave the single a mixed review , stating that Minaj , being " one of the most visually distinctive rappers to come along in years " , that the single was an " anticlimatic coming out song " , " considering the hype Minaj has generated through mixtapes , cameos and her co @-@ starring role in Lil Wayne 's Young Money project " . However Hererra did commend the lyrical content , stating " her sassy one @-@ liners are as entertaining as always " , and the overall production although it didn 't suit Minaj 's " her mental @-@ patient delivery nearly as well as , say , Kane Beatz ' simpler track for Young Money 's " BedRock " . Robbie Daw of ' Idolator ' said , " we wouldn ’ t expect Nicki to do any less than come out of the gate charging full force , lyrically , on her debut single . That said , we were expecting maybe a tad more of a melody on the track . " Chris Ryan of ' MTV Buzzworthy ' gave the song a positive review , stating " you get the feeling , listening to the song 's air @-@ raid keyboards and thunderous beats , that the Young Money princess really wants to separate herself from the rap pack and carve out a space all her own " . Ryan also said , " her verbal dexterity , complex flow and humor , Nicki is reminiscent of classic Missy Elliott -- and that 's a compliment of the highest order " .
= = Music video = =
A music video for the single was shot on March 15 , 2010 in the deserts of Lancaster , California , directed by Hype Williams . When talking to ' MTV News ' about the video Minaj stated ,
" I didn 't want to shoot the typical new @-@ artist vision . Thank God I have a wonderful label that stands behind me and my vision . I met Hype in a freakin ' airport ... and it happened to be a week before I wanted to shoot a video . I told him the idea . Of course , I had to let Baby and Slim know and hope they would understand my expensive taste . It all came together . " It 's just beautiful — the clothes , everything . The ambiance .. It 's for all the girls that like to play dress @-@ up . They 're gonna love this one ... we get on the walkie @-@ talkie , like , ' Mayday ! Mayday ! ' It 's really fashion and beauty shots , and we 're acting like we 're doing something important . We wanted to make it pretty in the dirt . We wanted to have a very crazy contrast . I didn 't want to do everything clean . I like the dirt . All that pink stuff looks even prettier in the dirt . "
= = = Concept = = =
Sean Garrett appears in the video and Birdman , Amber Rose , and Ringmasters of Season 3 of America 's Best Dance Crew make cameos . The video premiered on BET 's 106 & Park on March 31 , 2010 The video comprises a helicopter chase and militaristic desert and jungle scenes . The music video begins with Birdman giving Minaj a stack of money to carry to an unknown area in the desert . As the song begins Minaj appears in a blonde wig with a pink background which than cuts to Minaj riding in a pink Lamborghini with Amber Rose driving as a potential new take on Thelma & Louise in a helicopter chase . Shots of desert creatures and Minaj in her Barbie wig are shown during the first hook . As the helicopter chase progresses , Minaj is seen singing to the camera in military gear and is later shown walking in an attacking line with her Harajuku Army , which are all dressed in the same gear with pink wigs under helmets . During the chorus of the song , a shirtless Garrett is shown singing into the camera while clips of the helicopter chase are interpreted . During the second verse Minaj is in the jungle as a ninja with a long pink braid running down her back as she crawls on the ground and walks around the jungle . Some clips of two men ( from Ringmasters ) dancing with double @-@ jointed shoulders are also shown . During the climax of the song Minaj is still in the jungle this time with a green wig were dancing in the mud and comes out of the water , crawling through the forest . The video ends as clips of the entire video are shown and closes with Minaj and Rose escaping in the pink Lamborghini .
= = = Reception and lawsuit = = =
The video garnered media attention , with Monica Herrera of Billboard commenting on a review for the single , " It figures , then , that discussion of her debut single , " Massive Attack , " would take a back seat to its Hype Williams @-@ directed , B @-@ movie @-@ inspired video . " Chris Ryan of MTV News commented on the video , saying , " We L @-@ U @-@ V Barbie because she 's a trendsetter and a strident , unique artist . But with great style comes great responsibility . Her video for ' Massive Attack , ' the first single off her long @-@ awaited debut album , is bananas " .
On June 11 , 2010 Hollywood Exotic Car Rental filed a lawsuit against Minaj for damages and unpaid rental charges on the car . They claimed that the vehicle was driven " off @-@ road " and damaged “ in the approximate amount of $ 11 @,@ 589 @.@ 41 . " Along with damages to the car , Minaj rented the car for $ 1 @,@ 750 a day , and used the vehicle an additional three days totaling in an extra $ 5 @,@ 250 owed . The rental company is suing for unpaid rental charges , property damage , and punitive damage .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Shepseskare =
Shepseskare or Shepseskara ( Egyptian for " Noble is the Soul of Ra " ) was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh , the fourth or fifth ruler of the Fifth Dynasty ( 2494 – 2345 BC ) during the Old Kingdom period . Shepseskare lived in the mid @-@ 25th century BC and was probably the owner of an unfinished pyramid in Abusir , which was abandoned after a few weeks of work in the earliest stages of its construction .
Following historical sources , Shepseskare was traditionally believed to have reigned for seven years , succeeding Neferirkare Kakai and preceding Neferefre on the throne , making him the fourth ruler of the dynasty . He is the most obscure ruler of this dynasty and the Egyptologist Miroslav Verner has strongly argued that Shepseskare 's reign lasted only a few months at the most , after that of Neferefre . This conclusion is based upon the state and location of Shepseskare 's unfinished pyramid in Abusir as well as the very small number of artefacts attributable to this king . Verner 's arguments have now convinced several Egyptologists such as Darrell Baker and Erik Hornung .
Shepseskare 's relations to his predecessor and successor are not known for certain . Verner has proposed that he was a son of Sahure and a brother to Neferirkare Kakai , who briefly seized the throne following the premature death of his predecessor and probable nephew , Neferefre . Shepseskare may himself have died unexpectedly or he may have lost the throne to another of his nephews , the future pharaoh Nyuserre Ini . The possibility that Shepseskare was a short @-@ lived usurper from outside the royal family cannot be totally excluded .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Contemporaneous sources = = =
Shepseskare was a king of Ancient Egypt , the fourth or fifth ruler of the Fifth Dynasty . Egypt was unified at the time , with its capital located at Memphis . Shepseskare is the least @-@ known king of the Fifth Dynasty as very few artefacts dating to his reign have survived to this day . Only two cylinder seals of Shepseskare are known : one , made of bronze , bears Shepseskare 's Horus name and was uncovered in the ruins of Memphis in the early 20th century . The second seal , of unknown provenance , is made of black serpentine and reads " Shepseskare beloved of the gods , Shepseskare beloved of Hathor " . Beyond these two seals the only surviving artefacts attributable to Shepseskare are five fragments of seal impressions on clay from Abusir and six further fragments discovered in the mortuary temple and Sanctuary of the Knife of the Pyramid of Neferefre , also in Abusir . These fragments probably come from three different seals and were most likely placed on the doors of magazine rooms in the temple .
Finally , there is a single scarab seal reading " Shepeskare " [ sic ] that the Egyptologist Flinders Petrie attributed to Shepseskare at the end of the 19th century . Modern scholars doubt this attribution and rather believe the scarab to be a work of the much later Saite period ( 685 – 525 BC ) executed in archaic style . Equally , the scarab could belong to Gemenefkhonsbak Shepeskare , an obscure kinglet of Tanis during the 25th Dynasty ( 760 – 656 BC ) .
= = = Historical sources = = =
The only ancient Egyptian king list mentioning Shepseskare is the Saqqara Tablet ( on the 28th entry ) . The tablet was inscribed during the reign of Ramesses II ( 1279 – 1213 BC ) , around 1200 years after Shepseskare 's lifetime , and records the dynastic succession Neferikare → Shepseskare → Neferkhare ( a variant name of Neferefre ) . Shepseskare is completely absent from another king list dating to the same period : the Abydos king list , written during the reign of Seti I ( 1294 – 1279 BC ) . He is also absent from the Turin canon ( reign of Ramses II ) , although in this case a lacuna affects the papyrus on which the list is written at the place where Shepseskare and Neferefre 's names should have been . Of the two entries concerning Shepseskare and Neferefre on the king list , only one reign length is still legible and it has been variously read as one year , eleven years or one to four months . The damaged state of the papyrus also makes it impossible to decide safely whose reign length this is .
Shepseskare was also likely mentioned in the Aegyptiaca , a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II ( 283 – 246 BC ) by the Egyptian priest Manetho . No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is now known only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius . Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned the succession " Nefercheres → Sisires → Cheres " for the mid Fifth Dynasty . Nefercheres and Cheres are believed to be the hellenized forms for Neferirkare and Neferkhare ( that is Neferefre ) , respectively . Thus , " Sisires " is traditionally believed to be the Greek name of Shepseskare , making Manetho 's reconstruction of the Fifth Dynasty in good agreement with the Saqqara tablet . Furthermore , according to Africanus , Manetho credits Sisires with seven years of reign while other sources report Manetho 's figure as nine years .
= = Reign = =
= = = Chronological position = = =
Both the relative chronological position and absolute dates of Shepseskare 's reign are uncertain . The Saqqara Tablet records Shepseskare as the successor of Neferirkare Kakai and the predecessor of Neferefre , which became the traditional opinion among Egyptologists . Following discoveries in the early 1980s , the Czech Egyptologist Miroslav Verner advocates the hypothesis that Shepseskare succeeded , rather than preceded , Neferefre .
In support of this hypothesis , Verner first emphasizes the presence of several clay seal impressions bearing Shepseskare 's Horus name " Sekhemkaw " ( meaning " He whose apparitions are powerful " ) in the oldest part of Neferere 's mortuary temple , which was not built " until Neferefre 's death " . This appears to suggest that Shepseskare ruled after — rather than before — Neferefre . Verner 's second argument concerns the alignment of pyramids of Sahure , Neferirkare Kakai and Neferefre : they form a line pointing to Heliopolis , just as the three pyramids of Giza do . In contrast , Shepseskare 's unfinished pyramid does not fall on the line to Heliopolis , which strongly suggests that Neferefre 's pyramid had already been in place when Shepseskare started his . Finally , Verner observes that Neferefre is known to have been Neferirkare 's eldest son and around 20 years old when his father died so that he was in optimal position to inherit the throne . Shespeskare thus most likely took the throne after Neferefre . As Verner notes , while Shepseskare is noted as the immediate predecessor of Neferefre in the Saqqara tablet , " this slight discrepancy can ... be attributed to the [ political ] disorders of the time and its dynastic disputes . "
= = = Duration = = =
In two articles published in 2000 and 2001 Verner argues that , contrary to what Manetho indicates , Shepseskare must have reigned for a couple of months at the most , an hypothesis already proposed by the French Egyptologist Nicolas Grimal in 1988 . Verner 's conclusion is based on the archeological record , in particular Shepseskare 's intended pyramid at Abusir . Verner emphasizes that the progress of the pyramid , which is unfinished ,
was interrupted [ and ] corresponds to the work of several weeks , perhaps no more than one or two months . In fact , the place was merely leveled and the excavation of the pit for the construction of the underground funerary apartment had only commenced . Moreover , the owner of the building obviously wanted to demonstrate by his choice of place ( half @-@ way between Sahure 's pyramid and the sun temple of Userkaf ) his relationship to either Sahure or Userkaf . Theoretically , only two kings of the Fifth Dynasty whose pyramids had not yet been identified can be taken into consideration – Shepseskara or Menkauhor . However , according to a number of contemporaneous documents , Menkauhor ... probably completed [ his ] pyramid elsewhere , in North Saqqara or Dahshur . Shepseskara , therefore , seems to be the likelier owner of the unfinished platform for a pyramid in North Abusir . Anyway , the builder of the platform [ viz . , Shepseskare ] must have reigned for a very short time .
The rediscovery in 2008 of the Headless Pyramid in Saqqara and its subsequent attribution to Menkauhor Kaiu by the excavators under the direction of Zahi Hawass confirms Verner 's attribution of the unfinished pyramid of Abusir to Shepseskare .
Unlike the other kings of the Fifth Dynasty , Shepseskare 's name appears neither in the personal names of people of the time nor in the names of funerary estates . He is also absent from the titles and biographies of state officials . For example , the stela of the Fifth Dynasty official Khau @-@ Ptah lists an uninterrupted sequence of kings whom he served under , namely Sahure , Neferirkare , Neferefre and Nyuserre . The omission of Shepseskare , be it between Neferirkare and Neferefre or between Neferefre and Nyuserre , indicates that his reign must have been very short . Since Manetho 's Aegyptiaca dates to the 3rd century BC , Khau @-@ Ptah 's contemporary account can be regarded as a more accurate indication of the political situation during the Fifth Dynasty .
Verner 's arguments together with the scarcity of artefacts attributable to Shepseskare have now convinced many Egyptologists , such as Darrell Baker and Erik Hornung , that Shepseskare 's reign was indeed ephemeral .
= = Family = =
In view of the scarcity of sources concerning Shepseskare , nothing is known for certain about his relation to his predecessors . He was most likely a member of the royal family , although the possibility that he was a usurper unrelated to his predecessors cannot be totally excluded .
Verner has proposed that Shepseskare was a son of Sahure who managed to briefly seize power after the premature death of Neferefre . This would explain the proximity of Shepseskare 's unfinished pyramid to that of Sahure . Lending credence to this theory is the discovery by Verner and Tarek El Awady in 2005 of reliefs from the causeway of Sahure 's pyramid complex showing him , his wife Meretnebty and their two sons Ranefer and Netjerirenre . The relief gives both sons the title of " king 's eldest son " , indicating that they were possibly twins . The relief further indicates that Ranefer took the throne as " Neferirkare king of Upper and Lower Egypt " . Verner and Awady thus speculate that while Ranefer and his son Neferefre became kings , Netjerirenre could have attempted to seize the throne at the death of the latter . In this hypothesis Shepseskare would be the throne name of Netjerirenre .
Shepseskare 's reign may have been cut short by his unexpected death or his claim to the throne could have been thwarted by Nyuserre Ini , Neferefre 's younger brother and the younger son of King Neferirkare and Queen Khentkaus II . Khentkaus II 's pivotal role in Nyuserre 's eventual accession to the throne might explain her high esteem in Egyptian folklore and " the additional enlargement and upgrading of her mortuary temple " by Nyuserre . Nyuserre also seemed to have been favored by powerful courtiers and officials , foremost among whom was Ptahshepses , who would become Nyuserre 's son @-@ in @-@ law and vizier .
= = Building activities = =
= = = Pyramid = = =
An unfinished pyramid located in north Abusir , between the sun temple of Userkaf and the Pyramid of Sahure , is believed to belong to Shepseskare . The structure was discovered in 1980 by a Czechoslovakian archaeological team led by Miroslav Verner and seems to have been abandoned after no more than a few weeks or months of work . A square area of roughly 100 m2 ( 1 @,@ 100 sq ft ) was leveled and the digging of a T @-@ shaped ditch was just started in its center . This ditch was to be left open during the pyramid construction to allow for simultaneous works on the pyramid filling and its substructures . This construction technique is common to all pyramids of the Fifth Dynasty and can directly be seen in the case of the Pyramid of Neferefre , which was also left unfinished . This technique as well as the location of the unfinished pyramid in the royal necropolis of the Fifth Dynasty indicates that it belonged in all likeliness to Shepseskare , the pyramids of the other kings of the dynasty being already known . If finished according to the established pattern , the pyramid would have reached 73 m ( 240 ft ) high , similar to the Pyramid of Neferirkare .
Analyzing the fragments of clay seals bearing Shepeseskare 's name , the Swiss Egyptologist Peter Kaplony has proposed that the ancient name of Shepseskare 's pyramid could be reconstructed as Rsj @-@ Špss @-@ k3 @-@ Rˁ , reading " Resj @-@ Shespeskare " and meaning " The awakening of Shepseskare " . Verner rejects this hypothesis , and he contests the reading of certain signs and their interpretation as the name of a pyramid .
= = = Sun temple = = =
Kaplony has proposed that Shepseskare started to build a sun temple named Ḥtp @-@ jb @-@ Rˁ , reading " Hotepibre " and meaning " Satisfied is the heart of Ra " . Although all the kings of the early to mid @-@ Fifth Dynasty , from Userkaf to Menkauhor Kaiu , did build sun temples , Verner regards Kaplony 's hypothesis as " sheer speculation " since it is based on the tentative reconstruction of a single clay seal . Verner first argues that this seal is not inscribed with Shepseskare 's name but rather bears traces of a Horus name which could equally well be that of Djedkare Isesi . Second , Verner notes that the name of a sun temple is rarely found with that of the king who built it : more often it is found with the name of another king during whose reign the seal was made . Finally , he doubts that the sign reading Ḥtp , " Hotep " , is really part of the name of a sun temple . Instead , he believes it is more probable that the seal either refers to the sun temple of Neferirkare , named St @-@ jb @-@ Rˁ.w , that is " Setibraw " ; or to that of Nyuserre , which was called Šsp @-@ jb @-@ Rˁ , " Shesepibraw " .
= = = Mortuary temple of Neferefre = = =
It is possible that Shepseskare continued the construction of the funerary complex of his predecessor . As Neferefre had died after a short reign , his pyramid complex was far from finished and neither the burial chamber nor the mortuary temple had been built . The planned pyramid was thus hastily changed into a square mastaba representing a stylized primeval hill and the accompanying mortuary temple was completed during the reign of Nyuserre . The presence of seals of Shepseskare in the oldest part of Neferefre 's mortuary temple could indicate that the former also undertook construction works there . The evidence for such works is uncertain : these seals could have been placed on boxes which were later moved into the magazine rooms of the temple . For example , seals of Userkaf , Sahure and Neferirkare Kakai were also found in the temple , while these three pharaohs died before Neferefre 's reign .
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= Lum You =
Lum You ( ca . 1861 – January 31 , 1902 ) — sometimes spelled Lum Yu — was an immigrant Chinese laborer and convicted murderer in the Pacific Northwest . He is famous for being the only person to have been legally executed in Pacific County , Washington , and for his death row prison break supposedly arranged by the very jailers charged with his captivity .
= = Biography = =
Lum You was among the many Chinese laborers who came to Washington near the turn of the century . A proud , sociable dandy , You was well @-@ liked in the white community . He spoke a little English , and acted as an agent between the Chinese workers and their employers .
In 1894 You approached the South Bend police chief , Marion Egbert , complaining that a fellow Chinese resident by the name of Ging had threatened him . Egbert brushed You off and suggested he deal with the situation himself . You took this advice , attacking Ging with an axe . For this act he was convicted of assault ; he was fined $ 500 and was sentenced to a prison term of six months .
In the summer of 1901 , You was employed as a cannery worker and living in Bay Center . While playing cards on August 6 of that year , he was assaulted , threatened , and robbed by Oscar Bloom , a white man with a reputation as a bully . This time You did not approach the police , but instead immediately took matters into his own hands : he went to his room to retrieve his gun , sought out and shot Bloom in the abdomen , and then fled the scene . Bloom survived long enough to swear a deathbed affidavit identifying You as his killer .
Public sympathy for You was high , but white employers of the Chinese workers pressed officials for action to be taken against him . Accordingly , You was arrested on August 7 and in October 1901 was tried and convicted for the murder of Oscar Bloom . Contrary to the jurors ' belief that You would receive a light sentence , the judge ordered that You be hanged . The execution was scheduled for January 31 , 1902 .
Even after his conviction You continued to enjoy public support . Petitions for clemency , one of which was signed by one of the jurors , were sent to the state governor . County officials sympathized with You , supposedly leaving his cell door unlocked at night and encouraging him to escape . You eventually did escape , early in the morning of January 14 : one news report claimed the improvised lock to his cell door had been picked with the aid of a confederate . You hid in the environs of South Bend for several days , during which he was hunted by a squad led by sheriff Thomas A. Roney . On January 15 he was sighted by two men ; the following day the county commissioners met and agreed to offer a reward of $ 200 for You 's capture . On January 17 You was finally apprehended by a three @-@ man posse . You offered no resistance , and when asked how he escaped , said only that the door was open and he walked out .
On January 27 governor Henry McBride rejected one of the petitions for clemency on procedural grounds , and on January 30 confirmed by wire that he would not be commuting You 's sentence . Anticipation of the execution became so great that Roney was besieged with requests to attend . Roney issued 500 invitation cards , some examples of which survive .
You 's hanging proceeded as planned inside the courthouse of the county seat , South Bend , on the morning of January 31 , 1902 . Though it had been expected that he would break down , You ate fairly well that morning and went to the gallows without assistance . He bade his friends goodbye and then uttered his last words , to his executioners : " Kill me good . " The trap was sprung by means of a rope which , along with three dummy ropes , extended into an adjoining room . Each of the four executioners concealed in that room pulled his rope simultaneously , but only the sheriff knew which was the trigger .
You 's was the first and only official execution ever to take place in Pacific County . A month after his arrest , a new act of the Washington State Legislature took effect which required executions for any future crimes to be carried out at the Washington State Penitentiary in Walla Walla .
= = Legacy = =
Lum You 's trial and execution attracted a great deal of contemporary publicity in Pacific County , and has since passed into the realm of folk legend . His story has been researched and recounted by local historians Ruth Dixon , Willard R. Espy , and Sydney Stevens . Espy , also a nationally renowned poet , memorialized You in a humorous epitaph . You was also the subject of a biographical play , The Hanging of Lum You by the Oysterville @-@ based Shoalwater Storytellers .
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= Henry Allingham =
Henry William Allingham ( 6 June 1896 – 18 July 2009 ) was a British supercentenarian , the oldest British man ever , First World War veteran and , for one month , the verified oldest living man in the world . He is also the second @-@ oldest military veteran ever , and at the time of his death , he was the 12th @-@ verified oldest man of all time .
Allingham was the oldest ever surviving member of any of the British Armed Forces and one of the oldest surviving veterans of the First World War . He was the last survivor of the Battle of Jutland , the last surviving member of the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) and the last surviving founding member of the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . In 2001 he became the face of the First World War veterans ' association and made frequent public appearances to ensure that awareness of the sacrifices of the First World War was not lost to modern generations . He received many honours and awards for his First World War service and his longevity .
= = Early life = =
Allingham was born in 1896 in Clapton , County of London . When he was 14 months old , his father , Henry Thomas Allingham ( 1868 @-@ 1897 ) , died at age 29 of tuberculosis . Henry is recorded in the 1901 census with his widowed mother Amy Jane Allingham ( née Foster ) ( 1873 @-@ 1915 ) , a laundress forewoman , living with her parents and brother at 23 Verulam Avenue , Walthamstow . His mother remarried in 1905 to Hubert George Higgs and in 1907 the family moved to Clapham , London . Henry and his mother are recorded in the 1911 Census living at 21 Heyford Avenue , Lambeth , while his stepfather was lodging away from home working as a wheelwright . Henry attended a London County Council school before attending the Regent Street Polytechnic . Allingham remembered seeing the City Imperial Volunteers return from the Second Boer War , and also recalled watching W. G. Grace play cricket . On leaving school , Allingham started work as a trainee surgical instrument maker at St. Bartholomew 's Hospital . He did not find this job very interesting , and so left to work for a coachbuilder specialising in car bodies .
= = First World War = =
Allingham wanted to join the war effort in August 1914 as a despatch rider , but his critically ill mother managed to persuade him to stay at home and look after her . However , after his mother died in 1915 , aged 42 , Allingham enlisted with the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) . He became formally rated as an Air Mechanic Second Class on 21 September 1915 , and was posted to Chingford before completing his training at Sheerness , Kent . His RNAS serial number was RNAS F8317 .
After graduation , Allingham was posted to the RNAS Air Station at Great Yarmouth where he worked in aircraft maintenance . On 13 April 1916 , King George V inspected the air station and its aircraft . Allingham later reported disappointment at barely missing an opportunity to speak with the king .
Allingham also worked in Bacton , Norfolk , further up the coast , where night @-@ flying was conducted and was later involved in supporting anti @-@ submarine patrols . A typical patrol would last two or three days and would involve the manual labour of hoisting a seaplane in and out of the water by means of a deck @-@ mounted derrick .
During the preparations for what has become known as the Battle of Jutland , Allingham was ordered to join the naval trawler HMT Kingfisher . Onboard was a Sopwith Schneider seaplane that was used to patrol the surrounding waters for the German High Seas Fleet . Allingham 's responsibilities included helping to launch this aircraft . Although the Kingfisher was not directly involved in the battle ( it shadowed the British Grand Fleet and then the High Seas Fleet ) , Allingham still rightfully claimed to be the last known survivor of that battle and could recall " seeing shells ricocheting across the sea . "
In September 1917 , Allingham , by then an Air Mechanic First Class , was posted to the Western Front to join No. 12 Squadron RNAS . This unit acted as a training squadron for other RNAS squadrons based on the Western Front . There is also some evidence that the squadron was involved in combat operations . When Allingham arrived at Petite @-@ Synthe , both the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) and the RNAS were involved in the Ypres offensive . Allingham also instrumented the very first reconnaissance aircraft camera during the First World War . On 3 November 1917 , he was posted to the aircraft depot at Dunkirk , France where he remained for the rest of the war , on aircraft repair and recovery duties . He recalls being bombed from the air and shelled from both the land and the sea .
He transferred to the Royal Air Force when the RNAS and the RFC were merged on 1 April 1918 . The creation of the Royal Air Force did not initially have a big impact on Allingham and he later remarked that at that time he still considered himself a navy man . In the RAF he was ranked as a Rigger Aero , Aircraft Mechanic Second Class and was given a new service number : 208317 . Allingham returned to the Home Establishment in February 1919 and was formally discharged to the RAF Reserve on 16 April 1919 . During the last few years of his life Allingham was recognized as the last surviving founding member of the RAF . Speaking with Dennis Goodwin of the First World War Veterans ' Association , Allingham said , " It is a shock as well as a privilege to think that I am the only man alive from that original reorganisation when the RAF was formed . "
= = Inter @-@ war years = =
= = = Career = = =
In addition to his military service as a mechanic , Allingham spent the vast majority of his professional life as an engineer . His employers included Thorns Car Body Makers , Vickers General Motors and H.J.M. Car Body Builders . He started his longest stretch of employment in 1934 designing new car bodies for the Ford Motor Company at their Dagenham plant which had opened only a few years previously in 1931 .
= = = Family life = = =
Allingham met Dorothy Cator ( 1895 – 1970 ) in Great Yarmouth , Norfolk in 1918 . They married the same year in Romford , when she was 22 . They moved to Eastbourne , Sussex in 1960 and remained married until she died there from acute and chronic lymphatic leukaemia . They had two daughters , Betty ( born 1920 ) and Jean ( 1923 – 2001 ) . Jean emigrated to the United States and died aged 78 in 2001 . At the time of his death Allingham believed that Betty had died . He had lost touch with her in the 1970s following a family rift after the death of his wife in 1970 . In fact Betty Hankin was still alive aged 89 when her father died , and living in Stroud , Gloucestershire . In addition to his one remaining daughter Betty , at the time of his death Allingham had seven grandchildren , 16 great @-@ grandchildren , 14 great @-@ great @-@ grandchildren , and one great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandchild .
= = Second World War = =
During the Second World War , Allingham was in a reserved occupation and worked on a number of projects . Perhaps his most significant contribution was the design of an effective counter @-@ measure to the German magnetic mines . During his Christmas lunch in 1939 he was called away to help design a system that would neutralise the mines and open the port of Harwich , Essex . Nine days later , he had successfully completed the task .
= = Later life = =
After the Second World War Allingham continued to work for Ford until he retired in 1960 . After Denis Goodwin of the First World War Veterans ' Association tracked him down in 2001 , Allingham took a prominent role in telling his story so that later generations would not forget . On 16 October 2003 , he helped launch the 2003 Royal British Legion Poppy Appeal with model Nell McAndrew aboard the cruiser HMS Belfast . He was quoted as saying " [ The veterans ] have given all they have got for the country ... I owe them ... we all owe them . "
A ceremony at the Cenotaph in Whitehall , London on 4 August 2004 , marked the 90th anniversary of Britain 's entry into the First World War . Allingham attended , together with three other First World War veterans , William Stone , Fred Lloyd and John Oborne . Allingham also marched past the Cenotaph on Remembrance Sunday in 2005 and laid wreaths at memorials in Saint @-@ Omer on Armistice Day . That was the last time a First World War veteran marched past the Cenotaph and it marked the end of an era . No First World War veterans were present at the Cenotaph for the 2006 Remembrance Sunday Parade .
As the last surviving member of the RNAS , and the last living founding member of the RAF , Allingham was an honoured guest when the British Air Services Memorial was unveiled at Saint @-@ Omer on 11 September 2004 . During the ceremony Allingham was given the Gold Medal of Saint @-@ Omer , which marked the award of the Freedom of the Town . The group of RAF technical trainees that joined him at this ceremony continued to visit Allingham at his retirement home in Eastbourne , demonstrating the bond of respect that these men had for Allingham .
In November 2005 Allingham accepted an invitation from the International Holographic Portrait Archive to have his holographic portrait taken . His image was recorded for posterity in December 2005 . At the same time , an exhibition was being planned for London 's floating naval museum on board HMS Belfast , entitled the Ghosts of Jutland . A copy of this portrait was donated to the museum and HRH The Duchess of Gloucester unveiled the portrait to mark the opening of the exhibition .
Allingham was awarded the freedom of his home town of Eastbourne by the mayor on 21 April 2006 . He lived on his own until May 2006 when , one month before his 110th birthday and with failing eyesight , he moved to St Dunstan 's , a charity for blind ex @-@ service personnel , at Ovingdean , near Brighton . Aside from his poor eyesight , he was reportedly in good health , with visitors remarking on his memory and voice . Allingham attended the 1 July 2006 commemorations at the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing . He did not attend the 2006 Remembrance Day parade on 11 November at the Cenotaph as he was in France at a wreath @-@ laying ceremony and to receive the Freedom of The Town of Saint @-@ Omer . He did , however , launch the Eastbourne Poppy Appeal before leaving for this trip .
On 18 April 2007 Allingham visited Wilnecote High School in Tamworth , Staffordshire to answer students ' questions about the First World War , after they wrote to veterans asking them about their experiences . In October 2007 he was honoured at the Pride of Britain Awards . Between his 110th and 111th birthdays Allingham made over 60 public appearances , including a visit to The Oval on 5 June 2007 , the day before his 111th birthday , where he was wheeled around the boundary in front of the spectators .
On his 111th birthday , a Royal Marines band played to Allingham on board HMS Victory before he returned with friends and relatives to the Queen 's Hotel on the Portsmouth seafront for afternoon tea . Asked how it felt , Allingham replied , " I 'm pleased to be seeing another tomorrow . It 's just the same as it was as at any age , it 's no different . I 'm happy to be alive and I 'm looking forward to the celebrations . I never imagined I 'd get to 111 . "
On 1 April 2008 , the 90th anniversary of the establishment of the Royal Air Force , Allingham was guest of honour at the celebratory events at RAF Odiham in Hampshire . By then , Allingham was the only surviving founder member of the RAF .
Allingham celebrated his 112th birthday with members of his family at RAF Cranwell , Lincolnshire as the guest of honour at a luncheon at the college . During the day the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight performed a flypast which was followed by an aerobatic display from two Tutor aircraft . In June 2008 , at his personal request , Allingham was taken on a guided tour of the Eurofighter Typhoon aircraft at BAE Systems in Warton , Lancashire , as part of the National Veterans ' Day celebrations .
On 23 September 2008 , Allingham launched a book about his life , co @-@ written by Denis Goodwin , with an event at the RAF Club in London . On 11 November 2008 , marking the 90th anniversary of the end of the First World War , together with Harry Patch and Bill Stone , Allingham laid a commemorative wreath for the Act of Remembrance at The Cenotaph in London . Allingham was invested as a Scout on 18 November 2008 , 100 years after he first joined as a youth . He said he was only able to spend six weeks with his local group as a boy . Allingham celebrated his 113th birthday on HMS President , at an event hosted by the Royal Navy . He received a signed birthday card from First Sea Lord Sir Jonathon Band and saw a Mark 8 Royal Navy Lynx flying overhead while he was sitting outside in his wheelchair . When asked the secret of his long life , Allingham said , " I don 't know , but I would say , be as good as you possibly can . "
= = Oldest living man = =
Allingham credited " cigarettes , whisky and wild , wild women – and a good sense of humour " for his longevity .
Allingham overtook George Frederick Ives as the longest lived member of the British Armed Forces on 1 November 2007 . He was therefore the longest lived British First World War veteran to date .
Following the death of Tomoji Tanabe on 19 June 2009 , Allingham became the oldest living man . At his death , he was the oldest living veteran of the First World War , but not the longest lived member of any armed force in any conflict ; this record is held by Emiliano Mercado del Toro of Puerto Rico , who also served in the First World War .
Allingham was the oldest living man in England for several years . Official recognition by Guinness World Records came in January 2007 . On 8 February 2007 , when 110 @-@ year @-@ old Antonio Pierro died , Allingham became the oldest known living veteran of the First World War , and the third @-@ oldest living man in the world . After French supercentenarian Maurice Floquet died on 10 November 2006 , Allingham was the oldest validated living man in Europe . After Japanese man Sukesaburo Nakanishi died on 22 August 2007 , Allingham shared the position of second @-@ oldest man in the world with George Francis , an American man also born on 6 June 1896 , for more than a year until Francis died on 27 December 2008 . On 29 March 2009 , Allingham became the oldest British man of all time . With the death of Tomoji Tanabe on 19 June 2009 he became the oldest living man in the world ; after Allingham died , that title passed to Walter Breuning of Montana .
On 13 February 2007 , he became Britain 's second @-@ oldest living person , behind Florrie Baldwin , and on 29 March 2009 , he became the oldest ever British man , surpassing Welshman John Evans who died aged 112 years and 295 days . He was also the first ever verified British man to reach the age of 113 . On 18 July 2009 , Allingham died of natural causes aged 113 years and 42 days .
As the number of First World War veterans dwindled , calls grew to give the last remaining veteran a state funeral . The calls resulted in Her Majesty 's Government approving on 27 June 2006 a National Memorial Service at Westminster Abbey to take place after the death of the last known British First World War veteran . Prior to this announcement Allingham often said that he tried not to think about the prospect , but has also been quoted as saying " I don 't mind — as long as it 's not me . " Allingham received a letter from Member of Parliament Tom Watson on 14 July 2006 explaining the reasoning for a national memorial service rather than a state funeral , as the intention is to commemorate the entire generation that fought in the war rather than single out an individual .
In Harry Patch 's book The Last Fighting Tommy , the author claims that Allingham planned to leave his body to medical science . In his own book Kitchener 's Last Volunteer Allingham confirmed that he was intending to leave his body to medical science . However he was persuaded by Denis Goodwin to change his mind , as he became a symbol of World War I to remind people of the sacrifices made during the conflict . To that end he agreed to a funeral and cremation .
= = = Milestones = = =
6 June 1996 – 100th birthday
20 July 2003 – Oldest verified living British veteran of the First World War upon the death of Jack Davis
6 December 2005 – Oldest man living in Britain upon the death of Jerzy Pajączkowski @-@ Dydyński
6 June 2006 – 110th birthday
10 November 2006 – Oldest living man in Europe following the death of Frenchman Maurice Floquet
13 February 2007 – Second oldest person in Britain upon the death of Aida Mason
1 November 2007 – Oldest ever member of any British armed forces , surpassing George Ives who died in 1993 aged 111 years and 146 days
13 March 2008 – Oldest ever English man , surpassing John Mosely Turner who died in 1968 aged 111 years and 280 days
29 March 2009 – Oldest ever British man , surpassing Welshman John Evans who died in 1990 aged 112 years and 295 days
6 June 2009 – First British man to reach the age of 113
19 June 2009 – Oldest living man in the world following the death of Japanese man Tomoji Tanabe
18 July 2009 – Died aged 113 years 42 days , the second oldest man ever to die in Europe , behind only Joan Riudavets of Spain who died in 2004 aged 114 years and 81 days .
= = Awards = =
= = = War medals and awards = = =
Allingham was awarded four medals , two of which were medals from the First World War . The Gold Medal of Saint @-@ Omer was awarded to Allingham on 11 September 2004 when he was given the Freedom of the Town of Saint @-@ Omer . He was also awarded France 's highest military honour , the Légion d 'honneur , in which he was appointed a chevalier in 2003 and promoted to officier in 2009 . The remaining two medals are British Campaign Medals from the First World War : the British War Medal and the Victory Medal ; those two medals are colloquially known as " Mutt and Jeff " . These two medals are replacement medals supplied by the Ministry of Defence after discovering at a recent cenotaph parade that Allingham 's original campaign medals were destroyed during the Blitz of the Second World War .
= = = Honorary awards = = =
As well as the above @-@ mentioned decorations , Allingham won several awards and honorary memberships . Examples include the Pride of Britain award , and a position as an honorary member of the Fleet Air Arm Association .
Although not formally qualified he was recognised by the Institute of Mechanical Engineers ( IMechE ) who presented him with a Chartered Engineer award on 19 December 2008 .
Allingham had the following to say about the award :
Since entering the engineering profession I always hoped to become a chartered engineer , but when I was younger we just couldn ’ t afford it . It ’ s something I never thought would happen for me , so to receive this honorary certificate from IMechE is a lifetime ’ s goal finally realised . I am very grateful to the Institution for presenting me with the award .
This was followed on 22 May 2009 with the award of an honorary doctorate in engineering at the Southampton Solent University by the university 's chancellor , the former First Sea Lord Alan West , for his contribution to Britain and its allies during two world wars and his continuing charity work , especially connected with veteran servicemen and women .
= = Death and funeral = =
Allingham died of natural causes in his sleep at 3 : 10 am on 18 July 2009 at his care home , St Dunstan 's Centre in Ovingdean near Brighton , aged 113 years and 42 days . After his death Walter Breuning took over as the world 's oldest man .
Allingham 's funeral took place at St Nicholas ' Church , Brighton at noon on 30 July 2009 , with full military honours . His coffin was carried by three Royal Navy seamen and three RAF airmen . The service was preceded by a half @-@ muffled quarter peal on the church 's bells , rung by local ringers and members of the RAF and Royal Navy change ringing associations . Among the mourners were the Duchess of Gloucester , representing the Queen , and Veterans ' Minister Kevan Jones . Senior Royal Navy and Royal Air Force officers , including Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Adrian Johns and Air Vice @-@ Marshal Peter Dye , represented the two services of which Allingham had been a member . Allingham 's surviving daughter , Betty Hankin , 89 , attended the funeral , with several members of her family . The funeral was followed by a flypast of five replica First World War aircraft ; British and French buglers played the Last Post and Reveille ; and a bell was tolled 113 times , once for each year of his life .
The BBC commissioned Carol Ann Duffy , the Poet Laureate , to write a poem to mark the deaths of Allingham and Harry Patch , who died one week after Allingham on 25 July 2009 . The result , Last Post , was read by Duffy on the BBC Radio 4 programme Today on the day of Allingham 's funeral . A tree was planted , and a commemorative plaque unveiled , at the Eastbourne Redoubt on 22 May 2010 to mark Allingham 's residence in the town .
= = = Autobiography = = =
Allingham , Henry ; Goodwin , Denis ( 2008 ) . Kitchener 's Last Volunteer . Mainstream Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84596 @-@ 416 @-@ 0 .
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= Ottoman ironclad Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik =
Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik ( Ottoman Turkish : God 's Favor ) was an ironclad warship of the Ottoman Navy built in the 1860s , the only member of her class . She was built as part of a major expansion program for the Ottoman fleet in the 1860s following the Crimean War . Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was a 4 @,@ 600 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 4 @,@ 500 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 5 @,@ 100 @-@ short @-@ ton ) barbette ship armed with a main battery of eight 220 @-@ millimeter ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) guns in a central battery . In 1903 – 1906 , the ship was extensively rebuilt in Germany and a new battery of 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) quick @-@ firing guns replaced the older weapons .
Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik served in the Ottoman fleet for more than four decades . During this period , she saw action in two major wars , the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 88 and the First Balkan War in 1913 . During the first conflict , she was torpedoed by a Russian torpedo boat but was only slightly damaged . She took part in the abortive Battle of Elli against the Greek Navy in December 1912 during the First Balkan War . While operating against Bulgarian positions in February 1913 , she ran aground ; Bulgarian field artillery then shelled the ship . The damage they inflicted , coupled with heavy seas , destroyed the ship .
= = Design = =
In the aftermath of the Crimean War , where an entire Ottoman squadron was destroyed by a Russian fleet at Sinop , the Ottoman Empire began a small naval construction program , limited primarily by the chronically weak Ottoman economy . The design for Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was based on contemporary French warships like the Colbert @-@ class ironclads , although significantly reduced in size .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was 83 @.@ 01 meters ( 272 @.@ 3 ft ) long between perpendiculars and she had a beam of 16 m ( 52 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 5 m ( 21 ft ) . She displaced 4 @,@ 687 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 613 long tons ; 5 @,@ 167 short tons ) normally . The ship had an iron hull with a partial double bottom and a ram bow , as was customary for ironclads of the period . She had a crew of 320 officers and enlisted men . In 1903 – 06 , the ship was substantially rebuilt . Both ends were cut down , a single military mast was installed amidships , and a new conning tower was built .
The ship was powered by a single horizontal compound steam engine that drove one screw propeller . Steam was provided by six box boilers , which were trunked into a single funnel amidships . The engines and boilers were both manufactured by her builder at the La Seyne shipyard . The engines were rated at 3 @,@ 560 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 650 kW ) for a top speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) , though by 1895 poor maintenance over her career had reduced her top speed to 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . The steam engine was supplemented by a barque sailing rig . During the reconstruction , the sailing rig was removed and the old boilers were replaced with newer Niclausse boilers . She also received a new engine , the performance of which is unknown .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was armed with a main battery of eight 220 @-@ millimeter ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) muzzle @-@ loading guns manufactured by Armstrong Whitworth . Six of the guns were mounted in an armored battery amidships , with three on each broadside , and the other two were placed directly above in open barbettes . In 1891 , the two barbette guns were replaced with 210 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) breech @-@ loading guns built by Krupp , and several smaller Krupp guns were installed . These included a pair of 87 mm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ) guns and a pair of 63 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) guns . Two 25 @.@ 4 mm ( 1 in ) Nordenfelt guns were also added .
The ship 's armament was radically revised during the 1903 – 06 reconstruction . All of the old guns were removed and a battery of medium @-@ caliber quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns manufactured by Krupp was installed . Three 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 40 guns in single shielded mounts were placed forward , with one on the forecastle and the other two abreast of the conning tower . The central battery guns were replaced with six 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) SK L / 40 guns , with a seventh gun mounted on the stern . Six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) and two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) QF guns were also added .
As built , the ship was protected with an iron armored belt that was 200 mm ( 8 in ) thick . The transverse bulkheads that connected both ends of the belt were 75 mm ( 3 in ) thick . The central battery had thinner iron plating than the belt , at 150 mm ( 6 in ) , and the barbette guns were protected with 130 mm ( 5 in ) of iron . The reconstruction added a 75 mm armored deck , and the new conning tower was protected with 150 mm thick armor plating .
= = Service history = =
Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was ordered in 1865 by the government of Egypt as Ibrahimiye and laid down two years later at the French Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne . The ship was launched in 1868 and completed by 1869 for sea trials . In the meantime , Egypt had transitioned from a state directly ruled by the Ottoman government to the autonomous Khedivate of Egypt , and on 29 August 1868 the Khedivate transferred the ship to the Ottoman Navy . She was commissioned as Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik in 1870 .
= = = Russo @-@ Turkish War = = =
The ship saw action during the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 88 . She spent the war in the Black Sea squadron . The Ottoman fleet , commanded by Hobart Pasha , was vastly superior to the Russian Black Sea Fleet ; the only ironclads the Russians possessed there were the two Admiral Popov @-@ class ships , circular vessels that had proved to be useless in service . The presence of the fleet did force the Russians to keep two corps in reserve for coastal defense , but the Ottoman high command failed to make use of its naval superiority in a more meaningful way , particularly to hinder the Russian advance into the Balkans . Hobart Pasha took the fleet to the western Black Sea , where he was able to make a more aggressive use of it to support the Ottoman forces battling the Russians in the Caucasus . The fleet bombarded Poti and assisted in the defense of Batumi .
In June , the Russian Baltic Fleet began a campaign to neutralize the Ottoman ironclads using torpedo boats equipped with towed and spar torpedoes . On the night of 23 – 24 August 1877 , three Russian torpedo boats , Miner , Navarin , and Sinop , attempted to sink the ship with spar torpedoes while she was moored in Sukhumi . Gunfire from the Ottoman ships , along with troops on the shore , made the Russian attack difficult . Sinop detonated her torpedo against a boat that was protecting Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik , causing only minor damage to the ironclad , though the Russians initially believed they had sunk her . The ship was able to steam to Batumi , where she was repaired . The attackers had been aided by a fire burning on the beach , which illuminated the Ottoman vessels in the harbor . The Ottoman fleet continued to support the Ottoman garrison at Batumi , when held out against constant Russian attacks to the end of the war . After the end of the war , the ship was laid up in 1878 at Constantinople , the Ottoman capital .
= = = Modernization = = =
From 1890 to 1892 , the ship was re @-@ boilered at the Imperial Arsenal on the Golden Horn . Following the Greco @-@ Turkish War in 1897 , which highlighted the seriously degraded state of the Ottoman fleet , the government decided to begin a naval reconstruction program . The first stage was to rebuild the older armored warships , including Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik . Requests for proposals were sent to foreign shipyards , and in October 1898 the Gio . Ansaldo & C. shipyard in Genoa requested permission to survey the ship and the ironclad Mesudiye . Both vessels were accordingly sent to Genoa in January 1899 , arriving on the 28th . There she was briefly laid up . Instead , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was transferred to the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel , Germany for a major reconstruction , arriving on 29 May 1900 , with the transport İzmir .
After docking in Kiel , the men from Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik were transferred to İzmir , but with no funds to buy coal , the men were stranded in Germany . Germaniawerft stripped down Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik , but then halted work to await the first Ottoman payment . By mid @-@ 1901 , the men had accumulated significant debt and the Ottoman government had made no effort to return them or pay the installments for the modernization program . Even Kaiser Wilhelm II became involved in an attempt to press the Ottoman government to settle the debts incurred by the sailors . Instead , the Ottomans demanded that Krupp , the owner of the Germaniawerft shipyard , make an advance of 6 @,@ 000 lira so that İzmir could be prepared for the voyage back to Constantinople . The Ottomans were at the time negotiating for a large armament contract with Krupp for the Army , and used this as leverage ; by late 1901 , Krupp conceded , rather than risk the lucrative contract . The debts in Kiel were paid and İzmir finally departed for home .
No work was done to the ship over the following two years . On 18 January 1904 , Ottoman negotiators began a new round of talks with Krupp , demanding a reduction in the cost of the modernization from 282 @,@ 000 lira to 65 @,@ 000 lira ; this amount does not cover the preparatory work that had been initially carried out , let alone the reconstruction . In return , the Ottoman government would order a pair of torpedo cruisers — the Peyk @-@ i Şevket class — from Germaniawerft . With the armament contract still under negotiation , Krupp was forced to concede , despite the significant financial loss the reconstruction deal represented . By April , the armament contract was signed , and so work began slowly on Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik . Work was completed by late 1906 . The reconstructed ship departed Kiel on 19 November , and arrived in Constantinople on 4 January 1907 .
In 1909 , she participated in the first fleet maneuver conducted by the Ottoman Navy in twenty years . During the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was assigned to the Reserve Division , along with Mesudiye and the torpedo cruiser Berk @-@ i Satvet . She did not see action during the conflict , since the Ottoman fleet spent the war in port . This was in part due to the rising tensions in the Balkans that presaged the Balkan Wars ; the Ottomans kept their fleet in port so it could be prepared for the inevitable conflict .
= = = First Balkan War = = =
The ship saw significant service during the First Balkan War of 1912 – 13 . At the start of the war , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was suffering from boiler trouble , which necessitated repairs that lasted until 9 November . She was then sent to support the Ottoman troops defending the Çatalca Line against Bulgarian troops . She took up a position off Tekirdağ to provide gunfire support . After the Bulgarians occupied the town , she bombarded their positions , but the attack had little effect . The ship was then moved to Büyükçekmece , where she joined the rest of the fleet . They had no contact with Bulgarian forces during this period .
She took part in the Battle of Elli , the first Ottoman surface action involving major warships since the Russo @-@ Turkish War , on 16 December 1912 . Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik joined a fleet consisting of the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis , Mesudiye , and several smaller warships . The Ottoman fleet sortied from the Dardanelles at 9 : 30 ; the smaller craft remained at the mouth of the straits while the battleships sailed north , hugging the coast . The Greek flotilla , which included the armored cruiser Georgios Averof and three Hydra @-@ class ironclads , sailing from the island of Lemnos , altered course to the northeast to block the advance of the Ottoman battleships .
The Ottoman ships opened fire on the Greeks at 9 : 40 , from a range of about 15 @,@ 000 yd ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . Five minutes later , Georgios Averof crossed over to the other side of the Ottoman fleet , placing the Ottomans in the unfavorable position of being under fire from both sides . At 9 : 50 and under heavy pressure from the Greek fleet , the Ottoman ships completed a 16 @-@ point turn , which reversed their course , and headed for the safety of the straits . The turn was poorly conducted , and the ships fell out of formation , blocking each other 's fields of fire . By 10 : 17 , both sides had ceased firing and the Ottoman fleet withdrew into the Dardanelles . When they approached the straits , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik and Mesudiye took up positions to cover the withdrawal of the damaged pre @-@ dreadnoughts . The ships reached port by 13 : 00 and transferred their casualties to the hospital ship Resit Paşa . Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik had not been hit in the engagement . The battle was considered a Greek victory , because the Ottoman fleet remained blockaded .
On 10 January 1913 , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik supported another sortie by the fleet , this time patrolling off the Dardanelles while the rest of the fleet raided Imbros . While protecting the fleet 's flank , she encountered Greek destroyers and forced them to withdraw after firing a few shots . Neither side scored any hits in the engagement . The ship was lost while operating in the Black Sea against Bulgarian forces . On 7 February , the ship was ordered to proceed to Yalıköy to support a raid by the Army . The following day , the raid was launched on the town , but was quickly forced to withdraw from heavy Bulgarian resistance ; Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was ordered to move in and shell the town , but ran aground on an uncharted sandbank at 12 : 45 . On 10 February , salvage work began , beginning with the removal of equipment . By the 12th , all armament and coal had been removed , but the ship could not be freed . Heavy seas and Bulgarian artillery damaged the wreck , which rendered her a total loss .
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= Jill Marsden ( EastEnders ) =
Detective Chief Inspector Jillian " Jill " Marsden is a fictional character in the BBC soap opera EastEnders , played by Sophie Stanton . She made her first appearance on 5 March 2001 investigating the shooting of Phil Mitchell ( Steve McFadden ) , which was part of the whodunit storyline " Who Shot Phil ? " . Marsden returned in 2002 , 2003 and 2009 ( for another whodunit storyline , " Who Killed Archie ? " ) . She returned on 5 January 2012 for her third whodunit storyline , " Who 's Stalking Phil ? " , departing four months later on 10 May 2012 . Marsden returned for two episodes on 17 August 2012 to conclude the latter storyline . On 16 July 2015 , she returned for part of the " Who Killed Lucy Beale ? " whodunit storyline .
When she was brought back in 2009 , Marsden 's feelings were explored in a segment of the BBC EastEnders homepage entitled " Marsden 's Video Diaries " , documenting the character 's thoughts about the storyline in which she was involved . Marsden 's relationship with Phil has been explored since her first appearance , with the BBC describing their relationship as a " romance in negative ... her ultimate dream is that some day she 'll get [ Phil ] behind bars " and the Daily Mirror 's Tony Stewart calling her Phil 's " arch enemy " .
The character has been criticised by police detectives who felt that Marsden 's habit of discussing investigation details with suspects ( as her colleagues accepted bribes ) did not properly represent their profession . In response , the BBC said it had sought advice from a police consultant for storylines involving Marsden .
= = Storylines = =
= = = 2001 – 03 = = =
Marsden first arrives in Albert Square in March 2001 , investigating Phil Mitchell 's shooting in her first case as detective chief inspector . She identifies the five main suspects : Ian Beale ( Adam Woodyatt ) , Dan Sullivan ( Craig Fairbrass ) , Steve Owen ( Martin Kemp ) , Mark Fowler ( Todd Carty ) and Lisa Shaw ( Lucy Benjamin ) . Marsden arrests Dan for the shooting , although he is later acquitted due to lack of evidence . Dan was set up by Phil but it was , in fact , Lisa who shot him . Marsden later arrests Little Mo Slater ( Kacey Ainsworth ) for the attempted murder of her husband Trevor Morgan ( Alex Ferns ) . Little Mo claims self @-@ defence , since she has been a victim of domestic violence at the hands of Trevor . The trial ends , with Trevor 's treatment of Little Mo revealed . In 2003 , Sonia Jackson ( Natalie Cassidy ) visits Marsden with evidence that Phil killed his ex @-@ girlfriend Lisa . Jill helps set up a honey @-@ trap for Phil in order to obtain a confession from him , with PC Kate Morton ( Jill Halfpenny ) and DI Dominic Price ( Paul Brennen ) , but it fails when Kate falls in love with Phil and Marsden fires her . Marsden arrests Phil , but with insufficient evidence and no confession he is released . It later emerges that Lisa is safe and well , and Phil is innocent . Marsden later arrests Phil when Dennis Rickman ( Nigel Harman ) and Den Watts ( Leslie Grantham ) set him up in an armed robbery .
= = = 2009 – 10 = = =
Marsden reappears on Albert Square in 2009 when Archie Mitchell ( Larry Lamb ) is murdered . She arrives on the scene when several people say they suspect Janine Butcher ( Charlie Brooks ) , but Marsden waits before questioning her , and questions the Mitchells first . She makes a televised appeal for witnesses and later interviews Phil , but he is provided an alibi by his girlfriend Shirley Carter ( Linda Henry ) . A few days later , a red fingernail is found at the scene of the murder ; Marsden visits the female locals , checking their hands . Seeing an upset Heather Trott ( Cheryl Fergison ) , knowing that she is vulnerable and lives with Shirley , she talks to Heather about Christmas Day and Heather accidentally tells Marsden that Phil wasn 't there . Marsden interviews Phil and later visits his home , asking to see the clothes he was wearing on Christmas Day . Shirley shows her a clean shirt ; Marsden closes the laundrette , hoping anyone with blood @-@ stained clothes will not be able to wash them . After a tip @-@ off Marsden arrests Sam Mitchell ( Danniella Westbrook ) ; Sam accuses her mother , Peggy Mitchell ( Barbara Windsor ) , of the murder . Marsden confirms that she was there to talk to Peggy , questioning Peggy and Sam at the police station . Peggy is released without charge ; however , Sam is detained for jumping bail . Marsden visits Janine , who insists that people will say anything to get her in trouble . She asks Janine why she was out in the cold on Christmas Day , and asks if Janine knows where Archie 's laptop as it had gone missing .
On 18 January , Marsden arrests Ian after Janine told her that Ian took advantage of her , stole Archie 's laptop , which had a recording of them having sex on it , and dumped it in the canal . Ian refuses to talk , but when Marsden shows him CCTV footage of him dumping the laptop , and then shows him the recovered laptop , he admits visiting Archie on Christmas Day , claiming that Archie was threatening him . He wanted to delete the recording and denies murdering Archie , but Marsden charges him . Days later , Janine tells Marsden she saw Ian leave the Queen Victoria on Christmas Day but the bust of Queen Victoria was on the bar after he left . Marsden places Janine at the scene , but she also denies murdering Archie . Marsden tells Ian that although the murder charge will be dropped , he will still be charged with burglary and theft of Archie 's laptop . She and DC Wayne Hughes ( Jamie Treacher ) attend Archie 's funeral , watching people 's reactions in the hope of a new lead . Peggy returns to Archie 's grave ; when Marsden asks why , she explains that she didn 't believe him when he said his cancer had returned .
The following week , Ronnie Mitchell ( Samantha Womack ) spots her ex @-@ boyfriend Jack Branning ( Scott Maslen ) talking to Marsden ; Jack tells Ronnie that he was fishing for information . With no new leads , Marsden 's boss threatens to take her off the case . She reviews the suspects and decides to question Jack , since he is asking more questions than he has answered . In the café Marsden and Hughes discuss new information she has obtained , ensuring that she is overheard . Chinese whisper @-@ style rumours circulate , ending with the certainty that Marsden would arrest Ronnie . Ronnie sees Marsden in the Square , and a struggle ensues . She knocks Marsden down , is arrested and charged with assaulting a police officer but is released on bail . Marsden suspects Ronnie further , saying that she has now shown her true colours . Later , DC Jasmine Field ( Karen Ascoe ) enters the pub with other officers to arrest a suspect ; frightened , Ronnie leaves Walford . The police officers are there to arrest Dot Branning ( June Brown ) , who was accused by Dotty Cotton ( Molly Conlin ) after Dot slapped her . Jack confronts Marsden for unnecessarily sending a uniformed officer to arrest Dot and unsettling the locals , and realises there was no new information .
Janine tells Marsden that Ronnie has fled , but Marsden finds her at the Queen Vic . Marsden remarks that a new forensic profile has been found , and DNA screening of white males will shortly begin . After Hughes accepts a bribe from Jack to make the DNA samples disappear , Marsden receives an anonymous tip @-@ off . The police search Janine 's flat , finding the engagement ring that went missing the night of Archie 's murder , and Janine is arrested but later released for lack of evidence . Becca Swanson ( Simone James ) calls the police , saying that Bradley Branning ( Charlie Clements ) attacked Archie on Christmas Day , and the police arrive to arrest him . Marsden spots him when his phone rings ; two officers chase him to the roof , where he stumbles and falls to his death . The investigation ends , since the police believe that Bradley had killed Archie ; however , his killer was actually Stacey Slater ( Lacey Turner ) .
= = = 2012 = = =
In January 2012 , Denise Fox ( Diane Parish ) gives Marsden a letter incriminating Phil in the death of a homeless man , who died when he torched the car lot in an insurance scam in 1994 ; she adds that Phil also murdered Stella Crawford ( Sophie Thompson ) , and Marsden thanks Denise for the information . Marsden arrives in Walford and begins trailing Phil . She asks Denise not to tell Phil that she is in town , wanting to ensure Phil 's imprisonment . Marsden then targets Phil 's son Ben ( Joshua Pascoe ) , interviewing him about Stella 's death . Ben was abused by Stella and finds Marsden 's questions distressing ; however , she continues to press him . After a falling @-@ out with Phil Ben changes his statement , telling Marsden that Phil told Stella to jump off a building or he would push her . Marsden then arrests Phil for murder , and Ben reveals he was stalking him . She informs Phil 's partner , Shirley , that he has been charged with Stella 's murder . Ben pleads with Marsden to keep his statement a secret from the Mitchells , but she tells him he must accept that his father will learn about Ben 's involvement in his arrest eventually . After discovering Ben 's lies about Phil , Ian then passes this information on to Marsden and Ben is arrested . On the day of Phil 's release he helps Ben hide his involvement in Heather 's murder ; Marsden tells Phil at the police station she will contact him about Ben 's accusations . The charges against Ben are dropped ; Marsden visits Phil , taunting him that he will eventually slip up , and suggests that Ben may ultimately bring Phil down .
In August , Marsden reappears when Ben confesses Heather 's murder . She does not believe his confession , thinking it is another lie to get attention from Phil . However , Ben is arrested and charged with the murder after Marsden helps DS Luke Crisp ( Rufus Wright ) convince Jay Brown ( Jamie Borthwick ) to implicate Ben as Heather 's killer .
= = = 2015 – = = =
In July 2015 , the Beales are informed by DI Samantha Keeble ( Alison Newman ) that the police have a new DCI dealing with the murder of Lucy Beale ( Hetti Bywater ) , who is making an arrest . At Phil 's house , Marsden knocks on his door and Phil is shocked to see her . Marsden wants to speak to Ben about Lucy 's murder , but Phil slams the door in her face and then attempts to delay Marsden so Ben can flee Walford , but Ben is eventually arrested .
= = Development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Nicknamed the " female sleuth " by the Daily Record , Marsden 's profile on the EastEnders website describes her as " fearless , [ a ] no @-@ nonsense copper and the scourge of Walford ’ s criminal fraternity . " The East Anglian Daily Times described Marsden as " tough " , Ian Hyland from The Mirror called her " scary " and Nancy Banks @-@ Smith from The Guardian characterised her as " strict " . Naomi Mcelroy described Marsden as a " curly @-@ haired copper " , but said as a detective she was " rubbish " ; Polly Hudson from The Daily Mirror similarly opined , saying she was " useless " ( as did Mcelroy ) , and stated that Marsden was " making a right pig 's ear " of investigating Archie 's ( Lamb ) murder . The Daily Mirror 's Tony Stewart characterised her as " vindictive " .
= = = Introduction , 2002 and 2003 returns = = =
Marsden first appeared on 5 March 2001 in the " Who Shot Phil ? " storyline . In the whodunit storyline the five main suspects were Dan Sullivan , Steve Owen , Lisa Shaw , Ian Beale and Mark Fowler . A source in the Daily Record said , " Sooner or later the truth will out . But until then there 's going to be a lot of probing going on . " She left on 27 March 2001 after unsuccessfully identifying the shooter ( who turned out to be Lisa ) . In 2002 she appeared in January , April and from 14 November to 6 December . In November , when Marsden returns , the police suspect that Phil has murdered his ex @-@ wife Lisa . The Daily Mirror said , " They are the words Phil Mitchell has heard many times before . ' You 're nicked ' , baldy . Intrepid DCI Marsden may not be a Jane Tennison , but she 's nabbed her prime suspect . " I 've got some good news for you , Phil , " she says , after arresting him on suspicion of murder . " The police in Portugal found your jacket . Unfortunately for you , it 's covered in blood . Mrs Fowler 's blood ... " In 2003 , Marsden returned in March July , August , November and for a longer stint in December .
= = = Who Killed Archie ? and 2012 returns = = =
In November 2009 , it was reported that Stanton would reprise her role as Jill . Digital Spy forum members had previously pointed out that her return was hinted at in a photo on the official EastEnders website and in a feature ( " Script Peek " ) where Phil is quoted as saying , " I know exactly what makes her tick " before adding " I 've wriggled off her hook so many times . She 's already picturing me standing in the dock " in the 29 December episode . Marsden returned to investigate the murder of Archie Mitchell . A source told Digital Spy , " Marsden has a score to settle with Phil . She was never far behind Phil when he put a foot out of place all those years ago and she 's back with a vengeance ... With so many people in the frame for Archie 's murder , Marsden has a difficult job on her hands if she wants to pin it on Phil . " Of her return she said , " It came completely out of the blue , and knocked me for six . " ... I really thought Marsden was no more . It was a really great surprise because I ’ d just finished a year ’ s run at the National Theatre , appearing in a new play called England People Very Nice – so it couldn ’ t have come at a better time . " She returned on 28 December 2009 .
Although Stanton did not know who murdered Archie , she guessed that it could be Stacey Slater ( which turned out to be correct ) . Speaking of this , she said that Sophie was one of the few to correctly guess it was Stacey . " I had an epiphany about a week before the live episode . It was a memory of the whole Who Shot Phil ? storyline , and how there were eight different suspects , including some really hard blokes , and it turned out to be Lisa . I knew DCI Marsden wasn ’ t going to get the culprit , because of a couple of scenes of the following episode we ’ d shot in December , and I thought that narratively , Stacey was the only person who the audience would forgive , and who could get away with it . That was my theory and it turned out to be right ! " Naomi Mcelroy from The Sunday Mirror thought that Marsden could be Archie 's killer . Marsden left on 22 February 2010 , and returned on 5 January 2012 . She returned after Phil is framed for Kevin Wicks ' ( Phil Daniels ) ' s death and that of a homeless man , who died accidentally in a car @-@ lot fire ( part of an insurance scam ) . According to Inside Soap the police would begin questioning Phil 's former fiancée Stella Crawford 's death , teasing Marsden 's return : " The investigation is set to bring Phil face to face with his old nemisis , DCI Marsden – and this time she 'll stop at nothing to put the bad boy permanently behind bars " . Digital Spy reported that Marsden re @-@ opens the investigation into Stella 's death , " suspecting that all is not what it seems " . Finally , Marsden returned for two single episodes on 17 August 2012 .
= = = Who Killed Lucy Beale ? = = =
In July 2015 , it was revealed that Stanton would be reprising her role as Marsden for the continuation of the Who Killed Lucy Beale ? storyline . Whilst viewers know Bobby Beale is the culprit , Marsden , Samantha Keeble and Cameron Bryant will reportedly make an arrest for the murder , arresting an innocent suspect .
= = Related media = =
The BBC used viral promotion on the EastEnders homepage to further develop the storyline of Who Killed Archie ? , with Marsden the main character in the nine videos . A new section ( " Marsden 's Video Diaries " ) was launched , encompassing events on the show from 25 December 2009 onwards in diary style from Marsden 's point of view . Insight was provided on the character 's thoughts and feelings on the events surrounding her each week , beginning with the introduction : " Christmas Day . I should be at home with my feet up eating a mince pie and watching the Doctor Who Christmas special . Instead , I ’ ve been called into work . Murder . A bloody one too . The victim , one Archibald Mitchell . Not the first time a Mitchell 's ruined my night . Still , if this leads to Phil Mitchell all wrapped up in Walford nick by New Years day , might be the best present I ’ ve ever had . " On the videos Marsden discussed evidence , suspects she had brought in and her relationship with Phil .
During the next three video diaries , Marsden talks about the suspects and the evidence against them . In episode three it is Ronnie , Peggy and Sam ; in episode four she talks about Janine Butcher , and in episode five she discusses Ian 's motives . Towards the end of the series ( in episode seven ) , Marsden 's boss threatens to fire her if she does not capture the culprit : " I ’ ve got to get someone . I ’ ve got to pin this on someone . Every address in the immediate area door @-@ stopped . Five suspects questioned , one arrest . Nothing . They tell me nothing . Mitchell , the ex wife , the daughter , Beale , Butcher , [ Jack ] Branning , I ’ m getting closer , I just need time . Of course my boss is putting pressure on . Says I ’ m losing my touch , That he 'll take the case of me . This is my case . Somebody 's going down for it and it ain ’ t going to be me . " In the penultimate episode , Marsden announces that the DNA results have come through ; this is aired on EastEnders . The final episode of Marsden 's Video Diaries aired on 19 February 2010 , three days before Marsden 's departure in 2010 . In this episode ( " Case Closed " ) , the Lionel Richie song " Hello " plays as the " Who Killed Archie ? " storyline replays with the focus on Marsden . The BBC described the episode : " DCI Marsden 's caught Archie 's killer – or she 's collared someone for it at least . But Hello ! ? Was it Phil she was looking for ? Don 't tell us you didn 't spot the latent chemistry between this pair . Shirley must have been livid . We wouldn 't like to surmise what the DCI planned to do with Phil if she got him behind bars . But we do hope this is one Endless Love that will be revisited ... "
= = Reception = =
When Marsden returned in December 2002 , Ian Hyland of The Mirror said he disliked the " smouldering " sexual tension between Phil and Marsden . Jo Atkison of the Western Mail discussed the Marsden @-@ Kate @-@ Phil storyline , saying , " Betrayal with a capital B is the order of the day in the Square this week . It 's the cop Kate plot I 'm interested in . To shop or not to shop is a dilemma that Kate finds hard to cope with as she waits for the confession that will nail Phil for good " . In an interview with the East Anglian Daily Times , Stanton remarked that she was frequently asked to have her photo taken due to her role in EastEnders .
Real @-@ life police detectives criticised the portrayals of detectives Marsden and her colleague DC Wayne Hughes in the show , saying that viewers who see them talking to residents about the case and accepting bribes may believe that the police operate that way in reality . The BBC insisted that a police consultant was used , adding that " this is heightened fiction and all the things that we show might not always represent real life . " A spokesperson said , " We always have a police consultant on shows like this that we go to before casting . " Jane Simon and Brian Mclver described Marsden as having an " appetite for making random arrests " . Simon added , " While the list of suspects includes the entire northern hemisphere , it 's time for DCI Marsden to make another of her daily arrests . Like a Formula One pit stop , she has got it down to a fine art . " Kevin O 'Sullivan of the Sunday Mirror commented on the " Who Killed Archie ? " storyline : " Despite widespread apathy , Albert Square 's Cockney rabble trundle on with the life @-@ sapping saga of Who Killed Archie ? Who gives a toss ? While potential murderers Phil , Ian , Bradley ( Charlie Clements ) and the gang hint furtively at their guilt , the absurd DCI Marple – sorry Marsden – keeps arresting bunny @-@ boiler Ronnie without a shred of evidence . " I 've spent 20 years building a career on hunches , " bragged Miss Marsden . Yeah , and you 've made it all the way to Walford nick . A real high flyer ! "
In 2015 , Laura @-@ Jayne Tyler from Inside Soap bemoaned Marsden 's return , saying " Can someone please explain to us why DCI Marsden is now in charge of the Lucy Beale case ? She couldn 't catch a bus , let along a killer . "
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= Roxy Ann Peak =
Roxy Ann Peak is a 3 @,@ 576 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 1 @,@ 090 m ) mountain in the Western Cascade Range at the eastern edge of Medford , Oregon . Composed of several geologic layers , the majority of the peak is of volcanic origin and dates to the early Oligocene . It is primarily covered by oak savanna and open grassland on its lower slopes , and mixed coniferous forest on its upper slopes and summit . Despite the peak 's relatively small topographic prominence of 753 feet ( 230 m ) , it rises 2 @,@ 200 feet ( 670 m ) above Medford and is visible from most of the Rogue Valley . The mountain is Medford 's most important viewshed , open space reserve , and recreational resource .
The peak was originally settled 8 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 years ago by ancestors of the Latgawa Native American tribe . In the early 1850s , a sudden influx of non @-@ indigenous settlers resulted in the Rogue River Wars . After the wars , the Latgawa were forced away from the region onto reservations . The peak was named in the late 1850s after one of its first landowners , Roxy Ann Bowen .
In 1883 , the city of Medford was established to the west of the mountain , and became incorporated two years later . After acquiring a large amount of land from the Lions Club and the federal government between 1930 and 1933 , the city created the 1 @,@ 740 @-@ acre ( 704 ha ) Prescott Park in 1937 . The park protects much of the upper slopes and summit of the peak and remains largely undeveloped . The peak 's southern foothills have some quickly expanding single @-@ family residential subdivisions .
= = Geology = =
Roxy Ann Peak is part of the old and deeply eroded Western Cascades , along with nearby Pilot Rock , Grizzly Peak , and Baldy . It is composed of several distinct geologic layers . The oldest layer , the 35- to 50 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Payne Cliffs Formation , forms the base of the peak and consists of sedimentary sandstone , shale , and conglomerates . Most of the rest of the mountain is made up of 30- to 35 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old volcanic basalt , breccias , and agglomerates , known as the Roxy Formation . These rocks are some of the oldest in the Cascades . At the summit , younger basalt dikes and intrusions K – Ar dated to 30 @.@ 82 ± 2 million years ago form a relatively erosion @-@ resistant cap , likely contributing to the peak 's isolation and familiar conical shape . Much of the lower slopes of Roxy Ann are covered by a 4 @-@ to @-@ 5 @-@ foot @-@ thick ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 5 m ) layer of dense , sticky clay . Due to the clay 's low shear strength , the soil is prone to creep , earthflows , and landslides . Several large subdivisions lie on top of these deposits , some of which are up to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) thick .
The peak stands 3 @,@ 576 feet ( 1 @,@ 090 m ) above sea level with a topographic prominence of 753 feet ( 230 m ) , and rises 2 @,@ 200 feet ( 670 m ) above the surrounding Rogue Valley . The unique rounded top , location , and height of the peak create a landmark distinguishable from as far away as Shady Cove , 15 @.@ 5 miles ( 24 @.@ 9 km ) to the north , and the Siskiyou Summit , 23 @.@ 5 miles ( 37 @.@ 8 km ) to the south .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Humans have lived in the vicinity of Roxy Ann Peak for the past 8 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 years . The first inhabitants were semi @-@ nomadic , most likely living off edible bulbs and large mammals such as mastodons and giant bison . Within the last millennium , the region became home to the Latgawa Native American tribe , who called the peak Al @-@ wiya . They probably used the mountain for gathering acorns and hunting black @-@ tailed deer and small birds , animals which are still abundant there .
The first European Americans to visit the area were a group of fur trappers led by Peter Skene Ogden who traveled north through the Rogue Valley on February 14 , 1827 . The first non @-@ indigenous settlers arrived a few decades later . The sudden increase in population created conflicts with the Latgawa , which ultimately led to the Rogue River Wars of 1855 and 1856 . After the wars , the remaining Latgawa were forced hundreds of miles north to the Siletz Reservation on the central Oregon Coast .
Early settlers named the peak Skinner Butte , after Alonzo A. Skinner , the Rogue Valley Indian agent between 1851 and 1853 . The current name of the mountain originates from one of its first residents , Roxy Ann Bowen . Two couples — Roxy Ann and her husband John McKee and Stephen and Mary Taylor — claimed almost the entire peak in 1853 , and by the late 1850s , it came to be known as Roxy Ann Peak .
In November 1883 , the Oregon and California Railroad was built through the center of the Rogue Valley , bypassing Jacksonville , the county seat . The railroad company also constructed a train depot halfway between Central Point and Phoenix , and platted 82 city blocks around it . The townsite was named Medford in December . In 1884 , residents celebrated the town 's first Independence Day by firing 38 cannon blasts — one for each U.S. state — from Roxy Ann Peak 's summit . Medford grew quickly , and was incorporated on February 24 , 1885 .
Beginning in the early 1900s , the mountain 's foothills were predominantly used for pear orchards and lignite mining . Mining ceased at the onset of World War I , and many of the orchards were abandoned during the Great Depression , but some still remain .
= = = Prescott Park = = =
In 1929 , the Lions Club purchased two sizable portions of land on the peak , and deeded 200 acres ( 80 @.@ 9 ha ) to Medford for recreational use the following year . In 1931 , the city acquired another 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 607 @.@ 0 ha ) via the Recreation and Public Purposes Act , and 40 acres ( 16 ha ) more in 1933 . The park was dedicated in 1937 to George J. Prescott , a Lions Club leader and Medford police officer who was killed on duty on March 16 , 1933 .
Starting in 1933 , the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) made the first improvements to Prescott Park , including constructing 18 miles ( 29 km ) of trails and a 16 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) access road ( Roxy Ann Road ) , creating several picnic areas and overlooks , and digging drainage ditches . The CCC stopped work in 1942 , soon after the beginning of World War II . Park maintenance ceased due to municipal budget problems , and gasoline rationing caused the number of visitors to drop markedly . By 1956 , the CCC 's improvements had suffered $ 110 @,@ 000 in damage . The trend of disrepair continued for several decades .
During the late 1990s , the park experienced a surge in vandalism , littering , and wildfires caused by off @-@ roading , and Roxy Ann Road became nearly impassable because of lack of maintenance . Medford police officers had to devote much of their time to patrolling the mountain , made difficult by the park 's remote location . To alleviate these problems , the city regraded Roxy Ann Road in 1998 , and installed two gates near the park entrance two years later . By 2006 , vandalism had decreased by 70 percent .
At 1 @,@ 740 acres ( 704 @.@ 2 ha ) , Prescott Park is Medford 's largest park , covering much of the upper slopes and summit of Roxy Ann . It is two and a half times larger than the city 's other parks combined .
= = = 21st century = = =
Prescott Park and Roxy Ann Peak 's upper slopes remain relatively undeveloped , being outside of Medford 's city limits and urban growth boundary . The summit of the peak is home to a 180 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 54 @.@ 9 m ) radio tower built in 2007 ; the new tower replaced three of four existing 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) towers . Roxy Ann Peak and nearby Baldy are the only two primary transmitter station sites in the Rogue Valley .
Residential development of the mountain 's southern foothills has been on the rise for several years , primarily in the form of single @-@ family residences . Construction costs have continued to rise as well , in part because of a bill passed in 2003 . Oregon House Bill 3375 required that new construction on slopes of 20 percent or greater with unstable soil undergo increased regulation and an extended approval process . The bill doubled the cost of new foundations to around $ 20 @,@ 000 to $ 30 @,@ 000 , and the cost of retrofitting an existing structure approached $ 100 @,@ 000 .
Roxy Ann Peak 's southern foothills are also home to the RoxyAnn Winery , a Rogue Valley AVA winery founded in 2002 . On the opposite side of the mountain is the first bioreactor landfill in Southern Oregon , the Dry Creek Landfill , which began a program in 2006 to generate power from collected methane .
On September 21 , 2009 , a wildfire broke out on Roxy Ann Peak 's western slopes and consumed approximately 633 acres ( 256 ha ) . It left 25 @,@ 000 residents without electricity , forced the evacuation of over 100 homes , and cost over $ 1 @.@ 3 million to fight , but no structures were damaged .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Roxy Ann Peak 's high biodiversity is due to its wide range of elevations and its location between the Cascade , Klamath , and Eastern Cascade ecoregions . The lower slopes of the peak support chaparral , oak savanna , and open grassland . Scattered California black oak , Oregon white oak , and Pacific madrone trees grow in these areas , as do sclerophyllous shrubs such as birchleaf mountain mahogany , sticky whiteleaf manzanita , buckbrush , antelope bitterbrush , and Pacific poison oak . Common grasses include blue wildrye and prairie Junegrass . Wildflowers including Southern Oregon buttercup , common yarrow , and Tolmie star @-@ tulip also grow in these regions . At higher elevations , the vegetation transitions to mixed coniferous forest , dominated by Douglas fir , ponderosa pine , incense cedar , western juniper , and Pacific madrone trees . Shrubs such as common snowberry , bearbrush , greenleaf manzanita , sticky whiteleaf manzanita , deerbrush , and Pacific poison oak make up the understory of the forest , along with herbaceous plants such as creeping snowberry and Idaho fescue .
The peak is home to many species of birds , including blue @-@ gray gnatcatchers , lazuli buntings , oak titmice , acorn woodpeckers , and California quail on the lower slopes , and mountain quail , mountain chickadees , and red @-@ breasted nuthatches on the upper slopes . Wild turkeys and raptors such as Cooper 's hawks , golden eagles , bald eagles , and prairie falcons are also common . A few species migrate to the peak in the winter , including ruby @-@ crowned kinglets , yellow @-@ rumped warblers , and golden @-@ crowned sparrows . Mammals that inhabit the mountain include black @-@ tailed deer , cougars , bobcats , skunks , raccoons , coyotes , bears , weasels , and squirrels . A large herd of Roosevelt elk frequent the peak 's western foothills . The herd swelled to over 100 individuals in the mid @-@ 2000s , causing traffic problems and severe damage to local pear orchards , but shrank to about 40 members by 2009 after an Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife relocation effort . Other common animals on the peak include western rattlesnakes and western blacklegged ticks .
= = Recreation = =
Roxy Ann Peak and Prescott Park serve as Medford 's most important viewshed , open space reserve , and recreational resource . Popular recreational activities on the peak include picnicking and hiking , mountain biking , and horseback riding on the 4 miles ( 6 km ) of designated trails in Prescott Park , which range in difficulty from moderate to steep . In August 2013 , the city of Medford and the International Mountain Bicycling Association released a conceptual plan detailing future improvements to the park 's trail system . The plan would add 30 miles ( 48 km ) of new multi @-@ use trails throughout the park , improve existing trails and trail signage , and add a new trailhead on the mountain 's western slope , at an estimated cost of between $ 360 @,@ 000 and $ 720 @,@ 000 . If approved , construction on the first phase could begin by 2015 .
A challenge course opened in Prescott Park in April 2012 , operated by the Tigard @-@ based company Synergo . The course has 15 elements — eight low and seven high — each formed by various combinations of ropes , wires , platforms , ladders , and swings . They range from 2 to 40 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 to 12 m ) above the ground .
The peak and park can be accessed via Roxy Ann Road on the southern side of the mountain . There are two gates on the road ; the first is near the base of the peak and is opened and closed on a set schedule , and the second is about one mile beyond it at the park boundary , and is closed to all unauthorized motor vehicles . One mile past the second gate , the road splits into a 2 @.@ 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) loop around the summit . Tower Road begins on the north side of the loop and ascends to the summit of the peak . The peak offers expansive views of the surrounding landscape , including the Rogue Valley , Mount Ashland , Mount McLoughlin , Pilot Rock , the Crater Lake rim , and even Mount Thielsen , 66 miles ( 110 km ) to the north , and Mount Shasta , 72 miles ( 120 km ) to the south .
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= I Take Thee Quagmire =
" I Take Thee Quagmire " is the 21st episode of season four of Family Guy , originally broadcast on March 12 , 2006 . Peter wins free maid service for a week ; he intentionally creates extra work for the maid , Joan . Quagmire meets her and instantly falls in love with her , leading him to propose to her after the second date . After the marriage , Quagmire comes to regret his new relationship , but learns that Joan will kill him and herself if he leaves her , so he fakes his own death .
The episode was written by Tom Maxwell , Don Woodard and Steve Callaghan and directed by Seth Kearsley . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 8 @.@ 06 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Adam Carolla , Stephan Cox , Bryan Cranston , Darrel Heath , Beth Littleford , Christy Carlson Romano , Nicole Sullivan , Fred Tatasciore , Alex Thomas , and Alex Trebek , as well as several recurring voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
Peter is a contestant on Wheel of Fortune , advances to the bonus round , and wins , despite choosing Z , 4 , three Qs , and the Batman symbol for his consonants and vowel , and taking a self @-@ described " shot in the dark " with his answer , " Alex Karras in ' Webster ' " , managing to get the correct answer on his first try , to Pat 's shock . He chooses , among several other prizes , one week of free maid service . When his maid Joan arrives , Peter has her pull items out of his belly button ( including , among other things , a ColecoVision set and a carton of Parliament Cigarettes to the shock of Peter , who says he hasn 't smoked in ten years ) , and rides her back to the store . Peter decides to over @-@ work Joan on her last night by giving Meg a watermelon filled with chocolate pudding and firecrackers , which explodes in her face . After being introduced to her by Peter , Quagmire falls in love with her . After dating Joan , Quagmire proposes marriage to her , which she accepts and the couple prepare their marriage ceremony . Lois , Peter and their neighbors visit Quagmire 's house , finding that he has changed his personality significantly . Peter still believes this to be a prank and shows Quagmire porn magazines in an attempt to change him back to his former ways . Meanwhile , Lois begins to question whether she should keep breastfeeding Stewie , as he 's hurting her when feeding .
By the time of Quagmire 's wedding , Lois ' breasts have gotten very large after deciding to wean Stewie , on the advice of Brian . While at the reception , the top of her shirt rips open . Peter notices that Quagmire is staring at Lois ' huge breasts , and spills champagne on them . Peter then " helps " Lois by shaking her , which makes her large breasts jiggle . This arouses Quagmire , and he realizes that he has made a mistake by marrying Joan . He informs Joan that some of his friends think they should get an annulment after discussing it with Peter , Joe and Cleveland , but she threatens to cut herself and him if he annuls their marriage . As a result , Peter decides to help Quagmire fake his death . He shows Joan a video of Quagmire being attacked by a ninja ( Joe ) , a Nazi ( Cleveland ) , a " pots and pans " robot ( Peter ) , and the body being consumed by a dinosaur held by Peter ( to the theme of Jurassic Park ) . Joan is unconvinced by the video . Peter and his friends then operate plan B , which consists of Quagmire pretending to suffer a heart attack and die . Quagmire is buried in a coffin with enough oxygen to last him a short period of time so Peter can return after the funeral has finished and dig him up . However , when Mayor West announces that all coffins must be buried in concrete ( to guard against zombies ) , Peter exclaims that Quagmire is not dead , and brings him out of the coffin , alive . Death shows up to retrieve his body . Joan pleads for Quagmire 's life , and touches Death 's arm , which kills her instantly . Death takes Joan instead , as " she was suicidal and her last name was Quagmire . " However , before he leaves , Quagmire asks Death to leave the body for another five minutes , thus turning him back into his old usual self .
Meanwhile , Stewie has been having drug @-@ like withdrawals since Lois decided to wean him . He becomes so desperate that when he and Lois are at the park , he jumps on a woman breastfeeding her baby and greedily suckles on her , but is pulled off by Lois . One night , he then tries to milk Lois in her sleep . He pumps her breasts and succeeds , but spills and desperately tries licking it up . Stewie realizes how pathetic he is and accepts his weaning . He comes to Brian and informs that he is now off breast milk , but Lois has other plans . Lois allows Stewie to be breastfed again , thus delighting him .
= = Production = =
This episode starts by depicting the game show Wheel of Fortune . When Brian is watching Malcolm in the Middle on television , a scene begins showing the mother of the fictional family screaming at the children and father . Jane Kaczmarek was asked to do the voice as she was the original actor in the series , however she refused . MacFarlane said that he gets a message that Kaczmarek wishes to portray that character as likable , and does not wish to jeopardize that . The father during that scene was voiced by Bryan Cranston , the original actor in the series , who accepted the role . Seth MacFarlane comments that " this is the first real Quagmire story we 've ever done . " A scene was made of Stewie attending a meeting similar to those at Alcoholics Anonymous , however the meeting was designed for those who are too addicted to breast milk . The format of Wheel of Fortune is somewhat similar to the layout of the modern @-@ day program , but the scene also features several aspects which are now no longer broadcast , such as not automatically being given R , S , T , L , N , and E , and were featured in the 1980s .
Two scenes during this episode were censored for television broadcasting . When Quagmire meets Joan and invites her out on a date , Cleveland asks , " Is that a banana in your pocket , or a erection in your pocket ? " Although this entire scene was not censored , Fox Broadcasting Company bleeped " erection " , which , according to DVD commentary , made what Cleveland said sound worse than what was intended . The scene where Peter is promoting ' Crystal Pepsi ' was shown only on the DVD , because it is prohibited to promote one product over another on television .
There is also a scene after the watermelon exploding trick where Meg was supposed to say " Fuck you , asshole ! I 'll kick your ass to hell ! " , but Fox also censored the line and was replaced by " I hate you ! I hate you ! " instead .
In addition to the regular cast , voice actor Adam Carolla , actor Stephan Cox , actor Bryan Cranston , actor Darrel Heath , actress Beth Littleford , actress Christy Carlson Romano , voice actress Nicole Sullivan , voice actor Fred Tatasciore , actor Alex Thomas , and game show host Alex Trebek guest starred in the episode . Recurring voice actors Ralph Garman , Mike Henry , writer Danny Smith , actress Jennifer Tilly , and writer John Viener made minor appearances in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Patrick Warburton and Adam West made appearances in the episode as well .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene of the episode , Peter is shown playing on the gameshow Wheel of Fortune , with hosts Pat Sajak and Vanna White also appearing . When Mayor West is playing as a contestant on Jeopardy ! , he spells the name of the host , Alex Trebek backwards ( Kebert Xela ) , sending him back to the fifth dimension ; this is a reference to when DC Comics supervillain and nemesis to Superman , Mister Mxyzptlk , is sent to the fifth dimension when someone makes him say his own name backwards . A Family Guy fan later did this in a real life episode of Jeopardy ! When Peter and the children are flying through space and singing , this is a reference to The Great Space Coaster . The two Asian men who meet Peter at the traffic lights when riding Joan 's back speak in a very similar tone to Howard Cosell , a reference to the 1985 cult film Better Off Dead . When Quagmire fantasizes about being alone in the forest with Joan and speaking to her in Elvish , this is a reference to a scene from The Lord of the Rings ; Quagmire goes on to imagine himself with Joan dancing dressed as the title characters from Beauty and the Beast , eating a plate of spaghetti similar to that shown in Lady and the Tramp , and flying on a magic carpet dressed as Aladdin and Princess Jasmine . They also fly through Baghdad which is in ruins from terrorism . Adam West 's response to seeing the Statue of Liberty is taken from the original Planet of the Apes . Also , there is a scene where Brian watches Malcolm in the Middle . In the scene , Lois nags the boys so much that she will go on strike , so Hal ends up killing her with a refrigerator door and walks away blissfully with the boys . Twice during the episode Quagmire engraves his name with his nose much like Woody Woodpecker . In the end , he engraves " giggity giggity goo " in the same fashion .
= = Reception = =
Bob Sassone of TV Squad commented that " this episode had one of the more hysterical / disturbing images of this TV season : Lois flashing her breasts to Brian after giving Stewie his lunch . " Michael Drucker of IGN noted that " the volume four episodes are easily funnier than the volume three ones " , referring to the episode .
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= Episode 3 ( Twin Peaks ) =
" Episode 3 " , later also known as " Rest in Pain " , is the fourth episode of the first season of the American mystery television series Twin Peaks . The episode was written by Harley Peyton , and directed by Tina Rathborne . " Episode 3 " features series regulars Kyle MacLachlan , Michael Ontkean and Ray Wise , and introduces Sheryl Lee 's second role , Maddy Ferguson .
Rathborne has highlighted the episode 's introduction of Jungian analytical psychology to the series . She also described MacLachlan 's character Dale Cooper as not only a wholesome , grounded anchor against which the series ' more bizarre elements could be contrasted ; but as the central component of the series ' coming @-@ of @-@ age " Bildungsroman " narrative .
" Episode 3 " was first broadcast on April 26 , 1990 , and was viewed by approximately 18 percent of the available audience in its initial airing . The episode received positive reviews from critics , with its mix of comedy and tragedy seen as a highlight , and Miguel Ferrer 's character Albert Rosenfield singled out as a particularly successful example of this . The episode also drew praise from The New York Times for its compelling and unusual cast of characters .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
The small town of Twin Peaks , Washington , has been shocked by the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer ( Sheryl Lee ) and the attempted murder of her friend Ronette Pulaski ( Phoebe Augustine ) . Federal Bureau of Investigation special agent Dale Cooper ( Kyle MacLachlan ) has come to the town to investigate , and initial suspicion has fallen upon Palmer 's boyfriend Bobby Briggs ( Dana Ashbrook ) and the man with whom she was cheating on Briggs , James Hurley ( James Marshall ) . However , other inhabitants of the town have their own suspicions : the violent , drug @-@ dealing truck driver Leo Johnson ( Eric Da Re ) is seen as a possible suspect . Cooper experiences a surreal dream in which a dwarf and a woman resembling Laura reveal the identity of the killer .
= = = Events = = =
Cooper and Audrey Horne ( Sherilyn Fenn ) share breakfast , as he realizes she had slipped a note under his hotel room door ; the note referred to One @-@ Eyed Jacks , a brothel over the Canadian border . When she leaves , Cooper discusses his dream with Sheriff Harry S. Truman ( Michael Ontkean ) , believing it to be a coded solution to the murder .
Cooper 's colleague , Albert Rosenfield ( Miguel Ferrer ) wishes to conduct a further post @-@ mortem on Laura 's body , but it is due to be released for the funeral that day . As the argument grows more heated , Truman ends it by punching Rosenfield and knocking him down . Later , Rosenfield shares what he has found ; Laura had been bound when she was killed , had been addicted to cocaine , and had been clawed by a bird . An unidentified plastic shard was also found in her stomach .
Leland Palmer ( Ray Wise ) is at home when he is visited by his niece , Madeline Ferguson ( Lee ) . Ferguson is identical to Laura save for having black hair , not blonde . At the same time , Cooper and Truman question Johnson about Laura 's death , believing him to be lying when he denies knowing her . Later , Hurley arrives at Laura 's funeral late , watching from a distance . Briggs begins to accost the mourners , accusing them of doing nothing when they knew Laura had been troubled . Hurley intervenes and the two begin fighting ; Leland falls on the casket as it is being lowered into the grave , sobbing uncontrollably .
That night , Cooper , Truman , Deputy Hawk ( Michael Horse ) and Ed Hurley ( Everett McGill ) meet at the RR Diner . Truman explains that someone has been smuggling cocaine into town ; he suspects that Jacques Renault ( Walter Olkewicz ) , bartender at the town 's Roadhouse Bar , is involved . He also explains that the woods around the town seem to contain a " darkness " , and reveals that there is a secret society of men gathered to stand watch against this : the Bookhouse Boys . Truman and the others bring Cooper to their headquarters , where James has Jacques ' brother Bernard ( Clay Wilcox ) bound and gagged . They question Bernard but he denies any crime .
Elsewhere , Jacques realizes his brother is in trouble , and calls Johnson for help . When Johnson leaves , his abused wife Shelley ( Mädchen Amick ) hides a gun in a secret drawer . Meanwhile , sawmill owner Josie Packard ( Joan Chen ) tells Truman , her lover , that her sister @-@ in @-@ law Catherine Martell ( Piper Laurie ) is scheming to take over the mill . Packard knows there are two account books , one fake and one real , but cannot locate the real one Martell has been hiding .
= = Production = =
" Episode 3 " was the first of the series to be written by Harley Peyton ; Peyton returned to pen a number of other episodes across both seasons . The episode was directed by Tina Rathborne , who would also go on to helm " Episode 17 " in the second season . Rathborne had previously worked with series co @-@ creator David Lynch when she had cast him in her 1988 feature film Zelly and Me .
The episode introduces the character of Maddy Ferguson , Laura 's nearly identical cousin , the second role in the series played by Sheryl Lee . Lee had been a stage actor living in Washington , where " Pilot " was filmed , and had remained there after production moved to Los Angeles as she believed that , with her character dead , she would have no further part in the series . However , Lynch was impressed with her performance and called to ask her to return , telling her he would " figure [ ... ] out " a way for her to continue appearing .
Rathborne chose to open the episode with a shot centered on Sherilyn Fenn , finding the actress to be " seductive " and " absorbing " in a similar manner to screen icon Marilyn Monroe . Rathborne had initially worried that the episode featured too many static scenes of characters sitting and talking , with little action , and asked Lynch if she could borrow some of the imagery of the previous episode 's surreal dream sequence to keep these conversations more interesting , adding brief snippets of footage as Cooper discussed the dream with the others . Rathborne has noted that this dream @-@ centric approach to the character of Cooper is rooted in Carl Jung 's theories of analytical psychology . She felt this was something that had not been seen on television before , and credits Lynch with introducing it to the series . She has also described the narrative , both of " Episode 3 " and of Twin Peaks as a whole , as a " Bildungsroman " showing Cooper 's development into a more rounded and enlightened person .
Working on studio sets was a new experience for Rathborne , whose previous work had all been filmed on location . She also found it refreshing to work with the series ' ensemble cast , recalling that Miguel Ferrer often had the cast and crew laughing at the way he approached his material , imbuing the atmosphere during filming with a mix of comedy and drama . Rathborne has also noted the use of ordinary , almost banal , daily life in the series , finding it a necessary element to be able to play the series ' more violent and surreal elements against effectively . She particularly singled out Cooper as a wholesome " boy next door " character who allowed the town 's more unusual residents to stand out more starkly .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Episode 3 " was first broadcast by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) on April 19 , 1990 . In its initial airing , it was viewed by 11 @.@ 3 percent of US households , representing 18 percent of the available audience . This marked a slight decline from the previous episode , which had attracted 13 @.@ 1 percent of the population and 21 percent of the available audience .
The A.V. Club 's Keith Phipps rated the episode a B + , finding that it struggled to live up to the preceding episode ; however , he felt that this was understandable , as " after pushing television to the limits of sanity there was nowhere to go but back " . Phipps also described the funeral scene as a highlight of the episode , finding that he grew to appreciate its mix of tragic and comic more over repeated viewings . Writing for Allrovi , Andrea LeVasseur rated the episode four stars out of five .
John J. O 'Connor , writing for The New York Times praised the episode , stating that it features " the most bizarrely compelling collection of characters ever to hit prime time " . O 'Connor spoke positively of the intricate plot seen in the episode and the series as a whole , noting that " the overall narrative is paramount " and affirming his belief that the series " seems to have been mapped out carefully " by Lynch and Frost . Television Without Pity 's Daniel J. Blau praised the episode 's black humour , singling out in particular the scene in which Ferrer 's character is punched after an argument in the town morgue . However , Blau was critical of guest stars Olkewicz and Wilcox , finding their attempted French @-@ Canadian accents particularly poor . Writing for Digital Spy , Tony Delgado has also praised Ferrer 's role as Rosenfield , adding that his dialogue " may not appear to be the epitome of wit , but the way [ Ferrer ] delivered such lines caused plenty of howling hysterics in living rooms across the globe " .
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= Gunther E. Rothenberg =
Gunther Erich Rothenberg ( 11 July 1923 – 26 April 2004 ) was an internationally known military historian , best known for his publications on the Habsburg military and Napoleonic Wars . He had a fifteen @-@ year military career , as a British Army soldier in World War II , a Haganah officer in the 1948 Arab – Israeli War , and in the United States Air Force during the Korean War .
= = Escape from Nazi Germany and military service = =
Gunther Erich Rothenberg was born in Berlin . His family was a culturally assimilated German Jewish family . In 1937 , Rothenberg moved to the Netherlands with his mother ; his father later joined them . The family moved next to Britain , where Rothenberg had some schooling . In 1939 , he moved to Mandatory Palestine , then under British rule . There he joined the Zionist movement and Hashomer Hatzair ( The Youth Guard ) , a Socialist @-@ Zionist youth movement . He retained his passion for a Jewish homeland throughout his life .
On 13 July 1941 , his parents emigrated to the United States on the Villa de Madrid , an overcrowded ocean @-@ liner that left Barcelona on 20 June . His father , Erich Joseph Rothenberg , was an importer , and both his parents spoke English , Hebrew , French , and German . Their visas , issued in Lisbon , Portugal , claimed Cuban citizenship . At the age of 57 , his father registered for the fourth draft in 1942 , listing his residence as New York City , and his next of kin as his wife , Lotte .
In 1941 , Gunther Rothenberg volunteered for the British army , serving in an all @-@ Jewish unit . He was wounded in North Africa . He transferred from the Royal Army Service Corps to the Intelligence Corps and fought with the Eighth Army . He served in the Italian campaign , in the Yugoslav war of liberation and in Austria . His service continued in the occupation of Austria until 1946 . He was a civilian employee of U.S. Intelligence 1946 @-@ 1948 . Rothenberg returned to Palestine and joined the Haganah for Israel 's War of Independence . He rose to the rank of captain in the Israel Defense Forces .
By 1948 , Rothenberg 's father had died and his mother , Lotte ( 1894 – 1990 ) , had become a naturalized United States citizen . To be with her in New York City , Rothenberg journeyed to Canada , arriving in Halifax , Nova Scotia ; traveling from there to Toronto , he lived for a while at Wycliffe College , where he worked briefly as a construction laborer . On 19 November 1948 , he crossed the international border into the United States at Buffalo , with $ 12 @.@ 00 in his pocket . In 1951 , he volunteered for the United States Army , transferred to the Air Force , and served in the Korean War until 1955 . He remained guided by a deep sense of duty and a strong sense of American patriotism throughout his life .
= = Education and career = =
After military service in the United States Air Force , he graduated from the University of Illinois with an undergraduate degree . Two years later , he had a master 's degree from the University of Chicago . In 1959 he finished his doctoral degree at the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign . He retired from Purdue University , was appointed Professor Emeritus , and lived in Canberra , Australia , where he continued to write about the Napoleonic Wars .
He wrote several ground @-@ breaking books on the organization of the Habsburg military and the military reforms of Archduke Charles in the first decade of the Napoleonic Wars . His last book , The Emperor 's Last Victory , about the Battle of Wagram in 1809 , was published posthumously . Although he had never finished high school , with the help of the GI Bill , Rothenberg completed a bachelor 's degree from the University of Illinois in 1954 . He attended graduate school at the University of Chicago , where he was recognized as an argumentative , sometimes abrasive , graduate student with a keen mind . As a graduate student , Rothenberg reviewed W.E.D. Allen 's Caucasian Battlefields : A History of the Wars on the Turco @-@ Caucasian Border , 1828 – 1921 ( Cambridge University Press , 1953 ) for Journal of Modern History , He wrote his 1956 masters ' thesis entitled General Crook and the Apaches , 1871 – 1874 : the campaign in the Tonto Basin . Rothenberg received his doctorate from the University of Illinois : his 1959 dissertation , Antemurales Christianitatis : then military border in Croatia , 1522 – 1749 , was published in 1960 by the University of Chicago Press , as The Military Border in Croatia , 1522 – 1749 ; he followed this with a second study , The Military Border in Croatia , 1750 – 1888 : a study of an imperial institution in 1966 , also published by University of Chicago Press . Both volumes were translated into German in 1970 .
In part @-@ time temporary teaching positions in Illinois and four years at the Southern Illinois University , Rothenberg taught European and world history , and published an instructor 's manual on history of the world , with Henry C. Boren . In 1962 , Rothenberg joined the faculty of the University of New Mexico ; over the following ten years , he rose to the position of full professor . In 1972 , he accepted a position at Purdue University . There , he taught courses in military and European history . As a teacher , his popular course on World War II attracted more than 250 undergraduates annually .
In the 1970s , Rothenberg also established himself as an international Napoleonic scholar with The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon , published in 1977 . He also mentored hundreds of graduate and doctoral students . He regularly published in such peer @-@ reviewed publications as Journal of Military History and served on the editorial board of War in History . In 1985 , Rothenberg was a visiting Fulbright fellow in the Department of History in the Faculty of Military Studies at the Australian Royal Military College , Duntroon . He retired from Purdue in 1999 and was named Professor Emeritus .
From 1995 – 2001 , Rothenberg was a visiting fellow at the School of Historical Studies , Monash University . After his retirement , he moved to Melbourne , Australia , and then to Canberra , where his third wife , Eleanor Hancock , taught at the Australian Defence Force Academy . Although retired , he continued to teach , lecture , and publish reviews . He also wrote two more books .
Life in Australia did not always please him ; he missed both his colleagues in North America and his Purdue students . His politics — he " was anything but politically correct " — did not mesh well with Australia 's leftist atmosphere . He wrote indignantly to a friend in the United States that he regretted moving to Australia when the authorities confiscated his muzzle loaders , which were prohibited " Down Under . "
In 2004 , he returned to the United States to present the keynote address at the 34th Annual Conference of the Consortium on Revolutionary Europe . He had recently completed The Emperor ’ s Last Victory : Napoleon and the Battle of Wagram , which was published posthumously in November 2004 . He died at the age of 80 .
= = Legacy = =
Rothenberg 's legacy is not only the generations of scholars he prepared , but also his vast historiographical contribution to understanding the Revolutionary era . For many years , his Army of Francis Joseph ( 1976 ) was the standard and the only English language analysis of the Habsburg Army in the French Revolutionary and the Napoleonic wars . He changed the widespread perception of Archduke Charles ' military acumen . A masterful historian , Rothenberg was known furthermore as an eminently fair scholar . After publishing a critique of a publication , the author contacted him , and proved the critique unjust ; Rothenberg immediately wrote to a review retracting the criticism , and the two scholars remained friends for the remainder of his life .
Some of his colleagues considered Rothenberg " the greatest scholar of the Napoleonic era of our day . " His adventurous life and diverse experiences gave him a deep understanding of human nature . This made him a valuable colleague and a treasured mentor for his many graduate students .
High Point University conducts the Gunther E. Rothenberg Seminar in Military History .
= = Personal life and family = =
His first marriage in 1952 ended in a 1967 divorce . In 1969 , Rothenberg married Ruth Gillah Smith , a widow with three daughters ( Judith Goris , Laura Allman , Georgia Jones ( all born Herron ) ) , whom he helped to raise ; she died in 1992 . In 1995 , he married for a third time , to Eleanor Hancock , a lecturer at Monash University in Australia . She is now a Senior Lecturer in History at the Australian Defence Force Academy at the University of New South Wales , and has written the first biography of Ernst Julius Röhm . Her 1988 doctoral thesis , National Socialist Leadership And Total War , 1941 – 45 for the Australia National University was published by St. Martin 's Press in 1992 .
= = Publications = =
Rothenberg published hundreds of journal articles , reviews , and lectures . This is a partial list .
= = = Books = = =
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1960 ) . The Austrian Military Border in Croatia , 1522 – 1747 . Urbana , IL : University of Illinois Press . LCCN 60015931 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1966 ) . The Austrian Military Border in Croatia , 1740 – 1881 ; a Study of an Imperial Institution . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . LCCN 66013887 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1976 ) . The army of Francis Joseph . West Lafayette , Indiana : Purdue University Press . ISBN 0911198415 . LCCN 75016051 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1979 ) . The anatomy of the Israeli army . London : B. T. Batsford . ISBN 0713419660 . LCCN 79321715 .
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1982 ) . Napoleon 's Great Adversaries : the Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army , 1792 – 1814 . Bloomington : Indiana University Press . ISBN 0253339693 . LCCN 82047512 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 . ( Subsequent editions titled Napoleon 's Great Adversary : the Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army . )
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1978 ) . The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon . Bloomington : Indiana University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 253 @-@ 31076 @-@ 8 . LCCN 77086495 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 2000 ) . Keegan , John , ed . The Napoleonic Wars . London : Cassell . ISBN 0304352675 . LCCN 2001347125 .
Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 2004 ) . The Emperor 's Last Victory : Napoleon and the Battle of Wagram . London : Weidenfeld & Nicolson . ISBN 0297846728 . LCCN 2005440770 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .
Király , Béla Kalman ; Rothenberg , Gunther E. , eds . ( 1979 ) . Special topics and generalizations on the 18th and 19th centuries . New York : Brooklyn College Press . ISBN 0930888049 . LCCN 79051780 . Distributed by Columbia University Press
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ; Király , Béla K. ; Sugar , Peter F. , eds . ( 1982 ) . East Central European society and war in the prerevolutionary eighteenth century . New York : Boulder Social Science Monographs . ISBN 0930888197 . LCCN 81050886 . Distributed by Columbia University Press
= = = Journal articles = = =
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( June 1960 ) . " The Origins of the Austrian Military Frontier in Croatia and the Alleged Treaty of 22 December 1522 " . The Slavonic and East European Review ( Modern Humanities Research Association ) 38 ( 91 ) : 493 – 498 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1961 ) . " Venice and the Uskoks of Senj : 1537 – 1618 " . The Journal of Modern History 33 ( 2 ) : 148 – 156 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1086 / 238780 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1963 ) . " Aventinus and the Defense of the Empire Against the Turks " . Studies in the Renaissance 10 : 60 – 67 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2857048 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1964 ) . " The Croatian Military Border and the Rise of Yugoslav Nationalism " . The Slavonic and East European Review 43 ( 100 ) : 34 – 45 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1964 ) . " The Struggle Over the Dissolution of the Croatian Military Border , 1850- 1871 " . Slavic Review 23 ( 1 ) : 63 – 78 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2492376 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1968 ) . " The Austrian Army in the Age of Metternich " . The Journal of Modern History 40 ( 2 ) : 155 – 165 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1086 / 240187 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1972 ) . " Toward a National Hungarian Army : The Military Compromise of 1868 and its Consequences " . Slavic Review 31 ( 4 ) : 805 – 816 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2493764 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1973 ) . " The Austrian Sanitary Cordon and the Control of the Bubonic Plague : 1710 – 1871 " . Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / jhmas / XXVIII.1.15.
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1973 ) . " The Habsburg Army in the Napoleonic Wars " . Military Affairs : The Journal of Military History , Including Theory and Technology 37 ( 1 ) : 1 – 5 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 1986561 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1976 ) . " Nobility and Military Careers : The Habsburg Officer Corps , 1740 @-@ 1914 " . Military Affairs : The Journal of Military History , Including Theory and Technology 40 ( 4 ) : 182 – 186 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 1986702 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1988 ) . " The Origins , Causes , and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon " . Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18 ( 4 ) : 771 – 793 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 204824 .
Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1989 ) . " The Austro @-@ Hungarian Campaign Against Serbia in 1914 " . Journal of Military History 53 ( 2 ) : 127 – 146 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 1985745 .
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= Symphony Six =
The Symphony Six were a group of Canadian musicians under contract to the Toronto Symphony Orchestra ( TSO ) who were denied entry to the United States for a concert tour in November 1951 . Coming at the height of the McCarthy era in the US , the six musicians – Ruth Budd , Dirk Keetbaas , William Kuinka , Abe Mannheim , John Moskalyk , and Steven Staryk – were denied visas on the suspicion of being involved in communist activities . The TSO sent other musicians in their place and completed its tour . The six musicians resumed playing with the orchestra upon its return to Canada .
At the end of the 1951 @-@ 1952 season , the TSO refused to renew the contracts of these musicians , stating that they had not fulfilled their contractual agreements . The six musicians appealed this decision to its union , the Toronto Musicians ' Association ; the Mayor of Toronto ; the Canadian Civil Liberties Association ; and many other bodies , without success . They received support from the Federation of Canadian Artists and the Canada Council for the Arts , but not from the Canadian Congress of Labour . The incident garnered extensive media coverage in both Canada and the United States , and sparked a protest against the TSO 's decision . The orchestra 's director , Ernest MacMillan , did not speak about the matter in public , which also prompted criticism , and two members of the TSO board resigned . The six musicians were viewed with suspicion by their colleagues and people avoided them to protect themselves from guilt by association . Budd and Staryk later returned to the TSO , while the four other musicians continued their careers elsewhere .
= = Background = =
The Toronto Symphony Orchestra was founded by Luigi von Kunits in 1922 . From 1931 to 1956 it was conducted by Sir Ernest MacMillan , who achieved renown as " the leading figure in Canadian music " . By the 1940s the orchestra 's popularity had increased , but its financial condition did not allow it to tour or invite many guest conductors and soloists . In 1951 @-@ 52 it received CA $ 56 @,@ 000 in donations and grants , CA $ 10 @,@ 000 less than the amount raised by the smaller Vancouver Symphony Orchestra . Some TSO musicians freelanced for the CBC Symphony Orchestra and a few left the TSO to work for the CBC . MacMillan hoped that the TSO could boost its reputation through international engagements .
= = Event = =
The Toronto Symphony Orchestra was invited to perform at the Detroit Masonic Temple auditorium on November 27 , 1951 as part of the Major Symphony Series , which also featured the Boston Symphony Orchestra , the Chicago Symphony Orchestra , the Cleveland Orchestra , and the Philadelphia Orchestra . TSO director MacMillan viewed this first @-@ ever US invitation as a golden opportunity to garner more international invitations for the orchestra . He added vocal soloist Lois Marshall to the orchestra , as well as a piece by an American composer , Herbert Elwell 's work Pastorale , and Edward Elgar 's Enigma Variations , to the repertoire .
At this time in the United States , McCarthyism was at its height , generating fear and suspicion of entertainment industry figures , academics , military figures , and government officials by accusing them of real or suggested links to communist activities . The TSO was required to submit to United States immigration authorities all the names of its musicians and other staff who would be accompanying the tour . The immigration department approved visas for all but seven musicians , suspecting them of communist activities . One of the musicians was later cleared , leaving six musicians who were denied entry .
These six musicians , who became known as the Symphony Six , were :
Ruth Budd , double bassist . Born in Winnipeg , she joined the TSO in 1947 , becoming Canada 's first professional female bassist .
Dirk Keetbaas , Jr . , principal flautist . Born in the Netherlands , Keetbaas was a naturalized Canadian citizen . He also performed in the CBC Symphony Orchestra and in chamber music groups . He joined the TSO in 1949 .
William Kuinka , double bassist . Born in British Columbia , he had served in the Second World War . He was self @-@ taught in mandolin and guitar as well . The 1951 @-@ 1952 season was his first and last year in the TSO .
Abe Mannheim , bassist . This was his fourth season with the orchestra . Immigration officials had questioned him for 4 hours .
John Moskalyk , violinist . He joined the TSO in 1945 .
Steven Staryk , violinist . Born in Toronto , he studied violin as a child with , among others , John Mosklyk , and performed in his first recital on CBC Radio at the age of 14 . He joined the TSO in 1950 when he was still in his teens .
Several of the six musicians had been involved with Canadian @-@ Russian friendship organizations formed in the 1940s for the purposes of artistic collaboration ; however , they denied charges of political involvement . Staryk related that he had played at Ukrainian and other ethnic events , and Budd admitted to being a member of a left @-@ wing youth group . John Moskalyk 's surname was listed in the TSO 's programs as " Moscow " ; he had conducted the Budapest orchestra for two concert performances in August 1949 . Keetbaas could not recall any association with left @-@ wing groups . Harry Freedman , who was on the board of the Toronto Musicians ' Association at the time and whose vote thwarted unanimous decisions against the Symphony Six , stated that he was not aware of any of the six musicians promoting communism . Later , he felt that he should have taken " more direct action " .
MacMillan himself had been involved in the National Council for Canadian @-@ Soviet Friendship in the 1940s , though he had since quit that organization . In 1950 , with an eye to taking the orchestra on international tours , he had written a letter to the American consul in Toronto admitting his former affiliation . He received his visa in November 1951 without any difficulties . After the six musicians were denied entry and before the orchestra had left for the United States , MacMillan solicited help for them from the Canadian ambassador in Washington , but his plea was unsuccessful . In January 1952 he wrote to US immigration officials trying to clear Staryk 's name , lauding him as " an exceptionally talented violinist and valuable member of the orchestra . I have no reason to doubt that he has no Communist affiliations other than that he played from ages twelve to fourteen with a Ukrainian orchestra that is under some suspicion " . His entreaties on behalf of Staryk did not help to exonerate the musician .
The TSO board sent other musicians in place of the six who had been denied visas , and the concert went on as planned . The orchestra 's performance was a success and received positive reviews from both the American and Canadian press . After the TSO returned to Canada , the six musicians resumed their positions .
= = Refusal to renew contracts = =
At the end of the 1951 @-@ 1952 season , with more American concerts planned for the orchestra in Boston , New York , and Philadelphia in the coming season , the TSO did not renew its contracts with all six musicians . Jack Elton , manager of the orchestra , discussed the problem of these six players with the TSO board in a meeting held on April 21 , 1952 . At the meeting , Elton said that " for artistic reasons there could be no substitutes for such an important concert " . The board agreed with Elton 's arguments and contended that the six musicians had not fulfilled their contractual agreement to join the orchestra on international tours , and that being barred from entering the United States would prevent them from joining the orchestra in future US appearances . Ernest MacMillan was not present at the meeting .
The incident and the board 's decision not to renew the musicians ' contracts created controversy when it became public , garnering media attention both nationally and internationally . Members of the press castigated the TSO for not cancelling the US tour in protest over the immigration department ’ s decision , citing a similar case in which the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra of Amsterdam had cancelled its US tour when several of its musicians were denied entry . One reporter , Langford Dixon of The Globe and Mail , " defended the six so vehemently that it led to his dismissal from the paper " . Many people wrote letters to the TSO and some even cancelled their subscriptions . For its part , the TSO board blamed the newly established Canadian television for the unprecedented decline in subscriptions . A letter to the editor of Toronto Daily Star called the firing " an offence against Canadian independence . "
The TSO board gave orchestra manager Jack Elton the authority to decide what steps should be taken . Elton asked the Toronto Musicians ' Association to intervene . The union upheld the board 's decision . The six musicians appealed but the union turned them down , stating that they had not fulfilled their contractual agreements and so the orchestra had the right not to renew their contracts . Walter Murdoch , president of the Toronto Musicians ' Association , said that it was " a straight contractual matter " and " there is nothing wrong in the orchestra 's not rehiring musicians " .
On May 26 , 1952 twelve members of the TSO board met to review their decision not to renew the contracts . Nine of the members voted in favor of the decision while three voted against it . It was decided that the contracts would not be renewed , but if the United States immigration officials would issue entry permits to the six musicians by September 1 , the TSO would renew the contracts . This decision created a controversy and a split within the TSO board , which eventually led to the resignation of two members , Mrs. Edmund Boyd and Mrs. R. B. Whitehead , although these two remained members of the orchestra 's women 's committee .
The Assembly for the Canadian Arts called a rally in support of the Symphony Six on May 29 . The Toronto Musicians ' Association instructed its members not to attend and sent members to stand outside the entrance " to intimidate members from entering " . Aspersions were cast on the Assembly for the Canadian Arts as being a communist front organization , and the Toronto Evening Telegram called the gathering " a communist meeting " . Several members of the Assembly quit the group in fear " of being labelled communists " . On June 4 the United Church of Canada urged the TSO board to reconsider its decision .
The controversy continued into the orchestra 's 1952 @-@ 1953 season . The six musicians appealed again to the TSO board and the Toronto Musicians ' Association , but made no headway . The musicians also held meetings with the Canadian Civil Liberties Association and the Toronto Board of Control , and pleaded their case to the Mayor of Toronto , Allan A. Lamport , and the American Federation of Musicians , without success . While the Federation of Canadian Artists and the Canada Council for the Arts supported the six musicians , the Canadian Congress of Labour rejected a proposal to back them . In 1952 then @-@ Canadian foreign minister Lester Pearson was quoted as saying that it would not " serve any useful purpose to take the matter up again " . Pearson blamed the Cold War for such incidents , and added that the Canadian government was also denying entries to people wishing to attend communist meetings and was providing US officials with " security information " . A special committee was set up by the TSO board to screen all its members .
MacMillan stayed out of the matter ; he did not attend meetings of the TSO board and maintained a public silence through the spring and summer of 1952 . According to TSO archivist Warren , MacMillan 's correspondence indicates that he supported the board 's decision not to rehire the six musicians .
While the Symphony Six garnered support from many corners , they did not receive widespread support from their peers . While some orchestra members were " genuinely supportive " , according to Budd , many others publicly shunned them for fear of being perceived as communist sympathizers and losing their own jobs .
= = Aftermath = =
Only two of the Symphony Six eventually returned to the Toronto Symphony Orchestra : Ruth Budd and Stephen Staryk . After her contract was not renewed , Budd played with orchestras in Halifax and other Canadian cities . She was rehired by the TSO in 1964 and continued as a double bassist until 1989 , becoming " one of the most beloved members of the orchestra " . Staryk played in the CBC Symphony Orchestra from 1952 to 1956 and then traveled to London , where he was appointed concertmaster of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra . In 1960 he became concertmaster of the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra in Amsterdam and toured the US with them , although he had not been officially cleared by the US immigration department . Staryk was the first Canadian concertmaster of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra from 1963 to 1967 . He returned to the Toronto Symphony Orchestra in 1982 , serving as concertmaster until 1986 .
Keetbaas became the principal flautist for the Winnipeg Symphony Orchestra and the CBC Winnipeg Orchestra from 1953 to 1968 . From 1956 to 1966 he directed and performed with the Dirk Keetbaas Players , a wind quintet featuring flute , oboe , clarinet , bassoon , and French horn .
Kuinka performed with the Toronto Renaissance Quintet from 1963 to 1965 . In 1964 he formed the Toronto Mandolin Chamber Ensemble , which existed until 1969 . He also performed with the orchestra of the National Ballet of Canada . He received a research grant from the Canada Council to study European teaching methods and repertoire in 1966 .
Mannheim later performed in the Vancouver Symphony Orchestra and the Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra .
Moskalyk joined the Faculty of Music at the University of Toronto and also became a faculty member of The Royal Conservatory of Music .
The TSO board had not renewed the musicians ' contracts hoping that it would receive more concert invitations from the United States . However , it received only eight invitations in the following four years , all from the state of Michigan . The eighth tour had to be cancelled because of a snowstorm .
In a letter written to Dan Cameron , President of the Canadian Federation of Music Teachers , in November 1952 , MacMillan reflected that " the orchestra , far from suffering musically , has in some respects improved . "
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= Alisia Dragoon =
Alisia Dragoon ( Japanese : アリシアドラグーン , Hepburn : Arishia Doragūn ) is a 1992 platform game developed by Game Arts for the Sega Genesis . The player controls Alisia , a young woman who is on a quest to avenge her father and save the world . She can fire lightning from her hands and summon four faithful beasts to aid her .
The game was released outside of Japan by Sega , who packaged the heroine as a rugged gladiator instead of the dainty @-@ looking sorceress she originally was . Due to the lack of publicity for the game internationally , Alisia Dragoon did not make a big impact on the video game market , despite the critical acclaim it received .
= = Gameplay = =
In Alisia Dragoon , the player controls the female protagonist , Alisia , in her quest to save the world by defeating the evil forces that killed her father . The game consists of eight levels of side @-@ scrolling environments ; Alisia has to jump across gaps and kill the enemies that stand in her way . Each stage is completed by defeating the boss at the end .
Alisia attacks by shooting streaks of lightning from her hands . The attack automatically targets enemies in range but gets weaker with each volley as Alisia 's power is depleted . Her power recharges when she stops attacking ; when fully charged , it allows her to unleash a smart @-@ bomb @-@ like attack , hitting every enemy on the screen . The energy system introduces an element of strategy , encouraging the player to manage Alisia 's power to have her able to defend herself at critical moments .
Helping Alisia in her quest are her pet monsters . These creatures fly around the heroine on their own , attacking her foes , and blocking enemy attacks from hitting her . There are four pets , each with its own type of attack . The Dragon Frye spits fireballs , and the Boomerang Lizard hurls boomerangs . The Thunder Raven emits a thunder blast that affects enemies across the screen , and the Ball O ' Fire burns enemies on contact . Only one pet can fight alongside Alisia in her quest , but the player can select any of the four ( or none ) as the active companion at any time .
Over the course of the game , Alisia and her monsters can improve their abilities by collecting power @-@ ups . These enhancement items are placed throughout the first seven stages , mostly in hidden locations . The various power @-@ ups can heal Alisia and her monsters , increase their maximum life bars , improve their attacks , or grant invulnerability for a certain time . Life bars are lost by taking damage from enemy attacks and traps . When Alisia 's pets lose all their life bars , they are removed from play and cannot be brought back until a " Revive " power @-@ up is collected . If Alisia loses all her life bars , she can restart the level by expending a continue . The game ends if all the continues have been used . Alisia Dragoon has no features for saving the player 's progress . After the game is completed , a screen is shown , charting the overall performance of the player based on the number of kills , the power level of Alisia 's attack , and the frequency the pet monsters are used .
= = Plot = =
Similar to most action games on the Sega Genesis , the plot in Alisia Dragoon is simple and short . The game goes straight into the action , tasking Alisia to kill everything in sight . After defeating the final boss , the player is treated to a cinematic cutscene of Alisia 's triumphant return to her home .
For the Japanese release , much of the back @-@ story was described in the manual . Alisia is the daughter of a sorcerer who has imprisoned the main villain , Baldour , in a cocoon and sent it into outer space . Her father is in turn tortured to death by Baldour 's followers . When the villain crashes back to the planet and begins to awaken , Alisia sets out to defeat him and his followers . The American and European versions of the game promoted a different back @-@ story , with Alisia as a gladiator who champions the cause of the people with her four pet companions . Her task is to eradicate the evil monsters and the source of their production , a " silver star " that has crashed to Earth .
= = Development = =
In 1992 , Japanese animation studio Gainax was in a collaboration with Game Arts , the makers of the Lunar role @-@ playing games , to produce an action video game . Gainax 's video game product line tended to target a niche crowd who generally preferred dating simulations and anime @-@ based adventure games . Alisia Dragoon is a departure from this tradition . The animation studio handled the artistic end of the production , writing the story and creating the artwork that would be used for the design of the game 's environments and characters . Several of its founders had worked on Hayao Miyazaki 's animated films , and the influences of Miyazaki 's 1984 science fiction animated film Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind were evident in certain levels of the game . Similarly , due to the predominance of mixing science fiction with fantasy themes in the Japanese animation circles at that time , Alisia Dragoon featured high @-@ tech spaceships and robots alongside mythical zombies and dragons . The composition of the soundtrack was delegated to Mecano Associates , who had produced the music for other works from Game Arts , such as the action games Fire Hawk : Thexder 2 and Silpheed . Game Arts , however , did most of the work in producing Alisia Dragoon , adapting the artwork into environments and creatures that can be rendered by the console hardware , and writing them as lines of software code .
= = Reception = =
Due to a small customer base in Japan , Alisia Dragoon sold few copies on its release ( April 24 , 1992 ) ; the console it was made for , the Sega Mega Drive , was not a popular device in Japan , selling 3 – 3 @.@ 5 million units ( 10 % of all Mega Drives / Genesis sold around the world ) . The game was published earlier by Sega for North America and Europe , on March 30 . However , it was a subdued release ; Sega did not place major advertisements for the game in the media . To localize the contents for the Western market , the video game publisher made several cosmetic changes to Alisia Dragoon . Instead of a big @-@ eyed heroine drawn in typical anime styling , Alisia was portrayed as a golden bikini @-@ wearing female barbarian on the box covers outside Japan . The Western version of Alisia was likened to the scantily clad females in artist Boris Vallejo 's work .
Westerners were more enthusiastic toward the game than were the Japanese , although there were a few negative appraisals . GamePro magazine opined Alisia Dragoon 's responsive controls , coupled with the hectic action and handsome graphics , made the game highly desirable for owners of the Genesis console . The Lessers of Dragon magazine were equally impressed with the gameplay , praising Alisia Dragoon for its " solid arcade action " that satisfied their " need for fast reflexes " . Mean Machines 's Julian Rignall praised the game for its pet monsters design , calling the management of the pets in the game an encouragement toward tactics . His fellow reviewer , Richard Leadbetter , wrote the game was visually attractive with " beautiful sprites " and " amazing backdrops " . He found the gameplay challenging , being forced to conserve energy as the game " [ threw ] everything but the kitchen sink at [ him ] " . Rignall agreed with Leadbetter on the game 's difficulty , which along with the secret rooms and power @-@ ups to be discovered made Alisia Dragoon an excellent action platform game that had long @-@ lasting appeal . Of the hundreds of Genesis games , Mega magazine rated Alisia Dragoon among the top 100 games , calling it " [ probably ] the best dragon @-@ based platform game around . " Despite the positive sentiments , sales of the game outside Japan were weak .
Sixteen years after the game 's release , Todd Ciolek of Anime News Network reviewed Alisia Dragoon and repeated much of the same sentiments as the Mean Machines reviewers . Noting Gainax 's catalog of games , he noted that Alisia Dragoon was very different from the rest ; instead of targeting hardcore fans of anime and focusing on exploitive themes , the game 's appeal was for everyone . In light of this , Ciolek called Alisia Dragoon " the best video game Gainax ever touched " and " a spectacular ride in its own right " .
Alisia Dragoon has been recognized retrospectively as a relatively early video game to challenge a gender bias prevalent in the industry at the time . In the early 1990s , the video game market was skewed toward the young male demographic , and games often portrayed women as " damsels in distress " , submissive and requiring rescue by the male protagonists . Along with contemporary games like Streets of Rage or Wurm : Journey to the Center of the Earth , Alisia Dragoon featured a female leading character who can defend herself without the help of a male hero .
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= Maurice ( Shelley ) =
" Maurice , or the Fisher 's Cot " is a children 's story by the Romantic writer Mary Shelley . Written in 1820 for Laurette Tighe , a daughter of friends of Percy and Mary Shelley , Mary Shelley tried to have it published by her father , William Godwin , but he refused . The text was lost until 1997 , when a manuscript copy was discovered in Italy .
" Maurice " tells the story of a boy searching for a home and his encounters with a traveller who turns out to be his long @-@ lost father . The story is narrated in a melancholy tone from several points of view and focuses on the theme of loss , particularly the separation of parents and children . Shelley explored this partly autobiographical theme in other works written at the same time , including her novel Mathilda and her play Proserpine . The story 's straightforward language reflects that of the Romantic poet William Wordsworth , whose works Shelley was reading while she composed " Maurice " .
= = Background = =
In 1814 , the seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Mary Shelley ( Mary Godwin , at the time ) ran off with Percy Bysshe Shelley to continental Europe , accompanied by Claire Clairmont , Mary 's stepsister . After six weeks of travelling , they returned to England but continued to live together . Mary returned pregnant with Percy 's child , but their infant daughter died soon after her premature birth . Percy was alienated from his family and received little financial support from them ; he was therefore harassed by creditors . In 1816 , Mary and Percy had a second child , William . The same year , Claire Clairmont began an affair with the poet Lord Byron , and in January 1817 she had a daughter by him , Allegra . The group spent the summer of 1817 with Byron at Lake Geneva , where Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein . That fall , Percy 's wife , Harriet , committed suicide , and in December Percy and Mary were married . In September 1817 , Mary and Percy had another child , Clara .
The group traveled to Italy in early 1818 . They first surrendered Allegra to Byron in April , much to Claire 's distress . In August , Percy Shelley took Claire to see Allegra , at her request . Percy arrived in Venice , telling Byron he had the entire family . Mary was thus summoned to Venice to substantiate Percy 's story . However , baby Clara Shelley was sick and traveling made her even more ill . She died shortly after arriving in Venice . In the winter of 1818 , Percy registered a child in Naples to himself and Mary : Elena Adelaide . However , it is unclear who this child 's parents really were .
In 1819 , the group moved to Rome , where Mary and Percy Shelley 's son William died . Mary Shelley had now lost all three of her children and was very depressed . Claire became increasingly concerned about Allegra , as Byron refused to allow her to see their daughter or reveal where she was . Mary , however , became pregnant again , with Percy Florence , and the group traveled from Rome to Pisa and Florence . En route , they became friends with a couple who helped and inspired them : Lady Mountcashell , who as Margaret King had been an eager pupil of Mary Shelley 's mother , Mary Wollstonecraft ; and George William Tighe , the agricultural theorist for whom she had left her husband and children . Both were poets and , like the Shelleys , were republicans and freethinkers . Lady Mountcashell referred to herself as " Mrs. Mason " after a character from Wollstonecraft 's own children 's story Original Stories from Real Life ( 1788 ) . The couple had two children , Anna Laura Georgiana ( called Laurette ) and Nerina , who quickly became attached to Mary and Claire .
After traveling to Florence , Mary Shelley wrote to Lady Mountcashell , praising Laurette 's " simplicity and frankness " . By way of her mother , Laurette inquired after Mary 's health and requested her presence . Mary Shelley invited Laurette to stay with her in Florence two months after the birth of Percy Florence , but the girl 's mother could not bear to part with her . In early 1820 , the group moved to Pisa and Claire became like an elder sister to Laurette , taking her to operas and the Carnival . In the summer , the group moved again , from Pisa to Livorno , and Mary Shelley began researching her historical novel Valperga . Throughout the summer , Claire wrote anxiously to Byron , begging to see Allegra . Believing that the Shelleys were careless parents who were responsible for the deaths of their children and concerned that the children were not receiving proper religious training , he consistently refused to let Claire see their daughter .
= = Writing and publication = =
Mary Shelley wrote " Maurice " for Laurette Tighe on 10 August 1820 . Shelley 's journal for that day notes : " Thursday 10 — Write a story for Laurette — Walk on the mountain — Le Buche delle Fate [ fairy grottoes or caves ] — The weather is warm & delightful " . Claire Clairmont and Laurette had spent Laurette 's birthday together in Pisa and the following day on the coast with Mary Shelley ; this excursion may have inspired the story , which may have been a birthday present . Shelley suggested that her father , philosopher William Godwin , publish Maurice as part of his Juvenile Library , but he refused . He may have thought it was too short or that it too closely resembled a story by Caroline Barnard entitled The Fisher @-@ boy of Weymouth that he had just published in 1819 . In his article on " Maurice " , L. Adam Mekler suggests that Godwin may also have rejected the story because of the " strong biographical parallels " with the history of the Shelleys and the Godwins .
The manuscript was lost until Cristina Dazzi discovered it in the summer of 1997 in the home of the Dazzi family , Casa Cini , in San Marcello Pistoiese . She was looking through a box of old papers , searching for " something interesting " to add to an exhibit about the winter of 1827 – 28 when the poet Giacomo Leopardi had visited and met Lady Mountcashell and her daughter . Excerpts were first published in an Italian book about Lady Mountcashell by Mario Curreli in 1997 . One year later , Percy Shelley and Mary Wollstonecraft biographer Claire Tomalin published the entire story , along with a lengthy introduction and a typescript of the manuscript .
= = Plot summary = =
In " Part I " , a traveller arrives in Torquay , Devonshire . He sees a funeral procession passing by and notices a beautiful , distressed young boy taking part . The traveller goes to a local inn , where a countryman tells the story of Maurice and the late @-@ dead Old Barnet . Old Barnet was a fisherman married to Dame Barnet . She had died a little over a year ago and Old Barnet was distraught ; he had no wife to come home to . One day , Maurice showed up and volunteered to help him out around the house while he was out fishing . Poor and sickly , Maurice could not perform difficult tasks , but he was diligent . Old Barnet grew to love Maurice , as did the villagers .
" Part II " opens with Old Barnet 's brother informing Maurice that he must leave the cottage after one week . Maurice spends his days mourning the fisherman . One day the traveller returns to the village and seeks out Maurice ; he stops at the cottage and asks to stay the night . He and Maurice talk and Maurice tells of his plans to leave the cottage and find work on a farm . He also tells the traveller of his poor family and how he does not want to be a bother to them , revealing that his father used to beat him because he did not believe Maurice was really ill . The traveller and Maurice sit together , enjoying nature , and discuss the pleasures of country life and reading . The traveller offers to care for Maurice and to educate him .
The traveller explains in " Part III " how he is the son of an Oxford mathematics professor . When young , he loved to read outdoors and wanted to know how the world worked . He became an architect and travelled throughout Europe . Eventually he married a lovely woman with whom he had a son , Henry . One day the couple left their son with his nurse during an outing and she fell asleep . When they returned , their son was gone , and he could not be found . The traveller spent years searching the countryside for his son ; one day he met the woman , Dame Smithson , who had stolen his son . To please her sailor husband who wanted a child , she lied to him and said she was pregnant . Before his return , she needed a child , so she stole the traveller 's . Unused to the harsh life of a peasant , the child suffered and became sickly . As a result , the woman 's husband disliked him and beat him , believing him to be worthless . Hearing this story , Maurice reveals himself to be the traveller 's son ; he had changed his name to avoid the person he believed to be his cruel father . Overjoyed to be reunited with his son , the traveller buys the cottage for him and they return every once in a while . Maurice is educated , grows up , and travels widely . He returns to see that the cottage has disintegrated ; he builds a new one for another poor fisherman 's family , beside the lot of the old one .
= = Style , genre , and themes = =
Maurice is divided into three parts , perhaps reflecting the trend for triple @-@ decker novels for adults at the time , and contains multiple narrators . It is written in a melancholy tone , beginning with a funeral and finishing with the decay of the cottage . However , in her review of the Tomalin edition in the New York Times , Marina Warner writes that the story " contains little of the seething originality , moral complexity or sinister Gothic speculativeness of Frankenstein " .
Mary Shelley was reading the poetry of William Wordsworth while she wrote Maurice . Tomalin has argued that " Wordsworth does seem to preside over Maurice , with its clear , straightforward language , and its setting among simple people and poor labourers , and against elemental backgrounds of rocks and trees , cliffs and seashore " .
Maurice 's natural goodness never wavers in the story . Unlike Shelley 's Frankenstein , which suggests that environment determines a person 's morality , Maurice assumes that people can be innately good . Maurice even forgives Dame Smithson , who stole him from his nurse . The story aims to generate sympathy in its readers . In contrast with other children 's stories of its day , it lacks didacticism and draws no clear distinctions between virtue and vice .
Despite the appeal to sympathy , loss is the predominant theme of Maurice : parents lose their child ; a mother yearns for a child to the point that she steals one ; and " Maurice " loses his sense of identity . The overarching themes of the story are Romantic , according to Tomalin : " the vulnerability of childhood , and of parenthood ; displacement , loss , pain , death and rehabilitation ; delight in the natural world ; and the power of time both to heal and to destroy " .
The loss of children , in particular , may have had autobiographical and biographical resonances . Lady Mountcashell had separated from her husband and been forced to give up her children . A court had ruled Percy Bysshe Shelley unfit to raise the children from his marriage to his deceased first wife and placed them in the care of a court @-@ appointed guardian . A third reference may be to the death of three of Mary and Percy 's children . Literary critic A. A. Markley points out that Shelley wrote other works at this time that engaged with the issue of child @-@ parent separation , most notably her novel Mathilda and the children 's drama Proserpine , both of which she worked on in 1820 . Markley explains that Maurice is a reworking of Mathilda , " in which a long deferred reunion of father and child is orchestrated with happy rather than tragic results " . This theme is also explored in Mary Shelley 's short stories " The Mourner " , " The Evil Eye " , and " The Pilgrims " , as well as her novel Lodore ( 1835 ) .
Mekler argues that the story may be a veiled criticism of Mary Shelley 's stepmother , Mary Jane Clairmont . Dame Smithson lies to her husband regarding her children , a possible allusion to the origins of Mary Jane Clairmont 's own first two children and to her " propensity for falsehood " . ( Clairmont represented herself as a widow , with legitimate children , which was not the case . ) Mekler speculates that " in her theft of the first @-@ born son , Dame Smithson replicates in metaphorical fashion Mary Jane 's usurpation of the role as mother of the male heir that had originally belonged to Mary Wollstonecraft " .
= = Reception = =
According to Miranda Seymour , author of a biography of Mary Shelley , while the story itself was " no great work ... the public responded to the discovery with an interest not shown , for example , towards recently found letters of [ Percy ] Shelley and Byron " . She explained this occurred because Mary Shelley is now considered a significant Romantic writer , her works have become increasingly accessible to the public , and her authorship of Frankenstein is often mentioned in the popular press .
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= Concurrent use registration =
A concurrent use registration , in United States trademark law , is a federal trademark registration of the same trademark to two or more unrelated parties , with each party having a registration limited to a distinct geographic area . Such a registration is achieved by filing a concurrent use application ( or by converting an existing application to a concurrent use application ) and then prevailing in a concurrent use proceeding before the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board ( " TTAB " ) , which is a judicial body within the United States Patent and Trademark Office ( " USPTO " ) . A concurrent use application may be filed with respect to a trademark which is already registered or otherwise in use by another party , but may be allowed to go forward based on the assertion that the existing use can co @-@ exist with the new registration without causing consumer confusion .
The authority for this type of registration is set forth in the Lanham Act , which permits concurrent use registration where the concurrent use applicant made a good @-@ faith adoption of the mark prior to the registrant filing an application for registration . Such registrations are most commonly achieved by agreement of the parties involved , although the USPTO must still determine that no confusion will be caused .
= = Statutory basis = =
The authority of the USPTO to issue a concurrent use registration is set forth in the Lanham Act , section 2 ( d ) , enacted in 1947 and coded at 15 U.S.C. § 1052 , which states in relevant part :
Through these provisions , the Act effectively places three requirements on marks for which a later applicant seeks a concurrent use registration :
1 ) the later applicant must have used the mark in commerce prior to the time that the earlier registrant filed its application for registration , unless the senior registrant consents to the junior user 's registration ;
2 ) the later applicant 's use in commerce must have been lawful
3 ) concurrent use of the marks may not result in a likelihood of confusion .
The statute essentially codifies the Tea Rose @-@ Rectanus doctrine , established by the United States Supreme Court in two cases decided in 1916 and 1918 . The Court had established in those cases that a junior user of a mark that is geographically remote from the senior user of the mark may establish priority over a senior user 's claim to the mark in the junior user 's area .
Any party may voluntarily limit the geographic scope of its application while conceding the rights of another party to a different geographic territory . A concurrent use application may not be filed based on a party 's intent to use a mark , but must rely on actual use in commerce . The concurrent use application must identify all other parties who are entitled to use the mark , and provide the names and addresses of the parties identified . Instead of making the usual assertion that no other party has the right to use the mark , the applicant must assert that no other party " except as specified in the application " has such a right .
Where two or more geographically unrestricted applications are pending at the same time , and no registration has yet been issued , the USPTO will proceed with the earliest application , and put all later applications on hold pending a determination on the earliest .
= = = Use in commerce prior to an adverse filing for registration = = =
By the terms of the Act , the critical dates with respect to concurrent registration are the date of the applicant ’ s first use and the earliest filing date of any other registrant . In other words , as the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board Manual of Procedure ( " TBMP " ) states , " an application seeking concurrent registration through a concurrent use proceeding normally must assert a date of first use in commerce prior to the earliest application filing date of the application ( s ) ... involved in the proceeding . "
The Lanham Act requires that an Applicant ’ s use in commerce must have been lawful . The TTAB ( and its predecessor , the United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals ( " CCPA " ) ) has read this to mean that the applicant 's use must not have infringed another party 's use at the time that applicant adopted its mark . Therefore , one potential pitfall facing applicant is that " [ g ] enerally , concurrent rights arise when a party , in good faith , and without knowledge of a prior party ’ s use in another geographic area , adopts and uses the same or similar mark for the same or similar goods or services within its own geographic area . "
The mere fact that an applicant 's use was geographically remote from a registrant or other opposer ’ s use does not establish good faith , as " courts have generally held that the remote use defense ... is unavailable where the junior user adopts a substantially identical mark in a remote geographic area with full knowledge of the senior user ’ s prior use elsewhere . " However , the TTAB has also previously held that " mere knowledge of the existence of the prior user should not , by itself , constitute bad faith . "
= = = Likelihood of confusion = = =
The factors under which the TTAB evaluates the likelihood of confusion were established in In re E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co . , and are commonly referred to as the " du Pont factors " .
The thirteen du Pont factors are :
( 1 ) The similarity or dissimilarity of the marks in their entireties as to appearance , sound , connotation and commercial impression .
( 2 ) The similarity or dissimilarity and nature of the goods or services as described in an application or registration or in connection with which a prior mark is in use .
( 3 ) The similarity or dissimilarity of established , likely @-@ to @-@ continue trade channels .
( 4 ) The conditions under which and buyers to whom sales are made , i.e. " impulse " vs. careful , sophisticated purchasing .
( 5 ) The fame of the prior mark ( sales , advertising , length of use ) .
( 6 ) The number and nature of similar marks in use on similar goods .
( 7 ) The nature and extent of any actual confusion .
( 8 ) The length of time during and conditions under which there has been concurrent use without evidence of actual confusion .
( 9 ) The variety of goods on which a mark is or is not used ( house mark , " family " mark , product mark ) .
( 10 ) The market interface between applicant and the owner of a prior mark :
( a ) a mere " consent " to register or use .
( b ) agreement provisions designed to preclude confusion , i.e. limitations on continued use of the marks by each party .
( c ) assignment of mark , application , registration and good will of the related business .
( d ) laches and estoppel attributable to owner of prior mark and indicative of lack of confusion .
( 11 ) The extent to which applicant has a right to exclude others from use of its mark on its goods .
( 12 ) The extent of potential confusion , i.e. , whether de minimis or substantial .
( 13 ) Any other established fact probative of the effect of use .
In many instances , only a few of the categories will be applicable to the facts of the case before the TTAB .
= = Procedure to acquire = =
The procedures to acquire such a registration are set forth in the TBMP Chapter 1100 . They are initiated when a concurrent use application is submitted to the USPTO , which will initiate a concurrent use proceeding to determine if the applicant is entitled to such registration . An existing application that has been denied registration because of a conflict with an existing mark may be converted into a concurrent use application against that existing mark . In either case , the applicant must assert that its mark was used in commerce before the owner of the existing registration , called the " senior registrant " , had filed its own application for registration . The applicant must also demonstrate that the marks can both be used in their specific geographic areas without causing a likelihood of confusion .
The USPTO will contact the senior registrant to inform that party of the claim against their mark . The proceeding in which the respective rights of the parties are determined is like a trial in which the applicant must submit evidence showing that the applicant had adopted the mark in good faith , that the applicant had adopted the mark prior to the senior registrant 's date of registration , and that the confusion is not likely . The senior registrant may present evidence to the contrary , in order to prevent the loss of control over the use of the registered mark in the applicant 's claimed territory . Both parties may take discovery in the form of requests for admission , interrogatories , requests for production , and depositions . As with a regular trial , the TTAB may be called upon to resolve disputes over whether discovery requests are overbroad , and whether discovery responses are inadequate .
The senior registrant in such a proceeding has ample incentive to oppose the grant of a concurrent use registration , because a registered trademark is presumed to apply throughout the entire United States . Thus , the grant of a concurrent use registration carves out some geographic territory from the senior registrant 's exclusive control .
As 15 U.S.C. § 1052 ( d ) indicates , a concurrent use registration may also be issued " when a court of competent jurisdiction has finally determined that more than one person is entitled to use the same or similar marks in commerce . " As a matter of right , the TTAB will issue such a registration pursuant to a court order that an applicant has the right to use its mark in certain geographic area . Where a court has issued such an order , a concurrent use proceeding is not needed , as evidence has already been taken in the court proceeding , and the rights of the parties have already been determined .
Most concurrent use proceedings result in a legal settlement between the parties . Frequently , one party will surrender its concurrent use claim and instead receive a trademark license from the other party . In other situations , each party may agree to geographic limitations on its use of the mark at issue , which the TTAB will honor if the settlement stipulates to facts which show that no confusion is likely . A benefit of such an agreement is that the parties can agree to terms beyond the scope of the TTAB 's decision , such as specific restrictions on time and place of advertising , or modifications to the appearance of either mark . However , irrespective of the agreement reached , the TTAB must still make an independent finding that no consumer confusion is likely to result from the concurrent use registration . Even if both parties assert that no confusion is likely , the TTAB may still make findings of fact which demonstrate that confusion is likely , and deny registration to the junior user of the mark .
A pivotal factor in assessing the likelihood of confusion in such a circumstance " is whether the parties whose marks are in question have agreed , in some form , to memorialize methods of avoiding confusion . " In that case , the court held that such an agreement " is viewed in light of the parties ’ interests and the prevailing marketplace " , further stating :
Furthermore , the issuance of concurrent use registrations need not prevent either party from engaging in advertising or other activities which might result in the incidental publication of one registrant ’ s mark in the territory of the other registrant . In the Amalgamated Bank case , the Federal Circuit found acceptable a term in the agreement that " nothing in this agreement will preclude Amalgamated New York from conducting advertising which might enter in the State of Illinois or from dealing with customers who happen to be located in the State of Illinois . " Courts have similarly held that a concurrent use registration does not curtail either party from advertising over the Internet , particularly where the junior user includes a disclaimer of some form on their website .
= = Geographic divisions = =
A concurrent use registration can be very detailed in the geographic divisions laid down . It may , for example , allow one party to own the right to use a mark within a fifty @-@ mile radius around a handful of selected cities or counties , while the other party owns the right to use the same mark everywhere else in the country . It may even divide the rights to use a mark within a particular city by reference to roads or other landmarks in that city .
The TTAB succinctly describes its territorial analysis in Weiner King , Inc. v. Wiener King Corp. :
The TTAB has found that in concurrent use proceedings , " [ t ] he area for which registration is sought is usually more extensive than the area in which applicant is actually using the mark . " " As a general rule , a prior user of a mark is entitled to a registration covering the entire United States limited only to the extent that the subsequent user can establish that no likelihood of confusion exists and that it has concurrent rights in its actual area of use , plus its area of natural expansion . "
Between lawful concurrent users of the same mark in geographically separate markets , the senior registrant has the right to maintain his registration for at least those market areas in which it is using the mark . However , the senior registrant does not always maintain the right to use the mark in territories not yet occupied by either party . In Pinocchio 's Pizza , for example , the first applicant ( but the junior user of the mark in commerce ) owned one small restaurant in Maryland and had expressed no plans for expansion , while the second applicant ( but senior user of the mark in commerce ) owned multiple restaurants in Texas and was planning aggressive expansion . The TTAB held that " purpose of the statute is best served by granting [ the second ] applicant a registration for the entire United States except for registrant ’ s trading area . " The TTAB therefore restricted the first applicant ’ s registration to permit exclusive use in Maryland , and within 50 miles of the first applicant ’ s restaurant in areas crossing into other states .
Furthermore , although the general rule provides that the entire United States should be covered by the respective registrations , it is permissible for parties to a proceeding to resolve the issue of territorial rights in a way that leaves some part of the country uncovered entirely . In a contested proceeding In re Beatrice Foods Co . , the court held that the senior user of a mark was entitled to a registration covering the entire United States , outside of the junior user 's area of actual use . However , the court went on to say :
The few courts that have considered the antitrust implications of concurrent use registration have determined that it does not raise any violation of antitrust laws . Although it is considered a violation of such laws for companies to agree to divide up geographic territories for the sale of goods , concurrent use agreements dividing up trademark territories are specifically provided for by Congress . Furthermore , even with such an agreement in place , a company can still sell competing products in the trademark territory of another company , so long as the intruding party sells that product under a different mark .
= = Impact = =
The availability of concurrent use registration is not commonly invoked , even where the applicant might stand an excellent chance of demonstrating the existence of geographically distinct markets . Proceedings before the TTAB , like proceedings before any court , can be expensive and time @-@ consuming . A contested concurrent use proceeding may last for two or three years before the resolution of a claim , and the outcome will remain uncertain until the end . The outcome of the proceeding will then be subject to an appeal before the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit , or to a collateral challenge in a United States District Court .
Perhaps the most notable instance of a continuing concurrent use registration is that of Holiday Inn . Although the national chain owns numerous trademark registrations , there is one registration for an unrelated " Holiday Inn " which is " restricted to the area comprising the town of Myrtle Beach , S.C. " . The Myrtle Beach hotel had used that name since the 1940s , and initiated a concurrent use proceeding in 1970 . While this proceeding was pending , the national chain commenced an action in the United States District Court . The concurrent use proceeding was suspended during the pendency of the federal litigation , which resulted in a judgment in 1973 authorizing the Myrtle Beach hotel to use a distinctive , noninfringing Holiday Inn service mark within the Town of Myrtle Beach . The concurrent use proceeding resumed , and in 1976 , the United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals awarded the Myrtle Beach hotel a federal trademark registration .
Even where a concurrent use registration is issued , the parties may eventually come to an agreement under which one party will surrender its registration . In some instances , a party will simply happen to cease using the mark in favor of a new brand name , and the registration will lapse . In other cases , the larger company will eventually acquire the smaller .
A final note is that concurrent use registration was devised before the advent of the Internet , which serves to diminish geographic distinctions between sellers . John L. Welch , a Harvard @-@ educated attorney who writes a well @-@ known blog on the proceedings of the TTAB , has noted that " vigorously contested proceedings may well make it clear that concurrent use registrations are , in this Internet Age , a dying breed " .
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= TV Everywhere =
TV Everywhere ( also known as authenticated streaming or authenticated video on @-@ demand ) refers to a business model wherein access to streaming video content from a television channel requires users to " authenticate " themselves as current subscribers to the channel , via an account provided by their participating pay television provider , in order to access the content .
Under the model , broadcasters offer their customers the ability to access content from their channels through internet @-@ based services and mobile apps — either live or on @-@ demand , as part of their subscription to the service . Time Warner Cable first proposed the concept in 2009 ; in 2010 , many television providers and networks began to roll out TV Everywhere services for their subscribers , including major networks such as TBS and TNT ( whose owner was an early supporter of the concept ) , ESPN , and HBO among others . Broadcast television networks also began to adopt TV Everywhere restrictions for their online content .
Although providers have touted the advantages of being able to access content across multiple platforms ( including on the internet , and on mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets ) as part of their television subscription , TV Everywhere services have been criticized for being difficult for end @-@ users to set up , while media activists have criticized the concept for being a paywall that extends the existing oligarchy of the subscription television industry to the internet , and considering it to be collusion against " cord cutters " — those who drop cable and satellite entirely in favor of accessing content via terrestrial television , the internet , and subscription video on demand ( SVOD ) services .
= = Rationale = =
TV Everywhere services were developed in an attempt to compete with the market trend of " cord cutting " , where consumers drop traditional pay television subscriptions in favor of accessing TV content exclusively through over @-@ the @-@ air television and / or online on @-@ demand services , including Hulu , Netflix , YouTube , and other sources . Authenticated streaming and video on @-@ demand services allow traditional television providers to directly compete with these competitors , and add value to existing television subscriptions in an effort to retain subscribers .
In particular , broadcasters and providers have emphasized the use of TV Everywhere services to allow multi @-@ platform access to their content , on devices such as personal computers , smartphones , tablets , and video game consoles .
= = History = =
= = = Precursors = = =
ESPN first introduced a TV Everywhere @-@ like concept with ESPN360 , a service which allowed users to stream sports programming from its networks either live or on @-@ demand through a website . However , access to ESPN360 was restricted to the users of internet service providers who had negotiated deals with ESPN to offer the service ; a model closer in nature to cable television carriage . Similar tactics were soon used by several other channels , such as NFL Network ( who used the technique to restrict access to its Game Extra service for Thursday Night Football ) and Epix . David Preschlack , ESPN 's executive vice president for affiliate sales and marketing , foresaw a future in the model , believing that access to exclusive content would soon play a greater role in competition between high @-@ speed internet providers . Although the model was deemed a violation of the principles of net neutrality by critics , the FCC 's policies on net neutrality only apply to ISPs and not content providers .
= = = Introduction and adoption = = =
In 2009 , Time Warner Cable announced an initiative known as TV Everywhere , a set of principles which were " designed to serve as a framework to facilitate deployment of online television content in a way that is consumer friendly , pro @-@ competitive . " The concept would enable users of their respective cable television services to access live and on @-@ demand online content from channels that they subscribe to by using an account @-@ based authentication system . TWC CEO Jeffrey Bewkes believed that the TV Everywhere principles were " good concepts " that are " likely to be the general direction for all TV networks and all the distribution connections that are out there . " That summer , both TWC and Comcast began trials of services based on the system ; Turner Broadcasting was an early supporter of the system , providing access to TBS and TNT content as part of the trials . Comcast officially launched a public beta of its TV Everywhere @-@ based portal , Xfinity Fancast , in December 2009 for all double @-@ play television and internet customers . Afterwards , other providers began to follow suit .
In 2010 , broadcasters and television providers began a wider roll @-@ out of TV Everywhere @-@ based services ; for the 2010 Winter Olympics , NBC Sports offered live and video on @-@ demand access to events throughout the Games that required users to authenticate for access . Also in February , HBO launched HBO Go , a video on demand service exclusive to HBO subscribers on participating providers . In September 2010 , Disney would begin launching an array of TV Everywhere @-@ based services , including WatchESPN ( allowing users to stream ESPN 's entire suite of channels ) , accompanied by the later launches of similar " Watch " services for Disney Channel and Disney XD .
In August 2011 , Fox became the first over @-@ the @-@ air network to restrict on @-@ demand access with a TV Everywhere @-@ based system ; " next day " on @-@ demand episodes ( either through its website or Hulu , itself a joint venture between Fox , NBC , and ABC at the time ) would only be available online to users authenticating themselves as a subscriber to a cable or satellite provider , or those who subscribe to the Hulu Plus service . All other users would be subject to an 8 @-@ day delay . On September 1 , 2011 , fellow Fox property Big Ten Network ( a college sports network dedicated to the Big Ten Conference , operated in partnership with Fox Sports ) also launched a TV Everywhere service known as BTN2Go .
= = = Expansion = = =
Matt Strauss , Comcast senior vice president of digital and emerging platforms , considered the 2012 Summer Olympics to be a " watershed " event for TV Everywhere services ; NBCUniversal announced that a total of nearly 10 million authenticated devices accessed its online coverage during the Games across both the NBCOlympics.com site and NBC Olympics Live Extra app ; in particular , parent company Comcast accounted for 3 @.@ 3 million devices from 1 @.@ 5 million users . Following the Games , the NBC Olympics Live Extra app was re @-@ launched as NBC Sports Live Extra , serving as a general TV Everywhere app for NBC Sports . TV Everywhere services also began to appear in Canada , with the Canadian launch of HBO Go in 2012 , and the 2013 announcement of TV Everywhere services from Bell Media ( beginning with Bravo Go , and also including CTV Go and TSN Go ) and Shaw Media ( beginning with Global ) . The majority of Canadian broadcasters are vertically integrated ; both Bell and Shaw operate internet service providers and national satellite television services .
In May 2013 , ABC released its Watch ABC mobile app , which allows viewers on participating providers to access live streams from participating ABC affiliates . In December 2013 , ABC confirmed that it would impose a similar restriction to Fox for " next day " on @-@ demand episodes beginning on January 6 , 2014 , with 7 @-@ day exclusivity for authenticated users and Hulu Plus subscribers . NBC unveiled its own plans for a similar TV Everywhere app to its affiliate board in April 2014 .
In November 2015 , after negotiations surrounding revenue sharing and infrastructural mandates ( including a proposed requirement that the games only be available through the league 's existing apps ) , Major League Baseball reached a three @-@ year deal with Fox to allow it to offer in @-@ market online streaming on Fox Sports Go ( though streamed using MLB Advanced Media infrastructure ) for the 16 teams that it holds regional rights to through the Fox Sports Networks division . In December 2015 , Discovery Communications , a long hold @-@ out on the concept , launched Discovery Go , a centralized TV Everywhere service and mobile app for Discovery Channel , TLC , as well as sister networks American Heroes Channel , Animal Planet , Destination America , Discovery Life , Investigation Discovery , Science Channel , and Velocity .
= = Reception = =
The TV Everywhere concept has been met with mixed reception . Some broadcasters were initially hesitant to introduce TV Everywhere services , with concerns that they might affect advertising revenue and not be adequately counted by Nielsen ratings . Media activists have criticized the system for protecting the existing closed , regionalized oligarchy of multichannel television by tying internet @-@ based content to traditional television providers , thus harming competitors that are purely internet @-@ based . Public Knowledge believed that " under the ' TV Everywhere ' plan , no other program distributors would be able to emerge , and no consumers will be able to ' cut the cord ' because they find what they want online . As a result , consumers will be the losers . "
In 2010 , Free Press released a report entitled " TV Nowhere : How the Cable Industry Is Colluding to Kill Online TV " , contending that " under TV Everywhere , traditional cable TV distributors will continue to serve only consumers within their current geographically limited footprints , not competing with providers in other areas " and that " by tying programming to local cable subscriptions , while denying content to pure online TV distributors , the incumbent industry hopes to artificially reproduce the lack of competition for TV distribution to which it is accustomed , based on geographical fiefdoms and turf . " The National Cable and Telecommunications Association ( NCTA ) denied many of Free Press ' arguments , stating that " [ TV Everywhere ] is an effort to ensure more content than ever is distributed over the Internet at no extra charge to consumers . " On the other hand , Songwriters Guild of America president Rick Carnes praised the TV Everywhere concept and other recent developments for helping to provide easier , legal access to premium content online .
In July 2014 , BTIG analyst Richard Greenfield criticized the video on demand services offered through TV Everywhere systems for being ad @-@ supported . In examples from FX and TNT , he noticed that ads often repeated , and that in TNT 's case , its version of an episode of The Last Ship included 20 minutes of unskippable ads across 45 minutes of programming . In conclusion , he contended that viewers would rather wait for programs to appear on commercial @-@ free SVOD services rather than use TV Everywhere services .
= = = Viewer awareness = = =
Despite efforts by broadcasters to educate viewers on TV Everywhere services and how to utilize them ( including Fox , who featured a promotional video with Jane Lynch as her Glee character Sue Sylvester , describing the process as being less painful than waterboarding ) , critics and end @-@ users criticized the registration and authentication processes for being frustrating and difficult . In response , providers took steps to improve their user experiences ; Disney reported that use of its TV Everywhere services increased after it simply changed its process to use the term " verify " instead of " authenticate " , Comcast and Cablevision introduced systems that automatically verify users with their residential gateways , and Synacor ( a provider of authentication platforms used by providers ) added the ability for users to link their provider account to a social network login , such as Facebook or Twitter .
For the 2012 Summer Olympics and 2014 Winter Olympics , NBC worked closer with providers to help educate users , and produced customized marketing materials and video tutorials featuring Carson Daly ( 2012 ) and Ryan Seacrest ( 2014 ) to help inform users . As an incentive , NBC also allowed authenticated users to enter a sweepstakes to win a trip to London ( 2012 ) or Rio de Janeiro ( 2014 ) . Still , dissatisfaction with the system and the quality of NBC 's overall coverage led to an increase in the use of virtual private network ( VPN ) services to access the more comprehensive online coverage of the Games being provided by broadcasters in Canada ( CTV in London , CBC in Sochi ) and the United Kingdom ( BBC ) , which did not use authentication , but cannot normally be viewed inside the United States due to territorial rights restrictions .
In April 2014 , the Cable & Telecommunications Association for Marketing ( CTAM ) unveiled an industry @-@ wide initiative for marketing and educating subscribers about TV Everywhere services provided by broadcasters and providers ; these efforts include a stylized " tv everywhere " logo which the organization intends providers to use as a unified brand to denote TV Everywhere services . The logo consists of interlocking rectangles , representing multiple " screens " ( platforms ) for viewing content . The association also provided design recommendations for TV Everywhere user experiences , aiming to alleviate the confusion that had been experienced by users during the authentication process .
= = = Adoption = = =
In a December 2013 survey of 4 @,@ 205 pay television subscribers , NPD Group found that 21 % of them used a TV Everywhere service at least once per month , and that 90 % of them were satisfied with the experience . NPD analyst Russ Crupnick felt that " aggressive " use of the model was helping to counter cord cutting , which " speaks to the level of engagement they have with programming and a comfort in using the Internet to both access and interact with that programming . " The study also found that 3 out of 10 pay television subscribers who were also subscribed to an SVOD service used TV Everywhere services at least once a week ( in comparison to 2 out of 10 for those who were not ) .
Amid criticism of NBC 's coverage , adoption of NBC 's TV Everywhere services during the 2014 Winter Olympics was still significantly large : on February 21 , 2014 , coverage of the Men 's hockey semi @-@ final featuring the U.S. and Canada recorded the largest Live Extra audience in NBC Sports history , with 2 @.@ 12 million unique viewers , augmenting the average NBCSN television audience of 3 @.@ 9 million . ESPN 's coverage of the 2014 FIFA World Cup drew similarly heavy online viewership : during a group stage match between the U.S. and Portugal , at least 1 @.@ 7 million concurrent viewers were using WatchESPN ( though , not all of the viewers were necessarily watching the game ) .
In December 2015 , research firm GfK estimated that 53 % of the United States ' pay television subscribers have used a TV Everywhere service — an increase from 42 % in 2012 , that overall use had doubled since 2012 , and 79 % of those surveyed found the login process easy . However , only 25 % of those surveyed were aware of the term " TV Everywhere " or the CTAM logo , leading to the firm believing that consumer awareness and education was still a " critical missing piece " in the adoption of these services .
= = = Platform non @-@ neutrality = = =
In 2014 , Comcast was criticized for its decision to arbitrarily block access to HBO Go on PlayStation 3 and Roku devices , but still allowing its use on competing Apple TV and Xbox 360 . Comcast similarly blocked access to Showtime Anytime on Roku as well . A spokesperson for the provider stated that " with every new website , device or player we authenticate , we need to work through technical integration and customer service which takes time and resources . Moving forward , we will continue to prioritize as we partner with various players . "
During both the FCC 's net neutrality hearings and comments regarding Comcast 's then @-@ proposed merger with Time Warner Cable ( which , by contrast , allows HBO Go access on all supported devices ) , Roku criticized the provider for contradicting the TV Everywhere concept by discriminating against specific devices , thus prioritizing its own on @-@ demand platform over external services . The company argued that providers could selectively favor certain platforms over others , further stating that " a large and powerful MVPD may use this leverage in negotiations with content providers or operators of streaming platforms , ultimately favoring parties that can either afford to pay for the privilege of authentication , or have other business leverage that can be used as a counterweight to discriminatory authentication . "
On December 15 , 2014 , Comcast enabled the ability to use HBO Go and Showtime Anytime on Roku devices . However , Comcast still blocks HBO Go on PlayStation consoles .
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= Stanley Internment Camp =
Stanley Internment Camp ( Chinese : 赤柱拘留營 ) was a civilian internment camp in Hong Kong during World War II . Located in Stanley , on the southern end of Hong Kong Island , it was used by the Japanese imperial forces to hold non @-@ Chinese enemy nationals after their victory in the Battle of Hong Kong , a battle in the Pacific campaign of World War II . About 2 @,@ 800 men , women , and children were held at the non @-@ segregated camp for 44 months from early January 1942 to August 1945 when Japanese forces surrendered . The camp area consisted of St. Stephen 's College and the grounds of Stanley Prison , excluding the prison itself .
= = Evacuation and arrival at camp = =
In 1939 , the British government had drawn up evacuation plans for the British and other European residents of Hong Kong , which was a Crown colony of the United Kingdom ( UK ) at the time . The War Office by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff thought the city would inevitably fall to Japanese forces in the event of an attack , so it should not be reinforced with more defensive forces . The presence of a large number of British women and children would have been an " embarrassment " for the government when the Japanese forces take Hong Kong , and additionally it was thought the internment of thousands of British civilians would cause unnecessary suffering and serve the Japanese as propaganda material . In July 1940 , the colonial government of Hong Kong received orders from the UK to proceed with the evacuations . By 3 August , all service families and registered non @-@ service British women and children were moved to the Philippines . However , the hurried compulsory evacuations prompted criticism from many evacuees , their husbands , and their employees , who felt the evacuations were premature and unnecessary . According to Bernice Archer and Kent Fedorowich , respectively of the University of Essex and the University of the West of England , the local Chinese population were angered by their exclusion from the evacuations and condemned the plans as racist . Additionally , the plans excluded British passport holders who were not of European ancestry . Amidst the criticism , the government subsequently made the evacuations non @-@ compulsory . Existing evacuations already ordered were cancelled provided evacuees volunteered for auxiliary roles , such as nursing or administrative work .
On 8 December 1941 , Japanese forces attacked Hong Kong , marking the start of the Battle of Hong Kong . Seventeen days later , on Christmas Day of 1941 , which came to be known as " Black Christmas " , the Hong Kong government surrendered , and Hong Kong came under Japanese occupation . On 4 January 1942 , a notice appeared in an English @-@ language newspaper that all " enemy nationals " were to assemble on Murray Parade Grounds . Many people did not see the notice , but about 1 @,@ 000 people were eventually gathered on the grounds . In addition to those who gathered voluntarily , there were people forcibly removed from their homes .
The people assembled were marched to and initially interned in hotel @-@ brothels on the waterfront near the present @-@ day Macau Ferry Pier . The conditions there were dirty and overcrowded , and the food was poor . After 17 days , the internees were taken by boat to Stanley . The " enemy nationals " who failed to assemble on Murray Parade Grounds avoided internment at the hotel @-@ brothels . However , by the end of January , most of the civilians to be interned were moved to Stanley . Upon arrival at camp , the internees discovered little was prepared for them there . There were no cooking facilities , no furniture , little crockery or cutlery . The toilet facilities were dirty , inadequate , and without water . The rooms were soon overcrowded with random assortments of people unrelated to each other , and with little attention paid to hygiene or public health .
= = Camp grounds = =
The Stanley site was chosen by the Japanese through consultation with two Hong Kong government officials – Dr. P. S. Selwyn @-@ Clarke , Director of Medical Services , and F. C. Gimson , the Colonial Secretary . Located on Stanley Peninsula , which was about nine kilometres from the city at the time , the camp consisted of St. Stephen 's College and the grounds of Stanley Prison , excluding the prison itself ; the prison was used by the Japanese authorities to hold what they considered " criminals " from Hong Kong . Several hundred internees lived at St. Stephen 's , while the majority of them lived on the prison grounds . Prior to Japanese occupation , St. Stephen 's was a secondary school whose facilities , in addition to classrooms , included an assembly hall , bungalows for teachers , and science laboratories . Over twenty internees occupied each bungalow , which was built for one family , and more than that occupied each science laboratory , living between partitions of sacking and old blankets . Almost all the buildings in the camp were used for housing .
Certain buildings and areas on the prison grounds had specific functions :
The Prison Officers ' Club was used for multiple functions ; it was used as a canteen , a kindergarten , Catholic church , and recreation centre .
Two main divisions of quarters existed – the Warders ' Quarters and the Indian Quarters . Before the war , the Warders ' Quarters housed European warders , with large flats designed for one family each , and the Indian Quarters housed Indian prison guards , built with smaller flats . An average of thirty internees lived in each Warders ' Quarters flat , and an average of six internees lived in each Indian Quarters flat .
A building which had housed single Indian warders before the war was turned into a hospital called Tweed Bay Hospital .
Two houses , originally used as homes for the prison superintendent and the prison doctor , were turned into the Japanese headquarters for the camp .
The cemetery on the grounds became a popular spot for quiet relaxation as well as a place for intimate meetings between male and female internees .
= = Life at camp = =
The internees numbered at 2 @,@ 800 , where an estimated 2 @,@ 325 to 2 @,@ 514 were British . The adult population numbered at 1 @,@ 370 men and 858 women , and children 16 years of age or younger numbered at 286 , with 99 of whom were below the age of 4 . The camp was under the control of the Japanese Foreign Affairs Department , but according to historian Geoffrey Charles Emerson , the Japanese forces had not made plans for dealing with enemy civilians in Hong Kong . As such , the camp was provided with few necessities , and the internees were left to govern the camp themselves . Committees were formed for such matters as housing , food , and medical care . The national groups remained mostly independent of each other except for matters of welfare and medical care . Very few government servants were selected to serve on these committees , due to anti @-@ government sentiments ; most internees blamed the government for the quick surrender of Hong Kong .
The biggest concern was food ; ensuring there was enough food occupied most of the internees ' time . Little food was provided by the Japanese authorities , and it was of poor quality – frequently containing dust , mud , rat and cockroach excreta , cigarette ends , and sometimes dead rats . Everyday , the internees were served rice congee at 8 am , and meals consisting of rice with stew at both 11 a.m. and 5 p.m. Additionally , they relied on food mailed from friends or relatives in the city , Red Cross aid , garden @-@ grown vegetables , and bought food from the canteen or the black market .
Another concern was the health and medical care of the internees . Although medical facilities were inadequate , the internees counted amongst them about 40 doctors , 2 dentists , 6 pharmacists , 100 trained nurses , and a large number of volunteer auxiliary nurses . Because of this , according to historian G. B. Endacott , no major epidemic occurred . The most common sickness amongst the internees were malaria , malnutrition and its associated diseases , beriberi , and pellagra . The shortage of medical supplies and equipment posed a challenge for those in charge of medical care , with the lack of soap and disinfectant being a particularly troublesome concern .
The women and children contributed to a sense of normality as their presence provided conventional social , family , and gender relations . The internees believed the children 's presence made them less selfish , as it forced them to think of the latter 's welfare . The women organised Christmas and birthday celebrations . Other diversions such as musicals , plays , recitals , and variety shows were also staged . Although the camp lacked books and educational equipment , the teachers and educational administrators amongst the internees were able to provide lessons for the children at the primary and secondary levels . Additionally , extensive adult education was available for the adults : language courses for Chinese , Malay , and French , and also lectures on photography , yachting , journalism , and poultry @-@ keeping . In addition to the personal diaries kept by internees , many of them now held by the Imperial War Museum , a record of life in the camp was created using a double bed sheet . The Day Joyce Sheet was embroidered and appliquéd with 1100 names , signs and figures including a diary in code .
= = Deaths = =
Records show that 121 internees died in the camp , mostly due to illness , with half the deaths being of internees over the age of 50 . There were also a few accidental deaths . Two internees died from falls and one child had drowned . The worst camp accident occurred on 16 January 1945 , when an American plane accidentally bombed Bungalow 5 at St. Stephen 's College , killing 14 internees . These internees were buried at Stanley Military Cemetery .
Another seven internees were executed by the Japanese authorities . These internees had possessed a radio set which they used to pass messages in and out of camp . The radio was discovered by the Japanese and the internees were arrested . The other internees were forced to watch their public torture . Military trials were subsequently held and on 29 October 1943 , some of the internees were executed by being shot and at least one , John Fraser , was beheaded . Aside from this , the Japanese authorities had executed by decapitation , three Chinese policemen for bringing cigarettes and tobacco to the camp 's internees .
= = Escape attempts = =
A number of factors made escape attempts daunting for the internees ; they would have to navigate through Japanese @-@ occupied territory , find food , and , as few internees actually spoke Cantonese , they would also have to deal with language difficulties in Hong Kong if they succeeded in escaping . Despite the difficulties , there were three major escape attempts , with two being successful in March 1942 . One group of eight internees escaped on a small boat to neighbouring Macau . Another group , consisting of two internees , escaped through the New Territories and into mainland China . The third group , four policemen , in April 1942 managed to escape the camp grounds but were caught within a few miles of camp . They were subsequently imprisoned and released back to camp after a few weeks .
= = Early Repatriations = =
Repatriation was one of the two most talked @-@ about subject at camp ( the other being the subject of food ) . On 6 May 1942 , the Japanese authorities informed the internees repatriation for the Americans would take place on 15 June . Japanese treatment of the American internees improved during this period before the actual repatriation took place ; more and better food was given to them , and they were allowed contacts with Chinese friends outside of camp . American journalists were interviewed by a Japanese news agency and asked questions about the war and the camp . The internees came to find out later the interview became war propaganda for the Japanese , in the form of an article claiming that American journalists had complimented the Japanese military and the camp itself , stating the camp was " probably the most comfortable in the world . " It was not until 29 June that repatriation for the Americans finally took place , after Japanese and Thai citizens held in the US and South America boarded ships in late June in preparation for exchange of internees . Those being repatriated were given smallpox vaccination , cholera inoculation , and thorough medical examinations . No books , bibles , diaries , or addresses were allowed to leave with the Americans , but the remaining internees were each allowed to write a 150 @-@ word letter for the Americans to take with them . The American internees boarded the ship , the Asama Maru , along with other Americans who had been allowed to stay in Hong Kong outside of the camp . After picking up Americans for repatriation from other locations in Asia , the Asama Maru arrived at Maputo , Mozambique ( then called Lourenço Marques ) on 22 July , where the Americans and Japanese exchanged internees . The Americans were to finally reach New York City on 25 August . Reportedly a total of 377 Americans were repatriated from Hong Kong .
Repatriation of Canadian internees and remaining American internees were announced in August 1943 ( not all American internees had been repatriated in June 1942 ) . Preparations similar to the prior repatriation were made , including messages and reports to be delivered . The ship , the Teia Maru , reached Hong Kong on 23 September , taking on board 73 Canadian internees , 24 American internees , and 13 Latin American internees . The ship sailed to Goa , where an exchange of prisoners and internees with Japan took place .
There were indications and notices to the British internees that their repatriation was possible ; Gimson told them a Swiss Red Cross representative had spoken " encouragingly " about repatriation , the Japanese authorities twice informed them ( on 24 May 1943 and 2 November 1943 ) that they would be repatriated , and 25 May 1943 issue of the Hong Kong News reported negotiations for repatriation were " going on rather smoothly " . Despite this , the British internees were not repatriated until the end of the war .
= = Freedom = =
The internees were freed on 16 August 1945 , the day after Emperor Hirohito broadcast his acceptance of the Potsdam Proclamation in surrender . About two weeks later , the British fleet came for the internees , and several weeks after that , the camp was closed . Many internees went back to the city and began to adjust back to their former lives , and many others , particularly those of poor health , remained on the camp grounds to await for ships to take them away . Historian Geoffrey Charles Emerson wrote the " probable " reason the British internees were not repatriated before the end of the war was related to the Allied forces refusing to release Japanese nationals held in Australia . These nationals were the only sizeable group of Japanese nationals held by the Allies after the repatriation of the American and Canadian internees . They had been pearl fishermen in Australia before the war , and knew the Australian coastline well . Their knowledge would have been " militarily important " to the Japanese if an invasion of Australia was attempted , hence the Allied refusal to release them .
= = Compensation = =
In 1948 , the US government , through the War Claims Act , authorised the payment of US $ 60 for every month an adult spent in an internment camp , and US $ 25 per month for child internees . Some also received US $ 1 per day for " missed meals " . In the UK , from 1952 to 1956 , about 8 @,@ 800 British internees , specifically those who normally resided in the UK when the war began , received a sum of ₤ 48 @.@ 50 as reparation . Payments for American and British internees were made from the proceeds of Japanese assets seized per the Treaty of San Francisco . Dutch internees each received a sum of US $ 100 , with the payments funded by a separate agreement signed between the Dutch and the Japanese in 1957 .
The rise of Japan as an economic power and the opening of World War II files at the UK 's Public Record Office created a sentiment in the 1990s that not enough had been done to redress the suffering of internees and prisoners @-@ of @-@ war . In November 2000 , the British government announced a compensation scheme for British civilians who had been interned in World War II . The scheme called for a package of £ 167 million , and by February 2001 , the first raft of payments of £ 10 @,@ 000 were being made . Initially , the plan excluded British persons who had no " bloodlink " to Britain , a point of distinction that was made between those who were " British citizens " and those who were " British subjects " .
In reaction to this , former Stanley internee Diana Elias launched a civil action case against the British government , alleging the distinction of " bloodlink " made by the compensation scheme was discriminatory , and that the Japanese authorities had made no such distinction in their treatment of the internees . Elias ' family , including her parents and her grandparents , were all holders of British passports . The " bloodlink " distinction , however , made her ineligible for compensation because she is of Iraqi Jewish ancestry . In July 2005 , the High Court in London ruled in her favour , and was subsequently backed by the Court of Appeals when the Ministry of Defence appealed the High Court 's decision . This allowed for hundreds of surviving civilian internees to collect the compensation earlier denied to them by the " bloodlink " distinction .
= = Post @-@ war = =
St. Stephen 's College was re @-@ opened in 1945 after the war . St. Stephen 's Chapel was built on the grounds of the school in 1950 ; the memorial window over its west door was a donation , serving to remember the suffering at Stanley Internment Camp .
= = Notable internees = =
Sir C. Grenville Alabaster – Attorney General of Hong Kong
Morris Abraham Cohen
Kenelm Hutchinson Digby
Elly Kadoorie
Sir Atholl MacGregor – Chief Justice of Hong Kong
Lewis Morley
Hilda Selwyn @-@ Clarke
Francis Arthur Sutton
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= Monster Cable =
Monster Inc. is an American company that manufactures and markets 6 @,@ 000 different products , but is best known for audio and video cables . It also produces speakers , headphones , power strips , mobile accessories and audio devices for automobiles . The company was founded by an audiophile and engineer , Noel Lee , in 1979 by experimenting with different ways to build audio cables . It grew by doing demonstrations to convince the industry that audio cables made a difference in audio quality and by establishing relationships with retailers that were attracted to the cable 's profit margins .
Over the years it created new divisions like Monster Music , Monster Game , Monster Mobile , Monster Photo and Monster Power . In the 2000s , Monster had legal trademark disputes regarding other companies or products that have " Monster " in their name , such as Monster.com and the film Monsters , Inc . Monster said it needed to defend its premium brand , while critics said it was pursuing litigation against companies that do not have confusingly similar products . It began manufacturing headphones in a partnership with Dr. Dre in 2008 , which ended in 2012 , and it created other celebrity branded or Monster @-@ branded headphone products .
Several tests done by audiophile publications , news reporters and academics have conflicting viewpoints on whether more expensive audio or video cables like those from Monster make a difference in audio or video quality when compared to generic cables . Instead of advertising , Monster offers incentives to retailers and their salespeople to sell the cables . Retailers bundle high profit @-@ margin cables with larger purchases that have smaller margins in order to improve profitability .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Monster was founded in 1979 by Noel Lee as Monster Cable Products . Lee , an audiophile and engineer , was experimenting with different copper qualities , wire constructs and winding methods of audio cables in his family 's garage and comparing them while listening to Tchaikovsky 's 1812 Overture . He became convinced that audio cables could be engineered to improve audio quality by conducting electricity more efficiently . Using a borrowed portion of somebody 's booth at the 1978 Consumer Electronics Show , he did demonstrations of his cables in comparison to standard wires . After a positive reception at CES , he quit his job at Lawrence Berkeley Lab and started Monster Cable Products with $ 250 @,@ 000 in bank financing . Monster 's first cables were manufactured by Lee by hand and sold door @-@ to @-@ door .
Initial sales were slow , because at the time electronics retailers provided low @-@ cost lamp cords to consumers for free or at low prices and audiophiles didn 't believe audio cables made a difference in the sound . Monster is credited with creating the market for high @-@ end audio cables in the 1980s through Lee 's " marketing prowess . " He did demonstrations comparing the audio of standard cables to Monster cables for retailers and trained their salespeople to do the same for customers .
= = = Diversification = = =
In 1980 , Monster Cable Products moved out of Lee 's garage and into a San Francisco facility . It also introduced its second audio cable , Interlink . The company grew through word @-@ of @-@ mouth and an increasing number of retailers that carried Monster products . It attempted to enter the market for audio devices for automotive briefly , but withdrew to focus on home entertainment . Its first product intended for the mass @-@ market was introduced in 1987 .
Monster re @-@ entered the auto audio market in the early 1990s with a new line of speaker cables and its first speaker product , the Persona One . Its high @-@ end M @-@ series product line was introduced in 1992 . It also expanded internationally , especially in Asia . Monster had a Taiwanese distributor file its trademark in the region , which led to the distributor continuing to sell products under the Monster brand after their agreement with Monster was terminated . This led to a lengthy legal battle and eventually a settlement . Monster acquired the Entec in @-@ car audio brand in 1998 .
Monster 's program for retailers was formalized in 1993 as the M4 Dealer Success Program . The " M4 " stands for four " M " s : Mix ( product mix ) , Merchandising ( displays ) , Monsterization ( training ) and Management commitment . In the 1990s , the business grew from $ 20 million in annual revenues to $ 100 million . By 1998 , Monster was producing 1 @,@ 000 different products out of a distribution and manufacturing center in Brisbane , California that was established that year . It had created a record label company , Monster Music , in 1989 , which was followed by Monster Power for power products such as power cords and surge protectors , in 1998 , Monster Game for video game accessories in 2000 and the Monster Mobile division which markets cell phone and digital camera accessories in 2001 . A Monster Photo product line was created in 2003 that includes power cells , cables and bags for digital cameras , followed by Monster Signature Series Power . In 2004 , it created a spin @-@ off called M @-@ Design , run by Lee 's son , which sells furniture with electronics built in .
= = = Recent history = = =
In September 2004 , Monster paid $ 6 million in an agreement with the San Francisco 49ers and the city of San Francisco to rename the football team 's home stadium from Candlestick Park to Monster Park for four years . $ 3 million of it was given to the football team and the other $ 3 million to the San Francisco Recreation and Parks Department . Critics of local politician Matt Gonzales said it was inappropriate for the city to sell the name of a public facility to a corporation and a ballot was passed ensuring that the name of the park reverted back to Candlestick Park in 2008 .
Monster 's first wireless products , a receiver and transmitter for connecting televisions and devices was introduced in 2008 . In 2012 , the company changed its name from " Monster Cable Products " to just " Monster Inc . " .
= = = = Trademark disputes = = = =
As of 2004 , Monster owned about 300 trademarks , 70 of which are related to the word " Monster " . By 2009 , the company had made 190 filings with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office . Most filings were to delay potentially infringing trademark applications so Monster could study them . Some were formal oppositions and about 30 have resulted in lawsuits . Most lawsuits were settled with non @-@ disclosed terms . Critics and defendants say that Monster is too aggressive in pursuing trademark protections against companies that do not have confusingly similar products and that it is trying to own a common word , not protect a brand . Monster representatives say they are doing what most " premium " brands do to protect their marks and that their products include things like clothes , mints and music .
In the 2000s , Monster had legal disputes over its trademarks with the Discovery Channel for its show Monster Garage . Monster also had trademark disputes with Bally Gaming International over its slot machines , Monster Slots , with Hansen Beverage Co. for its Monster Energy drink , and the Chicago Bears , who use the nickname " Monsters of the Midway . " Other trademark disputes include a 2001 lawsuit against The Walt Disney Company for products related to the film Monsters , Inc . , and a claim against an online used clothing retailer , MonsterVintage LLC . In 2004 , Monster filed a complaint about the trademark application from Snow Monsters , a video website with skiing content for kids . The Snow Monsters owner initiated a lawsuit against Monster pre @-@ emptively . It has also had a trademark dispute with the job site , Monster.com.
In 2006 Monster brought a suit against Monster Mini Golf , a company selling franchise Mini Golf locations throughout the US . After an unsuccessful legal mediation , Monster Mini Golf launched a grassroots campaign against Monster Cable on the Internet . As a result , Monster received more than 200 complaints from the public . Monster Cable dropped the lawsuit and agreed to pay up to $ 200 @,@ 000 of Monster Mini Golf 's legal fees . In 2009 Monster Cable CEO Noel Lee said on Fox Business that the company has had to balance their trademark protection efforts with the public 's point @-@ of @-@ view .
= = = = Headphones = = = =
Monster established a partnership with rap artist Dr. Dre and Interscope Records in 2007 to design and manufacture the Beats Electronics line of headphones called " Beats by Dr. Dre " . This led to a trend among headphone manufacturers to create celebrity @-@ endorsed products . Monster created similar partnerships with Lady Gaga for the Heartbeats brand of headphones in 2009 , PDiddy 's Diddybeats in May 2010 and LeBron James later that year . In 2010 , Monster began developing a series of products for the Chinese market that were co @-@ branded with basketball player Yao Ming . According to analyst firm NPD Group , the Beats brand that Monster distributed exclusively grew to own 53 percent of a $ 1 billion headphones market . A 51 percent interest in Beats was sold to HTC in August 2011 . At the end of the five @-@ year agreement between Monster and Dr. Dre in 2012 , Dre decided not to renew . According to Bloomberg , both parties said the separation was " amicable " but they had disagreements on who deserves credit and the share of revenues . The partnership was responsible for a substantial portion of Monster 's revenues . After the split , Monster created its own headphones product line and other celebrity @-@ branded headphones with music groups Earth , Wind & Fire and Miles Davis .
= = Products = =
Monster manufactures 6 @,@ 000 different products , including headphones , speakers , surge protectors , televisions , and accessories for cars and mobile devices . The company is best known for its speaker cable . It created the market for high @-@ end audio cables in the 1980s . According to a reporter from SoundStage Network , it " has retained a huge lead " for high @-@ end audio cables ever since .
Monster also makes cables for TVs , DVDs , computers , printers , gaming consoles , cameras and for audio equipment in cars . As high @-@ definition televisions grew in popularity , the company expanded into HDMI and high @-@ def cables , including a lower @-@ cost HDMI Basic and HDMI cables with five different speed ratings . It also produces cables intended for specific gaming consoles and Apple products .
Monster began manufacturing and marketing USB and ethernet cables as well as power strips and power management products in 2009 . It 's been producing its own line of headphones since 2012 and also manufactures celebrity @-@ branded headphones . Monster sells speakers under the Clarity and Katana brands and mobile accessories like an iPod dock and a line @-@ up of Tron @-@ branded products .
In the 2000s , it entered into markets for " lifestyle products " like amplifiers , speakers and furniture with electronics built @-@ in , as well as wireless products .
= = Pricing and performance questions = =
Many audiophiles and reporters disagree on whether more expensive cables have an effect on audio quality . In 1980 Speaker Builder said that Monster audio cables were " a reasonable investment " and that they out @-@ perform generic 24- or 18- gauge cables . Tests by Stereo Review Magazine in 1983 concluded that Monster cables did not make a difference in the sound and were " indistinguishable " from 16 @-@ gauge lamp cord . Smaller gauge numbers equate to larger wire , so this is a comparison to heavier ( 16 gauge ) wire than 18 or 24 gauge speaker wires . The same publication in 1990 said that whether the cables are worth it depends on the application and the user 's willingness to pay a premium .
Whether someone can hear the difference varies from person to person . Many reporters and audiophiles have done double @-@ blind a / b listening tests and are unable to hear the difference . The New York Times and PC World have reported not hearing a difference in the sound , while USA Today said Monster had " a slight edge . " According to PC Magazine , Monster is " often accused of selling over @-@ priced cables that you can buy elsewhere for a fraction of the price . "
Gizmodo tested Monster @-@ branded HDMI cables and compared them to generic cables using a Digital Serial Analyzer . They found that the cables performed relatively equally over a short distance of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , but inexpensive cables experienced distortion when ran over longer distances . WIRED also said Monster 's HDMI cables made a difference over 10 @-@ metre ( 33 ft ) distances , but that , " with Monster , you pay a staggering premium for durability and good looks . " In tests by PC World , Monster 's M500CV video cables had the least distortion out of all the cables tested , being within 1 ohm of the standard 75 ohm impedance .
Monster CEO Noel Lee claims the average consumer may not be able to tell the difference on @-@ screen , but that Monster 's video cables have higher bandwidth , are future @-@ proofed , are more durable and that they perform better over long distances . Many reviewers stress in turn that Monster cables are not needed for lower @-@ resolution televisions or over short distances and that the difference in audio quality is not substantial enough .
= = Relationship with retailers = =
Monster Cable and similar " boutique " cables are a substantial source of revenue for retailers of electronics , such as DVD players and TVs . While the profit margins of DVD players and TVs may be low , the profit margins of Monster Cables and similar products provide supplemental revenue for these retailers . Employees of such retailers are trained to market and bundle Monster Cable and similar products in order to increase profitability .
According to The New York Times , profit margins for retailers can be 40 percent or more and The Consumerist reported that one retailer was selling some cables at an 80 percent markup . This has led to criticisms that sales staff are motivated to sell high @-@ end cable products to customers that don 't need them and to be aggressive in order to obtain incentives . Monster has responded by saying that markups are determined by the retailer and are usually less than those found on clothing , jewelry and furniture .
As of 1998 , Monster spent $ 13 million a year in training and incentive programs for salespeople . The sales staff are provided data on their performance in selling the cables and top @-@ performers are sent on all @-@ expenses @-@ paid vacations . Monster also hosts its Retailer Awards at CES each year , which the Las Vegas Sun called , " one of the biggest events on the CES party circuit . "
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= SummerSlam ( 2007 ) =
SummerSlam ( 2007 ) was the twentieth annual SummerSlam professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It was presented by THQ 's Stuntman Ignition . It took place on August 26 , 2007 , at the Continental Airlines Arena in East Rutherford , New Jersey and featured talent from each of WWE 's three brands : Raw , SmackDown , and ECW . Tickets for SummerSlam went on sale December 30 and sold out in forty minutes .
The main feud , a staged rivalry between wrestlers , heading into the event from the Raw brand was between John Cena and Randy Orton . On the July 23 episode of Raw , Jonathan Coachman announced Orton as the number one contender to the WWE Championship . Over the proceeding weeks , Orton provoked Cena by interfering and attacking him during his matches . From SmackDown , the predominant feud was between The Great Khali and Batista . After Khali defeated Batista and Kane in a Triple Threat match , a match between three wrestlers contested under standard rules , Theodore Long booked Khali to defend the World Heavyweight Championship against Batista at SummerSlam . The primary feud from ECW was between John Morrison and CM Punk . By defeating Morrison in a 15 Minutes of Fame match , Punk became the number one contender to the ECW Championship at SummerSlam .
Several of the existing feuds carried on after the event . Notably , CM Punk continued to face John Morrison , defeating him for the ECW Championship the following month on ECW on Sci Fi . The day after SummerSlam , Orton , as part of the scripted events , interfered in a match between Cena and King Booker and intensified the feud by attacking Cena 's father . Khali and Batista faced each other at Unforgiven , the following pay @-@ per @-@ view , as part of a Triple Threat match ; Batista was victorious in this match and won the World Heavyweight Championship .
= = Background = =
World Wrestling Entertainment had originally planned a storyline between the cast of the Jackass TV series and Umaga , with the conclusion in a match at SummerSlam . It was scheduled to begin at the previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event , The Great American Bash , but was canceled after the Jackass cast dropped out due to the negative media attention surrounding the Chris Benoit double murder and suicide .
The main staged rivalry heading into SummerSlam on the Raw brand was between John Cena and Randy Orton over the WWE Championship . At The Great American Bash , Cena defeated Bobby Lashley to retain the WWE Championship . The next night on Raw , one of three main television programs of WWE ( along with WWE SmackDown and ECW on Sci Fi ) , after a Handicap match involving Cena , Orton came out and executed an RKO on Cena . Shortly thereafter , Executive Assistant Jonathan Coachman announced Orton as the new number @-@ one contender to the WWE Championship . Before that , Orton claimed that he had never faced Cena in a one @-@ on @-@ one WWE Championship match . On the July 30 episode of Raw , Carlito defeated Cena in a non @-@ title match after Orton interfered and distracted Cena . Three weeks later , on the August 18 episode of Saturday Night 's Main Event , Cena faced off against Carlito in another non @-@ title match , which Cena won . After the match , Orton came out and attacked Cena , which led to a RKO from Orton through a steel chair .
The main storyline on the SmackDown brand was between The Great Khali and Batista over the World Heavyweight Championship . On the July 6 episode of SmackDown , Khali issued an open challenge for a match at The Great American Bash , which was accepted by Batista later that night . On SmackDown the following week , the match between Khali and Batista was made official after a contract signing . That same night , then @-@ World Heavyweight Champion Edge , who was scheduled to face Kane for the title at The Great American Bash , suffered a real injury — a left pectoral muscle tear — after Kane interrupted his Mardi Gras style celebration . On the July 20 episode of SmackDown , Edge was forced to vacate the World Heavyweight Championship due to the severity of his injury . He later commented-
I ’ m still the rightful champion . My pectoral muscle is hanging on by a single fiber ; literally hanging from the bone . Theodore Long comes out and strips me of what I ’ ve worked for my entire career — from childhood until now . My mood is obviously not great right now . I ’ m disgusted .
I go out there and put my body through hell . I ’ ve broken my neck , dislocated my shoulder twice , torn my other pec , my elbows are mush , I have two protruding discs in my lower back . I even got bit by a brown recluse spider that turned into a flesh @-@ eating disease — the list goes on . I still go out there and prove that I am the best .
Why do I still do this ? Not for them . I do it for my pride . I don 't give a rat 's ass what the fans think . I never have . That 's not how I operate . I know that fans will be happy with this , and that pisses me off . I 've come to the realization that our fans never will appreciate me . But they had to live with me as their champion , and when I return and become a four @-@ time World Champion , they 'll have to deal with me again .
SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long then announced that there would be a 20 @-@ man Battle Royal later that night to determine a new World Heavyweight Champion . Khali won the Battle Royal and became the new World Heavyweight Champion by last eliminating Kane and Batista . Khali defeated the two and retained the title at The Great American Bash . Five days later on SmackDown , Batista interrupted Khali 's celebration and challenged him to a match at SummerSlam . The next week , on the August 3 episode of SmackDown , Long announced that Khali would defend his title against Batista at SummerSlam .
Another main rivalry on the Raw brand heading into SummerSlam was between the returning Triple H against King Booker . At New Year 's Revolution , during a World Tag Team Championship match between Rated @-@ RKO ( Edge and Randy Orton ) and D @-@ Generation X ( Shawn Michaels and Triple H ) , Triple H suffered a legitimate torn right quadriceps during the match that left him out of action . On July 16 , Booker T , who is referred as King Booker after winning the 2006 King of the Ring tournament started using Triple H 's entrance music " King of Kings " . King Booker declared that neither Triple H nor Jerry Lawler could be known as " The King " . On August 6 episode of Raw , King Booker defeated Lawler in a match where the loser had to crown the winner the next week . When the time came , Lawler refused , declaring that Triple H was still a king and announcing that King Booker would face Triple H at SummerSlam . Booker then attacked Lawler , throwing him into the ring post and hitting him with a TV monitor .
The predominant staged rivalry from the ECW brand was between John Morrison and CM Punk over the ECW Championship . Morrison won the title at Vengeance : Night of Champions , the pay @-@ per @-@ view two months before SummerSlam by defeating CM Punk . At the following pay @-@ per @-@ view , The Great American Bash , Morrison defeated Punk to retain the ECW Championship . On the July 31 episode of ECW on Sci Fi , Punk defeated Tommy Dreamer and Elijah Burke in a Triple threat match to earn a 15 Minutes of Fame match with Morrison . The following week , on ECW on Sci Fi , Punk defeated Morrison by pinfall after executing a GTS ( Go To Sleep ) . As a result of this victory , Punk earned himself a championship match against Morrison at SummerSlam .
One of the primary preliminary matches was a standard one @-@ on @-@ one match between Rey Mysterio and Chavo Guerrero . Their storyline first began in July 2006 at The Great American Bash . Guerrero interfered in Mysterio 's World Heavyweight Championship match with King Booker by hitting Mysterio with a steel chair . Guerrero defeated Mysterio the following month at SummerSlam 2006 , winning the match after performing a frog splash At No Mercy , the pay @-@ per @-@ view two months after SummerSlam , Mysterio defeated Guerrero in a Falls Count Anywhere match , pinning him after performing a crossbody off a guard rail . Two weeks later , Guerrero defeated Mysterio in an " I Quit " match forcing him to quit after hitting his left knee repeatedly with a steel chair . During the match , Mysterio suffered a real injury — an ACL and patella tendon tear in his left knee . Ten months later , on the August 3 episode of SmackDown ! , a match between Mysterio and Guerrero was booked for SummerSlam .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , World Tag Team Champions Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch defeated Paul London and Brian Kendrick in a dark match .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match that aired was between Kane and Finlay . Kane controlled the opening minutes of the match , performing a variety of moves including a scoop slam and a big boot . After some back and forth action , Finlay was able to hit Kane with a shillelagh in the ribs . Kane kicked out of the pin attempt and executed a chokeslam , pinning him afterwards for the win .
Next was a Triple Threat match for the WWE Intercontinental Championship that involved Umaga , Carlito , and Mr. Kennedy . Kennedy attempted to form an alliance with Carlito in the beginning , but Umaga quickly turned the match in his favor . Kennedy and Carlito soon gained the upper hand after Carlito dropkicked Umaga to the outside . Shortly thereafter , Carlito turned on Kennedy and attempted to pin him with a roll @-@ up . After a back and forth match between the three , Umaga regained control and performed a Samoan Spike on Kennedy , which led to Umaga pinning Kennedy for the win and successfully retaining the WWE Intercontinental Championship .
The third match was Rey Mysterio versus Chavo Guerrero , which was Mysterio 's first match since Guerrero injured his knee in October 2006 . Mysterio gained the early advantage when he was able to perform an arm drag and a plancha on Guerrero . Mysterio then performed a low dropkick to Guerrero 's left knee , followed by a diving hurricanrana . Towards the end of the match , Guerrero was able to perform a Gory Bomb on Mysterio after Mysterio had missed a crossbody . Mysterio kicked out of the pin attempt and performed a 619 followed by a springboard splash for the pinfall victory .
Next was an Interpromotional Divas Battle Royal involving Beth Phoenix , Melina , Mickie James , Jillian Hall , and Maria from Raw , Michelle McCool , Torrie Wilson , Kristal Marshall , and Victoria from SmackDown , and Kelly Kelly , Layla , and Brooke from ECW . Shortly after the match began , Phoenix threw Brooke over the top rope . Soon after , Hall eliminated Maria and Layla was thrown out by Melina . Kristal then eliminated Victoria , but was then thrown over the ropes by James and accidentally knocked off the apron by McCool . Shortly after , Phoenix and Hall eliminated Kelly , and Hall and James began pulling each other over the ropes . Wilson threw Hall out to the floor whilst Melina knocked James off the apron . McCool and Wilson then worked together to eliminate Melina . The two continued their alliance , but Phoenix was able to get the upper hand , first eliminating Wilson , followed by throwing McCool over the ropes to win the match and a future WWE Women 's Championship match .
Shortly after the match ended , WWE United States Champion Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) came to the ring and challenged Matt Hardy to a beer drinking contest . Hardy declined and named a replacement , Stone Cold Steve Austin . Austin came out and mocked MVP by doing several warm @-@ up exercises similar to those MVP does before a match . As the contest was set to start , Austin delivered a Stone Cold Stunner to MVP and left the ring .
Next on the card was John Morrison versus CM Punk for the ECW Championship . Punk gained early control when he was able to perform a scoop slam as well as a springboard dropkick ; however , Morrison was able to counter a shoulder block attempt into a neckbreaker on the ring apron . After Morrison controlled the match for several minutes , Punk was able to put the match back in his favor after performing a diving crossbody followed by an enzuigiri . Morrison , however , countered a Frankensteiner attempt into a pin @-@ cover while using the ropes for leverage . He got the win , thus retaining the ECW Championship .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The sixth match of the event was between the returning Triple H and King Booker , who was accompanied by Queen Sharmell . Triple H gained the early advantage as the match began ; however , Booker was able to gain control after performing a low dropkick . Triple H regained control after countering Booker and performing a variety of moves , which included a corner clothesline and a spinebuster . Booker put the match back in his favor after reversing a clothesline attempt into a Book End , which was followed by a sidewalk slam . After Booker missed a diving somersault leg drop , Triple H was able to recover and perform a Pedigree . Triple H pinned Booker afterwards to gain the victory .
The World Heavyweight Championship match between champion The Great Khali and challenger Batista was next . Khali controlled most of the match and performed a variety of moves , which included a brain chop , a big boot , and multiple clotheslines . Batista won the match after Khali intentionally disqualified himself by hitting him with a steel chair . Since a championship cannot change hands via countout or disqualification , Khali retained the title .
Next was the main event , which saw John Cena defend the WWE Championship against Randy Orton . After back and forth action in the opening minutes , Orton gained the advantage over Cena after Cena missed a flying shoulder block attempt . Orton followed up by applying a reverse chinlock and attacking Cena 's leg . After Orton controlled the match for several minutes , Cena gained the advantage and performed various maneuvers , which included a twisting belly to belly side slam and the Five Knuckle Shuffle ; Orton , however , was able to counter an FU attempt into an inverted headlock backbreaker . Cena countered a running punt attempt into the STFU submission hold . Orton , however , got to the bottom rope , and performed an RKO . Cena kicked out of the pin attempt and performed an FU for the pinfall victory , thus retaining the WWE Championship .
= = Aftermath = =
During the event , John Cena provoked his feud with Randy Orton . On the August 27 episode of Raw , Cena faced King Booker in a non @-@ title match . When Cena appeared close to winning , Randy Orton interfered and attacked him , causing Booker to lose by disqualification . After the match ended , Orton attacked Cena 's father , who was sitting at ringside , and kicked him in the head . The two faced each other in a rematch at Unforgiven for the WWE Championship . Cena was disqualified in the match for continuously punching Orton . Orton won the match but not the title . Afterwards , Cena 's father kicked Orton in the head , in the same way Orton had kicked his one @-@ month prior .
On the August 31 episode of SmackDown , Rey Mysterio , Finlay , Kane , and Batista participated in a four @-@ man Championship Competition tournament . Mysterio defeated Batista and Finlay and became the number @-@ one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship at Unforgiven . On the September 7 episode of SmackDown , Mysterio defeated Chavo Guerrero in an " I Quit " match . After the match , The Great Khali attacked Mysterio until Batista came out and executed a spear on Khali . Batista was then included in the one @-@ on @-@ one title match at Unforgiven , making it a Triple Threat match . At the event , Batista won the championship for a third time .
The feud between Matt Hardy and Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) continued when they were forced to team up against Deuce ' n Domino on the August 31 episode of SmackDown . They won the match and the WWE Tag Team Championship . The following month at Unforgiven , MVP and Hardy defeated Deuce ' n Domino to retain the WWE Tag Team Championship . That October , at No Mercy , Hardy defeated MVP in a pizza @-@ eating contest . On the November 16 episode of SmackDown , MVP and Hardy lost the WWE Tag Team Championship to the team of The Miz and John Morrison .
Umaga lost the WWE Intercontinental Championship to Jeff Hardy on the September 3 episode of Raw . Afterwards , Umaga started a feud with Triple H and faced off against him in a Street Fight two months later at Cyber Sunday . At Unforgiven , Candice Michelle defeated Beth Phoenix to retain the WWE Women 's Championship . Phoenix , however , later defeated Candice at No Mercy to win the title . On the September 4 episode of ECW on Sci Fi , CM Punk defeated John Morrison to win the ECW Championship . At Cyber Sunday , Punk retained the title by defeating The Miz . The following month , at Survivor Series , Punk defeated Morrison and The Miz in a Triple Threat match to retain the ECW Championship .
= = = Reception = = =
The event grossed over US $ 1 million in ticket sales from an attendance of 17 @,@ 441 out of a 17 @,@ 040 maximum capacity building . Due to the production of the event , however , the capacity of the arena was set at a lower standard , and as a result the arena reached its maximum capacity . This was confirmed by the ticket sales and by WWE 's official website on August 28 , 2007 . According to a press release by WWE in late @-@ 2007 , the event received 537 @,@ 000 buys , which was higher than the previous year 's SummerSlam buys of 529 @,@ 000 . The buys from SummerSlam helped the promotion 's revenue , which was $ 18 @.@ 8 million , a sum lower than the prior year of $ 19 @.@ 7 million . Canadian Online Explorer and its professional wrestling section rated the entire event a 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The rating was higher than the previous year 's SummerSlam rating , a 5 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The main event from the Raw brand was rated a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 ; while the main event from the SmackDown brand was rated a 1 out of 10 . The event had 537 @,@ 000 buys , up slightly on the SummerSlam 2006 figure of 529 @,@ 000 buys .
The event was released on DVD on September 25 , 2007 . The DVD was distributed by the label , Genius Products . The DVD reached a peak position of first on Billboard 's Weekly Video Sales chart for the week of October 27 , 2007 . The DVD remained on the charts for twelve consecutive weeks ; though , after the week of October 27 , 2007 , the DVD ranked lower . During its final week on the chart , January 18 , 2008 , it ranked 19th . The DVD also received reviews from customers , as the average customer rating from Amazon.com was a 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 . The average customer rating however , from CD Universe was a 5 out of 5 stars .
= = Results = =
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= Magia ( Shakira album ) =
Magia ( English : Magic ) is the debut album by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira . It was released in June 1991 by Sony Music Colombia , with whom she signed a three @-@ album recording contract . The record is a collection of pop ballads Shakira wrote since she was eight years old , with themes inspired from the experience hanging out with males , adventure stories , and dreams of living on the coast .
The album 's live performances helped Shakira receive attention on Colombian media , and the LP earned her an award at the Viña del Mar International Song Festival . However , it was not a commercial success , with sales estimated at between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 200 copies . By Shakira 's request , Magia and its follow @-@ up Peligro ( 1993 ) were removed from music markets . " Magia " was released as promotional single in 1991 .
= = Development and composition = =
Born in Barranquilla , Colombia , Shakira began writing songs at the age of eight years , her first one being " Tus Gafas Oscuras " . Her performances at local competitions led to a meeting with local theater producer Monica Ariza , who later held an audition for her in Bogotá . She performed three songs for executives of Sony Music Columbia , who were impressed enough to sign her , at the age of 13 , to record three albums , which were Magia , Peligro and Pies Descalzos .
The low @-@ budget Magia was put in almost three months of pre @-@ production , which involved choreography of live performances for the album , singing lessons for Shakira , and arranging the songs . The concept of the music still reflected her personality , despite the fact that it was managed by the record label . The tracks deal with emotions of a person 's first time falling in love , and range from a love poem ( " Sueños " ) to a celebration of dance ( " Esta noche voy contigo " ) . These were influenced from experiences with males such as her ex @-@ boyfriend Oscar Pardo , stories told by her father , and dreams of living on the coast . In the book Shakira : Woman Full of Grace , Ximena Diego wrote that the album " demonstrated her [ Shakira 's ] indisputable potential . "
Magia is a collection of songs written by Shakira between the ages of 8 and 12 , and mainly consists of pop ballads . It was produced by Miguel E. Cubillos and Pablo Tedeschi , and recorded at Aga Studios in Bogotá , when Shakira was 13 . A Sony Music Columbia representative said that the recording process was simple and went perfectly fine . But for Shakira , the process was problematic , as she had no ability to decide which tracks would be included and no input into the rhythmic structure or artistic production of the songs .
= = Release and promotion = =
To promote the launch of the album , as a suggestion from Shakira , live performances were held in locations such as Teatro Amira de la Rosa , Cartagena , Santa Marta , Riohacha , Medellín , Cali , Bogotá , and other various theaters and events , all of which received print , radio and television coverage . The performances featured additional dancers and background vocalists such as Cesar Navarro , Guillermo Gomez , Mauricio Pinilla , and Richard Ricardo . A music video was done for " Magia " , which Navarro also starred in . Navarro found working with Shakira enjoyable and relaxing , and recalled her as sensitive and energetic : " She was a tireless worker , but more than anything , she was a total blast . " The choreography for the performances was done by Gary Julio and Ray Silva . The album won an award at the Viña del Mar International Song Festival in 1991 , although Shakira was not able to attend the ceremony due to her age of under 16 years . Despite the live performances and the amount of media coverage , the LP did not fare well commercially ; between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 200 copies were sold in her home country . Shakira has refused to allow the re @-@ release of both Magia and her next album , Peligro , because of their " immaturity " ; neither has ever been released in the U.S.
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits from liner notes :
Shakira – songwriter , vocals
Sergio Solano – acoustic and electric guitars
Antonio " Toño " Arnedo – saxophone
Miguel Enrique Cubillos N. – producer , songwriter , music direction , artistic arrangement , vocal direction , chorus
Ana Maria Gónzalez @-@ Liliana Avila – chorus
Juanita Loboguerrero – songwriter
Miguel E. Cubillos – producer , songwriter , music direction , artistic arrangement , vocal direction
Pablo Tedeschi – producer , songwriter , musical direction , arrangement , computer programming , synthesizer programming , drum programming
Alvaro Eduardo Ortiz Q – design
Gabriel Muñoz – general coordination
Luis Miguel Olivar – sound engineer , mixing engineer
Leo Erazzo – album artwork
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= Goodies ( album ) =
Goodies is the debut studio album by American recording artist Ciara . It was released on September 28 , 2004 via LaFace Records . After writing songs for several established acts , Ciara 's talents were noticed by Jazze Pha , and she began to work on what became Goodies . The album 's conception came through the which the title track , created as a female crunk counterpart to Usher 's " Yeah " and Petey Pablo 's " Freek @-@ a @-@ Leek . " Ciara worked with several writers and producers on the album , including Jazze Pha , Lil Jon , Bangladesh , R. Kelly , Johntá Austin , Sean Garrett , and Keri Hilson , among others .
With Goodies , Ciara was hailed as the " Princess " or " First Lady of Crunk & B. " The album uses dance music while utilizing pop , R & B , and hip @-@ hop influences . The album delivers contradictory lyrical content , featuring female empowerment and independence @-@ promoting lyrics in songs like the title track , while others show interest in adult activities . Critics gave the album positive to mixed reviews , commending the " Goodies " -esque songs , while deeming others as unoriginal and noting Ciara 's limited vocal abilities . Most critics compared the work to singer Aaliyah , and also said it had qualities of Destiny 's Child .
Commercially the album was a success , in the United States , the album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 , selling 124 @,@ 750 copies in its opening week . It was later certified triple platinum by the RIAA , and as of June 2010 , had sold over 2 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States . The album also fared well internationally being certified Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) and Silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . Goodies earned Ciara two Grammy nominations at the 48th Grammy Awards including Best New Artist and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration for " 1 , 2 Step . "
= = Background = =
In her mid @-@ teens , Ciara formed the all @-@ girl group Hearsay with two of her friends . The group recorded demos , but as time went on , they began to have differences and eventually parted ways . Despite this setback , Ciara was still determined to reach her goal and signed a publishing deal as a songwriter . After leaving the group Hearsay , Texas native Ciara earned a writing job via her manager , for Atlanta 's Tricky Stewart and The @-@ Dream 's RedZone Entertainment , penning songs for Mýa and Fantasia among others . According to Ciara , no one believed in her dreams of hearing her own music on the radio until she met producer Jazze Pha in 2002 . Within five months of meeting her , Pha signed her to his Sho 'nuff label and they had already recorded five tracks . About Ciara , Jazze Pha said , " What was really lacking is the Janet Jackson , high @-@ energy dance [ music ] . Ciara fills that void . She 's pretty , she can dance , she can write music , and kids love her . Everyone loves her . "
= = Recording = =
After graduating from Riverdale High School in Riverdale , Georgia in 2003 , she was signed by LaFace Records executive , L.A. Reid , whom she was introduced to by Jazze Pha . She began production on her debut album later that year . Recording sessions for the album took place at Chocolate Factory , Chicago , IL ; Circle House Studios , Miami , FL ; Darp Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Doppler Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Futuristic Recording Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Ground Breaking Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Hit Factory Criteria , Miami , FL ; Hitco , Atlanta , GA ; Patchwerk Recordings , Atlanta , GA ; Phoenix Ave . Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Sony Music Studios , New York , NY ; Studio 609 Recordings , Philadelphia , PA ; The Studio , Philadelphia , PA .
In early 2004 , Ciara wrote a demo with record producer , Sean Garrett , co @-@ writer of Usher 's crunk hit " Yeah . " After hearing a demo , crunk producer Lil Jon , who also produced and was featured on " Yeah " , began to work on the full record , to have it released on LaFace , which was also Usher 's label . Originally , Ciara was reluctant to work with the track produced by Lil Jon , reportedly disliking crunk music at first . However , she decided to use the song to go against the grain and deliver lyrics in contrast of female promiscuity lines delivered by fellow female artists . To give her a title to stand out , Lil Jon dubbed Ciara as the " Princess of Crunk & B. " Dubbed the female counterpart to " Yeah " and fellow crunk hit " Freek @-@ a @-@ Leek " by Petey Pablo , it looked to capitalize on the success of the previous songs . In addition to working with Jazze Pha , whom produced most of the album , Lil Jon , and Garrett , she worked with several other Atlanta @-@ based writers and producers including Bangladesh , Johntá Austin , Jasper Cameron , and others , while featuring collaborations from Atlanta 's T.I. and Ludacris . R & B singer R. Kelly wrote and produced a track .
When talking about the album 's theme , Ciara said it was universal , stating , " It 's about everybody . You 'll have songs with different emotions , happy , sad , ' my heart is broken . ' What everybody goes through . " On her success with the preluding title track , Ciara said , " I 'm very content right now . I take everything a day at a time . Every time I hear good news , I 'm shouting out , ' Praise God . ' Everybody around me is so excited , I still haven 't got it . I haven 't really felt it like they 're feeling it for me . "
= = Composition = =
The album consists of bouncy dance music mixed with crunk , combined with either R & B , pop or hip hop music . The ballads on the set utilize Ciara 's breathy vocals , as the uptempo pieces . Lyrical content varies on the album . Songs like " Goodies " issue a message of female empowerment and abstinence , and this is contradicted as she hints at teasing sex . Slant Magazine compared this to Britney Spears @-@ esque " layer of tease to the mature " in her early work . Utilizing influences from 80 's dance music , qualities of the work of Destiny 's Child and Aaliyah are evident .
" Goodies " is heavily influenced by male counterpart crunk song " Yeah " and also has been compared to Kelis 's " Milkshake . " The song makes use of a repeated whistle , " faux operated vocals " in parts and a western guitar riff near the end . " 1 , 2 Step , " which continues the club music theme , is built around a simple dance and features Missy Elliott in a pas de deux. and according to Mike Pattensden of The Times , " owes plenty to classic New York electro . " " Oh , " a downtempo song , features a heavy bassline and has been called " brooding electronic grind , " and , according to Dorian Lynskey of The Guardian , " sounds like R & B reimagined by Gary Numan . " " Pick Up the Phone " was described as a rip @-@ off of Aaliyah 's " Rock the Boat " by Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine . " Next to You , " written by R. Kelly , is part of the album 's second half of ballads , and was said to capture " Ciara 's youthful indecisiveness . " " Hotline " features a " funky clap " and beatboxing .
= = Singles = =
Goodies ' lead single , the title track , featuring Petey Pablo , was released on June 8 , 2004 . Conceived as a crunk female counterpart to Usher 's " Yeah , " the lyrical content goes against the grain , speaking of abstinence , rejecting advances because " the goodies will stay in the jar . " Critics hailed it as an " anthem of the summer " and one of the best singles of the year , complementing its dance @-@ feel and beat , and the irony of the " clever " lyrics . The single performed well worldwide , topping the charts in Canada , the United States and the United Kingdom , and charting in the top ten of other charts , receiving Platinum certification in the United States . The music video shot for the song features Ciara partying with friends . " 1 , 2 Step , " featuring Missy Elliott , was released as the second single , incorporating a hip @-@ hop and dance @-@ pop feel , deriving influences from 1980s electro music . While topping the charts in Canada , it additionally appeared the in top ten of six other countries , and was certified Platinum or Gold in multiple regions . The accompanying music video features Ciara and others performing the dance . The song was nominated for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards .
" Oh , " featuring Ludacris , proclaimed as a love song to Atlanta , was released as the album 's third single on March 5 , 2005 . Carrying a slow , dark tone , critics noted " Oh " as a standout track from Goodies . The song performed well worldwide , appearing the top ten of seven charts , and certified either Platinum or Gold in multiple regions . The song 's music video , which is similar to that of " Goodies , " takes place at a block party , and was nominated for Best R & B Video at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards . The album 's final single , " And I , " was released on August 30 , 2005 , and only managed to peak at ninety @-@ six on the Billboard Hot 100 . The music video for " And I " is loosely based on the 1992 film , The Bodyguard , and NBA player Carmelo Anthony portrayed Ciara 's love interest .
= = Critical reception = =
Raymond Fiore of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B and commented , " If Aaliyah had lived to make another CD , it might have sounded like Goodies , " and said that other album cuts " prove she 's no one @-@ track pony . " Noting the singles " Goodies , " " 1 , 2 Step , " and " Oh " as standout tracks , Allmusic gave the album three and a half out of five stars . Steve Jones of USA Today said , " The voice doesn 't blow you away , but as with Goodies , she takes a lyrically intriguing offbeat path from time to time . Though not every song is a goodie , she does have a few treats in store . " Even though he said the album wasn 't a perfect work , Azeem Ahmad of musicOMH said , " The talent is obviously there but if we are to carry out Ciara 's wish of forgetting about " the other chicks " then there 's some fine @-@ tuning needed . For now there 's no direct threat to any other hip @-@ hop divas , but the void left by Aaliyah is still there for someone to try and fill . There 's no reason why Ciara can 't one day hold her own with the best . " Jalylah Burrell of PopMatters commented that " Goodies is nothing new , but it is executed well . "
Although pointing out the flaws of Goodies , Dorian Lynskey of The Guardian said , " Ciara has no conviction as a sweet @-@ talker but her disconnected style clicks perfectly with the cold , clinical ( in a good way ) hits . " Mike Pattenden of The Times said , " Goodies has some tasty treats , but they 're all stacked on top of the jar , " commenting that Ciara 's " whispery , girlish voice that is often relegated to the background by stronger performers , suggesting she is little more than a pretty mouthpiece for Jon and his posse of producers . " Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani compared it to the work to Aaliyah , stating some of it was not up to par with the late singer , but complimented the title track @-@ esque tracks .
= = Commercial performance = =
The album debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 , selling 124 @,@ 750 copies in its initial week . It topped the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart , before being dethroned by the Usher 's Confessions . Goodies had a seventy @-@ one week stint on the Billboard 200 , and certified three times @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on October 10 , 2006 , and has sold around 2 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States as of June 2010 .
Charting at twenty @-@ two on the Canadian Albums Chart , it was certified Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association . The album charted at twenty @-@ six in on the UK Albums Chart , and spent twenty weeks on the chart . It was certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry , remaining to be Ciara 's sole certified album in the UK . Goodies charted moderately in other countries , including the top forty on the New Zealand Albums Chart and Irish Albums Chart .
= = Legacy = =
With the release of her debut single " Goodies " , Ciara was referred to as the Princess of Crunk & B. Allison Stewart of The Washington Post commented that she has a " reedy , agile voice , capable of conveying the only three emotions ( sexy , sassy , sad ) an R & B singer needs . Randall Roberts of Los Angeles Times commented that " Ciara has been the most synthetic of the R & B divas over the past decade , an electro @-@ leaning vocalist whose instrumental palate has heavily favored stark 808 beats , sassy and seductive vocal lines . " In the early to mid @-@ 2000s , some crunk music hits like " Get Low " , " Goodies " , " Yeah ! " and " Freek @-@ a @-@ Leek " produced by Lil Jon climbed to the Top 10 of the Billboard Hot 100 charts . Both " Yeah ! " and " Goodies " were the first tracks to introduce the substyle of crunk music and contemporary R & B , called crunk & B , to the public . Both of those tracks ( performed by Usher and Ciara , respectively ) were the main mainstream hits of 2004 . Since then , crunk & B has been one of the most popular genres of sung African @-@ American music , along with electropop , the genre that replaced crunk and crunk & B in the charts in 2008 . After the album 's lead single reached the summit of the US Billboard Hot 100 , it spent seven weeks at number one , becoming the longest @-@ running number @-@ one debut single by a female artist since 1977
The album 's lead singles success exemplified urban music 's commercial dominance during the early 2000s , which featured massive crossover success on the Billboard charts by R & B and hip hop artists . In 2004 , all 12 songs that topped the Billboard Hot 100 were African @-@ American recording artists and accounted for 80 % of the number @-@ one R & B hits that year . Along with Usher 's streak of singles , Top 40 radio and both pop and R & B charts were topped by OutKast 's " Hey Ya ! " , Snoop Dogg 's " Drop It Like It 's Hot " , Terror Squad 's " Lean Back " , and Ciara 's " Goodies " . Chris Molanphy of The Village Voice later remarked that " by the early 2000s , urban music was pop music . "
The work helped Ciara earn several nominations , including Best New Artist at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards . Several Goodies singles received several nominations at different ceremonies , which included " 1 , 2 Step " being nominated at the 48th Grammy Awards for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration . The song " 1 , 2 Step " from the album Goodies has received numerous awards , including both " Best Performed Songs in the ASCAP Repertory " and " Most Performed Songs " from the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers , " Best Collaboration " from the BET Awards , and " Best Dance Cut " from the Soul Train Lady of Soul Music Awards , and " Choice Music R & B / Hip Hop Track " from the Teen Choice Awards . Ciara has received nine nominations from the BET Awards , winning one of them .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
" The Title " contains a sample from " Love Ballad " , written by Skip Scarborough , as performed by L.T.D.
= = Credits and personnel = =
Adapted from Goodies at Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= 2012 – 13 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season =
The 2012 – 13 Big Ten men 's basketball season began with practices in October 2012 , followed by the start of the 2012 – 13 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season in November . Conference play began in early @-@ January 2013 , and concluded in March with the 2013 Big Ten Men 's Basketball Tournament at the United Center in Chicago . All conference regular season and tournament games were broadcast nationally . For the 37th consecutive season , the conference led the nation in attendance .
The conference enjoyed nine postseason invitations including seven to the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament ( NCAA Tournament ) . Eight of the nine posteason participants posted at least one win . The Conference compiled a 19 – 9 postseason record including a 14 – 7 record in the NCAA Tournament . Michigan was runner up in the NCAA Tournament and Iowa was runnerup in the 2013 National Invitation Tournament .
Trey Burke won almost every National Player of the Year award ( Oscar Robertson Trophy , John R. Wooden Award , Associated Press POY , Sports Illustrated POY , NABC Player of the Year and Naismith College Player of the Year ) , while Victor Oladipo won the Sporting News POY and Adolph Rupp Trophy . Oladipo also shared NABC Defensive Player of the Year with Jeff Withey . Four Big Ten athletes ( Burke , Oladipo , Cody Zeller and Deshaun Thomas ) earned 2013 NCAA All @-@ American recognition ( Burke , Oladipo and Zeller as consensus All @-@ Americans ) . In addition , Jordan Hulls won the Senior CLASS Award and Aaron Craft earned Men 's Basketball Academic All @-@ American of the Year . Burke was the Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year , Oladipo was the Big Ten Defensive Player of the Year , and Craft was the Most Outstanding Player at the 2013 Big Ten Tournament . Craft earned national defensive player of the year recognition by CBSSports.com. Burke also earned the Bob Cousy Award .
With Oladipo , Zeller and Burke being selected 2nd , 4th and 9th respectively in the 2013 NBA Draft , the Big Ten had its first trio of top ten selections since the 1990 NBA Draft . All five players who declared early for were drafted ( Hardaway 24th and Thomas 58th ) .
= = Preseason = =
Five teams were ranked in the preseason AP Poll and USA Today / ESPN Coaches ' poll : Indiana ( number 1 AP / number 1 Coaches ) , Ohio State ( 4 / 4 ) Michigan ( 5 / 5 ) , Michigan State ( 14 / 14 ) and Wisconsin ( 23 / 21 ) . Minnesota was also receiving votes .
= = = Preseason watchlists = = =
Below are lists selected by notable committees prior to the season that represent what they anticipate to be the most likely candidates to be recognized at the end of the season for their specific awards . They are called watchlists because they are lists of players to watch for each award .
= = = Preseason honors = = =
The following players were selected to the CBS Sports , Associated Press , Sporting News and ESPN preseason All @-@ American teams and the preseason media All @-@ Big Ten team .
= = = Preseason national polls = = =
= = Preconference schedules = =
Ohio State won the four @-@ team Hall of Fame Tipoff tournament on November 18 at Mohegan Sun Arena . Indiana won the four @-@ team Legends Classic on November 20 at Barclays Center . Illinois won the eight @-@ team Maui Invitational Tournament on November 21 at Lahaina Civic Center . Michigan won the sixteen @-@ team NIT Season Tip @-@ off tournament on November 23 at Madison Square Garden . On November 24 , Northwestern won the four @-@ team South Padre Island Invitational .
= = = Early @-@ season tournament victories = = =
* Although these tournaments include more teams , only the number listed play for the championship .
= = = 2012 ACC – Big Ten Challenge = = =
ACC – Big Ten Challenge results :
* All Times Eastern
= = Rankings = =
By achieving high rankings throughout the season , the Big Ten was able to keep at least three teams in the top 10 of the national polls during 10 of the 11 weeks of the conference portion of the season . As a result , the Big Ten set a record for most matchups between two top 10 opponents in conference play with a total of 9 such games . Michigan played in six with a 3 – 3 record and Indiana played in five , winning all of them . Michigan State , Minnesota and Ohio State also played in top 10 games .
= = Conference Schedules = =
Before the season , it was announced that for the sixth consecutive season , all regular season conference games and conference tournament games would be broadcast nationally by CBS Sports , ESPN Inc. family of networks including ESPN , ESPN2 and ESPNU , and the Big Ten Network . During the season , the Big Ten led the nation in attendance for the 37th consecutive season with an average attendance of 13 @,@ 114 , which paced the nation 's conferences by over 2 @,@ 400 per game .
= = = Conference Matrix = = =
This table summarizes the head @-@ to @-@ head results between teams in conference play . ( x ) indicates games remaining this season .
On February 2 , 2013 , Michigan ( number 1 AP / number 2 Coaches ) and Indiana ( 3 / 3 ) appeared on ESPN 's College GameDay at Assembly Hall . Indiana won 81 – 73 , and the television broadcast of the game on ESPN set a Big Ten record for viewership with 4 @.@ 035 million viewers .
The Iowa vs. Nebraska game , scheduled for February 21 , 2013 at the Devany Center , was rescheduled for February 23 due to a winter storm .
= = Big Ten Tournament seeding = =
These are the Big Ten standings including tiebreakers and conference tournament games . Bold indicates the winner of the Big Ten Tournament .
* Regular season record
* * Conference record including Big Ten Tournament games
All tournament games were nationally broadcast . The tournament set an attendance record with 124 @,@ 000 spectators attending 6 sessions , shattering the 109 @,@ 769 total set for the 2001 tournament .
= = Player of the week = =
Players of the week
Throughout the conference regular season , the Big Ten offices named one or two players of the week each Monday .
On December 11 , Paul also earned United States Basketball Writers Association Oscar Robertson National Player of the Week recognition . On January 8 , Burke earned the Oscar Robertson National Players of the Week . On April 1 , Burke earned ESPN.com Player of the Week recognition .
= = Postseason = =
= = = Big Ten Tournament = = =
March 14 – 17 , 2013 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament , United Center , Chicago , IL .
= = = NCAA Tournament = = =
The Big Ten entered seven teams in the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , ranging from Indiana making its 37th trip and earning a number one seed to Minnesota making its 8th appearance and earningn an eleven seed . The Big Ten became the first conference to send four teams to the Sweet Sixteen in back @-@ to @-@ back years since the 1997 and 1998 tournaments . Although it was the Big Ten 's fifth time advancing four teams , it was the first time with consecutive occurrences . Entering Sweet Sixteen round with four strong contenders spread across four regions , there was talk of the conference matching or surpassing the 1985 Big East Conference performance with three final four entrants . Only Michigan advanced . Burke was named South Regional Tournament Most Outstanding Player . Michigan made its fourth appearance in the final four , giving the conference a total of 43 such appearances . Michigan was part of the highest attendance National Championship game to date with an attendance of 74 @,@ 326 .
= = = National Invitation Tournament = = =
Iowa made the school 's first trip to the NIT semifinals at Madison Square Garden and marked the conference 's second consecutive year sending a team to the semifinals .
= = = College Basketball Invitational = = =
= = = CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament = = =
There were no entrants from the Big Ten Conference in the CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament .
= = = 2013 NBA Draft = = =
Junior Deshaun Thomas declared for the draft on April 5 . On April 9 , junior Oladipo entered the draft . On April 10 sophomore Zeller announced plans to enter the draft . On April 14 , sophomore Burke entered the Draft . On April 17 , Hardaway declared for the NBA Draft . Those 5 first team All @-@ Big Ten selections were the only players from the conference to declare early for the NBA Draft . Burke , Hardaway , Trevor Mbakwe , Oladipo , Brandon Paul , Thomas , and Zeller were among the 60 players invited to the 2013 NBA Draft Combine . The following all @-@ conference selections were listed as seniors : Jared Berggren , Mbakwe , Paul , Christian Watford and D. J. Richardson .
Victor Oladipo ( 2nd ) , Cody Zeller ( 4th ) and Burke ( 9th ) combined to give the Big Ten its first top ten trio since the 1990 NBA Draft . Hardaway ( 24th ) joined his father ( 14th in 1989 NBA Draft ) as a first round selection .
= = Honors and Awards = =
= = = Watchlists = = =
On January 9 , 4 Big Ten points guards ( Burke , Keith Appling , Craft and Andre Hollins ) among the 20 Cousy Award finalists . On January 10 the Wooden Award midseason top 25 list was announced and it included Burke , Brandon Paul and Deshaun Thomas . On January 31 , Burke , Victor Oladipo , Thomas and Cody Zeller were named to the Oscar Robertson Trophy ( USBWA National Player of the Year ) midseason top 12 list , while Yogi Ferrell , Glenn Robinson III and Nik Stauskas were named to the Wayman Tisdale Award ( USBWA National Freshman of the Year ) top 12 midseason list . Jared Berggren , Aaron Craft , Jordan Hulls and Zeller were first team All @-@ District selections placing them among the 40 candidates for the 15 @-@ man Academic All @-@ American team . On February 26 , Oladipo , Zeller , Thomas , Paul , Burke and Berggren were among the top 30 finalists for the Naismith Award . On March 4 , Burke , Oladipo , Thomas and Zeller were announced on the 14 @-@ man Robertson watchlist , while Gary Harris was among 8 players on the Tisdale watchlist . On March 9 , Burke , Oladipo , Thomas and Zeller were named as top 15 Wooden Award finalists . On March 11 , Burke was named one of five finalists for the Cousy Award . On March 24 , Burke and Oladipo was named among four finalists for the Naismith Award .
= = = All @-@ Americans = = =
Jordan Hulls was named a finalist for the Senior CLASS Award , making him one of ten Senior All @-@ Americans . Craft , a repeat Academic All @-@ America selection , was named the Men 's Basketball Academic All @-@ America Team Members of the Year . He was joined on the Academic All @-@ America first team by Zeller , and Hulls was a third team selection .
Burke and Oladipo were named a first @-@ team All @-@ American by Sporting News ( TSN ) on March 11 , while Thomas was a second @-@ team selection and Zeller was named to the third @-@ team . Burke and Oladipo were also named to the first team by the USBWA On March 18 , while Zeller was named to its second team . Burke and Zeller were named All @-@ American by Sports Illustrated ( SI ) on March 19 . On March 20 Burke and Oladipo were named to the CBSSports.com All @-@ American first team , while Thomas was a second team selection , Zeller was a third team selection and Craft was Defensive Player of the Year . On March 26 , Burke , Oladipo , Thomas , and Zeller were selected to the 21 @-@ man 2013 Lute Olson All @-@ America Team . On March 28 , Burke and Oladipo were named first team All @-@ American by the NABC , while Zeller was a second team selection and Thomas was a third team selection . On April 1 , the Associated Press gave the Big Ten the same recognitions as the NABC : 1st team : Burke and Oladipo , 2nd team : Zeller and 3rd team : Thomas . On the same day , Burke , Oladipo , Zeller and Thomas were named to the 10 @-@ man Wooden All @-@ American team of finalists for the Wooden Award . Also on April 1 , Glenn Robinson III and Gary Harris were named to the 21 @-@ man 2013 Kyle Macy Freshman All @-@ America team .
= = = National awards = = =
TSN named Oladipo National Player of the Year on March 13 . SI also named Burke National Player of the Year on the 19th . On April 4 , Burke was named Associated Press College Basketball Player of the Year . Burke also won the Bob Cousy Award on April 4 . On April 5 , Burke won the Oscar Robertson Trophy from the USBWA as well as the John R. Wooden Award . Jordan Hulls won the Senior CLASS Award . On April 7 , Burke won the NABC Player of the Year and Naismith College Player of the Year awards . Oladipo was named co @-@ National Defensive Player of the Year ( along with Jeff Withey ) by the NABC . Oladipo also won the Adolph Rupp Trophy .
= = = All @-@ Big Ten Awards and Teams = = =
On March 11 , The Big Ten announced most of its conference awards . On March 27 , 38 Big Ten men 's basketball players were recognized as Winter Academic All @-@ Big Ten honorees for maintaining 3 @.@ 0 averages .
= = = USBWA = = =
On March 12 , the U.S. Basketball Writers Association released its 2012 – 13 Men 's All @-@ District Teams , based upon voting from its national membership . There were nine regions from coast to coast , and a player and coach of the year were selected in each . The following lists all the Big Ten representatives selected within their respective regions .
= = = NABC = = =
The National Association of Basketball Coaches announced their Division I All ‐ District teams on March 26 , recognizing the nation ’ s best men ’ s collegiate basketball student @-@ athletes . Selected and voted on by member coaches of the NABC , 240 student @-@ athletes , from 24 districts were chosen . The selections on this list were then eligible for the State Farm Coaches ’ Division I All @-@ America teams . The following list represented the District 7 players chosen to the list .
= = = Coaching = = =
Tom Izzo will be recognized with the 2013 Wayman Tisdale Humanitarian Award on April 15 . John Beilein was selected as an assistant coach for the 2013 World University Games . Bo Ryan earned the NABC 's Coaches vs. Cancer Champion Award .
= = = USA Basketball = = =
In addition to Beilein being a coach for the World University Games , the Big Ten was represented at the games by Yogi Ferrell , Will Sheehey , Aaron White and Adreian Payne .
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= Cool Hand Peter =
" Cool Hand Peter " is the eighth episode of the tenth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . The episode originally aired on Fox in the United States on December 4 , 2011 . In the episode , Peter Griffin and his friends Joe , Quagmire and Cleveland ( who has returned to Quahog ) decide to go on a road trip to New Orleans , Louisiana . Whilst driving they are stopped by a police officer , arrested and thrown in jail by the sheriff who abuses his power , and plants marijuana in their car . The group then attempt to escape the prison due to their stay being extended indefinitely , and return to Quahog .
The episode served as a follow @-@ up to the exit of the main character Cleveland Brown , who left Family Guy in order to star in his own Fox spin @-@ off , entitled The Cleveland Show . Main cast member and former series writer Mike Henry returned to the series to provide the voice of Cleveland . The episode also featured a crossover between Family Guy and The Cleveland Show , both of which were created by executive producer Seth MacFarlane , and included cameo appearances by two of The Cleveland Show 's main characters .
First announced at the 2011 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , the episode was written by Artie Johann and Shawn Ries , and directed by Brian Iles . The episode received mixed reviews , praising its structure and humor , but criticizing it for not living up to the 1967 drama film Cool Hand Luke , which the episode was named after . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by 7 @.@ 14 million people in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Ralph Garman , Bob Gunton , Sanaa Lathan , Julius Sharpe , and Jennifer Tilly , along with several recurring guest voice actors from the series .
= = Plot = =
When Cleveland Brown returns to Quahog for a week , he visits his old friends Peter , Joe and Quagmire . When Peter gets tired of his wife constantly demanding that he do chores , the group decides to take a road trip to New Orleans . While their husbands are away , Lois , Bonnie and Donna proceed to enjoy " girl time " , eventually resulting in wine @-@ induced childish antics , such as making Brian wear a bumblebee costume .
While driving through a rural area in Georgia , Peter and his group are pulled over by the local sheriff , and Peter makes every effort to talk as annoyingly and rudely to him as possible . The Sheriff is more offended by Cleveland 's attempt to calmly explain themselves , prompting him to punch out one of their headlights and plant a bag of marijuana in their trunk . The group is then sentenced to work at a county work camp for two weeks . As their stay nears its scheduled end , the warden approaches them and tells them that their stay has been extended , without any judicial oversight . Learning from another prisoner that they might be locked up forever , the group decides to break out of the prison when the prison guard 's eyes are diverted . Successful in their attempt , they soon come across a house where they discover a set of handcuff and shackle keys .
They then discover that they are in the sheriff 's home , who returns soon after . Peter , who almost gives them away after accidentally farting , pretends to be the sheriff 's wife while hiding in a closet , and he convinces the sheriff to let the fugitives go free . This exchange ends with the sheriff asking for a hug , prompting Peter to jump out of the closet and reveal the group , causing the sheriff to give chase to them after revealing that he was never married . The entire police force then chases them , until they are able to jump on a train and arrive in Quahog , only to be met by the Georgia sheriff and his deputies . Joe , however , had called ahead and arranged for the Quahog police department to arrive and rescue them . Joe then smashes the sheriff 's vehicle and shoots him in the leg as retribution for the sheriff 's corruption and abuse towards the group . Joe tells the sheriff that just because he has a badge does not mean he can treat anyone the way he wants to . Without hesitation , Joe angrily demands that the sheriff and his deputies leave Quahog , which they reluctantly do . The gang congratulates Joe when Mayor West appears , riding on a bike and says , " Hey , what are you guys , on a date ? Gay ! " At the end of the show , Peter acknowledges that they 've done a wrap @-@ up of what they 've learned hundreds of times and just mumbles the cadence , which is then picked up by Lois and the family .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was directed by series regular Brian Iles and written by Artie Johann and Shawn Ries , in their first episode of the series . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors , with Andrew Goldberg , Alex Carter , Spencer Porter , Anthony Blasucci , Mike Desilets , and Deepak Sethi serving as staff writers for the episode . Composer Walter Murphy , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for the episode . The episode saw the re @-@ appearance of former main cast member Mike Henry as the voice of Cleveland Brown . The actor had previously left the role on Family Guy , in order to star as the character in his own spinoff , entitled The Cleveland Show , which was co @-@ created by Henry . Sanaa Lathan , who portrays Donna Tubbs on The Cleveland Show , also guest starred as her character in the episode . " Cool Hand Peter " was first announced at the 2011 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International on July 23 , 2011 by series showrunners and executive producers Steve Callaghan and Mark Hentemann .
In addition to the regular cast and Lathan , actor Bob Gunton , voice actor Julius Sharpe , and actress Jennifer Tilly , who portrayed the sheriff , warden , UPS Guy and Bonnie Swanson , respectively , guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , voice actor Ralph Garman , and writer John Viener made minor appearances throughout the episode . Recurring cast members Adam West , and Patrick Warburton also appeared in the episode , portraying the characters of Adam West and Joe Swanson , respectively . Bob Gunton 's voicing of the warden is probably a nod to his most famous role , that of the warden in the film The Shawshank Redemption .
= = Cultural references = =
The title of the episode is a reference to the 1967 American film Cool Hand Luke . In the opening scene of the episode , while Peter , Joe , Cleveland and Quagmire are drinking at the local bar , Peter 's wife , Lois , calls him on his phone . The theme song from The Cleveland Show then begins playing as Peter 's ringtone . While the group drives to New Orleans , they attempt to pass the time by playing various games in the car . One of the games involves deciding whether to be a " hobo , " or former German Nazi leader Adolf Hitler . After the group is pulled over by the sheriff , and arrested for drug possession , they are all taken to court , where the jury is revealed to be various characters from the Fox animation series The Simpsons . The warden of the prison resembles the warden in the movie The Shawshank Redemption , who is also authoritarian and cruel . In fact , the voice of the warden is the voice of Bob Gunton , the actor who portrayed the warden in The " Shawshank Redemption " . After the group escapes from jail , Peter remarks that he is filled with hunger , and would like to stop at a " Burger Queen " or " McDaniels " along the way back to Quahog , a reference to the American fast food restaurants Burger King and McDonalds , as indicated by Quagmire .
= = Reception = =
" Cool Hand Peter " was broadcast on Fox in the United States on December 4 , 2011 . It was watched by 7 @.@ 14 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with the Desperate Housewives on ABC , The Good Wife on CBS and Sunday Night Football on NBC . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 6 / 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating Allen Gregory and The Cleveland Show , in addition to significantly edging out both shows in total viewership . The episode 's ratings increased significantly from the previous week 's episode , " Amish Guy " .
The episode received mixed reviews , with Kevin McFarland of The A.V. Club calling the storyline " disappointing . " He wrote of the episode , " At this juncture , disappointment is an expectation , something I have to fight against whenever I sit down to watch the show in an attempt to give each episode a fair shake . " He continued , " This week , I was at a bit of a loss , because despite a return to an older , more successful formula , with a clearly plotted path , Family Guy didn 't muster up enough material to fill out the A @-@ plot of a half hour . " McFarland also stated that the episode did not live up to the 1967 drama film Cool Hand Luke , that the title of the episode was named after . He concluded his review of the episode by giving the episode a grade of C. Terren R. Moore of Ology also found the episode to be unimpressive , noting , " It 's good fun while it 's on , but nothing here really sticks or adds to anything new to love about Family Guy . " Moore also commented , " it 's a pretty weak episode of Family Guy , where the most memorable joke of the night involves a thought bubble where Quagmire pulls a string of beads out of a woman 's vagina . " In the conclusion of the review , Moore gave the episode a 6 / 10 score .
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= University of Campinas =
The University of Campinas ( Portuguese : Universidade Estadual de Campinas ) , commonly called Unicamp , is a public research university in the state of São Paulo , Brazil , and one of the best universities in the country and in Latin America .
Established in 1962 , Unicamp was designed from scratch as an integrated research center unlike other top Brazilian universities , usually created by the consolidation of previously existing schools and institutes . Its research focus reflects on almost half of its students being graduate students , the largest proportion across all large universities in Brazil , and also in the large number of graduate programs it offers : 153 compared to 70 undergraduate programs . It also offers several non @-@ degree granting open @-@ enrollment courses to around 8 @,@ 000 students through its extension school .
Its main campus occupies 3 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 860 acres ) located in the Barão Geraldo district , a suburban area 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from the center of Campinas , and , built shortly after the creation of the university . It also has satellite campuses in Limeira , Piracicaba and Paulínia , and manages two technical high schools located in Campinas and Limeira . Funding is provided almost entirely by the state government and , like other Brazilian public universities , no tuition fees or administrative fees are charged for undergraduate and graduate programs .
Unicamp is responsible for around 15 % of Brazilian research , a disproportionately high number when compared to much larger and older institutions in the country such as the University of São Paulo . It also produces more patents than any other research organization in Brazil , being second only to the state @-@ owned oil company , Petrobras . Multiple international university rankings place it amongst the best universities in the world , with QS placing it in the Top 200 globally and ranking it the 11th best university under 50 years , and in 2015 it was rated as the best university in the country by Brazil 's Ministry of Education .
= = History = =
= = = 1960s : Foundation = = =
In the early 1960s the Government of the State of São Paulo planned to open a new research center in the interior of the state to promote development and industrialization in the region , and commissioned Zeferino Vaz , founder of the University of São Paulo 's School of Medicine in Ribeirão Preto , to organize it . In parallel , a medical school was being planned in Campinas , a demand from the local population that dated from the early 1940s . The School of Medicine of Campinas was created by law in 1959 , but actual implementation never took place .
The new university was created by law on December 28 , 1962 , but effective functioning begun in 1966 . Before that , only the School of Medicine functioned . In April of 1963 the first vestibular , the general admissions exam , happened , with 1 @,@ 592 candidates competing for 50 spots in the medicine program . The first lecture in the newly created University of Campinas took place on May 20 of the same year . By 1965 , the organizing commission for the new university started looking for a location for a new campus .
A large area comprising 110 hectares ( 270 acres ) was donated by the Almeida Prado family , located in a valley in the district of Barão Geraldo in the city of Campinas , near the intersections of multiple highways . Until then , Barão Geraldo was a small village surrounded by farmland , in particular sugar cane plantations . The new development brought dramatic change to the district , resulting in entire new neighborhoods being zoned , planned and built , usually by the same Almeida Prado family .
Work on the new campus begun on October 5 , 1966 , and the first building completed was the Institute of Biology , followed by administrative buildings . In the same year , Zeferino Vaz was nominated the rector . In parallel to the new campus , new units were opened in other cities , absorbing local schools . The Dental School of Piracicaba was absorbed in 1967 , and in 1969 the Engineering School of Limeira .
= = = 1970 – 1990 : Growth and crisis = = =
Over the following two decades , the new university expanded rapidly . The campus quickly grew to 19 institutes and schools , and after Zeferino Vaz died in 1981 was named after him . With the campus construction completed , the School of Medical Sciences ( formerly the School of Medicine of Campinas ) was moved into the new campus , and its teaching hospital , Hospital de Clínicas , became the largest public hospital in the region .
Expansion on the campus continued rapidly , with new buildings , institutes and expansions being added nearly every year . But by the late 1970s , the university faced a crisis . During its fast expansion , it relied on draft bylaws , mostly borrowed from the University of São Paulo , and lacked formal internal regulations with the aging Zeferino Vaz , while no longer the rector , acting as a moderating force between parties with conflicting interests , in particular the leftist academic community and the State 's government , appointed by the conservative military regime ruling the country .
After Zeferino 's death in 1981 , a conflict took place between the university 's General Coordinator , appointed and backed by the government , and the Directive Council , composed of directors of the different institutes . The rector introduced new rules reducing the power of the General Coordinator . As retaliation , the State 's government removed 6 members of the Directive Council , replacing them with people from the state 's Education Council , loyal to the governor , Paulo Maluf .
Tensions between the academic community and the government @-@ appointed counselors increased , with the future Minister of Education , Paulo Renato Costa Souza , then president of the Faculty Association , classifying the episode as a " white intervention " . Following the dismissal of several institute heads and members of the administration , the administrative workers went on strike , with the support of students and faculty . With activities in the university frozen by the strike , the governor declared a formal intervention in the university in October 1981 .
Despite the police @-@ backed intervention , the university continued on strike . The appointed institute heads failed to break the stalemate between internal and external forces , and by early 1982 , discussions begun on a new list of candidates to the rectorship . Eventually , José Aristodemo Pinotti , a former dean of the School of Medical Sciences generally considered a moderate , was selected by the academic community and accepted by the governor . In the following week , on April 19 , 1982 , the intervention was lifted , and academic activities resumed normally .
After the crisis , Unicamp saw a period of renewal and restructuring . In 1983 the bylaws were rewritten , ensuring the autonomy of the academic community , and the new management structure for the campus was implemented . In 1986 the newly created University Council replaces the previous Directive Council as the supreme body of the university . The last years of the 1980s saw a reformulation of the admissions exam , expansion of the laboratories and the completion of the first units of the student housing .
= = = 1990 onwards = = =
With a new administrative structure capable of supporting continuous growth and with its autonomy secured , Unicamp went through a period of consolidation in the 1990s . There was an increase in night programs , created to provide an alternative for low @-@ income students who had to work during the day , and to increase utilization of classrooms and the existing infrastructure , reaching one third of total available places .
The period also saw an expansion of the technology industry in the region , centered around Unicamp , with Motorola , IBM , Solectron , Lucent Technologies and many others set up research labs and production centers in the region driven by the large number of highly qualified students graduating every year , culminating in the opening of the Institute of Computing in 1996 .
In the 2000s Unicamp consolidated itself as one of the leading research and education centers in Latin America but also brought new challenges : just as with other public universities in Brazil , the high payroll costs ( over 90 % of the total budget ) constrain investment and expansion . This is further aggravated by the economic depression that Brazil is facing since 2014 , the largest in the country 's history .
= = Campus = =
= = = Main campus = = =
The flagship campus of the University of Campinas is located in the district of Barão Geraldo , 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from the center of Campinas . It currently occupies an area of 350 hectares ( 860 acres ) situated in a valley surrounded by gentle rolling hills and is bounded on the west by the urban area of Barão Geraldo , on the south and east by farmland and to the north by a lake and a new industrial park built in the 2000s .
= = = = Design = = = =
The campus has a unique design , with the main library , student service buildings and restaurant in a central circular plaza , and most of the academic buildings located in blocks emanating from the center in a radial fashion . The different areas of study are grouped in larger sections , but neighboring other areas with which they share similarities : the philosophy buildings mark the frontier between human sciences , mathematics and economics , while the School of Food Engineering is bordered by the chemical engineering and biology buildings . The architect responsible for the overall design of the campus was João Carlos Bross .
Streets are named after significant contributors to each field , including Elis Regina and Carlos Gomes Streets , a Brazilian singer and a composer , respectively , Alan Turing Avenue and others .
= = = = History = = = =
The area occupied by the campus was part of the much larger Rio das Pedras farm , owned by the prominent Almeida Prado family . To set up a new campus , Zeferino Vaz was looking for a large , flat area in the outskirts of the city , where he would have the freedom to design the campus and its surroundings from scratch . Interested in developing the area of the farm around Barão Geraldo , the family donated an initial area of 110 hectares ( 270 acres ) to the university . The remainder of the farmland was eventually zoned and developed into multiple neighborhoods , but the main historical farmhouse and its surroundings remain , now a protected heritage site and a natural reserve .
With the land secured , the campus was designed in a way to ensure the maximum collaboration between the different sciences , with buildings laid along radial streets emanating from a central circular plaza , which also hosted administrative buildings . The layout of the campus would eventually be used on the design of the university 's logo , created by Max Schiefer , which is essentially a simplified map of the core circle of the campus . This design is similar to the University of California , Irvine campus , build around the same time .
Construction started in 1966 , with General Castello Branco , the first president of Brazil 's military regime , laying the cornerstone of the Institute of Biology , which was inaugurated in 1968 , and classes started in the new campus on the following year . In 1971 the area of the campus was expanded by 130 hectares ( 320 acres ) , more than doubling its size , to accommodate the move of the School of Medical Sciences , until then located across several buildings in Campinas , to the new campus . This expansion saw the construction of a massive public hospital , the Hospital das Clínicas ( HC ) , which began serving the public in 1979 .
While initial construction was considered complete by 1978 , the campus has grown through continuous addition of new buildings and institutes . In 2014 , after years of negotiation , the university decided to buy the Argentina Farm , located on the east side of the campus , increasing the total area by 60 % to 350 hectares ( 860 acres ) . This purchase will allow for expansion of the medical sciences and athletics areas , as well as new laboratories .
= = = = Medical center = = = =
Unicamp 's main campus houses the School of Medical Sciences ' teaching hospital , the Hospital das Clinicas . Construction started in 1975 and the hospital opened its first clinics and patient facilities in 1979 , but was only fully operational in 1985 , when the School of Medical Sciences was transferred from Campinas ' maternity to the new campus .
The hospital has almost 1 @,@ 000 beds , and serves half a million people every year through Brazil 's unified public health system , SUS , performing on average 40 surgeries and 13 births every day . In the 2000 's , the hospital was changed from a primary and secondary care to a specialized tertiary care center , receiving complex cases from other hospitals and clinics in the region , but around 60 % of patients in the hospital are still cases that could be handled by local health centers .
The hospital directly employs 3 @,@ 100 people , and also serves as a practice center for the university 's faculty and a training and residency center for the students of medicine , nursery and speech therapy .
= = = = Synchrotron lab = = = =
While not part of Unicamp , the National Synchrotron Light Laboratory ( LNLS ) is a research institution focused on physics , structural biology and nanotechnology that maintains close ties with the university and is operated as part of the National Center for Research in Energy and Materials ( CNPEM ) . The laboratory was designed in 1983 and began operating in 1997 , located next to the main campus . The LNLS has Latin America 's only particle accelerator , a synchrotron , used as a synchrotron light source designed and built in Brazil for various physical , chemical , geological , and biological studies .
= = = Limeira = = =
Unicamp 's presence in Limeira , a city about 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) from Campinas , dates from the late 1960s , when the young university absorbed the Engineering School of Limeira , which became the School of Civil Engineering . While this school was eventually transferred to the Campinas campus in 1989 , new programs were launched by the university in Limeira , creating CESET , the School of Technology of Limeira , which still exists and is located near the center of the city , focused on technical higher education .
In 2008 Unicamp decided to establish a new campus in Limeira , and in 2008 the School of Applied Sciences was created , offering programs such as public administration , business management , nutrition and industrial engineering . The total undergraduate class size for the new campus is 480 students per year .
= = = Piracicaba = = =
In 1967 Unicamp absorbed the School of Odontology of Piracicaba , founded in 1955 and located 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) northwest of the main campus in Campinas . With over 1 @,@ 000 students , the school was initially located in a historic building near the center of the city , and in the 1970s a new campus was built , occupying an area of 60 hectares ( 150 acres ) in what was then the outskirts of the city , and a short distance from USP 's ESALQ .
= = = Paulínia = = =
In the neighboring city of Paulínia , the university operates a multidisciplinary research center focused on biosciences , acquired in 1986 from Monsanto and integrated into the university as CPQBA . As part of the acquisition , Unicamp gained access and continued research into subjects previously explored at the center , specially agricultural sciences . Research is usually funded by external parties , such as companies and other universities .
= = = COTUCA and COTIL = = =
In addition to the higher education programs , Unicamp is also responsible for running and funding two technical high schools , the Technical High School of Campinas ( COTUCA ) and the Technical High School of Limeira ( COTIL ) . Cotuca was located for 50 years in a historical building near the center of the city built in 1918 which also housed Unicamp for a brief period before the current campus was built . In 2014 it was transferred to the main campus as the old building went through renovations . Both schools are amongst the best public high schools in the country , and are highly competitive , with admissions done through a selection exam open to middle @-@ school students .
= = Organization and administration = =
Similarly to other Brazilian institutions , Unicamp is composed of several semi @-@ autonomous teaching units , designated as schools and institutes . Each unit is headed by a director from the faculty , equivalent to a dean , elected by the faculty and student representatives .
The university 's administration is structured in a way similar to other public universities in Brazil . The supreme decision body is the University Council ( CONSU ) , composed of all deans , plus several representatives from the academic community , students , administrative staff and the external community . The council meets roughly 4 to 5 times per year , ruling on high level administrative decisions such as approving the budget and has the final word in internal administrative processes . Routine administration is left to the rector , similar to a university chancellor in English @-@ speaking countries , and the rectorate .
= = = Rectors = = =
The rector is chosen by the governor of the State of São Paulo from a list of 3 candidates elected by the university 's community , including students and administrative staff . Traditionally , the governor always selects the candidate with the largest number of votes , but it retains the power to choose a different one should it decide to do so . The rector serves for a term of 4 years before a new election is held , and can not be reelected in the following term . Zeferino Vaz was the first rector and held the position for 12 years until his mandatory retirement .
Zeferino Vaz ( 1966 – 1978 )
Plínio Alves de Moraes ( 1978 – 1982 )
José Aristodemo Pinotti ( 1982 – 1986 )
Paulo Renato Costa Souza ( 1986 – 1990 )
Carlos Vogt ( 1990 – 1994 )
José Martins Filho ( 1994 – 1998 )
Hermano Tavares ( 1998 – 2002 )
Carlos Henrique de Brito Cruz ( 2002 – 2005 )
José Tadeu Jorge ( 2005 – 2009 )
Fernando Ferreira Costa ( 2009 – 2013 )
José Tadeu Jorge ( 2013 – present )
= = = Schools and Institutes = = =
Unicamp is composed of a total of 24 units , 10 of which are institutes and 14 are schools . The university is also home to 22 interdisciplinary centers which conduct research and outreach on topics ranging from dance ( such as LUME ) to computing and education ( such as NIED ) .
Unicamp is also responsible for two technical high schools , the Technical High School of Campinas ( COTUCA ) and the Technical High School of Limeira ( COTIL ) .
= = = Funding & financial information = = =
Like other public universities in Brazil , Unicamp is almost entirely funded by the government , in this particular case of the State of São Paulo . Funding is provided mainly from sales taxes , but a small percentage of total budget is obtained from donations , paid extension programs and corporate sponsors .
The total budget proposed for 2016 is of R $ 2 @.@ 3 billion , a decrease by almost 7 % in real terms when compare to 2015 . Fixed costs ( payroll , interest and debt service ) will account for 92 @.@ 2 % of the government funding . And additional 4 % is spent on student assistance and 2 % on utilities .
A problem faced by Unicamp , and other public universities in Brazil , is the high dependency on economic conditions , that directly impact tax earnings , while most of the expenses , payroll specially , are indexed to inflation . While not as critical as in similar universities ( at the University of São Paulo payroll accounted for over 106 % of the total funding available in 2014 ) , Unicamp currently faces a funding crisis , with total funding expected to decrease in real terms while payroll , which takes around 85 % of total university funding , is expected to increase in line with inflation . This situation is aggravated by the long @-@ running trend of raising staff salaries above inflation as a response to the annual strikes led by the workers ' union , STU .
= = Academics = =
At Unicamp , academic studies are usually divided into four main areas : exact sciences ( which includes formal and physical sciences ) , human sciences ( roughly equivalent to social science , including Arts ) , biological sciences ( roughly equivalent to life sciences ) and technologies ( including engineering and technical studies ) . This division reflects on how the university are structured how the campuses was designed .
= = = Undergraduate programs = = =
Unicamp offers 70 different degree @-@ granting undergraduate programs , covering nearly all different areas of science . Completing an undergraduate program grants either a bachelor 's degree or a licentiate degree , although some programs offer both degrees . In line with the Brazilian educational system , no graduate education is required to practice any profession , including law and medicine , so undergraduate programs vary in length to provide all the necessary training . Most programs at Unicamp last a total of 4 years , with engineering programs typically lasting 5 years and medicine lasting 6 years .
The academic year is aligned with the calendar year , with classes usually starting in late February , and ending in early December , the beginning of summer in Brazil . The year is divided into two semester terms , and all courses are a semester long . While there is a suggested curriculum for each program , students are free to choose any classes to attend during a specific semester , and class attribution is done in the basis of grade average , with higher @-@ graded students having priority when choosing classes .
Students are admitted to a single program and are expected to take all the classes required to complete that program in the number of semesters prescribed , although they can take 50 % longer before facing administrative measures . While each program is usually managed by a single school or institute ( exceptions apply , such as Computer Engineering , co @-@ managed by the Institute of Computing and the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering ) , classes are usually ministered across different institutes or schools .
Program class sizes usually range between 30 and 60 students per year for each program , but some programs can have over 100 students per year , and are named by the year of admission : the class of 2015 is composed of all students entering in the year of 2015 , regardless of the program length or expected graduation . There is no campus @-@ wide graduation ceremony , with each school or institute conducting its own .
= = = Graduate programs = = =
Unicamp offers 153 postgraduate programs , with about half of those being masters , serving almost 16 thousand students , one third of which come from outside the State of São Paulo , and around 5 % are international students . Just as with undergraduate studies , students pay no tuition fees . While the programs are coordinated by the rectorship , the individual institutions have a lot of freedom on defining the focus , length and admission process of each program .
= = = Extension programs and community outreach = = =
Unicamp offers over one thousand extension programs to the community , with different levels of minimum requirements ( high school degree , undergraduate degree , etc . ) and across all areas of study , focusing mainly on specialization courses and community outreach . The programs are mainly coordinated by the Pro @-@ Rectorate for Extension and Outreach ( Pró @-@ Reitoria de Extensão e Assuntos Comunitários , PREAC ) . PREAC aims to promote actions of extension and culture through integration with society , disseminating and acquiring knowledge through the academic community .
Specialization programs are either offered by Unicamp 's extension school , Extecamp , or directly by the schools and institutes . In the past 25 years , over 100 @,@ 000 students have been reached and in 2014 , Unicamp joined Coursera and currently eight online courses are being offered , two of them are between the most popular Coursera courses in Brazil . Outreach actions take a variety of forms , including events , publications , technological , educational , cultural and social products and services . The Department for Cultural Development hosts several events , usually open for the surrounding community . Events are also held at the Casa do Lago Cultural Space and at the Cultural Center for Social Inclusion and Integration .
Every year , Unicamp also hosts an open doors event ( Unicamp de Portas Abertas , UPA ) , in which the main campus is visited by over 50 thousand high school students from across the country . The event provides presentations and discussions on the role of the university in the society , as well as career presentations and tours , with the students visiting several areas of the university and gaining a better understanding of the different areas of study .
= = = Faculty = = =
Unicamp employs close to 1 @,@ 800 professors , nearly all with at least a doctoral degree . The faculty career is structured in three major tiers :
Doctor Professor ( Professor Doutor , equivalent to assistant professor ) : candidates must have a doctoral or equivalent degree
Associate Professor ( Professor Associado ) : candidates must have a Livre Docente title , similar to the German Habilitation
Tenured Professor ( Professor Titular ) – MS @-@ 6 ( top rank , only MS @-@ 6 professors are allowed to hold positions such as Dean of a Faculty / School or Rector of the University )
Hiring is done through a civil service examination , including a written test , a teaching examination , academic history analysis and other additional criteria . The same process is required for professors changing tiers : an associate professor pursuing a tenure position must go through the same examination process compete with other external candidates for the position . The two initial tiers also include sub levels , and professors are promoted between them for merit . Monthly starting salary for a full @-@ time assistant professorship is around R $ 10 thousand , and for a tenured position around R $ 15 thousand . Uniquely among public universities in Brazil , Unicamp has a career focused on full @-@ time research . Currently there are approximately 100 full @-@ time researchers at the university .
= = = Library system = = =
The university 's library system ( Sistema de Bibliotecas da Unicamp ; SBU ) comprises a large central library named in honor of César Lattes , and 27 other satellite libraries , located in the individual institutions , housing over 1 million volumes , in addition to hundreds of thousands of ebooks and academic journals . The system was officially created in 1983 , aggregating the several independent libraries that operated across the university . The large central library was inaugurated six years later , in 1989 .
The library system is automated and its collections may be accessed and searched on the Internet . Its Digital Library section supports a database with more than 25 @,@ 000 dissertations presented in the university , as well access to the largest electronic libraries of academic journals in the world . It also includes several historical libraries and media archives focused on specific authors and topics , such as the Edgard Leuenroth Archive and collections honoring César Lattes , Sérgio Buarque de Holanda , Monteiro Lobato and others .
= = Admissions = =
= = = Undergraduate programs = = =
Similarly to other Brazilian public universities , admissions to undergraduate programs are through a comprehensive general examination , called vestibular . While other Brazilian public universities , specially federally managed ones , which use the National High School Exam ( ENEM , in Portuguese Exame Nacional do Ensino Médio ) as an entrance exam , Unicamp has its own national entrance exam applied yearly by its Vestibular Commission ( COMVEST , in Portuguese Comissão Permanentes para os Vestibulares ) in two rounds . Generally , the first round happens in November and is a test composed of 90 multiple @-@ choice general knowledge questions . Students applying to programs that require specific skills ( such as music , architecture , dance , and others ) must take a specific knowledge test even before the first phase .
Selection in the admissions process is program @-@ specific . Applicants that score a minimum standardized grade in the first round are selected to participate in the second round , which takes place over three days in January , where they must answer 48 short @-@ answer written questions , plus write two long @-@ form essays , on themes selected by the evaluation board .
The Unicamp national exam is very competitive and is considered one of the most difficult in Brazil . In 2015 there were 77 @,@ 145 applications for only 3 @,@ 320 possible places , with 23 candidates competing for each position in an undergraduate program , an average acceptance rate of 4 @.@ 3 % . The exam covers all topics taught in the Brazilian high school system , including Portuguese , mathematics , Brazilian and world history , geography , biology , physics , chemistry , sociology , philosophy , arts and English . Despite that , questions in the exams are generally interdisciplinary .
The most competitive undergraduate programs are Medicine with a 0 @.@ 5 % acceptance rate , Architecture and Urbanism with 0 @.@ 6 % , and Communication with 2 % . Such high competitivity leads many students to take preparatory courses during or after the last regular high school year called cursinhos in Portuguese , generally privately offered or managed by some association or organization . Many private cursinhos have special classes focused on highly competitive programs like medicine , making them very expensive . It is common to find students admitted in Medicine , Engineering and other programs after several years of preparatory courses .
While the selection process is need @-@ blind and race @-@ blind , most of the best high schools and preparatory schools in Brazil are private and very expensive , and represent a majority of admissions in Brazilian public universities , leading to increased inequality in the country . To remedy this , Unicamp introduced in 2004 the Social Inclusion and Affirmative Action Program ( PAAIS , in Portuguese Programa de Ação Afirmativa e Inclusão Social ) that allows high schoolers coming from public schools to receive a bonus score in their overall vestibular score . While not focused on racial and ethnical factors , over the years , the PAAIS initiative has increased the number of admission of minorities from public high school , especially black and native @-@ Brazilians , historically the most economical and social fragile groups in Brazil . With this program , around 30 % of admissions come from public schools , and the participation of minorities increased from 10 % to around 30 % .
= = = Graduate programs = = =
Unlike undergrad admissions , there is no single admission process for graduate students . Each institution inside Unicamp has its own set of procedures , which usually include an admissions exam which can be specific for Unicamp or a standard exam applied across the country ( such as ANPEC ( in Portuguese ) for economics , and PosComp ( in Portuguese ) for computer science . Besides the exam , the process usually includes an academic history analysis , interviews and in many cases requires a submission of a research project to be undertaken during the graduate studies .
= = Student life = =
= = = Housing = = =
Similarly to other Brazilian universities , Unicamp offers no large @-@ scale in @-@ campus housing , and most students live either near the campus or in Campinas . A student tradition in Brazil , inherited from the Portuguese universities , is the república , a fraternity @-@ style private housing where multiple students rent large houses or apartments and live together . Dues to the suburban campus and the large number of students coming from other cities , repúblicas play a key role in the student life , serving as centers for social life , parties and also study and work areas . While some repúlicas have existed for decades , sometimes moving from one house to another , most are formed by students in the same or similar classes , and last for a few years .
Besides repúblicas , studio apartments are very common around the university . While more expensive than the shared houses , they afford more privacy and have more flexible contracts , are well as being furnished .
= = = = University housing = = = =
Unicamp provides a limited amount of free housing to low income students in the Student Residence compound . Built in 1992 , it is located near the center of Barão Geraldo , about four kilometers from Unicamp , and is served by a university shuttle that takes student to the campus and back free of charge . The compound has 226 houses of 60 square metres ( 650 sq ft ) , with a capacity of four students per house , and 27 studios of 46 square metres ( 500 sq ft ) , for couples with children , a total of 904 vacancies in houses and 54 adults in the studios . Assignment criteria is means @-@ based , with lower income students receiving priority .
The Student Residence supports several cultural projects developed by voluntary and worker students and open to the participation of internal and external community . It encourages interdisciplinary training and integration between the resident students and the external community . The diversity of races and cultures , brought by colleagues from other states and countries is an advantage for the residents who live in the house , facilitating full citizenship , through the exercise of their rights and duties within the community .
= = = University restaurants = = =
There are multiple restaurants operated and subsidized by the university serving only the academic community . Commonly called bandejão ( " large tray " in Portuguese ) due to the metal trays used to serve the students , the restaurants provide up to three meals per day , each one costing R $ 2 , a price that has not been updated in over a decade , despite the strong inflation . The main bandejão is located near the center of the circular campus , receiving students from all different areas of the university and acting as the informal social heart of the university where events , parties and political campaigns are announced to the students .
The restaurants at the University are staffed with nutritionists and food engineers , often students at the university , offering balanced menu that meets the nutritional needs of the university population , serving over 10 thousand meals per day at the main campus . The menu usually consists of rice and beans , a traditional staple food in Brazil , a type of meat ( chicken , beef , sausage , pork , etc . ) , textured soy protein for vegetarians , salad , juice , and dessert .
There are three such restaurants in the main campus , with two additional restaurants located in the Limeira and Piracicaba campuses . In all of them access is restricted to those who have a university @-@ issued smart card ID , which is also used to pay for the food . In addition to the subsidized restaurants , there are several smaller , privately ran restaurants across the campus and many more located in Barão Geraldo , often just a short walk away from the campus .
= = = Athletics = = =
There are no university @-@ sponsored athletic programs at Unicamp , and sporting competitions , either internal or played with other schools , are entirely organized by the students . The Liga das Atléticas da Unicamp , a university @-@ wide league of the different athletic associations , is responsible for organizing internal sporting events , such as the Unicamp Olympics .
In addition to internal competitions , there are multiple external competitions between several universities focused on different areas of study : in the Intermed medical students from different universities compete against each other , and in the Engenharíadas , engineering students gather to play sports . The games are usually held in the city of one of the participating universities over a long weekend , with students being housed in public schools , farms and hotels .
The university has a sports center with courts for basketball , volleyball , a full size regulation football field , an athletics field with running tracks , a competition swimming pool , a covered gymnasium for indoor spectator sports , attached to a convention center .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Varginha incident = = =
Unicamp is generally regarded by the Brazilian population as Brazil 's Area 51 , with the government running a secret underground area purportedly called Pavilion 18 , located under the Institute of Chemistry . In 1996 there were reports of an extraterrestrial sighting in the city of Varginha , commonly called the Varginha Incident , followed by additional reports of military intervention in the region and that the extraterrestrial would have been taken to the secret Pavilion 18 area at Unicamp .
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= Ones ( album ) =
Ones ( Spanish : Unos ) is the twelfth compilation album by American Tejano singer Selena , released in the United States on October 1 , 2002 by EMI Latin . It was released on November 11 , 2002 in Spanish @-@ speaking countries , while the limited edition included a bonus DVD of her music videos . Ones was released building on the popularity of the 1997 biographical film Selena . The singer 's father Abraham Quintanilla , Jr. and sister Suzette Quintanilla told CBS TV host Julie Chen that the album was aimed at Selena 's new generation of fans . Ones was released as part of the Selena : 20 Years of Music collection — a nine @-@ disc series of her studio , live , soundtrack and compilation albums . The recording features six number one singles namely , " Amor Prohibido " , " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , " No Me Queda Más " , " Fotos y Recuerdos " , and her duets with Alvaro Torres on " Buenos Amigos " and Barrio Boyzz on " Donde Quiera Que Estés " .
Selena 's brother , A.B. Quintanilla III , remixed three of her singles ( " Amor Prohibido " , " Como la Flor " and " Si Una Vez " ) into a medley mash @-@ up entitled " Con Tanto Amor Medley " , the same tracks found on the album . The track was released as a promotional single to radio stations , and received a mixed response from music critics . The album also received a mixed reception , with Jon O 'Brien of AllMusic noting that the record label ignored Selena 's self @-@ titled debut album from the track listing on Ones . The recording peaked at number four on the US Billboard Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums charts . Ones peaked at number 159 on the Billboard 200 chart and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , signifying shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Background and release = =
Selena 's family was interviewed by Julie Chen of The Early Show about Ones . Chen asked Selena 's father and manager , Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . , about his intention to re @-@ release her songs on Ones . Quintanilla , Jr. told Chen that because of the success of the 1997 biopic about Selena 's life , many new fans know who she was . Chris Pérez , her widower , told Chen that the recording was released for Selena 's new fans ; building on the film 's popularity , explaining that the family used the DVD to showcase the singer for those who never saw her perform live .
The recording was released as part of the Selena : 20 Years of Music collection series , a retrospective of Selena 's musical career . Ones was released on October 1 , 2002 by EMI Latin , and included audio statements by her family , friends and members of Selena y Los Dinos , her former band . On November 11 , 2002 , Unos was released in Spanish @-@ speaking countries with the same track listing as the American edition .
= = Songs = =
The first of Selena 's number ones on the album was " Buenos Amigos " , a duet with Salvadoran singer Álvaro Torres . " Baila Esta Cumbia " and " No Quiero Saber " are from Selena 's second studio album , Ven Conmigo ( 1990 ) ; the latter track peaked at number six on the US Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart . " Como la Flor " , Selena 's signature song , and " La Carcacha " are both originally on 1992 's Entre a Mi Mundo . " Como la Flor " launched her on the Latin music scene , according to journalists . The song was acclaimed by music critics and was credited as Selena 's first solo number one single in popular culture despite Billboard 's official record of the single peaking at number six . " No Debes Jugar " , the lead single from 1993 's Live ! , and " La Llamada " made the album cut . Sally Jacobs of the Boston Globe called " No Debes Jugar " one of " her cumbia signature songs " and " most popular cumbia song [ s ] " . Four of the six number ones on the album are singles from Selena 's last studio album , Amor Prohibido ( 1994 ) . The song of the same name was number one on the Hot Latin Tracks chart for nine consecutive weeks , one week short of the record for most weeks at number one on the Hot Latin Songs chart . " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , the second single off of Amor Prohibido , spent five consecutive weeks at the top of the Hot Latin Tracks chart . The third single from Amor Prohibido to be featured on the album , " No Me Queda Más " , peaked at number one for seven weeks .
" Si Una Vez " peaked at number four on the Regional Mexican Songs chart , while " El Chico del Apartamento 512 " failed to chart . Her posthumous number one single " Fotos y Recuerdos " spent seven consecutive weeks atop the Hot Latin Tracks chart . " Techno Cumbia " peaked at number four on Billboard 's Latin charts . " Donde Quiera Que Estés " , a duet with the Barrio Boyzz , is Selena 's second number one duet . " I Could Fall in Love " and " Dreaming of You " are the only English @-@ language tracks on Ones , and are her most recognizable recordings to American music fans . Both tracks were taken from her crossover attempt , Dreaming of You ( 1995 ) , which was released posthumously . The only other track from that album , " Tú Sólo Tú " , also appears on Ones , Selena 's sixth number one single on the album . " Siempre Hace Frio " was originally released on Siempre Selena ( 1996 ) , her first remix album . Quintanilla III and Pete Astudillo composed " Con Tanto Amor Medley " , a medley mash @-@ up of " Amor Prohibido " , " Si Una Vez " and " Como la Flor " . The track was produced by Kike Santander and Jose Luis Arroyae . Tatiana Morales of CBS called it a " beautiful ballad " , but John Lannert had the impression that the medley was composed to " fit [ in ] various Latin radio formats . " He noted that the recording had a pop twist with acoustic guitar and " discreet strings " , calling it " tasteful bolero @-@ like percussion " . Because of the mariachi trumpets used in the " Como la Flor " part of the medley , Lannert thought the track was aimed at regional Mexican radio stations . He was disappointed by the dissolution of the " saucy cumbia beats " that " originally took these songs to the top of the charts " , but called " Con Tanto Amor Medley " " [ a ] rare medley that achieves a seamless transition from track to track " and " manages to sound cohesive , generic arrangements notwithstanding " . Lannert ended his review by calling the track " an appropriate balance for an homage . "
= = Reception and chart performance = =
The album was met with mixed reviews from music critics . Ramiro Burr of the San Antonio Express News compared Ones to the greatest hit collections of musicians such as Buddy Holly , Janis Joplin and Jimi Hendrix . Jon O 'Brien of AllMusic wrote that Ones ignores Selena 's self @-@ titled EMI debut album , focusing on her career between 1990 and 1995 . Ones was nominated for Latin Greatest Hits Album of the Year at the 2003 Billboard Latin Music Awards . It debuted ( and peaked ) at number four on the US Billboard Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums chart , achieving a Hot Shot Debut on October 19 , 2002 . The album debuted at number 162 on the Billboard 200 chart . It peaked two weeks later at number 159 the week of November 9 , 2002 . Ones was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in February 2003 , signifying 100 @,@ 000 units shipped in the United States . The recording became the 13th Top Latin Album of 2002 and the ninth Top Latin Pop Album of that year , ranking number 88 on the Top Latin Album of the 2000s chart .
Ones reentered the Top Latin Albums chart the week of February 7 , 2004 at number 74 before slipping off and reentering the chart the week of March 13 at number 65 . After 77 weeks of release , Ones was in 70th position on the Top Latin Albums chart the week of April 10 , 2004 . The following week ( April 17 ) it rose to number 11 , achieving " greatest gainer " status from its previous position . Ones slipped off the chart the week of May 29 from number 66 . The 14th anniversary of Selena 's death sparked a 51 @-@ percent increase in sales for Ones , which rose to number four on the Top Latin Albums chart ( up 61 percent from its previous position ) . In February 2010 the RIAA certified the album gold , denoting shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are taken from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
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= Day One ( Torchwood ) =
" Day One " is the second episode of the first series of the British science fiction television series Torchwood . Directed by Brian Kelly , the episode was first broadcast on the digital channel BBC Three on 22 October 2006 with the series pilot , " Everything Changes " , and later repeated on terrestrial channel BBC Two on 25 October . It was the first work in the Doctor Who universe to be written by future Doctor Who showrunner Chris Chibnall .
The episode centres on Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) working her first case with Torchwood Three in Cardiff . A purple alien gas is loose in the city and takes Carys Fletcher ( Sara Lloyd Gregory ) host ; the gas kills its victims by orgasm , leaving behind a pile of dust . Over the course of the episode , the team hunt for Carys before the gas kills her . In the end they track her down to a fertility clinic ; the gas leaves Carys to take Gwen host , but is stopped by a portable prison cell and dies out .
Originally entitled " New Girl " , the episode was written to interpret Gwen 's " first day in hell " . On the sex gas , series creator Russell T Davies stated " when we 're launching a new adult science fiction drama , it 's kind of inevitable you 're going to do the sex monster " . The episode was filmed during a three- to four @-@ week period in May 2006 , with much of it filmed before the first episode in the same production block . " Day One " was originally seen by 2 @.@ 3 million viewers , making it one of the highest @-@ rated BBC Three broadcasts of all time , but was met with generally mixed reviews .
= = Plot = =
A date between Gwen Cooper and her boyfriend Rhys Williams ( Kai Owen ) is cut short when they witness a meteor crashing outside Cardiff . Gwen receives a message on her mobile phone , and is called into action . As the Army secures the area , Torchwood investigate the meteor . Colleague Owen Harper ( Burn Gorman ) taunts Gwen by calling her the " new girl " . In an attempt to retaliate , she throws a chisel at him , but misses and cracks open the meteor , allowing a purple gas entity to escape . The gas finds a young woman , Carys Fletcher , outside a nightclub and takes her host . In the club , a possessed Carys seduces a man and takes him to a restroom , where they proceed to have sex . At the moment of climax however , the man dissolves into dust while Carys absorbs the energy that remains .
The Torchwood team become aware of the bizarre death and realises through CCTV that the gas has taken over Carys . Gwen feels guilty at having caused the man 's death , but team leader Captain Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) assures her that everybody makes mistakes . Gwen also learns that she is the only team member who 's in a relationship , as the others are too busy working to find time . They later find where Carys lives and arrives there before she could harm a postman . When she tries to escape , Owen traps her using a portable prison cell , much to Jack 's chagrin , as he forbids the removal of alien technology from Torchwood 's base without his permission .
Carys is placed in a Torchwood holding cell . As tests are run on Carys , Gwen feels uncontrollable urges to kiss her , showing that Carys is emitting high levels of pheromones , effectively becoming a " walking aphrodisiac " , but the gas is also slowly killing her . Later , Carys escapes from her cell after seducing Owen . Jack attempts to apprehend her , but she manages to get hold of a jar containing a severed hand , which Jack finds valuable . He allows her to leave for the jar 's safety , but she destroys it anyway .
In an attempt to capture her again , the team run on Toshiko Sato 's ( Naoko Mori ) hunch that she will be after her ex @-@ boyfriend ; they arrive at his house to find Carys already killed him . Later they discover Carys works as a temp at a fertility clinic . They race to the clinic to find Carys has been inside for some time killing some of the clients . After eventually cornering Carys , they find that she has moments before she dies . Jack buys her some time by kissing her , transferring some of his " excess " of life onto her . Gwen offers the gas presence her own body as a host to save Carys ; it leaves Carys , but before it could enter Gwen , Jack throws the portable prison cell at it . Since it cannot survive in Earth 's atmosphere for long , the gas dies out . As Jack inspects its remains , Gwen kisses Jack on the lips , saying " thank you " , leaving Jack puzzled .
In the end , Carys is reunited with her father . The team returns to Torchwood , and as she leaves for home , Jack advises Gwen not to let the job consume her because her perspective is important to the team . He then encourages Gwen to go home and spend time with Rhys .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The working title for the episode was " New Girl " , which changed to the current " Day One " by the beginning of October 2006 . Head writer Chris Chibnall , who wrote the episode , found that writing the second episode was hard , as there was a challenge to demonstrate how Torchwood works , and set the formula for the rest of the series . He wanted to write an episode that would centre on Gwen about her " first day in hell " , and show the audience that Torchwood is unlike any normal job , as one small mistake can have major ramifications on the city . The scene where Gwen accidentally opens the meteor was meant to " extend the metaphor of breaking the photocopier on your first day at work " . It is also set to show the separate dynamic between the team and Gwen . Series creator Russell T Davies stated that as the rest of the team are for the aliens , science , technology and mythology , Gwen is for " the people " ; she 's the only person in the team who cares about what happens to Carys . Eve Myles also noted in the episode 's audio commentary that throughout the episode , it added a mix between her domestic life and the science fiction .
The idea behind using the sex gas came from Chibnall , but he admitted to having " genuinely no idea where the episode came from " . Davies stated " when we 're launching a new adult science fiction drama , it 's kind of inevitable you 're going to do the sex monster . " He also emphasised that the episode is not solely about " having a laugh " with the sex gas , as it also has " something to say about the world " . The scene where Carys walks down the street featuring sex in advertisements and couples kissing in public was one of Davies ' favourite scenes in the episode , as it explores how sexualised the Western world is . The episode was originally much lighter in tone , however , the majority of the comedic moments had to be cut on the final script , as they got in the way of the plot . Also , Carys was originally meant to have two or three boyfriends , but because of scheduling restrictions , there could only be one . This ended up being beneficial to the episode , as it made it more emotive . There was a scene that would be filmed with Carys and a second boyfriend , but that would be cut and added on the deleted scenes on the DVD boxset of the first series .
After it was written , BBC controller of fiction , Jane Tranter , fed back to the producers and suggested that the Torchwood team take a " breather " and talk about the mysteries behind Captain Jack while having a Chinese takeway . Through the read through of the script before filming , Burn Gorman noted that he saw " big smiles " and giggling from several readers because of its content . Sara Gregory read the script with her mother .
= = = Filming = = =
Much of the episode was filmed in the first production block along with " Everything Changes " , but much of it was filmed before the pilot . It took place during a three- to four @-@ week period in May 2006 in and around Cardiff , the city where the series was set . The majority of the episode was filmed during the night , to keep with the style that the majority of the series is set during the night as well . However , because it was approaching summer , where nights are shorter , night sequences had to be shot between 10 pm and 4 : 30 am during each night of filming . Even the scenes set in the Torchwood hub were mostly filmed at nighttime . The first sequence to be shot was where the team stop Carys from having sex with the postman . However , the sequence had to be shot again twelve days later .
The meteor crash site was filmed at a natural erosion site just outside Cardiff , which the location managers found by chance , and felt it was the perfect location for a crash site . The producers included an easter egg in the Torchwood Hub set by including the picture of Craig @-@ y @-@ Nos Castle , used as a location of Torchwood House in the Doctor Who episode " Tooth and Claw " ; in the end of the episode the Torchwood Institute was established by Queen Victoria . To film the scene where Gwen and Carys kiss , actresses Eve Myles and Sara Gregory discussed how they would execute it beforehand and agreed that they have to imagine Gregory as Johnny Depp , and Myles as Brad Pitt . To film the exploding rat sequence , episode director Brian Kelly filmed a rat in a cage , and then replace it with a fur covered condom filled with " chicken bits " and red dye to simulate guts , then exploded with a squib .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
" Day One " was the first episode to include a teaser in the beginning with shots from the series . The episode 's visual effects were produced by The Mill . To complete the effect of the gas , 3D artist Paul Burton based his design of the alien from the water creature in The Abyss .
= = Continuity = =
The Doctor 's severed hand appears in this episode when Carys uses it as her bargaining chip to escape .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Day One " was broadcast on Sunday , 22 October 2006 on BBC Three , just after the first episode , " Everything Changes " . The second episode received overnight viewing figures of 2 @.@ 3 million with a 13 @.@ 8 % audience share , holding the majority of the audience from the first episode . Together both episodes received the largest multichannel audience for a UK @-@ originated non @-@ sports programme and the at the time largest audience for BBC Three . The finale figure for the episode was 2 @.@ 498 million viewers . The record would be held until the broadcast of EastEnders Live : The Aftermath on 19 February 2010 . The repeat of " Day One " on analogue channel BBC Two on 25 October was seen by 2 @.@ 8 million with a 13 % audience share . " Day One " was given an Appreciation Index of 83 .
Daniel Montesinos @-@ Donaghy of Den of Geek stated " After the excellent pilot episode , ' Day One ' is both a step forward and a step backward . As silly as the idea of a nymphomaniac extra @-@ terrestrial gas is , the cast throw themselves into it with aplomb , quipping their way to the relatively gripping conclusion . " Patrick Holm of Total Sci @-@ Fi felt that the second episode " equates the word ' adult ' with sex and swearing – more of a playground definition than a serious drama . In the conclusion of his review , Jonathan Capps of Noise to Signal felt that the episode was " certainly nothing to get excited about , but I think it won 't be too indicative of later episodes , as we 're still getting to know these characters , and that has to take the fore in the first few episodes . However , Chris ' [ Chibnall ] painfully simplistic , heavy @-@ handed and often clichéd interpretation of sci @-@ fi ( some of Jack 's techno @-@ babble is frankly embarrassing ) could prove to be a worrying factor later in the series . " A reviewer of TV Fodder felt " Day One " was a " great second episode " , adding " there doesn 't seem to be anything I don 't like about this show " .
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= 808s & Heartbreak =
808s & Heartbreak is the fourth studio album by American recording artist Kanye West , released on November 24 , 2008 , by Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records . It was recorded during September and October 2008 at Glenwood Studios in Burbank , California and Avex Recording Studio in Honolulu , Hawaii , with the help of producers No I.D. , Jeff Bhasker and others .
Conceived in the wake of a series of distressing personal events , 808s & Heartbreak marked a major musical departure for West from his previous rap records , instead featuring a sparse , electronic sound and West singing through an Auto @-@ Tune vocal processor . His lyrics explored themes of loss , alienated fame , and heartache , while the album 's production abandoned conventional hip hop sounds in favor of a minimalist sonic palette , which included prominent use of the titular Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine . Despite varying responses from audiences , the album received positive reviews from most critics and was named one of 2008 's best records in several year @-@ end lists .
808s & Heartbreak debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , selling 450 @,@ 145 copies in its first week . By 2013 , it had sold 1 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States . Four singles were released to promote the record , including the hit singles " Love Lockdown " and " Heartless " . In the years since its release , 808s & Heartbreak has been cited as a prominent influence on subsequent hip hop , pop , and R & B music , as a new wave of rappers , singers , and producers came to adopt aspects of its style and thematic content . In 2014 , Rolling Stone named it one of the 40 most groundbreaking albums of all time .
= = Background = =
Following the release of his third studio album Graduation , the remainder of 2007 and the following year featured events that profoundly affected Kanye West . On November 10 , 2007 , West 's mother Donda West died due to complications arising from cosmetic surgery involving a tummy tuck and breast reduction procedure . Months later , West and fiancée Alexis Phifer ended their engagement and their long @-@ term intermittent relationship , which had begun in 2002 . At the same time , West struggled to adapt to his newfound pop star status he had once striven to achieve , often becoming the subject of media scrutiny . The loss , loneliness and longing for companionship and a sense of normality served to inspire 808s & Heartbreak . West stated that " This album was therapeutic – it 's lonely at the top . " A photograph taken by Danny Clinch of West kissing his mother on the cheek was included in the album 's booklet liner notes .
West felt that his emotions could not be fully expressed simply through rapping , which he said had limitations . There were " melodies that were in me " , he explained . " What was in me I couldn 't stop . " West went to classify 808s & Heartbreak as a pop album , asserting his disdain towards the contemporary backlash to the concept of pop music and expressed admiration for what some pop stars have accomplished in their careers . He later stated that he wishes to present the music as a new genre called " pop art , " clarifying that he was well aware of the visual art movement of the same name and wished to present a musical equivalent . " Either call it ' pop ' or ' pop art , ' either one I 'm good with , " he later stated .
= = Recording and production = =
The album was recorded over a span of approximately three weeks from September to October 2008 . Recording sessions took place at Glenwood Studios in Burbank , California and at Avex Recording Studio in Honolulu , Hawaii . As implied by its title , 808s & Heartbreak prominently features the Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine . Drawing inspiration from 1980s synthpop and electropop performers such as Phil Collins , Gary Numan , TJ Swan and Boy George , West felt that the 808 is a resourceful instrument that can be used to evoke emotion ; the concept was introduced to him by Jon Brion . West utilized the sounds created by the 808 and manipulated its pitch to produce a distorted , electronic sound , an effect he referred to as " heartbreak " . He felt the characteristic of the sound was representative of his state of mind . According to West , the fact that Hawaii 's area code was " 808 " was coincidental , as he had already developed the album 's title before being informed . The realization inspired him to pursue his direction with the album , however . In terms of musical direction , West 's intentions , according to Mike Dean , were to go against the typical sound of hip hop beat , instead evoking the presence of tribal drums . Overall , West maintained a " minimal but functional " approach towards the album 's studio production .
The album makes prominent use of the voice audio processor technology of Auto @-@ Tune . West had previously experimented with the technology on The College Dropout for the background vocals of " Jesus Walks " and " Never Let Me Down " , but he had not used it for lead vocals until 2008 . " We were working on the remixes for Lil Wayne 's ' Lollipop ' and Young Jeezy 's ' Put On ' and he fell in love with the Auto @-@ Tune " , producer Mike Dean explained . Towards the end , West enlisted T @-@ Pain for coaching on how to utilize the technology . West himself openly stated that he loved using Auto @-@ Tune and was dismayed that the term has been commonly associated with being " wack " . He considers the technology " the funnest thing to use " and compared the situation to when he was a child and thought the color pink was cool until someone told him " it was gay " , producing an analogy of how the views of society can rob people of their confidence and self @-@ esteem . He later went on to state that he enjoyed the electronic feel produced by Auto @-@ Tune and sought out to juxtapose the mechanical sounds with the traditional sounds of taiko drums and choir monks .
Rapper Kid Cudi , who had signed onto West 's G.O.O.D. Music label , contributed to two of the album 's songs . Young Jeezy contributed a rap verse on the track " Amazing " while " See You in My Nightmares " is a duet with Lil Wayne . Singer @-@ songwriter Esthero provided the few female vocals found on the album ; credited under birth name Jenny @-@ Bea Englishman , she co @-@ wrote three tracks . When " RoboCop " appeared on the Internet , West disclaimed responsibility and was upset that the leak had occurred as the track was an unfinished version . Mike Dean had previously stated that the track was expected to receive additional treatment by Herbie Hancock before the album 's release .
= = Music and lyrics = =
808s & Heartbreak is a radical departure from West 's previous hip hop albums . According to 33 ⅓ writer Kirk Walker Graves , 808s & Heartbreak is an avant @-@ garde electropop album . Rolling Stone magazine called it an " introspective , synthpop album , " while The 405 described it as West 's " experimental pop record . " According to The Independent , West abandoned his customary hip hop sound in favor of sparse , drum machine @-@ based electropop . Pitchfork Media 's Scott Plagenhoef also categorized the album as " an introspective , minimal electro @-@ pop record " , but added that it is " steeped in regret , pain , and even more self @-@ examination than a typical Kanye West album " . Music writer Robert Christgau called it a " slow , sad @-@ ass and self @-@ involved ... breakup album " and analyzed that West 's choice to " robotize as well as pitch @-@ correct his voice both undercuts his self @-@ importance and adds physical reality to tales of alienated fame that might otherwise be pure pity parties " . Christgau asserted that its final track " Pinocchio Story " is " the only track here about what 's really bringing [ West ] down : not the loss of his girlfriend but the death of his mother , during cosmetic surgery that somewhere not too deep down he 's sure traces all too directly to his alienated fame . " Andre Grant of HipHopDX wrote that " to combat this trenchant melancholia , he poured himself into an all @-@ autotunes R & B album " which would prove divisive in hip hop . West 's singing has been characterized as " flat " and " nearly unmelodic " which " underscores his own cyborgish detachment . " Canadian writer Stephen Marche viewed that West used " the shallow musical gimmickry of Auto @-@ Tune , a program designed to eliminate individuality , and produced a hauntingly personal album . "
The music of 808s & Heartbreak draws heavily on electronic elements , particularly virtual synthesis , the Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine , and explicitly auto @-@ tuned vocal tracks . Tracks on the album utilize step input drum machine and synth @-@ bass parts . Step input sequencing , a product of vintage analogue devices limited to recording only 16 individual notes , was popular in music production during the 1980s , but also became available in digital workstations . The album 's music features austere production and elements such as dense drums , lengthy strings , droning synths , and somber piano . Andy Kellman of AllMusic writes of the music , " Several tracks have almost as much in common with irrefutably bleak post @-@ punk albums , such as New Order 's Movement and The Cure 's Pornography , as contemporary rap and R & B. " These musical elements help convey moods of despair and dejection that reflect the album 's subject matter . Critic Trist McCall wrote that the record " stripped modern art @-@ pop down to its iconic rudiments — beats , charismatic personalities , hand @-@ selected melodies , and computer @-@ assisted vocals . " Most of the lyrics are directed at an ex @-@ lover ; West refers to her treatment of him as " the coldest story ever told " on " Heartless " , and on " RoboCop " , she is called a " spoiled little L.A. girl " and is compared to the antagonist in the 1990 film Misery . On " Welcome to Heartbreak " , West 's character faces an existential crisis as he dispassionately recounts sitting alone on a flight , with a laughing family seated ahead of him . He longs for his late mother on the album 's penultimate track " Coldest Winter " , which samples the desolate 1983 song " Memories Fade " by Tears for Fears .
= = Release and promotion = =
On September 24 , West announced that he had finished the album and would be releasing it sometime in November . In his blog post , he wrote " I changed my album to November something cause I finished the album and I felt like it .. I want y 'all to hear it as soon as possible " . West later stated that the album would be released on November 25 , 2008 . However , Island Def Jam , the distributing label , brought the date forward by one day to capitalize on Thanksgiving weekend . 808s & Heartbreak was also released on November 24 , 2008 in the United Kingdom and the Philippines . A limited edition in a digipak case was first released in Germany on November 21 , 2008 . A special edition of the album was released on December 16 that contains the album in CD and dual LP format , and also features album artwork redone by the artist of the original cover , KAWS .
On October 16 , West released an excerpt of " Coldest Winter " on the radio station Power 106 in Los Angeles . The track recreates elements of the song " Memories Fade " by the band Tears for Fears . The song " Paranoid " later leaked onto the Internet and features Mr. Hudson in the chorus . A remixed version of " Paranoid " was reported to feature pop singer Rihanna , but did not materialize . Also appearing prior to the release date were " Amazing " featuring Young Jeezy , " See You in My Nightmares " featuring Lil Wayne , " Street Lights " , " Say You Will " , " Welcome to Heartbreak " and " Bad News " . An additional track , " Pinocchio Story " is a freestyle recorded at a live concert in Singapore . It was included in the album at the request of Beyoncé Knowles .
On October 14 , West , in collaboration with Italian artist Vanessa Beecroft , hosted a promotional album listening event at Ace Gallery . Over 700 guests were invited to preview the entirety of 808s & Heartbreak . Under Beecroft 's guidance , the event featured approximately forty nude women wearing nothing besides wool masks who silently stood in the center of the room . The women were illuminated by multicolored lights that would change as the music progressed . When it came time for him to speak , West stated that he 'd been a fan of Beecroft 's work and strong imagery , saying that he liked the idea of nudity because " society told us to wear clothes at a certain point " . Beecroft had been contacted a month prior and conceptualized and generated the installation in a week . Beecroft admitted that while he had caught her offguard , she had the opportunity to hear the album for herself and heard things that touched her own life . Five days later , promotional photos for the album by photographer Willy Vanderperre were released . The images portrayed West wearing a grey glen plaid suit , large browline glasses , and a heart @-@ shaped pin .
In October 2009 , West was scheduled to embark on a tour , Fame Kills : Starring Kanye West and Lady Gaga tour , in promotion of Gaga 's The Fame , and West 's 808s & Heartbreak . It was canceled on October 1 , 2009 , without reason . Several songs from the album were performed by West during his live VH1 Storytellers performance , such as " Heartless " , " Amazing " and " Say You Will . " In the interim , director Nabil Elderkin directed two additional promotional videos for the album . " Welcome to Heartbreak " , which featured an artistic use of liberal compression artifacts , was released in June 2009 . A remixed version of " Coldest Winter " was released in February 2010 . This video featured a woman in a wedding gown running away from a cult group through a moonlit forest .
= = Public reaction = =
Before its release , reaction to 808s & Heartbreak was mixed , ranging from anticipation to bewilderment and indifference to the album 's concept . Upon the unveiling of the lead single " Love Lockdown " at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards , music audiences were taken aback by the uncharacteristic production style and the presence of Auto @-@ Tune . The negative feedback intensified when West revealed that the entire album would be primarily sung with Auto @-@ Tune rather than rapped and would focus on themes of love and heartache .
Numerous hip hop fans and certain rappers mocked West for becoming " sappy " while others deemed the upcoming LP as a throwaway experimental album . Comparisons were drawn to Electric Circus , an album recorded by West 's labelmate and close friend Common . MTV eventually interviewed Common to share his thoughts and views on the artistic direction of the album . Common expressed both his understanding and his support for West 's intentions , stating " I love it . I 'mma tell you , as an artist , you wanna be free . I 'mma do what I feel . You can 't just cater to the audience . You gotta say , ' Hey , y 'all , this is where I 'm at . ' For him to do an album called 808s and Heartbreak , you know that 's where he is at this moment . I heard some songs , and I think it 's fresh . I think the people are ready for it . "
West received similar approval from Lil Wayne and Young Jeezy , both of whom contributed to the album . During an interview , when asked what music today inspires him , Wayne stated " everybody 's doing their thing , but they 're not exciting . Everybody is doing the same thing . That 's terrible . Do I love the music that 's out right now ? I love it with a passion . Does it motivate me ? Not one bit . That 's because 808s & Heartbreak isn 't out yet . " Despite the approval from the rap superstars , as well as the record @-@ breaking chart performances of the first two singles , hip hop audiences remained indifferent towards the album , predicting it would flop . Responding to reviews , West stated that he didn 't care about sales or getting good ratings , saying that it came from the heart and that 's all that matters to him . When asked about the current state of hip hop , West compared it to a high school , stating that hip hop used to be all about being fearless and standing out , and that now it is about being afraid and fitting in .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
In its first week of sales , 808s & Heartbreak reached the number one spot on Billboard 200 , selling 450 @,@ 145 units in its first week . In the last week of the year , 808s & Heartbreak sold 165 @,@ 100 copies , jumping from the eleventh spot back up to the number five on the Billboard 200 . The album moved up again the following week , selling 70 @,@ 900 units and landing at number three . On January 27 , 2009 , 808s & Heartbreak was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , serving as West 's fourth album to ship one million copies in the United States . As of June 14 , 2013 , it has sold 1 @.@ 7 million copies in the US , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
Despite the debate and uncertainty surrounding the album 's conception , its preceding singles demonstrated outstanding chart performances . Upon its release , the lead single " Love Lockdown " debuted at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and became a " Hot Shot Debut " . It is the highest debut of West 's career , the second highest debut on the Hot 100 that year and the tenth song of the millennium to debut in the top three . Grossing over 1 @.@ 3 million copies at the iTunes Store alone , the single was certified platinum by the RIAA by the end of the year . On August 18 , 2010 , it was certified triple platinum by the RIAA , for shipments of three million units in the US . The single was also met by positive reviews from music critics , eventually culminating with being crowned " Song of the Year " by Time . The second single , " Heartless " performed similarly and became his second consecutive " Hot Shot Debut " by debuting at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 . It was certified double platinum by the RIAA , having shipped two million units in the US . Due in part to the momentum produced by the album 's release , certain tracks were met by chart success despite not actually being released as singles . The tenth track " See You in My Nightmares " became yet another " Hot Shot Debut , " peaking at number twenty @-@ one in the US and at number twenty @-@ two in Canada while the fourth track " Amazing " charted at 81 on the Hot 100 . Following suit , " Welcome to Heartbreak " peaked at number eighty @-@ seven on the Pop 100 .
= = Critical reception = =
808s & Heartbreak received generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 75 , based on 36 reviews . Chris Richards from The Washington Post called it " an information @-@ age masterpiece " , while USA Today critic Steve Jones said " West deftly uses the 808 drum machine and Auto @-@ Tune vocal effect to channel his feelings of hurt , anger and doubt through his well @-@ crafted lyrics " . Dan Cairns from The Times stated , " This so should not work ... Yet 808s & Heartbreak is a triumph , recklessly departing from the commercially copper @-@ bottomed script and venturing far beyond West ’ s comfort zone . " Rolling Stone 's Jody Rosen commended West 's incorporation of the Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine and described the album as " Kanye 's would @-@ be Here , My Dear or Blood on the Tracks , a mournful song @-@ suite that swings violently between self @-@ pity and self @-@ loathing " . In the Chicago Tribune , Greg Kot called it West 's " most radical yet " and said while West 's fans may be disappointed , " this one is for him . It remains to be seen if he goes back to making records for everybody else . For now , this is one fascinatingly perverse detour . " PopMatters critic Dave Heaton was impressed by West 's " song and album construction , and with the way he captures a particular feeling through unusual , evocative , carefully crafted music that ’ s both simple and complex , cold and warm , mechanical and human , melodic and harsh " . Writing for MSN Music , Robert Christgau found it " brilliant " with a unique " dark sound " and " engaging tunes " , despite a second @-@ half drop @-@ off , and praised West 's use of Auto @-@ Tune , which he felt " both undercuts his self @-@ importance and adds physical reality to tales of alienated fame that might otherwise be pure pity parties " .
In a less enthusiastic review , The Independent found West 's " immersion in personal misery " uncomfortable and commented that the " stylistic tropes quickly become irritating " . AllMusic editor Andy Kellman stated " no matter its commendable fearlessness , the album is a listless , bleary trudge along West 's permafrost " . Charles Aaron of Spin criticized the songs ' musical structures , calling the album " a long processional that starts and restarts and never reaches the ceremony " . Slant Magazine 's Wilson McBee panned West 's singing , while Jon Caramanica from The New York Times singled it out as the " weakness for which this album will ultimately be remembered , some solid songs notwithstanding . " Caramanica wrote that , " at best , it is a rough sketch for a great album , with ideas he would have typically rendered with complexity , here distilled to a few words , a few synthesizer notes , a lean drumbeat . At worst , it ’ s clumsy and underfed , a reminder that all of that ornamentation served a purpose " . Chicago Sun @-@ Times writer Jim DeRogatis stated , " If West had interspersed the more mechanical tracks with some that were the exact opposite — say , simple piano interludes provided by his old collaborators John Legend or Jon Brion — he might have made a masterpiece . Instead , he 's merely given us an extremely intriguing , sporadically gripping , undeniably fearless and altogether unexpected piece of his troubled soul . "
= = = Accolades = = =
808s & Heartbreak was voted the tenth best album of 2008 in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of prominent American critics . The album was also named one of the ten best albums of 2008 by a number of publications , including the Associated Press ( number four ) , The Hartford Courant ( number seven ) , NOW ( number four ) , The Observer ( number eight ) , Vibe ( no order ) and Time ( number six ) . Pitchfork Media named 808s & Heartbreak the twenty @-@ first best album of 2008 . Dan Leroy of LA Weekly cited it as one of the top ten hip hop albums of the year . Jam ! named it the top album of 2008 . Chicago Sun @-@ Times writer Jim DeRogatis included the album on his list of the year 's ten best albums and wrote , " With every listen , the poignancy of these personal tales of loss grows deeper , perfectly matched by the cold , lonely , robotic but nevertheless winning grooves that accompany them . Upon further reflection , it is a brave and daring 4 @-@ star effort that deserves to be heard by any fan of adventurous pop music . " Time Out New York featured the album on its list of the Best and Worst Albums of 2008 . The magazine 's writer Colin St. John cited 808s & Heartbreak as one of the worst of 2008 , and editor Steve Smith named it third on his best @-@ of list , while calling the album " the year 's most misunderstood triumph . "
Despite its accolades , 808s & Heartbreak was largely overlooked as a contender for the 52nd Grammy Awards . According to Vibe magazine editor @-@ in @-@ chief Jermaine Hall , West 's controversial incident at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards and the ensuing backlash against West " probably hurt him " , but perceived West 's stylistic change on the album as the primary reason for it not being nominated . West received one solo nomination , Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for " Amazing " , and five other nominations for his guest appearances and collaborational work . 808s & Heartbreak received a nomination for Outstanding Album at 40th annual NAACP Image Awards . The album also received a nomination for Best Album at the 2009 MOBO Awards . In 2009 , Rolling Stone ranked it number 63 on its list of the 100 Best Album of the Decade , and Q named it the decade 's 81st best record . On similar lists , Slant Magazine and PopMatters ranked it 124th and 42nd , respectively .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Although West designed it as a melancholic pop album , 808s & Heartbreak had a significant effect on hip hop music . While his decision to sing about love , loneliness , and heartache for the entirety of the album was at first heavily criticized by music audiences and the album predicted to be a flop , its subsequent critical acclaim and commercial success encouraged other mainstream rappers to take greater creative risks with their music . During the release of The Blueprint 3 , New York rap mogul Jay @-@ Z revealed that his next studio album would be an experimental effort , stating , " ... it 's not gonna be a # 1 album . That 's where I 'm at right now . I wanna make the most experimental album I ever made . " Jay @-@ Z elaborated that like West , he was unsatisfied with contemporary hip hop , was being inspired by indie @-@ rockers like Grizzly Bear and asserted his belief that the indie rock movement would play an important role in the continued evolution of hip hop .
The album impacted hip hop stylistically and laid the groundwork for a new wave of hip hop artists who generally eschewed typical rap braggadocio for intimate subject matter and introspection , including B.o.B , Kid Cudi , Childish Gambino , Frank Ocean , The Weeknd , and Drake . Jake Paine of HipHopDX dubbed the album as " our Chronic " , noting West 's effect on hip hop with 808s & Heartbreak as " a sound , no different than the way Dr. Dre 's synthesizer challenged the boom @-@ bap of the early ' 90s . " Fact described the record as an " art @-@ pop masterpiece [ which ] broke the shackles of generations of one @-@ upmanship [ in hip hop ] . " Rolling Stone journalist Matthew Trammell asserted that the record was ahead of its time and wrote in a 2012 article , " Now that popular music has finally caught up to it , 808s & Heartbreak has revealed itself to be Kanye ’ s most vulnerable work , and perhaps his most brilliant . "
According to Greg Kot , 808s & Heartbreak initiated the " wave of inward @-@ looking sensitivity " and " emo " -inspired rappers during the late 2000s : " [ It ] presaged everything from the introspective hip @-@ hop of Kid Cudi 's Man on the Moon : The End of Day ( 2009 ) to the wispy crooning , plush keyboards and light mechanical beats of Bon Iver 's Justin Vernon and British dub @-@ step balladeer James Blake . " Consequence of Sound credited it with shaping subsequent developments in " indie R & B or electropop or whatever you want to call it " : " 808s ' is flooded with R & B and it digitizes the raw emotion and isolated feelings that [ James Blake and The Weeknd ] have carved their brands out of today . " Craig D. Linsey from The Village Voice wrote that the album 's " naked humanity ... practically set off the emo @-@ rap / r & b boom that everyone from Drake to Frank Ocean to The Weeknd now traffic in . " Marcus Scott of GIANT said rappers such as B.o.B , Drake , and Kid Cudi followed West 's album with similarly @-@ minded works , citing West 's introspective , emotional themes and synthpop / " Vangelis @-@ inspired " music as influences . In the opinion of Billboard senior editor Alex Gale , the album was " the equivalent of ( Bob ) Dylan going electric , and you still hear that all the time , in hip @-@ hop and outside of hip @-@ hop . " Drake 's 2009 mixtape So Far Gone received comparisons from critics to 808s & Heartbreak . Todd Martens of the Los Angeles Times cited 808s & Heartbreak as " the template [ ... ] for essentially the entirety of Drake 's young career " , and that wrote that he " shares West 's love for mood and never @-@ ending existential analysis " . In a 2009 interview , Drake cited West as " the most influential person " in shaping his own sound .
= = Track listing = =
Songwriting credits , production credits , and notes for tracks 1 – 11 adapted from the liner notes of 808s & Heartbreak . Songwriting credits for track 12 adapted from BMI .
Notes
^ [ a ] co @-@ producer
" RoboCop " embodies portions of " Kissing in the Rain " , written by Doyle .
" Bad News " contains a sample of the recording " See Line Woman " as performed by Nina Simone and written by Bass .
" Coldest Winter " embodies an interpolation of " Memories Fade " , written by Orzabal .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for 808s & Heartbreak adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= History of supernova observation =
The known history of supernova observation goes back to 185 CE , when , supernova SN 185 appeared , the oldest appearance of a supernova recorded by humankind . Several additional supernovae within the Milky Way galaxy have been recorded since that time , with SN 1604 being the most recent supernova to be observed in this galaxy .
Since the development of the telescope , the field of supernova discovery has expanded to other galaxies . These occurrences provide important information on the distances of galaxies . Successful models of supernova behavior have also been developed , and the role of supernovae in the star formation process is now increasingly understood .
= = Early history = =
The supernova explosion that formed the Vela Supernova Remnant most likely occurred 10 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 years ago . In 1976 , NASA astronomers suggested that inhabitants of the southern hemisphere may have witnessed this explosion and recorded it symbolically . A year later , archaeologist George Michanowsky recalled some incomprehensible ancient markings in Bolivia that were left by Native Americans . The carvings showed four small circles flanked by two larger circles . The smaller circles resemble stellar groupings in the constellations Vela and Carina . One of the larger circles may represent the star Capella . Another circle is located near the position of the supernova remnant , George Michanowsky suggested this may represent the supernova explosion as witnessed by the indigenous residents .
In 185 CE , Chinese astronomers recorded the appearance of a bright star in the sky , and observed that it took about eight months to fade from the sky . It was observed to sparkle like a star and did not move across the heavens like a comet . These observations are consistent with the appearance of a supernova , and this is believed to be the oldest confirmed record of a supernova event by humankind . SN 185 may have also possibly been recorded in Roman literature , though no records have survived . The gaseous shell RCW 86 is suspected as being the remnant of this event , and recent X @-@ ray studies show a good match for the expected age .
In 393 CE , the Chinese recorded the appearance of another " guest star " , SN 393 , in the modern constellation of Scorpius . Additional unconfirmed supernovae events may have been observed in 369 CE , 386 CE , 437 CE , 827 CE and 902 CE . However these have not yet been associated with a supernova remnant , and so they remain only candidates . Over a span of about 2 @,@ 000 years , Chinese astronomers recorded a total of twenty such candidate events , including later explosions noted by Islamic , European , and possibly Indian and other observers .
The supernova SN 1006 appeared in the southern constellation of Lupus during the year 1006 CE . This was the brightest recorded star ever to appear in the night sky , and its presence was noted in China , Egypt , Iraq , Italy , Japan and Switzerland . It may also have been noted in France , Syria , and North America . Egyptian physician , astronomer and astrologer Ali ibn Ridwan gave the brightness of this star as one @-@ quarter the brightness of the Moon . Modern astronomers have discovered the faint remnant of this explosion and determined that it was only 7 @,@ 100 light @-@ years from the Earth .
Supernova SN 1054 was another widely observed event , with Arab , Chinese , and Japanese astronomers recording the star 's appearance in 1054 CE . It may also have been recorded by the Anasazi as a petroglyph . This explosion appeared in the constellation of Taurus , where it produced the Crab Nebula remnant . At its peak , the luminosity of SN 1054 may have been four times as bright as Venus , and it remained visible in daylight for 23 days and was visible in the night sky for 653 days .
There are fewer records of supernova SN 1181 , which occurred in the constellation Cassiopeia just over a century after SN 1054 . It was noted by Chinese and Japanese astronomers , however . The pulsar 3C58 may be the stellar relic from this event .
The Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe was noted for his careful observations of the night sky from his observatory on the island of Hven . In 1572 he noted the appearance of a new star , also in the constellation Cassiopeia . Later called SN 1572 , this supernova was associated with a remnant during the 1960s .
A common belief in Europe during this period was the Aristotelian idea that the world beyond the Moon and planets was immutable . So observers argued that the phenomenon was something in the Earth 's atmosphere . However Tycho noted that the object remained stationary from night to night — never changing its parallax — so it must lie far away . He published his observations in the small book De nova et nullius aevi memoria prius visa stella ( Latin for " Concerning the new and previously unseen star " ) in 1573 . It is from the title of this book that the modern word nova for cataclysmic variable stars is derived .
The most recent supernova to be seen in the Milky Way galaxy was SN 1604 , which was observed October 9 , 1604 . Several people noted the sudden appearance of this star , but it was Johannes Kepler who became noted for his systematic study of the object . He published his observations in the work De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii .
Galileo , like Tycho before him , tried in vain to measure the parallax of this new star , and then argued against the Aristotelian view of an immutable heavens . The remnant of this supernova was identified in 1941 at the Mount Wilson Observatory .
= = Telescope observation = =
The true nature of the supernova remained obscure for some time . Observers slowly came to recognize a class of stars that undergo long @-@ term periodic fluctuations in luminosity . Both John Russell Hind in 1848 and Norman Pogson in 1863 had charted stars that underwent sudden changes in brightness . However these received little attention from the astronomical community . Finally , in 1866 , English astronomer William Huggins made the first spectroscopic observations of a nova , discovering lines of hydrogen in the unusual spectrum of the recurrent nova T Coronae Borealis . Huggins proposed a cataclysmic explosion as the underlying mechanism , and his efforts drew interest from other astronomers .
In 1885 , a nova @-@ like outburst was observed in the direction of the Andromeda galaxy by Ernst Hartwig in Estonia . S Andromedae increased to 6th magnitude , outshining the entire nucleus of the galaxy , then faded in a manner much like a nova . In 1917 , George W. Ritchey measured the distance to the Andromeda Galaxy and discovered it lay much farther than had previously been thought . This meant that S Andromedae , which did not just lie along the line of sight to the galaxy but had actually resided in the nucleus , released a much greater amount of energy than was typical for a nova .
Early work on this new category of nova was performed during the 1930s by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky at Mount Wilson Observatory . They identified S Andromedae , what they considered a typical supernova , as an explosive event that released radiation approximately equal to the Sun 's total energy output for 107 years . They decided to call this new class of cataclysmic variables super @-@ novae , and postulated that the energy was generated by the gravitational collapse of ordinary stars into neutron stars . The name super @-@ novae was first used in a 1931 lecture at Caltech by Zwicky , then used publicly in 1933 at a meeting of the American Physical Society . By 1938 , the hyphen had been lost and the modern name was in use .
Although supernovae are relatively rare events , occurring on average about once every 50 years in the Milky Way , observations of distant galaxies allowed supernovae to be discovered and examined more frequently . The first supernova detection patrol was begun by Zwicky in 1933 . He was joined by Josef J. Johnson from Caltech in 1936 . Using a 45 @-@ cm Schmidt telescope at Palomar observatory , they discovered twelve new supernovae within three years by comparing new photographic plates to reference images of extragalactic regions .
In 1938 , Walter Baade became the first astronomer to identify a nebula as a supernova remnant when he suggested that the Crab Nebula was the remains of SN 1054 . He noted that , while it had the appearance of a planetary nebula , the measured velocity of expansion was much too large to belong to that classification . During the same year , Baade first proposed the use of the Type Ia supernova as a secondary distance indicator . Later , the work of Allan Sandage and Gustav Tammann helped refine the process so that Type Ia supernovae became a type of standard candle for measuring large distances across the cosmos .
The first spectral classification of these distant supernovae was performed by Rudolph Minkowski in 1941 . He categorized them into two types , based on whether or not lines of the element hydrogen appeared in the supernova spectrum . Zwicky later proposed additional types III , IV , and V , although these are no longer used and now appear to be associated with single peculiar supernova types . Further sub @-@ division of the spectra categories resulted in the modern supernova classification scheme .
In the aftermath of the Second World War , Fred Hoyle worked on the problem of how the various observed elements in the universe were produced . In 1946 he proposed that a massive star could generate the necessary thermonuclear reactions , and the nuclear reactions of heavy elements were responsible for the removal of energy necessary for a gravitational collapse to occur . The collapsing star became rotationally unstable , and produced an explosive expulsion of elements that were distributed into interstellar space . The concept that rapid nuclear fusion was the source of energy for a supernova explosion was developed by Hoyle and William Fowler during the 1960s .
The first computer @-@ controlled search for supernovae was begun in the 1960s at Northwestern University . They built a 24 @-@ inch telescope at Corralitos Observatory in New Mexico that could be repositioned under computer control . The telescope displayed a new galaxy each minute , with observers checking the view on a television screen . By this means , they discovered 14 supernovae over a period of two years .
= = 1970 – 1999 = =
The modern standard model for Type Ia supernovae explosions is founded on a proposal by Whelan and Iben in 1973 , and is based upon a mass @-@ transfer scenario to a degenerate companion star . In particular , the light curve of SN1972e in NGC 5253 , which was observed for more than a year , was followed long enough to discover that after its broad " hump " in brightness , the supernova faded at a nearly constant rate of about 0 @.@ 01 magnitudes per day . Translated to another system of units , this is nearly the same as the decay rate of cobalt @-@ 56 ( 56Co ) , whose half @-@ life is 77 days . The degenerate explosion model predicts the production of about a solar mass of nickel @-@ 56 ( 56Ni ) by the exploding star . The 56Ni decays with a half @-@ life of 6 @.@ 8 days to 56Co , and the decay of the nickel and cobalt provides the energy radiated away by the supernova late in its history . The agreement in both total energy production and the fade rate between the theoretical models and the observations of 1972e led to rapid acceptance of the degenerate @-@ explosion model .
Through observation of the light curves of many Type Ia supernovae , it was discovered that they appear to have a common peak luminosity . By measuring the luminosity of these events , the distance to their host galaxy can be estimated with good accuracy . Thus this category of supernovae has become highly useful as a standard candle for measuring cosmic distances . In 1998 , the High @-@ Z Supernova Search and the Supernova Cosmology Project discovered that the most distant Type Ia supernovae appeared dimmer than expected . This has provided evidence that the expansion of the universe may be accelerating .
Although no supernova has been observed in the Milky Way since 1604 , it appears that a supernova exploded in the constellation Cassiopeia about 300 years ago , around the year 1667 or 1680 . The remnant of this explosion , Cassiopeia A — is heavily obscured by interstellar dust , which is possibly why it did not make a notable appearance . However it can be observed in other parts of the spectrum , and it is currently the brightest radio source beyond our solar system .
In 1987 , Supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud was observed within hours of its start . It was the first supernova to be detected through its neutrino emission and the first to be observed across every band of the electromagnetic spectrum . The relative proximity of this supernova has allowed detailed observation , and it provided the first opportunity for modern theories of supernova formation to be tested against observations .
The rate of supernova discovery steadily increased throughout the twentieth century . In the 1990s , several automated supernova search programs were initiated . The Leuschner Observatory Supernova Search program was begun in 1992 at Leuschner Observatory . It was joined the same year by the Berkeley Automated Imaging Telescope program . These were succeeded in 1996 by the Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope at Lick Observatory , which was primarily used for the Lick Observatory Supernova Search ( LOSS ) . By 2000 , the Lick program resulted in the discovery of 96 supernovae , making it the world 's most successful Supernova search program .
In the late 1990s it was proposed that recent supernova remnants could be found by looking for gamma rays from the decay of titanium @-@ 44 . This has a half @-@ life of 90 years and the gamma rays can traverse the galaxy easily , so it permits us to see any remnants from the last millennium or so . Two sources were found , the previously discovered Cassiopeia A remnant , and the RX J0852.0 @-@ 4622 remnant , which had just been discovered overlapping the Vela Supernova Remnant
This remnant ( RX J0852.0 @-@ 4622 ) had been found in front ( apparently ) of the larger Vela Supernova Remnant . The gamma rays from the decay of titanium @-@ 44 showed that it must have exploded fairly recently ( perhaps around 1200 AD ) , but there is no historical record of it . The flux of gamma rays and x @-@ rays indicates that the supernova was relatively close to us ( perhaps 200 parsecs or 600 ly ) . If so , this is a surprising event because supernovae less than 200 parsecs away are estimated to occur less than once per 100 @,@ 000 years .
= = 2000 to present = =
The " SN 2003fg " was discovered in a forming galaxy in 2003 . The appearance of this supernova was studied in " real @-@ time " , and it has posed several major physical questions as it seems more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit would allow .
First observed in September 2006 , the supernova SN 2006gy , which occurred in a galaxy called NGC 1260 ( 240 million light @-@ years away ) , is the largest and , until confirmation of luminosity of SN 2005ap in October 2007 , the most luminous supernova ever observed . The explosion was at least 100 times more luminous than any previously observed supernova , with the progenitor star being estimated 150 times more massive than the Sun . Although this had some characteristics of a Type Ia supernova , Hydrogen was found in the spectrum . It is thought that SN 2006gy is a likely candidate for a pair @-@ instability supernova . SN 2005ap , which was discovered by Robert Quimby who also discovered SN 2006gy , was about twice as bright as SN 2006gy and about 300 times as bright as a normal type II supernova .
On May 21 , 2008 , astronomers announced that they had for the first time caught a supernova on camera just as it was exploding . By chance , a burst of X @-@ rays was noticed while looking at galaxy NGC 2770 , 88 million light @-@ years from Earth , and a variety of telescopes were aimed in that direction just in time to capture what has been named SN 2008D . " This eventually confirmed that the big X @-@ ray blast marked the birth of a supernova , " said Alicia Soderberg of Princeton University .
One of the many amateur astronomers looking for supernovae , Caroline Moore , a member of the Puckett Observatory Supernova Search Team , found supernova SN 2008ha late November 2008 . At the age of 14 she has now been declared the youngest person ever to find a supernova . However , in January 2011 , 10 @-@ year @-@ old Kathryn Aurora Gray from Canada was reported to have discovered a supernova , making her the youngest ever to find a supernova . Ms. Gray , her father , and a friend spotted SN 2010lt , a magnitude 17 supernova in galaxy UGC 3378 in the constellation Camelopardalis , about 240 million light years away .
In 2009 , researchers have found nitrates in ice cores from Antarctica at depths corresponding to the known supernovae of 1006 and 1054 AD , as well as from around 1060 AD . The nitrates were apparently formed from nitrogen oxides created by gamma rays from the supernovae . This technique should be able to detect supernovae going back several thousand years .
On November 15 , 2010 , astronomers using NASA 's Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory announced that , while viewing the remnant of SN 1979C in the galaxy Messier 100 , they have discovered an object which could be a young , 30 @-@ year @-@ old black hole . NASA also noted the possibility this object could be a spinning neutron star producing a wind of high energy particles .
On August 24 , 2011 , the Palomar Transient Factory automated survey discovered a new Type Ia supernova ( SN 2011fe ) in the Pinwheel Galaxy ( M101 ) shortly after it burst into existence . Being only 21 million lightyears away and detected so early after the event started , it will allow scientists to learn more about the early developments of these types of supernovae .
On 16 March 2012 , a Type II supernova , designated as SN 2012aw , was discovered in M95 .
On January 22 , 2014 , students at the University of London Observatory spotted an exploding star SN 2014J in the nearby galaxy M82 ( the Cigar Galaxy ) . At a distance of around 12 million light years , the supernova is one of the nearest to be observed in recent decades .
= = Future = =
The estimated rate of supernova production in a galaxy the size of the Milky Way is about one every 50 years . This is much higher than the actual observed rate , implying that a portion of these events have been obscured from the Earth by interstellar dust . The deployment of new instruments that can observe across a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum , along with neutrino detectors , means that the next such event will almost certainly be detected .
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= W. B. Yeats =
William Butler Yeats ( / ˈjeɪts / ; 13 June 1865 – 28 January 1939 ) was an Irish poet and one of the foremost figures of 20th @-@ century literature . A pillar of both the Irish and British literary establishments , in his later years he served as an Irish Senator for two terms . Yeats was a driving force behind the Irish Literary Revival and , along with Lady Gregory , Edward Martyn , and others , founded the Abbey Theatre , where he served as its chief during its early years . In 1923 , he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature as the first Irishman so honoured for what the Nobel Committee described as " inspired poetry , which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation " . Yeats is considered to be one of the few writers who completed their greatest works after being awarded the Nobel Prize ; such works include The Tower ( 1928 ) and The Winding Stair and Other Poems ( 1933 ) .
William Butler Yeats was born in Sandymount , Ireland and educated there and in London ; he spent his childhood holidays in County Sligo . He studied poetry in his youth and from an early age was fascinated by both Irish legends and the occult . Those topics feature in the first phase of his work , which lasted roughly until the turn of the 20th century . His earliest volume of verse was published in 1889 , and its slow @-@ paced and lyrical poems display Yeats 's debts to Edmund Spenser , Percy Bysshe Shelley , and the poets of the Pre @-@ Raphaelite Brotherhood . From 1900 , Yeats 's poetry grew more physical and realistic . He largely renounced the transcendental beliefs of his youth , though he remained preoccupied with physical and spiritual masks , as well as with cyclical theories of life .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Of Anglo @-@ Irish descent , William Butler Yeats was born at Sandymount in County Dublin , Ireland . His father , John Butler Yeats ( 1839 – 1922 ) , was a descendant of Jervis Yeats , a Williamite soldier , linen merchant , and well @-@ known painter who died in 1712 . Benjamin Yeats , Jervis 's grandson and William 's great @-@ great @-@ grandfather , had in 1773 married Mary Butler of a landed family in County Kildare . Following their marriage , they kept the name Butler in the family name . Mary was a descendant of the Butler of Ormond family from the Neigham ( pronounced Nyam ) Gowran branch of the family . They were descendants of the first Earls of Ormond .
At the time of his marriage , William 's father John Yeats was studying law but abandoned his studies to study art at Heatherley 's Art School in London . His mother , Susan Mary Pollexfen , came from a wealthy merchant family in Sligo , who owned a milling and shipping business . Soon after William 's birth the family relocated to the Pollexfen home at Merville , Sligo to stay with her extended family , and the young poet came to think of the area as his childhood and spiritual home . Its landscape became , over time , both literally and symbolically , his " country of the heart " . The Butler Yeats family were highly artistic ; his brother Jack became an esteemed painter , while his sisters Elizabeth and Susan Mary — known to family and friends as Lollie and Lily — became involved in the Arts and Crafts Movement .
Yeats grew up as a member of the former Protestant Ascendancy at the time undergoing a crisis of identity . While his family was broadly supportive of the changes Ireland was experiencing , the nationalist revival of the late 19th century directly disadvantaged his heritage , and informed his outlook for the remainder of his life . In 1997 , his biographer R. F. Foster observed that Napoleon 's dictum that to understand the man you have to know what was happening in the world when he was twenty " is manifestly true of W.B.Y. " Yeats 's childhood and young adulthood were shadowed by the power shift away from the minority Protestant Ascendancy . The 1880s saw the rise of Parnell and the home rule movement ; the 1890s saw the momentum of nationalism , while the Catholics became prominent around the turn of the century . These developments had a profound effect on his poetry , and his subsequent explorations of Irish identity had a significant influence on the creation of his country 's biography .
In 1867 , the family moved to England to aid their father , John , to further his career as an artist . At first the Yeats children were educated at home . Their mother entertained them with stories and Irish folktales . John provided an erratic education in geography and chemistry , and took William on natural history explorations of the nearby Slough countryside . On 26 January 1877 , the young poet entered the Godolphin school , which he attended for four years . He did not distinguish himself academically , and an early school report describes his performance as " only fair . Perhaps better in Latin than in any other subject . Very poor in spelling " . Though he had difficulty with mathematics and languages ( possibly because he was tone deaf ) , he was fascinated by biology and zoology . For financial reasons , the family returned to Dublin toward the end of 1880 , living at first in the suburbs of Harold 's Cross and later Howth . In October 1881 , Yeats resumed his education at Dublin 's Erasmus Smith High School . His father 's studio was nearby and William spent a great deal of time there , where he met many of the city 's artists and writers . During this period he started writing poetry , and , in 1885 , the Dublin University Review published Yeats 's first poems , as well as an essay entitled " The Poetry of Sir Samuel Ferguson " . Between 1884 and 1886 , William attended the Metropolitan School of Art — now the National College of Art and Design — in Thomas Street .
His first known works were written when he was seventeen , and included a poem — heavily influenced by Percy Bysshe Shelley — that describes a magician who set up a throne in central Asia . Other pieces from this period include a draft of a play about a bishop , a monk , and a woman accused of paganism by local shepherds , as well as love @-@ poems and narrative lyrics on German knights . The early works were both conventional and , according to the critic Charles Johnston , " utterly unIrish " , seeming to come out of a " vast murmurous gloom of dreams " . Although Yeats 's early works drew heavily on Shelley , Edmund Spenser , and on the diction and colouring of pre @-@ Raphaelite verse , he soon turned to Irish mythology and folklore and the writings of William Blake . In later life , Yeats paid tribute to Blake by describing him as one of the " great artificers of God who uttered great truths to a little clan " . In 1891 , Yeats published " John Sherman " and " Dhoya " , one a novella , the other a story .
= = = Young poet = = =
The family returned to London in 1887 . In March 1890 Yeats joined the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn . That same year Yeats and Ernest Rhys co @-@ founded the Rhymers ' Club , a group of London @-@ based poets who met regularly in a Fleet Street tavern to recite their verse . Yeats later sought to mythologize the collective , calling it the " Tragic Generation " in his autobiography , and published two anthologies of the Rhymers ' work , the first one in 1892 and the second one in 1894 . He collaborated with Edwin Ellis on the first complete edition of William Blake 's works , in the process rediscovering a forgotten poem , " Vala , or , the Four Zoas " . In a late essay on Shelley , Yeats wrote , " I have re @-@ read Prometheus Unbound ... and it seems to me to have an even more certain place than I had thought among the sacred books of the world . "
Yeats had a life @-@ long interest in mysticism , spiritualism , occultism and astrology . He read extensively on the subjects throughout his life , became a member of the paranormal research organisation " The Ghost Club " ( in 1911 ) and was especially influenced by the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg . As early as 1892 , he wrote : " If I had not made magic my constant study I could not have written a single word of my Blake book , nor would The Countess Kathleen ever have come to exist . The mystical life is the centre of all that I do and all that I think and all that I write . " His mystical interests — also inspired by a study of Hinduism , under the Theosophist Mohini Chatterjee , and the occult — formed much of the basis of his late poetry . Some critics disparaged this aspect of Yeats 's work ; W. H. Auden called it the " deplorable spectacle of a grown man occupied with the mumbo @-@ jumbo of magic and the nonsense of India . "
His first significant poem was " The Island of Statues " , a fantasy work that took Edmund Spenser and Shelley for its poetic models . The piece was serialized in the Dublin University Review . Yeats wished to include it in his first collection , but it was deemed too long , and in fact was never republished in his lifetime . Quinx Books published the poem in complete form for the first time in 2014 . His first solo publication was the pamphlet Mosada : A Dramatic Poem ( 1886 ) , which comprised a print run of 100 copies paid for by his father . This was followed by the collection The Wanderings of Oisin and Other Poems ( 1889 ) , which arranged a series of verse that dated as far back as the mid @-@ 1880s . The long title poem contains , in the words of his biographer R.F. Foster , " obscure Gaelic names , striking repetitions [ and ] an unremitting rhythm subtly varied as the poem proceeded through its three sections " ;
We rode in sorrow , with strong hounds three ,
Bran , Sceolan , and Lomair ,
On a morning misty and mild and fair .
The mist @-@ drops hung on the fragrant trees ,
And in the blossoms hung the bees .
We rode in sadness above Lough Lean ,
For our best were dead on Gavra 's green .
" The Wanderings of Oisin " is based on the lyrics of the Fenian Cycle of Irish mythology and displays the influence of both Sir Samuel Ferguson and the Pre @-@ Raphaelite poets . The poem took two years to complete and was one of the few works from this period that he did not disown in his maturity . Oisin introduces what was to become one of his most important themes : the appeal of the life of contemplation over the appeal of the life of action . Following the work , Yeats never again attempted another long poem . His other early poems , which are meditations on the themes of love or mystical and esoteric subjects , include Poems ( 1895 ) , The Secret Rose ( 1897 ) , and The Wind Among the Reeds ( 1899 ) . The covers of these volumes were illustrated by Yeats ' friend Althea Gyles .
During 1885 , Yeats was involved in the formation of the Dublin Hermetic Order . The society held its first meeting on 16 June , with Yeats acting as its chairman . The same year , the Dublin Theosophical lodge was opened in conjunction with Brahmin Mohini Chatterjee , who travelled from the Theosophical Society in London to lecture . Yeats attended his first séance the following year . He later became heavily involved with the Theosophical Society and with hermeticism , particularly with the eclectic Rosicrucianism of the Golden Dawn . During séances held from 1912 , a spirit calling itself " Leo Africanus " apparently claimed it was Yeats 's Daemon or anti @-@ self , inspiring some of the speculations in Per Amica Silentia Lunae . He was admitted into the Golden Dawn in March 1890 and took the magical motto Daemon est Deus inversus — translated as Devil is God inverted or A demon is a god reflected . He was an active recruiter for the sect 's Isis @-@ Urania Temple , and brought in his uncle George Pollexfen , Maud Gonne , and Florence Farr . Although he reserved a distaste for abstract and dogmatic religions founded around personality cults , he was attracted to the type of people he met at the Golden Dawn . He was involved in the Order 's power struggles , both with Farr and Macgregor Mathers , and was involved when Mathers sent Aleister Crowley to repossess Golden Dawn paraphernalia during the " Battle of Blythe Road " . After the Golden Dawn ceased and splintered into various offshoots , Yeats remained with the Stella Matutina until 1921 .
= = = Maud Gonne = = =
In 1889 , Yeats met Maud Gonne , then a 23 @-@ year @-@ old English heiress and ardent Irish Nationalist . Gonne was eighteen months younger than Yeats and later claimed she met the poet as a " paint @-@ stained art student . " Gonne had admired " The Island of Statues " and sought out his acquaintance . Yeats developed an obsessive infatuation with her beauty and outspoken manner , and she had a significant and lasting effect on his poetry and his life thereafter .
In later years he admitted , " it seems to me that she [ Gonne ] brought into my life those days — for as yet I saw only what lay upon the surface — the middle of the tint , a sound as of a Burmese gong , an over @-@ powering tumult that had yet many pleasant secondary notes . " Yeats ' love initially remained unrequited , in part due to his reluctance to participate in her nationalist activism .
In 1891 , he visited Gonne in Ireland and proposed marriage , but she rejected him . He later admitted that from that point " the troubling of my life began " . Yeats proposed to Gonne three more times : in 1899 , 1900 and 1901 . She refused each proposal , and in 1903 , to his horror , married the Irish nationalist Major John MacBride . His only other love affair during this period was with Olivia Shakespear , whom he first met in 1894 , and parted from in 1897 .
Yeats continually sought to deride and demean John MacBride both in his letters and his poetry , but there were two main reasons why he was horrified by Gonne 's marriage to him . Firstly , to lose his muse to another man affected his reputation with the public . Secondly , Gonne converted to Catholicism before her marriage , and Yeats was Protestant / agnostic . He worried his muse would come under the influence of the priests and do their bidding .
Gonne 's marriage to MacBride , as forecast by both their sets of friends and relations , was a disaster early on . This pleased Yeats , as Gonne began to visit him in London . After the birth of her son , Seán MacBride , in 1904 , Gonne and MacBride agreed to end the marriage , although they were unable to agree on the child 's welfare . Despite the use of intermediaries , a divorce case ensued in Paris in 1905 . Gonne made a series of allegations against her husband with Yeats as her main ' second , ' though he did not attend court or travel to France . A divorce was not granted as the only accusation that held up in court was that MacBride had been drunk once during the marriage . A separation was granted with Gonne having custody of the baby and John having visiting rights .
Yeats 's friendship with Gonne persisted , and , in Paris , in 1908 , they finally consummated their relationship . " The long years of fidelity rewarded at last " was how another of his lovers described the event . Yeats was less sentimental and later remarked that " the tragedy of sexual intercourse is the perpetual virginity of the soul . " The relationship did not develop into a new phase after their night together , and soon afterwards Gonne wrote to the poet indicating that despite the physical consummation , they could not continue as they had been : " I have prayed so hard to have all earthly desire taken from my love for you and dearest , loving you as I do , I have prayed and I am praying still that the bodily desire for me may be taken from you too . " By January 1909 , Gonne was sending Yeats letters praising the advantage given to artists who abstain from sex . Nearly twenty years later , Yeats recalled the night with Gonne in his poem " A Man Young and Old " :
My arms are like the twisted thorn
And yet there beauty lay ;
The first of all the tribe lay there
And did such pleasure take ;
She who had brought great Hector down
And put all Troy to wreck .
In 1896 , Yeats was introduced to Lady Gregory by their mutual friend Edward Martyn . Gregory encouraged Yeats ' nationalism , and convinced him to continue focusing on writing drama . Although he was influenced by French Symbolism , Yeats concentrated on an identifiably Irish content and this inclination was reinforced by his involvement with a new generation of younger and emerging Irish authors . Together with Lady Gregory , Martyn , and other writers including J. M. Synge , Seán O 'Casey , and Padraic Colum , Yeats was one of those responsible for the establishment of the " Irish Literary Revival " movement . Apart from these creative writers , much of the impetus for the Revival came from the work of scholarly translators who were aiding in the discovery of both the ancient sagas and Ossianic poetry and the more recent folk song tradition in Irish . One of the most significant of these was Douglas Hyde , later the first President of Ireland , whose Love Songs of Connacht was widely admired .
= = = Abbey Theatre = = =
In 1899 , Yeats , Lady Gregory , Edward Martyn and George Moore established the Irish Literary Theatre for the purpose of performing Irish and Celtic plays . The ideals of the Abbey were derived from the avant @-@ garde French theatre , which sought to express the " ascendancy of the playwright rather than the actor @-@ manager à l 'anglais . " The group 's manifesto , which Yeats wrote , declared , " We hope to find in Ireland an uncorrupted & imaginative audience trained to listen by its passion for oratory ... & that freedom to experiment which is not found in the theatres of England , & without which no new movement in art or literature can succeed . "
The collective survived for about two years but was not successful . Working with two Irish brothers with theatrical experience , William and Frank Fay , Yeats 's unpaid yet independently wealthy secretary Annie Horniman , and the leading West End actress Florence Farr , the group established the Irish National Theatre Society . Along with Synge , they acquired property in Dublin and on 27 December 1904 opened the Abbey Theatre . Yeats 's play Cathleen Ní Houlihan and Lady Gregory 's Spreading the News were featured on the opening night . Yeats remained involved with the Abbey until his death , both as a member of the board and a prolific playwright . In 1902 , he helped set up the Dun Emer Press to publish work by writers associated with the Revival . This became the Cuala Press in 1904 , and inspired by the Arts and Crafts Movement , sought to " find work for Irish hands in the making of beautiful things . " From then until its closure in 1946 , the press — which was run by the poet 's sisters — produced over 70 titles ; 48 of them books by Yeats himself .
In 1909 , Yeats met the American poet Ezra Pound . Pound had travelled to London at least partly to meet the older man , whom he considered " the only poet worthy of serious study . " From that year until 1916 , the two men wintered in the Stone Cottage at Ashdown Forest , with Pound nominally acting as Yeats 's secretary . The relationship got off to a rocky start when Pound arranged for the publication in the magazine Poetry of some of Yeats 's verse with Pound 's own unauthorised alterations . These changes reflected Pound 's distaste for Victorian prosody . A more indirect influence was the scholarship on Japanese Noh plays that Pound had obtained from Ernest Fenollosa 's widow , which provided Yeats with a model for the aristocratic drama he intended to write . The first of his plays modelled on Noh was At the Hawk 's Well , the first draft of which he dictated to Pound in January 1916 .
The emergence of a nationalist revolutionary movement from the ranks of the mostly Roman Catholic lower @-@ middle and working class made Yeats reassess some of his attitudes . In the refrain of " Easter , 1916 " ( " All changed , changed utterly / A terrible beauty is born " ) , Yeats faces his own failure to recognise the merits of the leaders of the Easter Rising , due to his attitude towards their ordinary backgrounds and lives .
= = = Politics = = =
Yeats was an Irish Nationalist at heart , looking for the kind of traditional lifestyle displayed through poems such as ' The Fisherman ' . However , as his life progressed , he sheltered much of his revolutionary spirit and distanced himself from the intense political landscape until 1922 , when he was appointed Senator for the Irish Free State .
In the earlier part of his life , Yeats was a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood . Due to the escalating tension of the political scene , Yeats distanced himself from the core political activism in the midst of the Easter Rising , even holding back his poetry inspired by the events until 1920 .
= = = Marriage to Georgie Hyde Lees = = =
By 1916 , Yeats was 51 years old and determined to marry and produce an heir . John MacBride had been executed by British forces for his role in the 1916 Easter Rising , and Yeats thought that his widow might remarry . His final proposal to Maud Gonne took place in mid @-@ 1916 . Gonne 's history of revolutionary political activism , as well as a series of personal catastrophes in the previous few years of her life , including chloroform addiction and her troubled marriage to MacBride made her a potentially unsuitable wife and biographer R.F. Foster has observed that Yeats 's last offer was motivated more by a sense of duty than by a genuine desire to marry her .
Yeats proposed in an indifferent manner , with conditions attached , and he both expected and hoped she would turn him down . According to Foster " when he duly asked Maud to marry him , and was duly refused , his thoughts shifted with surprising speed to her daughter . " Iseult Gonne was Maud 's second child with Lucien Millevoye , and at the time was twenty @-@ one years old . She had lived a sad life to this point ; conceived as an attempt to reincarnate her short @-@ lived brother , for the first few years of her life she was presented as her mother 's adopted niece . When Maud told her that she was going to marry , Iseult cried and told her mother that she hated MacBride . At fifteen , she proposed to Yeats . In 1917 he proposed to Iseult , but was rejected .
That September , Yeats proposed to 25 @-@ year @-@ old Georgie Hyde @-@ Lees ( 1892 – 1968 ) , known as George , whom he had met through Olivia Shakespear . Despite warnings from her friends — " George ... you can 't . He must be dead " — Hyde @-@ Lees accepted , and the two were married on 20 October . Their marriage was a success , in spite of the age difference , and in spite of Yeats 's feelings of remorse and regret during their honeymoon . The couple went on to have two children , Anne and Michael . Although in later years he had romantic relationships with other women and possibly affairs , George herself wrote to her husband " When you are dead , people will talk about your love affairs , but I shall say nothing , for I will remember how proud you were . "
During the first years of his marriage , he and George experimented with automatic writing , and George contacted a variety of spirits and guides they called " Instructors " while in a trance . The spirits communicated a complex and esoteric system of philosophy and history , which the couple developed into an exposition using geometrical shapes : phases , cones , and gyres . Yeats devoted much time to preparing this material for publication as A Vision ( 1925 ) . In 1924 , he wrote to his publisher T. Werner Laurie admitting : " I dare say I delude myself in thinking this book my book of books " .
= = = Nobel Prize = = =
In December 1923 , Yeats was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature , " for his always inspired poetry , which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation " . He was aware of the symbolic value of an Irish winner so soon after Ireland had gained independence , and sought to highlight the fact at each available opportunity . His reply to many of the letters of congratulations sent to him contained the words : " I consider that this honour has come to me less as an individual than as a representative of Irish literature , it is part of Europe 's welcome to the Free State . " Yeats used the occasion of his acceptance lecture at the Royal Academy of Sweden to present himself as a standard @-@ bearer of Irish nationalism and Irish cultural independence . As he remarked , " The theatres of Dublin were empty buildings hired by the English travelling companies , and we wanted Irish plays and Irish players . When we thought of these plays we thought of everything that was romantic and poetical , because the nationalism we had called up — the nationalism every generation had called up in moments of discouragement — was romantic and poetical . " The prize led to a significant increase in the sales of his books , as his publishers Macmillan sought to capitalise on the publicity . For the first time he had money , and he was able to repay not only his own debts , but those of his father .
= = = Old age and death = = =
By early 1925 , Yeats ' health had stabilised , and he had completed most of the writing for " A Vision " ( dated 1925 , it actually appeared in January 1926 , when he almost immediately started rewriting it for a second version ) . He had been appointed to the first Irish Senate in 1922 , and was re @-@ appointed for a second term in 1925 . Early in his tenure , a debate on divorce arose , and Yeats viewed the issue as primarily a confrontation between the emerging Roman Catholic ethos and the Protestant minority . When the Roman Catholic Church weighed in with a blanket refusal to consider their anti position , the Irish Times countered that a measure to outlaw divorce would alienate Protestants and " crystallise " the partition of Ireland .
In response , Yeats delivered a series of speeches that attacked the " quixotically impressive " ambitions of the government and clergy , likening their campaign tactics to those of " medieval Spain . " " Marriage is not to us a Sacrament , but , upon the other hand , the love of a man and woman , and the inseparable physical desire , are sacred . This conviction has come to us through ancient philosophy and modern literature , and it seems to us a most sacrilegious thing to persuade two people who hate each other ... to live together , and it is to us no remedy to permit them to part if neither can re @-@ marry . " The resulting debate has been described as one of Yeats 's " supreme public moments " , and began his ideological move away from pluralism towards religious confrontation .
His language became more forceful ; the Jesuit Father Peter Finlay was described by Yeats as a man of " monstrous discourtesy " , and he lamented that , " It is one of the glories of the Church in which I was born that we have put our Bishops in their place in discussions requiring legislation " . During his time in the Senate , Yeats further warned his colleagues : " If you show that this country , southern Ireland , is going to be governed by Roman Catholic ideas and by Catholic ideas alone , you will never get the North ... You will put a wedge in the midst of this nation " . He memorably said of his fellow Irish Protestants , " we are no petty people " .
In 1924 , he chaired a coinage committee charged with selecting a set of designs for the first currency of the Irish Free State . Aware of the symbolic power latent in the imagery of a young state 's currency , he sought a form that was " elegant , racy of the soil , and utterly unpolitical " . When the house finally decided on the artwork of Percy Metcalfe , Yeats was pleased , though he regretted that compromise had led to " lost muscular tension " in the finally depicted images . He retired from the Senate in 1928 because of ill health .
Towards the end of his life — and especially after the Wall Street Crash and Great Depression , which led some to question whether democracy could cope with deep economic difficulty — Yeats seems to have returned to his aristocratic sympathies . During the aftermath of the First World War , he became sceptical about the efficacy of democratic government , and anticipated political reconstruction in Europe through totalitarian rule . His later association with Pound drew him towards Benito Mussolini , for whom he expressed admiration on a number of occasions . He wrote three " marching songs " — never used — for the Irish General Eoin O 'Duffy 's Blueshirts .
At the age of 69 he was ' rejuvenated ' by the Steinach operation which was performed on 6 April 1934 by Norman Haire . For the last five years of his life Yeats found a new vigour evident from both his poetry and his intimate relations with younger women . During this time , Yeats was involved in a number of romantic affairs with , among others , the poet and actress Margot Ruddock , and the novelist , journalist and sexual radical Ethel Mannin . As in his earlier life , Yeats found erotic adventure conducive to his creative energy , and , despite age and ill @-@ health , he remained a prolific writer . In a letter of 1935 , Yeats noted : " I find my present weakness made worse by the strange second puberty the operation has given me , the ferment that has come upon my imagination . If I write poetry it will be unlike anything I have done " . In 1936 , he undertook editorship of the Oxford Book of Modern Verse , 1892 – 1935 .
He died at the Hôtel Idéal Séjour , in Menton , France , on 28 January 1939 . He was buried after a discreet and private funeral at Roquebrune @-@ Cap @-@ Martin . Attempts had been made at Roquebrune to dissuade the family from proceeding with the removal of the remains to Ireland due to the uncertainty of their identity . His body had earlier been exhumed and transferred to the ossuary . Yeats and George had often discussed his death , and his express wish was that he be buried quickly in France with a minimum of fuss . According to George , " His actual words were ' If I die bury me up there [ at Roquebrune ] and then in a year 's time when the newspapers have forgotten me , dig me up and plant me in Sligo ' . " In September 1948 , Yeats ' body was moved to Drumcliff , County Sligo , on the Irish Naval Service corvette LÉ Macha . The person in charge of this operation for the Irish Government was Sean MacBride , son of Maud Gonne MacBride , and then Minister of External Affairs . His epitaph is taken from the last lines of " Under Ben Bulben " , one of his final poems :
Cast a cold Eye
On Life , on Death .
Horseman , pass by !
= = Style = =
Yeats is generally considered one of the twentieth century 's key English language poets . He was a Symbolist poet , in that he used allusive imagery and symbolic structures throughout his career . Yeats chose words and assembled them so that , in addition to a particular meaning , they suggest other abstract thoughts that may seem more significant and resonant . His use of symbols is usually something physical that is both itself and a suggestion of other , perhaps immaterial , timeless qualities .
Unlike other modernists who experimented with free verse , Yeats was a master of the traditional forms . The impact of modernism on his work can be seen in the increasing abandonment of the more conventionally poetic diction of his early work in favour of the more austere language and more direct approach to his themes that increasingly characterises the poetry and plays of his middle period , comprising the volumes In the Seven Woods , Responsibilities and The Green Helmet . His later poetry and plays are written in a more personal vein , and the works written in the last twenty years of his life include mention of his son and daughter , as well as meditations on the experience of growing old . In his poem , " The Circus Animals ' Desertion " , he describes the inspiration for these late works :
Now that my ladder 's gone
I must lie down where all the ladders start
In the foul rag and bone shop of the heart .
During 1929 , he stayed at Thoor Ballylee near Gort in County Galway ( where Yeats had his summer home since 1919 ) for the last time . Much of the remainder of his life was lived outside Ireland , although he did lease Riversdale house in the Dublin suburb of Rathfarnham in 1932 . He wrote prolifically through his final years , and published poetry , plays , and prose . In 1938 , he attended the Abbey for the final time to see the premier of his play Purgatory . His Autobiographies of William Butler Yeats was published that same year . In 1913 , Yeats wrote the preface for the English translation of Rabindranath Tagore 's Gitanjali ( Song Offering ) for which Tagore received Nobel Prize in literature .
While Yeats 's early poetry drew heavily on Irish myth and folklore , his later work was engaged with more contemporary issues , and his style underwent a dramatic transformation . His work can be divided into three general periods . The early poems are lushly pre @-@ Raphaelite in tone , self @-@ consciously ornate , and , at times , according to unsympathetic critics , stilted . Yeats began by writing epic poems such as The Isle of Statues and The Wanderings of Oisin . His other early poems are lyrics on the themes of love or mystical and esoteric subjects . Yeats 's middle period saw him abandon the pre @-@ Raphaelite character of his early work and attempt to turn himself into a Landor @-@ style social ironist .
Critics who admire his middle work might characterize it as supple and muscular in its rhythms and sometimes harshly modernist , while others find these poems barren and weak in imaginative power . Yeats 's later work found new imaginative inspiration in the mystical system he began to work out for himself under the influence of spiritualism . In many ways , this poetry is a return to the vision of his earlier work . The opposition between the worldly minded man of the sword and the spiritually minded man of God , the theme of The Wanderings of Oisin , is reproduced in A Dialogue Between Self and Soul .
Some critics claim that Yeats spanned the transition from the nineteenth century into twentieth @-@ century modernism in poetry much as Pablo Picasso did in painting while others question whether late Yeats has much in common with modernists of the Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot variety .
Modernists read the well @-@ known poem The Second Coming as a dirge for the decline of European civilisation in the mode of Eliot , but later critics have pointed out that this poem is an expression of Yeats 's apocalyptic mystical theories , and thus the expression of a mind shaped by the 1890s . His most important collections of poetry started with The Green Helmet ( 1910 ) and Responsibilities ( 1914 ) . In imagery , Yeats 's poetry became sparer and more powerful as he grew older . The Tower ( 1928 ) , The Winding Stair ( 1933 ) , and New Poems ( 1938 ) contained some of the most potent images in twentieth @-@ century poetry .
Yeats 's mystical inclinations , informed by Hindu Theosophical beliefs and the occult , provided much of the basis of his late poetry , which some critics have judged as lacking in intellectual credibility . The metaphysics of Yeats 's late works must be read in relation to his system of esoteric fundamentals in A Vision ( 1925 ) .
His 1921 poem , " The Second Coming " contains some of literature 's most potent images of the twentieth century .
Turning and turning in the widening gyre
The falcon cannot hear the falconer
Things fall apart ; the centre cannot hold ;
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world ,
The blood @-@ dimmed tide is loosed , and everywhere
The ceremony of innocence is drowned .
The best lack all conviction , while the worst
Are full of passionate intensity .
Here , Yeats incorporates his ideas on the gyre – a historical cycle of about 2000 years . He first published this idea in A Vision , which predicted the anarchy expected to be released around 2000 years after the birth of Christ .
According to some interpretations " the best " referred to the traditional ruling classes of Europe who were unable to protect the traditional culture of Europe from materialistic mass movements . The concluding lines also refer to Yeats 's belief that history was cyclic , and that his age represented the end of the cycle that began with the rise of Christianity .
And what rough beast , its hour come round at last ,
Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born ?
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= The Baby Show =
" The Baby Show " is the ninth episode of the first season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock . It was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt and directed by Michael Engler . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on January 4 , 2007 . Guest stars in this episode include Katrina Bowden , Rachel Dratch , John Lutz , Bridget Moloney , Maulik Pancholy , Chris Parnell , Keith Powell , and Lonny Ross .
In the episode , Cerie Xerox ( Bowden ) gets engaged so that she can be a " young hot mom " , causing Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) to think about marriage and having a family . Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) has trouble dealing with his own domineering mother , who wants to move in with him , and at the same time , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) becomes upset by Josh Girard 's ( Ross ) impression of him .
" The Baby Show " received mixed reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 9 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Cerie Xerox ( Katrina Bowden ) announces her engagement during a gathering for Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) birthday , and says that she wants to be a " young hot mom " . Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) confronts her own marital and maternal status . She speaks with Jenna about this , and Jenna proceeds to tell all of the men in the office — Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) , James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) , and J. D. Lutz ( John Lutz ) — that Liz is looking for someone to get her pregnant . Later that day , Liz sees Cerie in the makeup department getting herself made up . Anna ( Bridget Moloney ) , the makeup artist has her baby at work with her . She asks Liz to hold the baby for a while , so Liz takes the baby for a stroll around the 30 Rock building . Suddenly she realizes that she is no longer in the building , but is now in her apartment . She hurries back to the office with the baby , and Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) fixes the situation .
Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) is being harassed by his mother over the phone . She calls him repeatedly , with the intention of moving in with him . The situation causes him to exhibit some stress @-@ eating tendencies . At the same time , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) and Josh Girard ( Lonny Ross ) begin to hang out , but Tracy gets annoyed of Josh 's impression of him . He demands that Liz fire Josh , but she refuses , so instead she tries to fix the situation , but Tracy threatens to go to Jack if she does not . Josh tries to avoid getting in trouble by calling Tracy and impersonating Jack , and then calling Jack and impersonating Tracy . It is not long before he is caught and Jack and Tracy have their revenge on him . As part of his punishment , Jack forces Josh talk to his mother " Every day , for the rest of your or her life . "
= = Production = =
" The Baby Show " was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt and directed by Michael Engler . This was Burditt 's second writing credit , having written the episode " Jack Meets Dennis " , and was Engler 's first directed episode . " The Baby Show " originally aired on January 4 , 2007 on NBC as the ninth episode of the show 's first season and overall of the series . This was the first of several episodes to make reference to Liz 's desire to become a mother . This plot came to a head in the third season episode " Do @-@ Over " in which Liz attempts to adopt a child .
Rachel Dratch , longtime comedy partner and fellow Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) alumna of series ' creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey , the latter who was the show 's head writer from 1999 until 2006 , was originally cast to portray Jenna Maroney . Dratch played the role in the show 's original pilot , but in August 2006 , actress Jane Krakowski was announced as Dratch 's replacement . Executive producer Lorne Michaels announced that while Dratch would not be playing a series regular , she would appear in various episodes in a different role . In the pilot and in this episode , Dratch played Greta Johansen , the The Girlie Show 's cat wrangler . In this episode , Greta tells Liz Lemon that she would be interested in carrying her baby , after hearing that Liz was looking for someone to get her pregnant . Actor Chris Parnell appeared as Dr. Leo Spaceman in " The Baby Show " , in which Liz calls him for fertility purposes . Various other cast members of SNL have appeared on 30 Rock . These cast members include : Fred Armisen , Kristen Wiig , Will Forte , Jason Sudeikis , Molly Shannon , Horatio Sanz , and Jan Hooks . Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of SNL .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen ratings system , " The Baby Show " was watched by 5 @.@ 9 million households , the same as the previous week 's episode " The Break @-@ Up " , in its original American broadcast . It received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 0 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast .
IGN contributor Robert Canning said the episode " had plenty of standout bits " but that it " represented a major flaw " and " perhaps in the program as a whole " , citing that " [ t ] here seems to be more of an emphasis on comedic ' bits ' rather than comedic ' situations , ' which doesn 't bode well for a situation comedy . " He explained that " The Baby Show " in particular " felt very disjointed , bouncing between jokes more than storylines . It even opened with a Jenna surprise @-@ birthday segment that was funny for what it was , but had absolutely nothing to do with the rest of the show . " Canning gave the episode a 7 @.@ 0 out 10 rating . TV Guide 's Matt Mitovich liked that Josh had a story in this episode , and said that his impression of Tracy was " pretty good " . He remarked that " The Baby Show " was " a solid episode , if a bit too theme @-@ y for my broad @-@ sitcom liking . "
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= SMS Prinz Adalbert ( 1865 ) =
For other ships of the same name , see SMS Prinz Adalbert
SMS Prinz Adalbert was an ironclad warship of the Prussian Navy , originally ordered by the Confederate States Navy . Prussia purchased the ship during the Second Schleswig War against Denmark , though the vessel was not delivered until after the war . The vessel was designed as an armored ram , but also carried three guns : one 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) and two 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) pieces in armored turrets . She was named after Prince Adalbert of Prussia , an early proponent of German naval power .
The ship was poorly constructed and as a result had a very limited service career . She was heavily modified after her delivery to Prussia in 1865 and briefly served with the fleet between 1866 and 1871 . During the Franco @-@ Prussian War in 1870 – 1871 , the ship was assigned as a guard ship in Hamburg . After the war , it was discovered that the internal wood construction was badly rotted ; she was therefore removed from service in October 1871 . Prinz Adalbert was stricken from the naval register in May 1878 and broken up for scrap that year .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics and propulsion = = =
Prinz Adalbert was 50 @.@ 48 meters ( 165 @.@ 6 ft ) long at the waterline and 56 @.@ 96 m ( 186 @.@ 9 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 9 @.@ 92 m ( 32 @.@ 5 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 96 m ( 16 @.@ 3 ft ) forward and 5 @.@ 02 m ( 16 @.@ 5 ft ) aft . She was designed to displace 1 @,@ 440 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 420 long tons ; 1 @,@ 590 short tons ) at a normal load and up to 1 @,@ 560 t ( 1 @,@ 540 long tons ; 1 @,@ 720 short tons ) at combat load . The ship 's hull was constructed from transverse frames , and included both iron and timber . The hull was sheathed in copper to protect it from parasites . The Prussians regarded the ship as a poor sea boat . The ram bow caused the vessel to ship a great deal of water . It was , however , responsive to commands from the helm and had a very tight turning radius . Prinz Adalbert had a crew of ten officers and 120 enlisted men .
Prinz Adalbert 's propulsion system was provided by Mazeline , based in Le Havre . The ship was powered by a pair of 2 @-@ cylinder single expansion engines , each of which drove a four @-@ bladed screw that was 3 @.@ 6 m ( 11 ft 10 in ) in diameter . The engines were placed in a single engine room . Two trunk boilers , also in a single boiler room , supplied steam to the engines at 1 @.@ 5 standard atmospheres ( 150 kPa ) . Two rudders were fitted side by side to control the vessel . The ship was initially fitted with a 740 square meter ( 2 @,@ 428 sq ft ) brig rig , though this was subsequently replaced with a 677 square meter topsail schooner rig .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
As built , Prinz Adalbert was armed with three rifled 36 pounder muzzle @-@ loading guns . One was placed in an integral five @-@ port bow turret , while the other two were located in a fixed two @-@ port turret amidships . After delivery in 1865 , the French guns were replaced with a 21 @-@ centimeter ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) L / 19 gun in the bow and two 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) L / 25 guns in a revolving turret . The forward gun was supplied with 76 rounds of ammunition while the central guns had 71 shells each . Prinz Adalbert was armored with wrought iron , which was mounted on the wooden hull . The armored belt , which protected the waterline of the ship , was 127 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The turrets were protected by 114 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) of armor plating on the sides .
= = Service history = =
Prinz Adalbert was built under the cover name Cheops by the French shipyard of the Arman brothers in Bordeaux . Her sister ship , built under the cover name Sphinx , was delivered to the Confederate Navy and renamed CSS Stonewall . The French emperor , Napoleon III , ordered the Arman brothers to sell Cheops to another navy immediately ; Prussia purchased the ship on 25 May 1864 . The Second Schleswig War between Denmark and Prussia and its ally Austria delayed delivery of the ship . Cheops was commissioned into the Prussian fleet on 29 October 1865 as Prinz Adalbert . Along with the turret ship Arminius , Prinz Adalbert was among the first armored vessels acquired by the Prussian Navy . The ship was named for Prince Adalbert of Prussia , one of the creators of the German fleet . While conducting trials off Denmark in June 1865 , Prinz Adalbert ran aground . During the Austro @-@ Prussian War in 1866 , Prinz Adalbert was mobilized in Kiel under the command of Admiral Jachmann , but due to the lack of opponents in the North and Baltic Seas , the ship remained in the Baltic for the duration of the war .
The ship did not last long in service due to her poor construction ; this necessitated significant refurbishment , which was carried out at the naval depot at Geestemünde in 1868 – 1869 . Her armor plating had to be removed and reinstalled , a breakwater was installed at the stern of the ship , and the main mast had to be relocated . She was re @-@ rigged to a schooner rig during this refit . Prinz Adalbert also suffered from severe leaking throughout her short career . In 1870 , shortly before the outbreak of the Franco @-@ Prussian War , the Prussian fleet was mobilized for a training cruise into the Atlantic . Prinz Adalbert and the recently commissioned broadside ironclad König Wilhelm steamed to Plymouth , England , where they rendezvoused with the rest of the fleet . While in Plymouth , the squadron received news of imminent hostilities with France , and made for safety in Wilhelmshaven , arriving on 16 July , three days before the outbreak of war . For the duration of the conflict , Prinz Adalbert served as a harbor guard ship in Hamburg . Her timber hull was found to be rotten in 1871 , which forced her decommissioning . She was removed from service on 23 October 1871 and disarmed in 1875 – 1876 . The ship was formally stricken from the naval register on 28 May 1878 . She was broken up that year in Wilhelmshaven , and her engines were removed and reused .
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= Battle of Lissa ( 1811 ) =
The Battle of Lissa ( sometimes called the Battle of Vis ; French : Bataille de Lissa ; Italian : Battaglia di Lissa ; Croatian : Viška bitka ) was a naval action fought between a British frigate squadron and a larger squadron of French and Venetian frigates and smaller ships on 13 March 1811 during the Adriatic campaign of the Napoleonic Wars . The engagement was fought in the Adriatic Sea for possession of the strategically important island of Lissa ( also known as Vis ) , from which the British squadron had been disrupting French shipping in the Adriatic . The French needed to control the Adriatic to supply a growing army in the Illyrian Provinces , and consequently dispatched an invasion force in March 1811 consisting of six frigates , numerous smaller craft and a battalion of Italian soldiers .
The French invasion force under Bernard Dubourdieu was met by Captain William Hoste and his four ships based on the island . In the subsequent battle , Hoste sank the French flagship , captured two others , and scattered the remainder of the Franco @-@ Venetian squadron . The battle has been hailed as an important British victory , due to both the disparity between the forces and the signal raised by Hoste , a former subordinate of Horatio Nelson . Hoste had raised the message " Remember Nelson " as the French bore down , and had then manoeuvred to drive Dubourdieu 's flagship ashore and scatter his squadron in what has been described as " one of the most brilliant naval achievements of the war " .
= = Background = =
The Napoleonic Wars , the name for a succession of connected conflicts between the armies of the French Emperor Napoleon and his European opponents , were nine years old when the War of the Fifth Coalition ended in 1809 . The Treaty of Schönbrunn that followed the war gave Napoleon possession of the final part of Adriatic coastline not under his control : the Illyrian Provinces . This formalised the control the French had exercised in Illyria since 1805 and over the whole Adriatic Sea since the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807 . In the Treaty of Tilsit , Russia had granted France control over the Septinsular Republic and withdrawn their own forces from the region , allowing Napoleon freedom of action in the Adriatic . At Schönbrunn , Napoleon made the Illyrian Provinces part of metropolitan France and therefore under direct French rule , unlike the neighbouring Kingdom of Italy which was nominally independent but in reality came under his personal rule . Thus , the Treaty of Schönbrunn formalised Napoleon 's control of almost the entire coastline of the Adriatic and , if unopposed , would allow him to transport troops and supplies to the Balkans . The French army forming in the Illyrian Provinces was possibly intended for an invasion of the Ottoman Empire in conjunction with the Russians ; the two countries had signed an agreement to support one another against the Ottomans at Tilsit .
To disrupt the preparations of this army , the British Royal Navy , which had controlled most of the Mediterranean since the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 , seized the Dalmatian Island of Lissa in 1807 and used it as a base for raiding the coastal shipping of Italy and Illyria . These operations captured dozens of ships and caused panic and disruption to French strategy in the region . To counter this , the French government started a major shipbuilding programme in the Italian seaports , particularly Venice , and despatched frigates of their own to protect their shipping . Commodore Bernard Dubourdieu 's Franco @-@ Venetian forces were unable to bring the smaller British force under William Hoste to a concerted action , where Dubourdieu 's superior numbers might prove decisive . Instead , the British and French frigate squadrons engaged in a campaign of raids and counter @-@ raids during 1810 .
In October 1810 , Dubourdieu landed 700 Italian soldiers on Lissa while Hoste searched in vain for the French squadron in the Southern Adriatic . The island had been left in the command of two midshipmen , James Lew and Robert Kingston , who withdrew the entire population of the island into the central mountains along with their supplies . The Italian troops were left in possession of the deserted main town , Port St. George . The French and Italians burnt several vessels in the harbour and captured others , but remained on the island for no more than seven hours , retreating before Hoste returned . The remainder of the year was quiet , the British squadron gaining superiority after being reinforced by the third @-@ rate ship of the line HMS Montagu .
Early in 1811 the raiding campaigns began again , and British attacks along the Italian coast prompted Dubourdieu to mount a second invasion of Lissa . Taking advantage of the temporary absence of Montagu , Dubourdieu assembled six frigates and numerous smaller craft and embarked over 500 Italian soldiers under Colonel Alexander Gifflenga . The squadron amassed by Dubourdieu not only outnumbered the British in terms of men and ships , it was also twice as heavy in weight of shot . Dubourdieu planned to overwhelm Hoste 's frigate squadron and then invade and capture the island , which would eradicate the British threat in the Adriatic for months to come .
= = Battle = =
Dubourdieu ( as commodore ) led a squadron consisting of six frigates ( four of 40 guns and two of 32 guns ) , a 16 @-@ gun brig , two schooners , one xebec , and two gunboats . Three of his ships were from the French Navy , and the others from the Navy of the Kingdom of Italy . In addition the squadron carried 500 Italian soldiers . In the absence of Montagu , Hoste 's squadron consisted of three frigates ( one of 38 guns and two of 32 guns ) and one 22 @-@ gun post ship . The island of Lissa itself was defended by a small number of local troops under the command of two midshipmen .
Dubourdieu 's squadron was spotted approaching the island of Lissa at 03 : 00 on 12 March 1811 by Captain Gordon in HMS Active , which had led the British squadron from Port St George on a cruise off Ancona . Turning west , the British squadron awaited the French approach in line ahead , sailing along the north coast of the island within half a mile of the shoreline . By 06 : 00 , Dubourdieu was approaching the British line from the north @-@ east in two divisions , leading in Favorite at the head of the windward or western division . Dubourdieu hoped to pass ahead of Active at the head of the British line and cross it further east with Danaé , which led the leeward division . Dubourdieu intended to break the British line in two places and destroy the British squadron in the crossfire .
Over the next three hours the squadrons continued to close , light winds restricting them to a little over three knots . A protege of Nelson , Hoste recalled the inspirational effect of Nelson 's signal before the Battle of Trafalgar and raised his own : " Remember Nelson " , which was greeted with wild cheering from the squadron . As he closed with Hoste 's force , Dubourdieu realised that he would be unable to successfully cross Active 's bow due to the British ship 's speed , and would also be unable to break through their line due to the British ships ' close proximity to one another . He instead sought to attack the second ship in the British line , Hoste 's flagship HMS Amphion . Dubourdieu possessed not only a significant advantage in ships but also in men , the Italian soldiers aboard giving him the opportunity to overwhelm the British crews if he could board their frigates successfully . The first shots of the battle were fired at 09 : 00 , as the British used their wider field of fire to attack the leading French ships , Favorite and Danaé , unopposed for several minutes . The French squadron held their fire , Dubourdieu gathering his troops and sailors into Favorite 's bow in order to maximise the effect of his initial attack once his flagship came into contact with Amphion .
Hoste was aware of Dubourdieu 's intentions and the French advantage in numbers , and consequently ordered a large 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) howitzer on Amphion 's deck triple @-@ shotted until the cannon contained over 750 musket balls Once Favorite was within a few yards of Amphion 's stern , Hoste gave permission for the gun to be fired and the cannon 's discharge instantly swept the bow of Favorite clear of the French and Italian boarding party . Among the dozens killed and wounded were Dubourdieu and all the frigate 's officers , leaving Colonel Gifflenga in command of Favorite . As Favorite and Amphion closed with one another , firing continued between the British rear and the French leeward division , led by Danaé . Several of the French ships came at an angle at which they could bring their guns to bear on HMS Cerberus , the rearmost British ship , and both sides were firing regular broadsides at one another .
= = = Hoste 's manoeuvre = = =
Following the death of Dubourdieu , Captain Péridier on Flore ordered the French and Venetian ships to attack the British line directly . The battered Favorite led with an attempt to round Amphion and rake her before catching her in crossfire , as had been Dubourdieu 's original intention . The remainder of the Franco @-@ Venetian squadron followed this lead and attempted to bring their superior numbers to bear on the British squadron . Hoste was prepared for this eventuality and immediately ordered his ships to wear , turning south and then east to reverse direction . This movement threw the Franco @-@ Venetian squadron into confusion and as a result the squadron 's formation became disorganised . Favorite , which had lost almost its entire complement of officers , was unable to respond quickly enough to the manoeuvre and drove onto the rocky coastline in confusion , becoming a total wreck .
Thrown into further confusion by the loss of Favorite , the French and Venetian formation began to break up and the British squadron was able to pull ahead of their opponents ; the leading French ships Flore and Bellona succeeded in only reaching Amphion , which was now at the rear of the British line . Amphion found herself caught between the two frigates and this slowed the British line enough that the French eastern division , led by Danaé , was able to strike at HMS Volage , now the leading British ship after overtaking Cerberus during the turn . Volage was much smaller than her opponent but was armed with 32 @-@ pounder carronades , short range guns that caused such damage to Danaé that the French ship was forced to haul off and reengage from a longer range . The strain of combat at this greater distance ruptured Volage 's short @-@ ranged carronades and left the ship much weakened , with only a single gun with which to engage the enemy .
= = = Chase = = =
Behind Volage and Danaé , the Venetian Corona had engaged Cerberus in a close range duel , during which Cerberus took heavy damage but inflicted similar injuries on the Italian ship . This exchange continued until the arrival of Active caused the Danaé , Corona and Carolina to sheer off and retreat to the east . To the rear , Amphion , succeeded in closing with and raking Flore , and caused such damage that within five minutes the French ship 's officers threw the French colours overboard in surrender . Captain Péridier had been seriously wounded in the action , and took no part in Flore 's later movements . Amphion then attacked Bellona and in an engagement that lasted until 12 : 00 , forced the Italian ship 's surrender . During this combat , the small ship Principessa Augusta fired on Amphion from a distance , until the frigate was able to turn a gun on them and drive them off . Hoste sent a punt to take possession of Bellona but due to the damage suffered was unable to launch a boat to seize Flore . Realising Amphion 's difficulty , the officers of Flore , who had made hasty repairs during the conflict between Amphion and Bellona , immediately set sail for the French harbour on Lesina ( Hvar ) , despite having already surrendered .
Active , the only British ship still in fighting condition , took up pursuit of the retreating enemy and at 12 : 30 caught the Corona in the channel between Lissa and the small island of Spalmadon . The frigates manoeuvred around one another for the next hour ; captains Gordon and Pasqualigo each seeking the best position from which to engage . The frigates engaged in combat at 13 @.@ 45 , Active forcing Corona 's surrender 45 minutes later after a fire broke out aboard the Italian ship . Active too had suffered severely and as the British squadron was not strong enough to continue the action by attacking the remaining squadron in its protected harbour on Lesina , the battle came to an end . The survivors of the Franco @-@ Venetian squadron had all reached safety ; Carolina and Danaé had used the conflict between Active and Corona to cover their escape while Flore had indicated to each British ship she passed that she had surrendered and was in British possession despite the absence of a British officer on board . Once Flore was clear of the British squadron she headed for safety , reaching the batteries of Lesina shortly after her Carolina and Danaé and ahead of the limping British pursuit . The smaller craft of the Franco @-@ Venetian squadron scattered during the battle 's final stages and reached Lesina independently .
= = = Conclusion = = =
Although Favorite was wrecked , over 200 of her crew and soldier @-@ passengers had reached the land and , having set fire to their ship , prepared to march on Port St. George under the leadership of Colonel Gifflenga . Two British midshipmen left in command of the town organised the British and indigenous population into a defensive force and marched to meet Gifflenga . The junior British officers informed Gifflenga that the return of the British squadron would bring overwhelming numbers of sailors , marines and naval artillery to bear on his small force and that if he surrendered immediately he could expect better terms . Gifflenga recognised that his position was untenable and capitulated . At Port St. George , the Venetian gunboat Lodola sneaked unnoticed into the harbour and almost captured a Sicilian privateer , Vincitore . The raider was driven off by the remaining garrison of the town without the prize , while attempting to manoeuvre her out of the bay .
In the seas off Lissa , British prize crews were making strenuous efforts to protect their captures ; Corona was heavily on fire in consequence of her engagement with Active and the British prize crew fought the blaze alongside their Italian prisoners . The fire was eventually brought under control , but not without the death of five men and several more seriously burnt when the blazing mainmast collapsed . Problems were also experienced aboard Bellona , where Captain Duodo planned to ignite the powder magazine and destroy the ship following its surrender . Duodo had been mortally wounded in the action , and so ordered his second in command to light the fuse . The officer promised to do so , but instead handed control of the magazine to the British prize crew when they arrived . Duodo died still believing that the fuse had been lit .
Hoste also remained at sea , cruising in the battered Amphion beyond the range of the shore batteries on Lesina . Hoste was furious at the behaviour of Flore 's officers and sent a note into Lesina demanding that they give up the ship as indicated by its earlier surrender . In surrendering and then escaping , the officers of Flore had breached an informal rule of naval conflict under which a ship that voluntarily struck its flag submitted to an opponent in order to prevent continued loss of life among its crew . Flore had been able to pass unmolested through the British squadron only because she was recognised to have surrendered , and to abuse this custom in this way was considered , in the Royal Navy especially , to be a dishonourable act . The French at Lesina did not respond to Hoste 's note , and the British squadron was eventually forced to return to Lissa to effect repairs .
= = Aftermath = =
Casualties of the action were heavy on both sides . The British ships suffered 190 killed or wounded in the battle and a number lost afterwards in the fire aboard Corona . Captains Hoste and Hornby were both badly wounded and the entire British squadron was in need of urgent repair before resuming the campaign . In the French and Italian squadron the situation was even worse , although precise losses are not known . At least 150 had been killed aboard Favorite either in the action or the wreck , and the 200 survivors of her crew and passengers were all made prisoner . Bellona had suffered at least 70 casualties and Corona 's losses were also severe . Among the ships that escaped less is known of their casualties , but all required repair and reinforcement before the campaign could resume . Total French and Italian losses are estimated at no less than 700 . Losses among the officers of the combined squadron were especially high , with Commodore Dubourdieu and captains Meillerie and Duodo killed and Péridier seriously wounded .
The immediate aftermath saw renewed efforts by Hoste to induce the French to hand over Flore , efforts that were rebuffed by the captain of the Danaé , who had assumed command of the French squadron . The surviving French and Venetian ships were initially laid up in Ragusa ( Dubrovnik ) awaiting supplies to continue the campaign , but a separate British squadron discovered and sank the supply ship at Parenzo ( Poreč ) , necessitating a full French withdrawal from the area . In Britain , Hoste 's action was widely praised ; the squadron 's first lieutenants were all promoted to commander and the captains all presented with a commemorative medal . Nearly four decades later the battle was also recognized in the issue of the clasp Lissa to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded to all British participants still living in 1847 . On their arrival in Britain , Corona and Bellone were repaired and later purchased for service in the Royal Navy , the newly built Corona being named HMS Daedalus and Bellone becoming the troopship HMS Dover . Daedalus was commissioned in 1812 under Captain Murray Maxwell , but served less than a year ; wrecked off Ceylon in July 1813 .
British numerical superiority in the region was assured ; when French reinforcements for the Adriatic departed Toulon on 25 March they were hunted down and driven back to France by Captain Robert Otway in HMS Ajax before they had even passed Corsica . Throughout the remainder of 1811 however , British and French frigate squadrons continued to spar across the Adriatic , the most significant engagement being the action of 29 November 1811 , in which a second French squadron was destroyed . The action had significant long @-@ term effects ; the destruction of one of the best @-@ trained and best @-@ led squadrons in the French Navy and the death of the aggressive Dubourdieu ended the French ability to strike into the Balkans against the Ottoman Empire .
= = Order of battle = =
Key
A † symbol indicates that the officer was killed during the action or subsequently died of wounds received .
The ships are ordered in the sequence in which they formed up for battle .
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= British Royal Navy , =
French Navy , = Navy of the Kingdom of Italy .
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= Jean @-@ Mathieu @-@ Philibert Sérurier =
Jean @-@ Mathieu @-@ Philibert Sérurier , 1st Comte Sérurier ( 8 December 1742 – 21 December 1819 ) led a division in the War of the First Coalition and became a Marshal of France under Emperor Napoleon . He was born into the minor nobility and in 1755 joined the Laon militia which was soon sent to fight in the Seven Years ' War . After transferring into the regular army as an ensign , he was wounded at Warburg in 1760 . He fought in the Spanish @-@ Portuguese War in 1762 . He married in 1779 after a promotion to captain . A newly minted major in 1789 , the French Revolution sped up promotion so that he was colonel of the regiment in 1792 . After leading Army of Italy troops in a number of actions , he became a general of brigade in 1793 and a general of division the following year .
Sérurier led a division in Napoleon Bonaparte 's Italian campaign of 1796 , except during bouts of illness . He especially distinguished himself at the Battle of Mondovì and the Siege of Mantua . In 1799 , he again fought in Italy during the War of the Second Coalition at Verona , Magnano and Cassano , being captured in the latter action . After being paroled , he supported Napoleon 's rise to political power in the Coup of 18 Brumaire in late 1799 . The apex of his career occurred on 19 May 1804 when Napoleon appointed him a Marshal of the Empire . His active military career over , Sérurier served in the French Senate and was ennobled by Napoleon . In 1814 as the First French Empire was crumbling , he burned all the many flags captured by the French armies . His troops called him the " Virgin of Italy " for his rigorous standards of discipline and honesty in an army known for generals who enriched themselves by plundering the conquered territories . His surname is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe , on Column 24 .
= = Early life = =
Sérurier was born at Laon on 8 December 1742 , the son of Mathieu @-@ Guillaume Sérurier . The family formed part of the minor provincial nobility , his father holding the title Seigneur de Sort and the job of mole @-@ catcher to the king 's breeding stud . After 1750 his father 's title became Seigneur de Saint @-@ Gobert . Sérurier got a good education and was of sober character . He received a commission as lieutenant in the Laon militia battalion on 25 March 1755 , his uncle being the unit 's commander . He transferred to the Soissons militia battalion on 12 June 1758 . When he heard that the Laon battalion was called to serve in the Seven Years ' War he switched back to his old unit on 30 November 1758 . After sustaining a bayonet wound , he transferred into the Mazarin Infantry Regiment as a cadet on 1 October 1759 . At the Battle of Warburg on 31 July 1760 , Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick surprised the French under Louis Nicolas Victor de Felix d 'Ollieres , Count Du Muy . While defending a critical post , Sérurier was hit on the right side of his face by a bullet , which broke his jaw and left a lasting scar . The injury also cost him most of his teeth . He was promoted to second lieutenant on 25 April 1762 .
Sérurier 's regiment was ordered to Bayonne where it joined a force under Charles Juste de Beauvau , Prince of Craon . These troops entered Spain on 3 June 1762 to take part in the Spanish @-@ Portuguese War . The first battalion , in which Sérurier served , participated in the siege of Almeida which fell to the Franco @-@ Spanish on 25 August 1762 . The unit returned to France in November that year and after the Treaty of Paris was renamed the Beauce Regiment . After the peace Sérurier was demoted to sous @-@ lieutenant and spent six years as a drill instructor . He was promoted to second lieutenant again on 21 February 1767 and was shipped to Corsica in 1770 . The Republic of Genoa transferred Corsica to France in 1764 but Pasquale Paoli led an insurrection against the occupiers which resulted in a few skirmishes . His superiors called Sérurier an " excellent officer " but he was not promoted to first lieutenant until 28 February 1778 . A year later he was promoted to captain . He married Louise @-@ Marie @-@ Madeleine Itasse on 3 July 1779 . Her father was the Registrar of the bail bondsmen of Laon .
On 29 July 1781 Sérurier was awarded the Order of Saint @-@ Louis . On 10 May 1782 he assumed the rank of captain commandant and on 1 June 1783 he took command of the regiment 's Chasseur company . Irked by the lack of promotion , he asked to retire on pension on 8 September 1788 . His commanding officer argued to retain such a good officer and Sérurier transferred into the Médoc Regiment as a major on 17 May 1789 . He became lieutenant colonel on 1 January 1791 . Since the French Revolution the garrison at Perpignan became agitated so the regiment was sent there to calm down the other troops . Instead , the Médoc Regiment itself became affected by the troubles . On 23 July 1791 , fearing that Sérurier was about to leave the country with the regiment 's colors , a body of soldiers removed them from his quarters . In January 1792 , 19 officers from the regiment emigrated to Spain . A story existed that Sérurier and a companion tried to flee to Spain but were nearly caught by a patrol and only his companion made it across the border . In June 1792 the Médoc , renamed the 70th Infantry Regiment , marched to the Camp of Tournoux in the Alps . Sérurier became the commanding officer of the 70th with the rank of colonel on 7 August 1792 .
= = French Revolutionary Wars = =
= = = 1792 – 94 = = =
On 29 September 1792 , a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ man division under Jacques Bernard d 'Anselme crossed the Var River and occupied Nice , then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia . This force was part of the Army of the Midi which was split on 1 October 1792 , with the troops on the Alpine front becoming the Army of the Alps . On 7 November d 'Anselme 's division became the Army of Italy , which included the 70th Regiment . At about this time Sérurier was arrested for harboring royalist sentiments , but Paul Barras got his rank restored . On 19 May 1793 , the new army commander Gaspard Jean @-@ Baptiste Brunet sent him with a column to occupy Saint @-@ Sauveur @-@ sur @-@ Tinée . Sérurier moved north up the Tinée River and captured Isola on the 21st . With 3 @,@ 000 troops , he attacked the Col de Raus west of Belvédère but was repulsed on 8 June . During the First Battle of Saorgio he led a major attack on the Massif de l 'Authion on 12 June , but it was defeated with losses of 280 dead and 1 @,@ 252 wounded . At the end of July Brunet made another assault on Massif de l 'Authion while Sérurier attacked the Col de Raus again but both efforts failed . The representatives on mission were pleased with Sérurier 's performance and nominated him general of brigade on 25 June ; the promotion was confirmed on 22 August 1793 . Meanwhile , Brunet was arrested and executed on 15 November 1793 .
In September 1793 the Sardinian army tried to recapture the County of Nice . The French right flank held its ground , but on the left Sérurier gave up the east bank of the Vésubie River and fell back to Utelle on 10 September . Jacques François Dugommier took command of the left wing three days later and Sérurier took charge of the right wing of the Army of the Alps at Entrevaux . Sérurier was arrested for retreating too much and for being of noble blood . He was reinstated after the representatives on mission and the War Minister Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte termed the charges as unimportant while the citizens of Laon sent a petition vouching for his patriotism . After the fighting petered out in the December snow , Sérurier 's division was transferred to form the left flank of the Army of Italy . In January 1794 he was denounced for listening to aristocratic songs and for not caring about desertions , but Bouchotte and the representatives brushed aside these charges . Under army commander Pierre Jadart Dumerbion a French offensive began on 5 April and Oneglia was seized . André Masséna commanded the 20 @,@ 000 @-@ man main column on the right wing while François Macquard directed the center division and Pierre Dominique Garnier led the left division . Sérurier , who commanded Garnier 's left brigade , reoccupied Isola and went on to seize the Colle delle Finestre against weak resistance . In the Second Battle of Saorgio on 24 April 1794 , Masséna defeated Michelangelo Alessandro Colli @-@ Marchi , the French inflicting 2 @,@ 800 casualties on the Sardinians while losing 1 @,@ 500 killed and wounded . In the aftermath , Macquard occupied Saorge and the Col de Tende while Masséna held Ormea in the Tanaro valley . At the end of June , Sérurier took part in a small operation in the Valle Stura di Demonte .
In September 1794 the Sardinians and Austrians advanced to Carcare , threatening to cut the French link to Genoa , where supplies were obtained . Advised by his artillery chief Napoleon Bonaparte , Dumerbion struck back on 15 September . While Sérurier feinted at Vinadio on the left and Macquard feinted at Limone Piemonte in the center , Masséna mounted the main thrust on the right . In the First Battle of Dego on 21 September , 18 @,@ 000 French troops beat Olivier , Count of Wallis and 8 @,@ 000 Austro @-@ Sardinians . Though the allies escaped encirclement , the French later seized the port of Vado Ligure . Dumerbion and Garnier both recommended Sérurier 's promotion and he was nominated general of division on 22 December 1794 . Given command of the right flank division in place of Masséna who was sick , his brigadiers were Barthélemy Catherine Joubert and Sextius Alexandre François de Miollis .
= = = 1795 = = =
On 4 November 1794 , Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer replaced the ill Dumerbion as army commander . Schérer wrote that Sérurier was " a very good officer , devoted to his duties ; his patriotism has been attacked in the time of Hébert and his consorts ; he has emerged victorious from all these charges . In my opinion he is worthy of the post he holds on the right of the active army . " Sérurier 's promotion was not confirmed until 13 June 1795 . The Austro @-@ Sardinian commander Joseph Nikolaus De Vins attacked the French lines on 24 June . Most of the assaults failed but since a few positions were captured and could not be retaken , the French withdrew from Vado to Borghetto Santo Spirito by 5 July . In the new line , Masséna with 14 @,@ 000 troops held the coast while Sérurier and 6 @,@ 000 men defended Ormea . On 5 July Sérurier reported that a key position had been partly lost , causing consternation at army headquarters . Later that day he reported that one of his brigadiers , Louis Pelletier , retook the position . Curiously , this incident did not count against him ; instead Sérurier was given command of the left wing in place of Garnier . On the evening of 31 August , his headquarters at Saint @-@ Martin @-@ Vésubie was surrounded by the enemy . Though only 318 soldiers were at hand , Sérurier resisted successfully until early the following morning when he attacked and scattered his attackers , capturing 86 of them . The enemy commander , the émigré Chevalier Bonnaud committed suicide . Not only was he a good soldier , but Sérurier 's troops liked him , he treated the local civilians with decency and his diplomacy allowed him to serve as a link between his army and the neighboring Army of the Alps . François Christophe Kellermann then in command of both armies , wrote , " It is to the coolness and courage of this excellent officer that was due the success of this glorious day . "
On 23 – 24 November 1795 , the Battle of Loano was fought . Schérer deployed Pierre Augereau with 6 @,@ 961 troops on the right , Masséna with 13 @,@ 276 men in the center and Sérurier with 5 @,@ 155 soldiers on the left . The plan called for Sérurier to pin down the Allied right while Masséna broke through the center and rolled up the Allied left with the help of Augereau . By luck , Wallis replaced De Vins in command of the Allies on 22 November . That day Sérurier 's attack on the Colle San Bernardo was repulsed but it tied down Colli 's division . The plan was carried out with success . Masséna and Augereau both defeated the forces in front of them . The Austro @-@ Sardinians suffered losses of 3 @,@ 000 killed and wounded , 4 @,@ 000 prisoners , 48 guns and five colors while French losses numbered 2 @,@ 500 killed and wounded and 500 captured . Snow soon compelled both armies to withdraw into winter quarters . The French soldiers were in a wretched state , with very little food ; they became insubordinate and the generals quarreled . Sérurier got into a dispute with Schérer and nearly left the army . On 18 March 1796 Sérurier 's division refused to obey orders .
= = = 1796 = = =
After the winter campaign , Schérer placed the divisions in the positions where they would start the 1796 campaign . From right to left , they were Masséna with two divisions on the coast , Augereau on the Bormida River , Sérurier on the Tanaro , Macquard at the Col de Tende and Garnier on the far left . On 27 March 1796 Bonaparte arrived to take command of the Army of Italy . At this date Sérurier was 53 years old with 40 years of military service . He applied to retire on a pension due to his age , health and wounds , but after meeting Bonaparte he decided to stay . Masséna later wrote that Bonaparte did not impress his generals at first . Then the new commander put on his hat and sharply questioned them ; the generals went away believing that they had a true leader at last . Bonaparte 's plan was to mass over 20 @,@ 000 men under Masséna and Augereau near Carcare where the Austrian and Sardinian armies linked . Sérurier 's division would join the others near Ceva as they moved west . His 9 @,@ 448 @-@ strong division consisted of the 39th , 69th and 85th Line Infantry Demi @-@ brigades .
In the Montenotte Campaign , the French won victories at Montenotte , Millesimo and Dego between 11 and 15 April . In the Battle of Ceva Colli 's Sardinians repelled Augereau 's attack but they retreated to the west when Sérurier 's division appeared . Colli detailed Jean @-@ Gaspard Dichat de Toisinge with 8 @,@ 000 Sardinians and 15 guns to defend San Michele Mondovi against a French attack . On 19 April , Sérurier formed his division into two 3 @,@ 000 @-@ man brigades under Pascal Antoine Fiorella and Jean Joseph Guieu plus a reserve under his personal command . The Corsaglia River was unfordable due to the spring thaw and the French attack soon stalled . However , some of Guieu 's skirmishers found an unguarded footbridge and made a lodgement on the west bank . The French captured San Michele but the unpaid , hungry soldiers went on a looting spree . Led by a company of Swiss troops , Colli organized a counterattack which drove Sérurier 's division out of the town , though Guieu 's brigade maintained its bridgehead . The repulse cost the French about 600 casualties while the Sardinians lost 300 .
Colli 's troops withdrew toward Mondovì on the night of 20 April , but the move was soon discovered by the French who caught up with them at Vicoforte at mid @-@ morning . In the Battle of Mondovì on 21 April , the brigades of Fiorella , Guieu and Elzéar Auguste Cousin de Dommartin fought their way into Vicoforte and routed the Sardinians . Dichat was killed and Henri Christian Michel de Stengel mortally wounded . Mondovì surrendered in the late afternoon . There was no looting but large requisitions of food were made from the town . Auguste de Marmont recalled of Sérurier , " To form his men into three columns , put himself at the head of the central one , throw out a cloud of skirmishers , and march at the double , sword in hand , ten paces in front of his column : that is what he did . A fine spectacle , that of an old general , resolute and decided , whose vigor was revived by the presence of the enemy . I accompanied him in this attack , the success of which was complete " . On 28 April the Armistice of Cherasco was signed , taking Sardinia out of the war .
In May 1796 , Bonaparte detailed Sérurier to demonstrate with his division at Valenza while the rest of the army crossed the Po River near Piacenza . After the Battle of Lodi , Bonaparte divided the Army of Italy into a cavalry reserve and four divisions including one under Sérurier . During the Battle of Borghetto on 30 May , his division feinted at the upper Mincio River while other troops made the main thrust against Johann Peter Beaulieu 's army at Valeggio sul Mincio . On 1 June , the 4 @,@ 700 @-@ strong division took position on the north side of the fortress of Mantua . On 8 June , Sérurier , artillerist Augustin de Lespinasse and engineer Francois , marquis de Chasseloup @-@ Laubat reconnoitered the fortress . Two days later Bonaparte put Sérurier in charge of the Siege of Mantua with about 8 @,@ 000 soldiers . Soon after , Bonaparte wrote to the French Directory , " I shall not speak to you of the conduct of the intrepid General Sérurier , whose military reputation is established , and to whom we owe , amongst other things since the campaign began , the victory of Mondovi " . Because of the approach of Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser 's Austrian army , the siege was raised on 31 July , the heavy cannons were buried and the division withdrew behind the Oglio River . Sérurier then became feverish with malaria , so that Fiorella and Gaspard Amédée Gardanne directed the division during the Battle of Castiglione . The general returned to France to recuperate . On 14 August 1796 Bonaparte wrote a confidential assessment of his generals to the Directory . In it he wrote , " Sérurier , fights like a private , takes nothing on himself , firm ; has not a good enough opinion of his troops , is ill " .
= = = 1797 = = =
After his recovery Sérurier took command at Livorno ( Leghorn ) but he was thrilled to get the order to return to the army . On 27 December 1796 he resumed command of the Mantua siege corps , replacing Charles Edward Jennings de Kilmaine who had also become ill . The corps consisted of 10 @,@ 000 men in two divisions under Thomas @-@ Alexandre Dumas and Claude Dallemagne . On 14 – 15 January 1797 Bonaparte defeated József Alvinczi in the Battle of Rivoli , inflicting terrible losses on the Austrians . Meanwhile , a relief column under Giovanni Marchese di Provera reached the north side of Mantua and on 16 January there was a battle . The Mantua garrison launched a sortie led by Karl Philipp Sebottendorf that made progress at first but was beaten back by reinforcements under Claude Perrin Victor . At the same time , Sérurier and 1 @,@ 500 troops at La Favorita Palace blocked Provera from joining the garrison . By noon Provera was hemmed in by French reinforcements and at 2 : 00 pm he surrendered to Sérurier with 7 @,@ 000 men , 22 field guns , a pontoon train and a food convoy . Afterward , Sérurier got into a dispute with Dumas , who had commanded armies but was now a mere division commander . Angry that his contributions were not recognized , Dumas sent an abusive note to the army chief of staff Louis @-@ Alexandre Berthier and was demoted by Bonaparte . On 30 January , Wurmser began negotiations with Sérurier for the capitulation of Mantua ; this was signed on 2 February 1797 by the two generals . The articles permitted Wurmser , his staff , his generals , 700 soldiers and six artillery pieces to go free , but 16 @,@ 324 men of the garrison became prisoners of war .
For the spring 1797 campaign , Bonaparte organized his army into eight divisions of which the 3rd Division under Sérurier counted 6 @,@ 543 soldiers . In the Battle of Valvasone on 16 March , Bonaparte drove back the rear guard of Archduke Charles , Duke of Teschen . During the operation Sérurier 's division was in reserve , but in the subsequent advance it was on the right flank while Jean @-@ Baptiste Bernadotte 's division was in the center and Guieu 's division was on the left flank . On 19 March Bernadotte attacked Gradisca d 'Isonzo and was repulsed . After Sérurier 's division swung around the south side of Gradisca and gained the heights in the rear of the town , the garrison surrendered . The French captured four battalions of Austrian infantry totaling 2 @,@ 500 soldiers , 10 guns and eight colors . While Bernadotte continued advancing to the east , Guieu 's division followed by Sérurier turned north in pursuit of a column under Adam Bajalics von Bajahaza . At this time Sérurier fell ill and command of his division passed to Louis François Jean Chabot . Trapped between Massena and Guieu , Bajalics was forced to surrender with 4 @,@ 000 men in the Battle of Tarvis . After recovering , Sérurier resumed command of his division at Graz on 20 April and after the Treaty of Leoben the unit withdrew from Austria and took position at Sacile .
On 3 June 1797 Bonaparte notified the French government that he was sending Sérurier with 22 captured colors . He wrote that he , " has in the last two campaigns displayed as much talent as bravery and patriotism ... General Sérurier is extremely severe with himself : he is sometimes so with others . A strict friend of discipline , and of the order and virtues most necessary to the maintenance of society , he disdains intrigue and intriguers , which has sometimes made him enemies amongst those men who are always ready to accuse of unpatriotism any one who wishes to see them submitted to their superiors " . He was received in Paris by a large audience of government officials on 28 June who he assured of his loyalty and that of his soldiers . He was back with his division on 9 August and missed the Coup of 18 Fructidor . A little later Louis Desaix described him , " tall , 55 years old ... honest , estimable in every respect , considered to be an aristocrat but supported by General Bonaparte , who values and admires him " . Venice was occupied by French troops but by the recent treaty was to be handed over to Austria . Bonaparte ordered Sérurier to carry out the unpleasant job of removing all military stores and ships as well as all works of art . Over the objection of the Austrians and the inhabitants , the city was thoroughly plundered . Although he was the target of anger and abuse , Sérurier did not personally benefit from the looting and did his best to prevent others from doing so . He confiscated the salt and biscuits in the Venice arsenal but that was to raise money to pay his soldiers . In the same army , Masséna and Augereau were notorious for looting for personal gain , and many lesser officers also did it . Sérurier earned such a reputation for honesty that his soldiers called him the " Virgin of Italy " .
= = = 1798 – 99 = = =
Early in 1798 Sérurier temporarily commanded the divisions left in Italy where he had his hands full trying to calm unpaid soldiers who were on the verge of mutiny . Bonaparte did not take him on the French campaign in Egypt and Syria because he was too old . Sometime after February 1798 , he was ordered to the Army of England where he made his headquarters at Rennes . On 15 September he became Inspector General of the troops in the interior of France . On 5 November 1798 he transferred back to Italy to serve under Army of Italy commander Joubert . Sérurier was ordered by Joubert to occupy Livorno , but instructions soon changed to invade the Republic of Lucca . His cavalry entered Lucca on 22 December 1798 and extorted large sums of cash and clothing for the army 's use . Sérurier 's 6 @,@ 000 infantry arrived at the city on 2 January 1799 . After declaring that Lucca was a French @-@ style republic on 25 January , he handed it over to Miollis on 5 February and returned to Mantua . At that time , the Army of Italy was led by Schérer who gave Sérurier command of the Tyrol Division with a paper strength of 8 @,@ 328 men .
The outbreak of the War of the Second Coalition saw Schérer with 43 @,@ 000 troops facing Paul Kray with 50 @,@ 700 Austrians near Verona and 24 @,@ 551 Russians under Alexander Suvorov marching up in support . Hoping to maul Kray before his Russians allies arrived , Schérer opted to attack . On 26 March 1799 in the Battle of Verona , the French gained a success at Pastrengo in the north , fought to a draw in front of Verona and were drubbed in the south at Legnago . In the north Sérurier drove the Austrians from Rivoli Veronese . On the 27th Kray rapidly shifted his strength to the north to assist his outnumbered right wing . Schérer shuffled the positions of his divisions which exhausted the soldiers without accomplishing anything . Belatedly , Schérer tried push his advantage in the north by sending Sérurier with 6 @,@ 000 troops to advance on Verona from the north . On 30 March he ran into 15 @,@ 000 Austrians at Parona and was badly defeated , losing 600 killed and wounded and 1 @,@ 177 prisoners . Austrian casualties numbered only 390 .
The Battle of Magnano on 5 April 1799 resulted in a French defeat . In the fighting Sérurier 's division included three battalions each of the 18th , 29th and 30th Light Infantry Demi brigades , one battalion of the 1st Light , 180 grenadiers , 850 cavalry and 60 gunners . Both armies advanced , Sérurier successfully capturing Villafranca on the left . However , the divisions of Claude Perrin Victor and Paul Grenier were routed on the right . The French lost 7 @,@ 000 – 8 @,@ 000 men , seven colors and eight cannons , while Kray 's army sustained 5 @,@ 228 casualties . The worst casualty was the confidence of the French generals and the morale of the troops . When Schérer found that 12 @,@ 000 Austrians were marching from the County of Tyrol to turn his north flank , he withdrew from the line of the Mincio , leaving 12 @,@ 000 soldiers to defend Mantua . During the retreat many Italian and Swiss allies deserted from the Army of Italy .
By the end of April 1799 , Schérer had 28 @,@ 000 troops behind the Adda River , strung out on a line 115 kilometres ( 71 mi ) in length . The army was arranged in three small corps under Sérurier on the left , Grenier in the center and Victor on the right . By the morning of 27 April , Suvorov 's Austro @-@ Russian army had won crossings over the Adda at Capriate San Gervasio and Brivio . That day Jean Victor Marie Moreau replaced Schérer in command of the Army of Italy and the Allies defeated the French in the Battle of Cassano . After a struggle , Grenier 's soldiers were beaten at Trezzo while the Austrians broke through Victor 's defenses at Cassano . The French withdrew toward Milan leaving Sérurier isolated and without orders between Trezzo and Brivio . During the night the old veteran entrenched 2 @,@ 600 – 4 @,@ 000 troops in an all @-@ around defense near Verderio . Finding the French in his path , Josef Philipp Vukassovich split his division into three columns and enveloped Sérurier 's position . Vukassovich reported that his enemies put up a " desperate " fight , but out of ammunition , Sérurier surrendered on the evening of 28 April . By the terms of the capitulation , the general and his officers were released on parole to France . The Austrians reported capturing 243 officers and 3 @,@ 487 soldiers . Vukassovich 's troops suffered 2 @,@ 750 casualties , over half of the Allied losses at Cassano . Sérurier 's left wing near Lake Como escaped and rejoined the main army .
Suvorov invited the captured general to dinner and found it impossible to coax any military information from him . The Russian wondered why such a reputable man should be fighting for the First French Republic . Sérurier retorted , " My father , in giving me my sword , expressly ordered me to use it only to defend my country " . Historian Ramsay Weston Phipps considered Verderio to be the biggest blunder of Sérurier 's career . He suggested that the general was accustomed to seeing Bonaparte save dire situations with brilliant maneuvers . When Moreau next saw the paroled general , he severely reprimanded him but later admitted to the government that Sérurier 's only mistake was hewing to his orders too rigidly . This was the last time Sérurier led troops in combat .
Meanwhile , the French Directory sank in popularity after military defeats and mismanagement . Back in Paris , Sérurier became part of the Bonaparte faction , having seen nothing but disaster since serving under the military genius . Bonaparte launched the Coup of 18 Brumaire on 9 November 1799 during which Sérurier led a reserve detachment of soldiers at the Pont @-@ du @-@ Jour . The next day , the coup almost collapsed when Bonaparte had to be rescued from the Council of Five Hundred . However , Lucien Bonaparte convinced the Council 's own guard battalion that only a minority of members opposed his brother . These soldiers soon evicted the lawmakers from their own hall . During these events , Sérurier 's troops arrived at Saint @-@ Cloud and the general was heard addressing them , " The wretches ! They wished to kill General Bonaparte . Do not stir soldiers ; wait until you get orders " . In the aftermath of the coup , Sérurier was put on a commission to determine how to use auxiliary battalions on 15 November 1799 . He became a member of the Sénat conservateur ( Senate ) on 27 December .
= = Later life = =
In time Sérurier became vice @-@ president of the Senate and in 1803 was appointed president of a commission that determined the border between France and Piedmont . In 1804 he was named governor of Les Invalides , a hospital and retirement home for veterans . On 19 May that year Emperor Napoleon named him an honorary Marshal of France . Out of 18 marshals appointed on this date , the other three honorary ones were Bon Adrien Jeannot de Moncey , François Christophe de Kellermann and Catherine @-@ Dominique de Pérignon . Sérurier was awarded the Grand Eagle of the Légion d 'Honneur and the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Iron Crown . He was ennobled as a Count of the Empire in 1808 and granted a pension of 40 @,@ 000 francs per year .
On 31 March 1814 , upon the arrival of the Sixth Coalition armies at Paris , Sérurier publicly destroyed the 1 @,@ 417 captured enemy flags and personally burned the sword and sash of Frederick the Great as to not let them fall into the Allies ' hands . The restored King Louis XVIII made Sérurier a Peer of France , but he joined Napoleon during the Hundred Days , when the former emperor briefly returned to power . This caused him to lose his post at Les Invalides and his marshal 's salary after Napoleon 's second downfall . Despite his Bonapartist sympathies , as Peer Sérurier voted in favour of the death penalty for Marshal Michel Ney .
Sérurier was restored to the dignity of marshal in 1819 . He died on 21 December that year in Paris and was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery . His body was not transferred to Les Invalides until 26 February 1847 SERURIER is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe , on Column 24 .
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= Daniel Santos ( singer ) =
Daniel Santos ( February 5 , 1916 – November 27 , 1992 ) was a singer and composer of boleros , and an overall performer of multiple Caribbean music genres , including guaracha , plena and rumba . Over the course of his career he adopted several names created by the public and became known as " El Jefe " and " El Inquieto Anacobero " .
= = Early years = =
Santos ( birth name : Daniel Doroteo Santos Betancourt ) was born and raised with his three sisters , Sara , Rosa Lydia and Luz América in Trastalleres , a poor section of Santurce , Puerto Rico . He attended Las Palmitas Elementary School . Although he was doing well in school his father Rosendo took him out of school when he was in the fourth grade and forced him to shine shoes because of his family 's poverty .
In 1924 , his family moved to New York City looking for a better way of life . When his parents , Rosendo and María enrolled him in school , he had to start from the first grade again because he did not know enough English . Santos joined his high school 's choir , but he dropped out of high school in his second year and moved out of his parents ' apartment . When he was fifteen years old he began looking for work in Manhattan .
Santos moved into a small apartment , where , one day , he started to sing " Te Quiero , Dijiste " ( You said ' I Love You ' ) . A member of the Trío Lírico was passing by and heard him sing . He then knocked on Santos ' door . The trio member invited Daniel to join the trio and he accepted . Santos debuted with them on September 13 , 1930 ; he sang in various social events and was paid a dollar for every song that he sang . He returned to Puerto Rico only to return once more to Manhattan after he unsuccessfully tried to acquire a job as a singer at WKAQ , which was one of the island 's main radio stations .
= = Musical career = =
= = = " Cuarteto Flores " with Pedro Flores = = =
In late 1933 and 1934 , Santos performed in a nightclub named Los Chilenos located near Broadway and was paid twenty dollars per weekend . Personally , Santos led a life of excesses , including maintaining several romantic relationships at once . In 1938 , Santos was working at the Cuban Casino Cabaret in Manhattan , which was normally visited by Puerto Ricans and other Latinos . His chores included singing , waiting on tables and on occasions he was the master of ceremonies for which he was paid a salary of thirty dollars . On one occasion , he was singing " Amor Perdido " ( Lost Love ) , without knowing that the composer of the song Pedro Flores was in the audience . Flores liked what he heard and invited Santos to join his group " El Cuarteto Flores " which also included Myrta Silva , and would in the future also include Pedro Ortiz Davila ( also known by his stage name " Davilita " ) . Santos recorded many songs with the Cuarteto Flores and started to gain fame . Among the songs he recorded were : " Perdon " ; " Amor " ; " El Ultimo Adios " " Si Yo Fuera Millonario " by singer / composer Miguel Poventud and Borracho no Vale ' .
= = = Participation in World War II = = =
In the early 1940s , many young Puerto Rican men were drafted for World War II , among them Santos . Santos recorded " Despedida " ( My Good @-@ bye ) , a farewell song written by Flores from the viewpoint of an Army recruit who had to leave behind his girlfriend and his ailing mother , which became a hit . Santos recalled in an interview once that he had to hold back tears while recording the song , since his draft papers had just arrived and he would soon have to live a situation similar to what the song 's lyrics described , but that a friend started mocking him at the control booth , to which he decided to curse him on the spot , trading the word mama 'o ( an expletive in Puerto Rican Spanish ) for mamá ( mother ) . This incident produced two mannerisms that Santos eventually adopted in his singing style : chopped delivery ( almost syllable by syllable , as suggested by Flores ) and stretched last vowel in the last verse of each stanza , in almost every song he recorded afterwards .
He was sent to Maui Island , after completing his basic military training in Kentucky . In Maui , he was assigned to a US Army infantry unit which was used to replenish casualties in the Pacific theatre . Santos would joke that he escaped the " replenishment levies " because of his guitar playing skills . Nevertheless , he was sent to Okinawa towards the end of the war . While in the military Santos teamed up with Juanito Jiménez as a part of a duo dubbed Los Cumbancheros . After the war concluded Santos returned to New York , where he received a tribute upon his arrival . There he recorded " Linda " , written specially for him by Flores for one of Santos ' old girlfriends .
= = = International performances = = =
Santos became active in the Puerto Rican Independence Movement and identified himself with the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party and its president Pedro Albizu Campos after he was discharged from the military because of the prejudice which he experienced within the Army . His devotion for Albizu lasted throughout his life , to the point of commissioning , later in his life , a bronze bust of Albizu for his estate in Puerto Rico . With Davilita , he recorded " Patriotas " ( " Patriots " ) and " La Lucha por la Independencia de Puerto Rico " ( " The Fight for Puerto Rico 's Independence " ) , which was adopted from one of Juan Antonio Corretjer 's poems .
On March 1946 , Santos inaugurated a bar and restaurant named Borinquen , and administrated the establishment for some weeks . Two months later he began singing Mexican music and boleros at Greenwich Village . Later that year he visited the Dominican Republic , where he had legal problems and was jailed briefly .
= = = Santos in Cuba = = =
By this time Santos ' fame had grown and he decided to travel to Cuba , establishing a residence in Havana in 1946 . At the moment Cuba was experiencing economic growth and Santos developed an interest in the island . Upon arriving he experienced success , making presentations in Paseo del Prado , Miramar and Vedado . These included a special presentation titled Alegrias de Hatuey , which was broadcast by " Radio Progreso " , a radio station . He participated and sang for several other stations , including RHC @-@ Cadena Azul and CMQ , where he participated in a program named Cascabel . This exposition came after he established friendships with local public figures . The Cuban public created two names adopted by Santos , these were Inquieto and Anacobero , which he later fused and became known as El Inquieto Anacobero . He also made five presentations in theaters , among them the Martí theater .
In 1948 , Santos was invited to perform in the Cuban National Palace by the president in office , Carlos Prío Socarrás . This year also marked Santos ' debut with La Sonora Matancera , where he served as vocalist . His first successful single was titled Bigote de Gato , based on an area of Havana named " Luyano " , which was infamous for serving as the home for fortune tellers . Later that year Santos was arrested after becoming involved in a fight where he accidentally injured a woman after trying to defend himself . Santos was subsequently pardoned by Prío Socarrás , but he asked to remain in jail twelve additional days to spend the Christmas celebration with some of the inmates . While in prison he composed a single named El Preso and was asked to write Amnistía as part of a campaign to promote the well @-@ being of inmates . This was followed by several successful productions with the Sonora Matancera . These included Dos gardenias and Pa ' fricasé los pollos , which were based on Cuban music . Among several other contemporary records were : El juego de la vida , El 5 y 6 , El ajiaco , El niño majadero , Ramoncito campeón and El tíbiri tábara .
On March 10 , 1952 , Fulgencio Batista organized a successful coup d 'état and took control of the island 's government . Santos , known for his Puerto Rican independentist preferences , was never in the good graces of the dictator . He made his nationalistic and democratic views well known throughout Latin America . As many people during those days , he viewed Fidel Castro 's fight against Batista very favorably . In 1958 , forbidden by Batista from returning to the island , he composed the song " Sierra Maestra " , which borrowed parts of the official hymn of the 26th of July Movement . Santos donated the profits from " Sierra Maestra " to the Cuban Revolution .
= = = Return to Puerto Rico = = =
He returned to the island later that year and began an international tour on 1953 , among the countries visited were Venezuela , Colombia and Mexico . In 1954 , he returned to Puerto Rico and performed in hotels located in San Juan before continuing his tour throughout America which extended from 1955 to 1956 . The tour concluded with a presentation in New York and he his returned to Cuba . Later that year he visited Ecuador for the first time in his artistic career . Here he was contracted to perform in a theater named " Apolo " , where he worked with a band named the " Costa Rica Swing Boys " . During his third presentation Santos lost his voice without completing the scheduled show , he tried to explain the situation to the public but was unable to calm them down and a riot erupted . While in Ecuador he composed two successful singles , Cataplum pa ' and Cautiverio . Late in 1956 , Santos recorded with a Venezuelan record label named " Discomoda " .
In 1959 , he briefly returned to Cuba . It was during this trip that he confronted Raul Castro and Ernesto " Che " Guevara about the political nature of the Cuban Revolution he had supported . He left Cuba abruptly , never to return , when Castro and Guevara failed to convince him that the Cuban Revolution was " nationalistic " . A self proclaimed " anti @-@ communist " , he explained that he had supported the Cuban Revolution because its leadership had assured him that it was not communist .
On July 22 , 1972 he performed in the inauguration ceremony of El Balcon del Pueblo , a building owned by Radio Cristal , which was located at Guayaquil . In this activity he performed for two consecutive hours , working an additional hour due to public acclaim .
= = Later years = =
During the last years of his life , Santos toured the United States and Latin @-@ America , while experiencing health problems . He continued performing with several music groups . While he performed with the Sonora Matancera , Santos suffered a heart attack while he was sleeping in a hotel located in La Reforma after eating dinner . Santos continued performing during the following decades , making presentations in several Latin American countries . He continued to sing the songs which he had written during his career until he finally retired and established a residence in Florida .
In 1991 , Santos visited some friends in New York City 's Barrio Latino , during this visit Santo 's was walking through the street on a Saturday evening when he fainted and collapsed . He was attended by some bystanders and residents of the neighborhood who called the New York City Police Department . When the police arrived at the scene they transported him to a local hospital , Santos was released two days after . During this time Santos was also suffering from mental illnesses , including memory loss due to Alzheimer 's disease . Despite his health he made final presentations in some of Puerto Rico 's municipalities where he received recognitions in San Juan and Ponce . Santos was also invited to participate in a music festival in Cuba , where he was supposed to receive a homage , but he was unable to attend .
Over the course of his life Daniel Santos was legally married on twelve separate occasions . His first marriage took place in 1934 , where he married Lucy Montilla when he was eighteen years old . In 1947 , he married Cuban socialite Eugenia Perez Portal , who gave him his first son in 1948 , Daniel Jr . After this he was involved in several relationships with women of several Latin American countries , on occasions having more than one consecutively . When he was fifty @-@ six years old he married Luz Dary Pedredín in a ceremony organized on Colombia . The couple had two children , Danilú and David Albizu . Santos ' last marriage was with Ana Rivera , who was originally of Puerto Rico .
Daniel Santos died on November 27 , 1992 , aged 76 , at his ranch , " Anacobero 's Ranch " in Ocala , Florida . He is buried at what is virtually Puerto Rico 's national pantheon , the St. Mary Magdalene of Pazzis cemetery in Old San Juan , geographically quite close to where Albizu Campos and Pedro Flores were interred . Due to the scarcity of empty space in the cemetery , when fellow Puerto Rican singer and Santos boyhood friend Eladio Peguero ( commonly known as " Yayo El Indio " ) later died , he was also buried in Santos ' tomb .
= = Legacy = =
Santos ' life was the subject of one semi @-@ autobiography , El Inquieto Anacobero : confesiones de Daniel Santos a Héctor Mújica , written as Santos told his story to Venezuelan author Héctor Mújica in 1982 . His life was also the subject of three biographical books : Vengo a decirle adiós a los muchachos ( 1989 ) , by Josean Ramos ; La importancia de llamarse Daniel Santos ( 1988 ) , by Luis Rafael Sánchez and El Inquieto Anacobero , by Salvador Garmendia .
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= 2007 Bernard Matthews H5N1 outbreak =
The 2007 Bernard Matthews H5N1 outbreak was an occurrence of avian influenza in England caused by the H5N1 subtype of Influenza virus A that began on 30 January 2007 . The infection affected poultry at one of Bernard Matthews ' farms in Holton in Suffolk . It was the third instance of H5N1 @-@ subtype detected in the United Kingdom and a range of precautions were instituted to prevent spread of the disease including a large cull of turkeys , the imposition of segregation zones , and a disinfection programme for the plant .
The cause of the outbreak was not determined . However , it was considered significant that Bernard Matthews regularly transports turkeys and turkey products between the UK and its plant in Hungary , and that the H5N1 strains previously found in Hungary , and those found at Suffolk , were effectively genetically identical .
= = Background = =
= = = H5N1 = = =
H5N1 is a subtype of the Influenza A virus , the viruses responsible for influenza in humans and many other animal species . A bird @-@ adapted strain of H5N1 , called HPAI A ( H5N1 ) for " highly pathogenic avian influenza virus of type A of subtype H5N1 " , is the causative agent of H5N1 flu .
HPAI A ( H5N1 ) is considered an avian disease , although there is some evidence of limited human @-@ to @-@ human transmission of the virus . A risk factor for contracting the virus is handling of infected poultry , but transmission of the virus from infected birds to humans is inefficient . Poultry farming practices have changed due to H5N1 . The cost of poultry farming has increased , while the cost to consumers has gone down , due to fears from H5N1 driving demand below supply .
= = = Recent outbreaks in the UK and rest of EU = = =
The outbreak was the third instance of H5N1 detected in the United Kingdom . The first outbreak occurred in October 2005 among exotic birds imported from Taiwan and South America at a privately owned quarantine facility in Essex , England . The second instance involved a dead whooper swan found to have the virus in Cellardyke , Scotland in April 2006 . A corresponding incidence on a farm in south @-@ eastern Hungary was confirmed by the European Commission on 25 January 2007 .
= = The outbreak = =
Initial signs of the outbreak occurred on Tuesday , 30 January when 55 turkey poults died and 16 had to be killed because they were sick . At least 185 more died the following day .
It was not until 1 February that the deaths were reported to Defra . The farm was sealed off while tests were carried out , on samples taken from the dead birds , at the Veterinary Laboratories Agency in Weybridge , Surrey . Another 1 @,@ 500 birds died on 2 February . Then on 3 February 2007 the H5N1 causation was confirmed .
A 3 km protection zone , 10 km surveillance zone and a restricted zone encompassing 2000 km2 were set up . Another 159 @,@ 000 turkeys were slaughtered with the cull being completed on the evening of 5 February . Also on 5 February there was criticism that nearby farmers had not been advised as to the action to be taken . Around 320 workers at the plant were given anti @-@ viral drugs . Although a vet from the site was admitted into hospital , suffering from a ' mild respiratory illness ' during the evening of 6 February , it was found not to be bird flu . The plant was thoroughly disinfected , with cleaning complete on 12 February , and permission being given for production to resume .
It emerged in a highly critical report from Defra that there was a series of biosecurity failings at the Holton plant , some of which were drawn to the company 's attention in the past . These included " gulls were taking turkey waste to roosts on top of the turkey @-@ house 500 m away " and " holes in the turkey houses could have allowed in birds or rodents " . Defra minister Jeff Rooker stated in a House of Lords debate on 22 February that the outbreak was " exclusively a Bernard Matthews Holton problem " .
= = Hungarian connection = =
The Government , on 8 February , admitted that the outbreak may have been caused by semi @-@ processed turkey meat imported directly from Hungary , where the disease is prevalent , despite earlier in the week the Environment Secretary , David Miliband assuring the House of Commons that there was " no Hungarian connection " .
Bernard Matthews had been importing 38 tons of partly processed turkey meat on a weekly basis from their Saga Foods company , in Sárvár , Hungary , to a processing plant next to the farm . Though Saga Foods lies 165 miles ( 266 km ) from where the recent Hungarian H5N1 outbreak had occurred , a company director admitted it was " possible " that some of the meat could have come from the exclusion zone . In response to this revelation , Whitehall expressed concern over biosecurity and whether any meat may have been distributed for human consumption in Britain . On 9 February 2007 the Hungarian authorities started an investigation to try to establish whether there was a connection between the Suffolk and Hungarian outbreaks . On 11 February the investigation revealed that turkey products were still being transported , in both directions , between the plant and Hungary with EU regulations being cited as the reason why a transport ban could not be imposed .
The Hungary link was dismissed by the European Commission on 12 February . Even so , the H5N1 bird flu strains found in Hungary and Britain were shown to be 99 @.@ 96 % genetically identical and , according to an analysis of the viruses by the Veterinary Laboratories Agency in Weybridge , Surrey , were almost certainly linked . A leak from the Government 's COBRA emergency committee indicated that the authorities were not aware of the Hungarian connection until an investigator found a Gallfoods delivery wrapper in a Bernard Matthews bin . This raised the possibility that the outbreak was due to a " third party abattoir , Gallfoods in Hungary , just outside the restricted zone " . This abattoir might have been a middle man for contaminated poultry farming tools , feed , or product from within the restricted zone , such as a Bernard Matthews owned subsidiary in Hungary .
In response to the incident and allegations of a cover @-@ up , Bernard Matthews himself stated on 14 February " I 'm sorry - but this has not been of our making . There 's been absolutely no cover up at our end . I 've been upset about allegations that we may have withheld information . That is completely untrue . "
Bernard Matthews was given permission to resume its shipments of poultry between the UK and Hungary from 17 February even though Defra indicated that Hungarian turkey products remained the " most plausible " cause of the outbreak .
= = Consequences = =
By 8 February there was a lengthening list of countries that had banned the importation of poultry products from Britain including South Africa , Russia , Japan , and many others but a spokesman for the European Commission condemned the bans as " totally disproportionate " and the British Poultry Council pointed out that exports were less than 9 % of the level of domestic sales . Supermarket sales of Bernard Matthews branded turkeys halved after the onset of the outbreak as shoppers sought out alternatives . One of the biggest ongoing surveys of consumer confidence revealed that , by 13 February 2007 , Bernard Matthews was the least respected and trusted brand in Britain .
Following the outbreak the company confirmed , on 19 February 2007 , that 130 workers would be laid off for a period of twenty days due to a drop in product sales . The Transport and General Workers ' Union then called for the government to provide compensation to the workers affected . The Transport and General Workers ' Union paid out hardship monies from union funds to union members , on top of any state benefits to which the laid @-@ off workers were entitled and a one @-@ off £ 100 payment from Bernard Matthews .
A row broke out on 1 March 2007 when it emerged that the Government were paying compensation to the company for the 159 @,@ 000 culled turkeys while laid @-@ off workers were receiving nothing . At £ 3 @.@ 75 each for hens and £ 3 @.@ 53 for toms , the payout was then estimated at between £ 537 @,@ 000 and £ 570 @,@ 000 . In the event , though , the actual compensation bill came out at £ 589 @,@ 356 @.@ 89 . The crisis cost Bernard Matthews at least £ 20 m in lost sales and costs .
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= Norman Whiteside =
Norman Whiteside ( born 7 May 1965 ) is a former Northern Ireland international footballer who played in two World Cups . He played both as a midfielder and as a striker .
Whiteside began his career at Manchester United , signing professional forms in 1982 at the age of 17 and quickly becoming a key member of the side . He scored 68 goals in 278 league and cup appearances for the club over the next seven years , picking up two FA Cup winners medals in 1983 and 1985 , as well as playing in the 1982 FA Youth Cup final , the 1983 League Cup final , and the FA Charity Shield in 1983 .
He remained with United until July 1989 , when he was sold to Everton for £ 600 @,@ 000 . However , he retired from playing two years later , aged only 26 , due to a knee injury .
Whiteside holds records as the youngest player to take part in a World Cup , the youngest player to score in a League Cup and FA Cup final , and the youngest player to score a senior goal for Manchester United . Winning 38 caps for Northern Ireland , he played at the 1982 and 1986 World Cups , and also helped his country to win the last ever British Home Championship in 1984 . After retiring as a player he became a podiatrist , and still works at the corporate hospitality department at Old Trafford .
= = Early years = =
Born in Belfast to Norman and Aileen Whiteside , he grew up on Shankill Road , and because of his aggressive , physical playing style he was later nicknamed the " Shankill Skinhead " by Manchester United supporters . The family later moved to 10 Danube Street , and the family 's poverty meant that Whiteside had to share a bed with his two brothers . He remained relatively unscathed by The Troubles as his Protestant parents kept a firm watch on their children to ensure that they did not stray far from home and that none of them became involved with Ulster loyalism . At the age of around seven he joined the Boys ' Brigade , and quickly showed his natural talent for football , scoring ten goals in a game against boys almost twice his age . He was educated at Cairnmartin High School , and became famous in the Shankill area as a footballing prodigy by the age of 11 .
He was said to have been discovered by Ipswich Town scout Jim Rodgers ( his goals at schoolboy level meant that he was already well known to all the football scouts in Northern Ireland ) , who was told by manager Bobby Robson to wait until Whiteside grew older . Instead , it was Manchester United 's 80 @-@ year @-@ old Ulster scout Bob Bishop , who previously unearthed Belfast @-@ born George Best and Sammy McIlroy for the club , who first offered him a trial at an English club . Whiteside 's family were Manchester United supporters , though the youngster himself held no particular allegiance . He found that he had been offered schoolboy terms at the club during a school trip to the United States ; on the trip , he and his classmates met President Jimmy Carter at the Oval Office , a rare and extraordinary occasion for children from a disadvantaged background .
= = Club career = =
= = = Manchester United = = =
A few days before Whiteside was old enough to sign schoolboy terms with Manchester United , he was offered a trial at Liverpool , causing United 's chief scout Joe Brown to fly over to Belfast to immediately offer him the schoolboy contract to sign . Whiteside remained in Belfast , and flew over to Manchester every weekend for training . From age 14 , he was constantly compared to the now @-@ retired George Best , and did little to cease such comparisons when he told a journalist that " the only thing I have in common with George Best is that we come from the same place , play for the same club and were discovered by the same man " .
His injury problems started as early as 1980 , when he was 15 years old and saw Glentoran 's physio Bobby McGregor to resolve a groin strain ; Whiteside said that the highly physical massage he was subjected to damaged his pelvis and robbed him of his natural pace . His lack of pace was later seen as the one weakness in his game . Six weeks into his apprenticeship , in July 1981 , and an innocuous looking challenge by a Preston North End player in an ' A ' team game saw Whiteside requiring an operation on his right knee . Had the injury occurred a couple of years later he would have been able to have pioneering keyhole surgery , which could potentially have saved his career . After a seven @-@ month lay @-@ off and a further operation to remove cartilage , he returned to fitness in January 1982 . He had to adapt his playing style to compensate for his damaged knee and pelvis , and developed well under youth team coach Eric Harrison .
Whiteside became United 's youngest first team player since Duncan Edwards in 1953 , when he made his debut as a substitute against Brighton & Hove Albion in a 1 – 0 league win at the Goldstone Ground on 24 April 1982 , two weeks before his 17th birthday . He later played in the FA Youth Cup final defeat to Watford , though it would be just another year before he appeared in the final of the senior competition . He turned professional at Old Trafford on his 17th birthday , signing a three @-@ year contract , and he shared a room with Steve Coppell , who was heading into retirement due to a knee injury of his own . He also struck up a close friendship with Paul McGrath , who would also face similar problems with his knee . On the final day of the season , eight days after his 17th birthday , he became the club 's youngest goalscorer in a 2 – 0 home win over Stoke City .
His performances at the World Cup convinced manager Ron Atkinson to start Whiteside alongside Frank Stapleton at the front of United 's attack for the 1982 – 83 season . The pair were similar players in that they held the ball up and made frequent runs into the box , allowing midfielder Bryan Robson to join in the attack . Whiteside scored four goals in the first five games of the campaign , before entering a seventeen @-@ game drought . He scored six goals in 16 games in domestic cup competitions that season , helping Manchester United to the finals of both the League Cup and FA Cup , notably by scoring past Arsenal in the FA Cup semi @-@ finals . At the age of 17 years and 323 days , he beat Liverpool centre @-@ half Alan Hansen to score in the League Cup final defeat at Wembley , making him the youngest player to score in a League Cup final ; his consistent performances against Liverpool during the 1980s earned him the moniker of the " Scourge of the Scousers " from United supporters . He gave an assist to Stapleton in the FA Cup Final , which finished as a 2 – 2 draw with Brighton & Hove Albion . At the age of 18 years and 18 days , he then scored a headed goal in the replay , which United won 4 – 0 , to become the youngest player score in an FA Cup Final . He also became the first player to score in both domestic cup finals in the same season . He played 57 times in all competitions that season and missed just three league games , scoring a total of 14 goals .
Manchester United later accepted a £ 1 @.@ 5 million offer for Whiteside from A.C. Milan , and offered him £ 100 @,@ 000 in cash to accept the transfer . He refused the move as he felt he still had a good future with Manchester United and because he was given only a brief time to consider whether or not to relocate to a club and location he knew little about . He continued to impress , despite on @-@ loan striker Garth Crooks being tipped to take his first team place and sign a permanent contract ( which never happened ) . United were trophyless however in 1983 – 84 , exiting both domestic cup competitions to Third Division sides . He did though play a part in the memorable 3 – 0 win over Barcelona at Old Trafford in the Third Round of the Cup Winners ' Cup . He lost his starting place to Mark Hughes for the semi @-@ final clash with Juventus at the Stadio Olimpico di Torino , which ended in a 2 – 1 defeat .
By February 1985 , he had started just eight games in the 1984 – 85 season , having fallen behind in the pecking order to Stapleton , Hughes , and new signing Alan Brazil . However , injury to midfielder Remi Moses left an opening at the centre of the field , and Whiteside proved to be a revelation in the role with his intelligent play and positioning skills , and stayed in midfield for the rest of manager Ron Atkinson 's time at the club . He formed a solid partnership with Bryan Robson , despite the two being similarly attacking players , and United lost just one of their first 15 games with this new midfield partnership in operation . Whiteside scored the only hat @-@ trick of his professional career in a 4 – 2 home win over West Ham United on 9 March 1985 , in the FA Cup quarter @-@ finals ; it was a ' perfect hat @-@ trick ' in that he scored once with each foot and once with his head . He went on to score the winning goal in the 1985 FA Cup Final , curling a shot in from the right hand side in the 20th minute of extra time , to give ten @-@ man United victory over Everton , and Whiteside his second FA Cup winner 's medal . The goal required vision , timing , and precise shooting ; and The Guardian praised his " cool footballing brain " and " clever concealment of the shot " . After this success he negotiated a new contract of £ 60 @,@ 000 a year .
United won 13 and drew two of their opening 15 league matches of the 1985 – 86 campaign , and seemed destined to win the First Division title . However they dropped off in mid @-@ season and won just six of their final 18 games to end the season in fourth place . The press blamed the decline in form on the club 's drinking culture and Ron Atkinson 's lax disciplinary attitude , though in his autobiography Whiteside denies that this was to blame , and states that stories of the player 's drinking sessions were exaggerated .
Then came a decline in his career at such a young age which began soon after the arrival of new manager Alex Ferguson in November 1986 , the change of manager coming after a dismal start to the season led to the decision to sack Ron Atkinson . Whiteside , still only 21 , was facing trouble from his right knee which was now beginning to require serious medical procedures to prevent it from causing his retirement . Ferguson put Whiteside back up front , and in turn he scored three times in his first four games back from injury . Ferguson did though have to rebuke Whiteside after some of his numerous drinking sessions . He ended the 1986 – 87 season with 10 goals in 37 appearances , however United could only manage an 11th @-@ place finish .
" I felt the excitement that is felt by watching a player of the highest class . He had self @-@ assurance that was extraordinary in a twenty @-@ one @-@ year @-@ old . The excellence of his technique gave him easy mastery of the ball and he had the gift of making time for himself in the stamp of quality . He was an island of composure , looking up and unhurriedly making his decisions . He rarely surrendered possession and he increased the angle and weight of his passes so well that the receiver never had to fight the ball . His eyes were as cold as steel and he had the temperament to match . As a player he was close to the genius category . "
At the start of the 1987 – 88 season , Whiteside represented the Football League in a game against the ' Rest of the World ' to celebrate the league 's centenary . He formed a solid partnership with Brian McClair , scoring 10 goals in 35 appearances , though United finished second in the league behind Liverpool , and he often found himself back in midfield or on the bench when Peter Davenport was selected to play alongside McClair . However he felt that he was due a better contract , and decided to ' call the bluff ' of the club by handing in a transfer request . Recovering from injury and abuse from some supporters for his transfer request , he put what many United fans call the best performance of his career at Anfield on 4 April 1988 , when he came off a substitute with his team 3 – 1 down to help United to salvage a point .
He ruptured his Achilles midway through the 1987 – 88 season and missed almost a year of first team action . Whiteside 's goal in a 2 – 1 win over Derby County in a league match at the Baseball Ground on 10 February 1988 would prove to be his last for Manchester United . He was limited to just six goalless appearances in 1988 – 89 . In the summer of 1988 , he came close to joining American club Portland Timbers , before injury put negotiations on hold . In view of Whiteside 's medical reports , Ferguson rejected bids of £ 500 @,@ 000 from Osasuna of Spain and from Ron Atkinson 's new club Sheffield Wednesday , before accepting a bid of £ 600 @,@ 000 ( with £ 150 @,@ 000 to follow if Whiteside reached 50 games ) from Everton in July 1989 . This was to the dismay of some of the club 's supporters , who felt that there was still hope that he could re @-@ establish himself as the key player he had been at the club as recently as three years earlier . Ferguson intended to build his own team having signed midfield duo Neil Webb and Mike Phelan , and also in the hunt for other players including Paul Ince , Gary Pallister and Danny Wallace .
He had played a total of 274 games in all competitions for United , scoring 67 goals , and collected two winner 's medals in the FA Cup , despite only being 24 years old when he left .
= = = Everton = = =
Whiteside signed a four @-@ year contract with Everton , and Alex Ferguson helped him to negotiate a pay deal that would see him earn more in two years at Goodison Park than he had done during his eight years in Manchester . He was also offered £ 50 @,@ 000 to put his name to a tabloid article criticising Ferguson , though he declined the offer . At the time Everton boasted more recent success than Manchester United , having won two league titles , an FA Cup and the European Cup Winners ' Cup . Manager Colin Harvey was planning to boost the " Toffees " chances of more silverware , and also in 1989 signed Mike Newell , Martin Keown , Stefan Rehn and Raymond Atteveld . Whiteside became Everton 's playmaker in 1989 – 90 , and formed an effective partnership with Stuart McCall in midfield to score 13 goals in his 35 appearances . Everton finished the season in sixth place , some 20 points behind rivals Liverpool .
However intense running sessions ran by coach Mick Lyons took their toll on his right knee , and on 20 September 1990 he took a knock in a practice match , which required him to have yet another operation on his right knee . After the return of Howard Kendall as manager in November 1990 , Whiteside managed to appear in a few reserve team games , but this only delayed the inevitable , and he was forced to retire from the game at the age of 26 in June 1991 . He had a testimonial game between Manchester United and Everton at Old Trafford in May 1992 , but as United lost the title the previous week , only 7 @,@ 434 turned out for the occasion .
= = International career = =
Whiteside broke Pelé 's record as the youngest player to appear in a World Cup , when he debuted for Northern Ireland aged 17 years and 41 days at the 1982 World Cup in Spain . When selected for the World Cup squad by manager Billy Bingham , he had played just two competitive games at club level . The opening game against Yugoslavia at the La Romareda in Zaragoza on 17 June was his international debut ; he received a yellow card in the second half for a challenge on Nenad Stojković , and the game finished goalless . Five days later he helped " Norn Iron " to a 1 – 1 draw with Honduras , which was a disappointment , and many believed had doomed Northern Ireland 's chances of advancing in the competition . They needed a win against hosts Spain in the third and final group game at the Mestalla Stadium in Valencia . They faced a partisan atmosphere with a mostly Spanish crowd and a Spanish speaking referee in Héctor Ortiz who was unwilling to punish dirty play from the Spanish players . However a mistake from goalkeeper Luis Arconada gifted Gerry Armstrong the only goal of the game , and despite having Mal Donaghy sent off on 60 minutes , Northern Ireland went on to record an historic 1 – 0 win . Whiteside played at left @-@ midfielder for the 2 – 2 draw with Austria at the Vicente Calderón Stadium . A win against France would take them into the semi @-@ finals , however a French team inspired by Michel Platini won 4 – 1 and therefore eliminated Northern Ireland from the competition .
He featured in qualifying for UEFA Euro 1984 , as the " Green and White Army " suffered heartbreak after winning their final group game 1 – 0 over West Germany , Whiteside managing to get the better of one of the world 's best man @-@ markers in Karlheinz Förster . However the Germans secured the only qualification place in the group in their final match of the group with a late winner over Albania . The nation did though achieve some glory that year , when Whiteside helped Northern Ireland win the 100th and last edition of the British Home Championship in 1984 .
Northern Ireland won qualification to the World Cup for a second successive tournament with a goalless draw with England in their final group game ; Whiteside scored three goals during the qualification process , with his strike again Romania at Windsor Park proving to be crucial as they ended up qualifying at the Romanian 's expense . At the 1986 FIFA World Cup finals in Mexico , he scored in his country 's only result in the tournament , a 1 – 1 draw against Algeria at the Estadio Tres de Marzo . They were beaten in their other two group games , losing 2 – 1 to Spain and 3 – 0 to Brazil . Whiteside won a total of 38 caps and scored nine times in eight years playing for Northern Ireland .
= = Personal life and post @-@ retirement = =
He married wife Judy on 4 October 1987 ; the two had met when Whiteside was 16 and she was 20 . The relationship blossomed despite fears of reprisal on Shankill , with him being a Protestant and Judy being a Catholic . The marriage ended acrimoniously in 2001 , after the couple had 20 years together and three children : Della , Blaine and Clodagh . He subsequently married Denise .
Upon retirement , Whiteside studied to become a podiatrist , graduating with a degree from the University of Salford , and served Northwich Victoria as their assistant manager / physio from October 1991 until March 1992 . He quit the role as he did not enjoy the amount of time spent travelling between games . During his playing career , he had attended courses at Lilleshall to pick up his coaching badges , but he did not wish to go into coaching . He instead became an after @-@ dinner speaker . He also worked for the Professional Footballers ' Association , while taking a postgraduate course at Manchester Metropolitan University . He later took up private practice as a podiatrist in Manchester . Since 1994 , he has also worked at the corporate hospitality department at Old Trafford . In 2003 , he released a book entitled My Memories of Manchester United . With the help of writer Rob Bagchi , he released his autobiography entitled Determined in August 2007 , published by Headline , and with a foreword by actor James Nesbitt . When Saturday Comes magazine reviewer Joyce Woolridge wrote that " Determined is an entertaining , well written account of one of the less ordinary 1980s footballers , with the added twist of how Whiteside was able to rebuild his life , if not his knee . " The next month it was reported that Whiteside had been diagnosed with irregular heart rhythms . Whiteside worked as a pundit on ITV 's coverage of UEFA Euro 2016 .
= = Statistics = =
= = = Club statistics = = =
Notes
European statistics : 1982 – 83 & 1984 – 85 ( UEFA Cup ) ; 1983 – 84 ( UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup ) .
Statistics listed in Whiteside 's autobiography :
= = = International statistics = = =
= = = International goals = = =
Scores and results list Northern Ireland 's goal tally first .
= = Honours = =
Manchester United
FA Cup ( 2 ) : 1983 , 1985
FA Charity Shield ( 1 ) : 1984 – 85
Northern Ireland
British Home Championship ( 1 ) : 1984
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= Horace Greeley =
Horace Greeley ( February 3 , 1811 – November 29 , 1872 ) was editor of the New @-@ York Tribune , among the great newspapers of its time . Long active in politics , he served briefly as a congressman from New York , and was the candidate of the Democratic and Liberal Republican parties in the 1872 presidential election . He was defeated by President Ulysses S. Grant , and died before the casting of the electoral vote .
Born to a poor family in New Hampshire , Greeley was apprenticed to a printer in Vermont , and in 1831 went to New York City to seek his fortune . He wrote for or edited several publications , and involved himself in Whig Party politics , taking a significant part in William Henry Harrison 's successful 1840 presidential campaign . The following year , he founded the Tribune , which through weekly editions sent by mail became the highest @-@ circulating newspaper in the country . Among many other issues , he urged the settlement of the American West , which he saw as a land of opportunity for the young and the unemployed . He popularized the phrase " Go West , young man , and grow up with the country , " although it is uncertain whether it originated with him .
Greeley 's alliance with William H. Seward and Thurlow Weed led to him serving three months in the House of Representatives , where he angered many by investigating Congress in his newspaper . He helped found the Republican Party in 1854 , but about then broke with Seward and Weed , backing other presidential candidates against Seward at the 1860 Republican National Convention , and supporting the nominee , Abraham Lincoln . When the Civil War broke out , he mostly supported Lincoln , though urging him to commit to the end of slavery before the president was willing to do so . After Lincoln 's assassination , he supported the Radical Republicans in opposition to President Andrew Johnson .
Leading against the corruption of Grant 's Republican administration , Greeley was the new Liberal Republican Party 's candidate in the 1872 U.S. presidential election . Despite having the additional support of the Democratic Party , he lost in a landslide . Devastated at the defeat , he died three weeks later . Greeley is the only major @-@ party presidential candidate to have died prior to the electoral vote being cast .
= = Early life = =
Horace Greeley was born on February 3 , 1811 , on a farm about five miles from Amherst , New Hampshire . He could not breathe for the first twenty minutes of his life . It is suggested that this deprivation may have caused him to develop Asperger 's syndrome — some of his biographers , such as Mitchell Snay , maintain that this condition would account for his eccentric behaviors in later life .
Greeley was the son of poor farmers Zaccheus and Mary ( Woodburn ) Greeley . Zaccheus was not successful , and moved his family several times , as far west as Pennsylvania . Horace attended the local schools , and was a brilliant student . He was of English descent , and his forebears included early settlers of Massachusetts and New Hampshire .
Seeing the boy 's intelligence , some neighbors offered to pay Horace 's way at Phillips Exeter Academy , but the Greeleys were too proud to accept charity . In 1820 , Zaccheus 's financial reverses caused him to flee New Hampshire with his family lest he be imprisoned for debt , and settle in Vermont . Even as his father struggled to make a living as a hired hand , Horace Greeley read everything he could — the Greeleys had a neighbor who let Horace use his library . In 1822 , Horace ran away from home to become a printer 's apprentice , but was told he was too young .
In 1826 , at age 15 , he was made a printer 's apprentice to Amos Bliss , editor of the Northern Spectator , a newspaper in East Poultney , Vermont . There , he learned the mechanics of a printer 's job , and acquired a reputation as the town encyclopedia , reading his way through the local library . When the paper closed in 1830 , the young man went west to join his family , living near Erie , Pennsylvania . He remained there only briefly , going from town to town seeking newspaper employment , and was hired by the Erie Gazette . Although ambitious for greater things , he remained until 1831 to help support his father . While there , he became a Universalist , breaking from his Congregationalist upbringing .
= = First efforts at publishing = =
In late 1831 , Greeley went to New York City to seek his fortune . There were many young printers in New York who had likewise come to the metropolis , and he could only find short @-@ term work . In 1832 , Greeley worked as an employee of the publication Spirit of the Times . He built his resources and set up a print shop in that year . In 1833 , he tried his hand with Horatio D. Sheppard at editing a daily newspaper , the New York Morning Post , which was not a success . Despite this failure and its attendant financial loss , Greeley published the thrice @-@ weekly Constitutionalist , which mostly printed lottery results .
On March 22 , 1834 , he published the first issue of The New @-@ Yorker in partnership with Jonas Winchester . It was less expensive than other literary magazines of the time and published both contemporary ditties and political commentary . Circulation reached 9 @,@ 000 , then a sizable number , yet it was ill @-@ managed and eventually fell victim to the economic Panic of 1837 . He also published the campaign news sheet of the new Whig Party in New York for the 1834 campaign , and came to believe in its positions , including free markets with government assistance in developing the nation .
Soon after his move to New York City , Greeley met Mary Young Cheney . Both were living at a boarding house run on the diet principles of Sylvester Graham , eschewing meat , alcohol , coffee , tea , and spices , as well as abstaining from the use of tobacco . Greeley was subscribing to Graham 's principles at the time , and to the end of his life rarely ate meat . Mary Cheney , a schoolteacher , moved to North Carolina to take a teaching job in 1835 . They were married in Warrenton , North Carolina on July 5 , 1836 , and an announcement duly appeared in The New @-@ Yorker eleven days later . Greeley had stopped over in Washington , D.C. on his way south to observe Congress . He took no honeymoon with his new wife , returning to work while his wife took up a teaching job in New York City .
One of the positions taken by The New @-@ Yorker was that the unemployed of the cities should seek lives in the developing American West ( in the 1830s , the West encompassed today 's Midwestern states ) . The harsh winter of 1836 – 1837 and the financial crisis that developed soon after made many New Yorkers homeless and destitute . In his journal , Greeley urged new immigrants to buy guide books on the West , and Congress to make public lands available for purchase at cheap rates to settlers . He told his readers , " Fly , scatter through the country , go to the Great West , anything rather than remain here ... the West is the true destination . " In 1838 , he advised " any young man " about to start in the world , " Go to the West : there your capabilities are sure to be appreciated and your energy and industry rewarded . "
In 1838 , Greeley met Albany editor Thurlow Weed . Weed spoke for a liberal faction of the Whigs in his newspaper the Albany Evening Journal . He hired Greeley as editor of the state Whig newspaper for the upcoming campaign . The newspaper , the Jeffersonian , premiered in February 1838 and helped elect the Whig candidate for governor , William H. Seward . In 1839 , Greeley worked for several journals , and took a month @-@ long break to go as far west as Detroit .
Greeley was deeply involved in the campaign of the Whig candidate for president in 1840 , William Henry Harrison . He published the major Whig periodical the Log Cabin , and also wrote many of the pro @-@ Harrison songs that marked the campaign . These songs were sung at mass meetings , many organized and led by Greeley . According to biographer Robert C. Williams , " Greeley 's lyrics swept the country and roused Whig voters to action . " Funds raised by Weed helped distribute the Log Cabin widely . Harrison and his running mate John Tyler were easily elected .
= = Editor of the Tribune = =
= = = Early years ( 1841 – 1848 ) = = =
By the end of the 1840 campaign , the Log Cabin 's circulation had risen to 80 @,@ 000 and Greeley decided to establish a daily newspaper , the New @-@ York Tribune . At the time , New York had many newspapers , dominated by James Gordon Bennett 's New York Herald , which with a circulation of about 55 @,@ 000 had more readers than its combined competition . As technology advanced , it became cheaper and easier to publish a newspaper , and the daily press came to dominate the weekly , which had once been the more common format for news periodicals . Greeley borrowed money from friends to get started , and published the first issue of the Tribune on April 10 , 1841 — the day of a memorial parade in New York for President Harrison , who had died after a month in office and been replaced by Vice President Tyler .
In the first issue , Greeley promised that his newspaper would be a " new morning Journal of Politics , Literature , and General Intelligence " . New Yorkers were not initially receptive ; the first week 's receipts were $ 92 and expenses $ 525 . The paper was sold for a cent a copy by newsboys who purchased bundles of papers at a discount . The price of advertising was initially four cents a line , but was quickly raised to six cents . Through the 1840s , the Tribune was four pages , that is , a single sheet folded . It initially had 600 subscribers and 5 @,@ 000 copies were sold of the first issue .
In the early days , Greeley 's chief assistant was Henry J. Raymond , who a decade later founded The New York Times . To place the Tribune on a sound financial footing , Greeley sold a half @-@ interest in it to attorney Thomas McElrath , who became publisher of the Tribune ( Greeley was editor ) and ran the business side . Politically , the Tribune backed Kentucky Senator Henry Clay , who had unsuccessfully sought the presidential nomination that fell to Harrison , and supported Clay 's American System for development of the country . Greeley was one of the first newspaper editors to have a full @-@ time correspondent in Washington , an innovation quickly followed by his rivals . Part of Greeley 's strategy was to make the Tribune a newspaper of national scope , not merely local . One factor in establishing the paper nationally was the Weekly Tribune , created in September , 1841 when the Log Cabin and The New @-@ Yorker were merged . With an initial subscription price of $ 2 a year , this was sent to many across the United States by mail , and was especially popular in the Midwest . In December 1841 , Greeley was offered the editorship of the national Whig newspaper , the Madisonian . He demanded full control , and declined when not given it .
Greeley , in his paper , initially supported the Whig program . As divisions between Clay and President Tyler became apparent , he supported the Kentucky senator and looked to a Clay nomination for president in 1844 . However , when Clay was nominated by the Whigs , he was defeated by the Democrat , former Tennessee governor James K. Polk , though Greeley worked hard on Clay 's behalf . Greeley had taken positions in opposition to slavery as editor of The New @-@ Yorker in the late 1830s , opposing the annexation of the slaveholding Republic of Texas to the United States . In the 1840s , Greeley became an increasingly vocal opponent of the expansion of slavery .
Greeley hired Margaret Fuller in 1844 as first literary editor of the Tribune , for which she wrote over 200 articles . She lived with the Greeley family for several years , and when she moved to Italy , he made her a foreign correspondent . He promoted the work of Henry David Thoreau , serving as literary agent and seeing to it that Thoreau 's work was published . Ralph Waldo Emerson also benefited from Greeley 's promotion . Historian Allan Nevins explained :
The Tribune set a new standard in American journalism by its combination of energy in news gathering with good taste , high moral standards , and intellectual appeal . Police reports , scandals , dubious medical advertisements , and flippant personalities were barred from its pages ; the editorials were vigorous but usually temperate ; the political news was the most exact in the city ; book reviews and book @-@ extracts were numerous ; and as an inveterate lecturer Greeley gave generous space to lectures . The paper appealed to substantial and thoughtful people .
Greeley , who had met his wife at a Graham boarding house , became enthusiastic about other social movements that did not last , and promoted them in his paper . He subscribed to the views of Charles Fourier , a French mathematician and social thinker , then recently deceased , who proposed the establishment of settlements called " phalanxes " with a given number of people from various walks of life , who would function as a corporation and among whose members profits would be shared . Greeley , in addition to promoting Fourierism in the Tribune , was associated with two such settlements , both of which eventually failed , though the town that eventually developed on the site of the one in Pennsylvania was after his death renamed Greeley .
= = = Congressman ( 1848 – 1849 ) = = =
In November 1848 , Congressman David S. Jackson , a Democrat , of New York 's Sixth District was unseated for election fraud . Jackson 's term was to expire in March 1849 , but during the 19th century Congress convened annually in December , making it important to fill the seat . Under the laws then in force , the Whig committee from the Sixth District chose Jackson 's replacement and they chose Greeley , though they did not select him as their candidate for the seat in the following Congress . The Sixth District , or Sixth Ward as it was commonly called , was mostly Irish @-@ American , and Greeley proclaimed his support for Irish efforts towards independence from Great Britain . He took his seat when Congress convened in December 1848 . Greeley 's selection was procured by the influence of his ally , Thurlow Weed .
As a congressman for three months , Greeley introduced legislation for a homestead act that would allow settlers who improved land to purchase it at low rates — a fourth of what speculators would pay . He was quickly noticed because he launched a series of attacks on legislative privileges , taking note of which congressmen were missing votes , and questioning the office of House Chaplain . This was enough to make him unpopular . But he outraged his colleagues when on December 22 , 1848 the Tribune published evidence that many congressmen had been paid excessive sums as travel allowance . In January 1849 , Greeley supported a bill that would have corrected the issue , but it was defeated . He was so disliked , he wrote a friend , that he had " divided the House into two parties — one that would like to see me extinguished and the other that wouldn 't be satisfied without a hand in doing it . "
Other legislation , all failed , introduced by Greeley included attempts to end flogging in the Navy , and to ban alcohol from its ships . He tried to change the name of the United States to " Columbia " , abolish slavery in the District of Columbia , and increase tariffs . One lasting effect of the term of Congressman Greeley was his friendship with a fellow Whig , serving his only term in the House , Illinois 's Abraham Lincoln . Greeley 's term ended after March 3 , 1849 , and he returned to New York and the Tribune , having , according to Williams , " failed to achieve much except notoriety " .
= = = Influence ( 1849 – 1860 ) = = =
By the end of the 1840s , Greeley 's Tribune was not only solidly established in New York as a daily paper , it was highly influential nationally through its weekly edition , which circulated in rural areas and small towns . Journalist Bayard Taylor deemed its influence in the Midwest second only to that of the Bible . According to Williams , the Tribune could mold public opinion through Greeley 's editorials more effectively than could the president . Greeley sharpened those skills over time , laying down what future Secretary of State John Hay , who worked for the Tribune in the 1870s , deemed the " Gospel according to St. Horace " .
The Tribune remained a Whig paper , but Greeley took an independent course . In 1848 , he had been slow to endorse the Whig presidential nominee , General Zachary Taylor , a Louisianan and hero of the Mexican @-@ American War . Greeley opposed both the war and the expansion of slavery into the new territories seized from Mexico , and feared Taylor would support expansion as president . Greeley considered endorsing former president Martin Van Buren , candidate of the Free Soil Party , but finally endorsed Taylor , who was elected ; the editor was rewarded for his loyalty with the congressional term . Greeley vacillated on support for the Compromise of 1850 , which gave victories to both sides of the slavery issue , before finally opposing it . In the 1852 presidential race , he supported the Whig candidate , General Winfield Scott , but savaged the Whig platform for its support of the Compromise . " We defy it , execrate it , spit upon it . " Such party divisions contributed to Scott 's defeat by former New Hampshire senator Franklin Pierce .
In 1853 , with the party increasingly divided over the slavery issue , Greeley printed an editorial disclaiming the paper 's identity as Whig and declaring it to be nonpartisan . He was confident that the paper would not suffer financially , trusting in reader loyalty . Some in the party were not sorry to see him go : the Republic , a Whig organ , mocked Greeley and his beliefs : " If a party is to be built up and maintained on Fourierism , Mesmerism , Maine Liquor laws , Spiritual Rappings , Kossuthism , Socialism , Abolitionism , and forty other isms , we have no disposition to mix with any such companions . " When in 1854 , Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas introduced his Kansas @-@ Nebraska Bill , allowing residents of each territory to decide whether it would be slave or free , Greeley strongly fought the legislation in his newspaper . After it passed , and the Border War broke out in Kansas Territory , Greeley was part of efforts to send free @-@ state settlers there , and to arm them . In return , proponents of slavery recognized Greeley and the Tribune as adversaries , stopping shipments of the paper to the South and harassing local agents . Nevertheless , by 1858 , the Tribune reached 300 @,@ 000 subscribers through the weekly edition , and it would continue as the foremost American newspaper through the years of the Civil War .
The Kansas @-@ Nebraska Act helped destroy the Whig Party , but a new party with opposition to the spread of slavery at its heart had been under discussion for some years . Beginning in 1853 , Greeley participated in the discussions that led to the founding of the Republican Party and may have coined its name . Greeley attended the first New York state Republican Convention in 1854 , and was disappointed not to be nominated either for governor or lieutenant governor . The switch in parties coincided with the end of two of his longtime political alliances : in December 1854 , Greeley wrote that the political partnership between Weed , William Seward ( who was by then senator after serving as governor ) and himself was ended " by the withdrawal of the junior partner " . Greeley was angered over patronage disputes , and felt Seward was courting the rival The New York Times for support .
In 1853 , Greeley purchased a farm in rural Chappaqua , New York , where he experimented with farming techniques . In 1856 , he designed and built Rehoboth , one of the first concrete structures in the United States .
The Tribune continued to print a wide variety of material . In 1851 , its managing editor Charles Dana recruited Karl Marx as a foreign correspondent in London . Marx collaborated with Friedrich Engels on his work for the Tribune , which continued for over a decade , covering 500 articles . Greeley felt compelled to print , " Mr. Marx has very decided opinions of his own , with some of which we are far from agreeing , but those who do not read his letters are neglecting one of the most instructive sources of information on the great questions of current European politics . "
In 1859 , Greeley traveled across the continent to see the West for himself , to write about it for the Tribune , and to publicize the need for a transcontinental railroad . He also planned to give speeches to promote the Republican Party . He went to Chicago , then to Lawrence in Kansas Territory , and was unimpressed by the local people . Greeley took one of the first stagecoaches to Denver , seeing the town then in course of formation as a mining camp of the Pike 's Peak Gold Rush . Sending dispatches back to be published in the Tribune , Greeley took the Overland Trail , reaching Salt Lake City , where he conducted a two @-@ hour interview with the Mormon leader , Brigham Young , the first newspaper interview Young had given . Greeley encountered Native Americans , and was sympathetic , but like many of his time , deemed Indian culture inferior . In California , he explored widely and gave many addresses .
= = = 1860 campaign = = =
Although he remained on cordial terms with Senator Seward , Greeley never seriously considered supporting him in his bid for the Republican nomination for president . Instead , during the run @-@ up to the 1860 Republican National Convention in Chicago , he pressed the candidacy of former Missouri representative Edward Bates , an opponent of the spread of slavery who had freed his own slaves . In his newspaper , in speeches , and in conversation , Greeley pushed Bates as a man who could win the North and even make inroads in the South . Nevertheless , when one of the dark horse candidates for the Republican nomination , Abraham Lincoln , came to New York to give an address at Cooper Union , Greeley urged his readers to go hear Lincoln , and was among those who accompanied him to the platform . Greeley thought of Lincoln as a possible nominee for vice president .
Greeley attended the convention as a substitute for a delegate from Oregon who was unable to attend . In Chicago , he promoted Bates but deemed his cause hopeless and felt that Seward would be nominated . In conversations with other delegates , he predicted that , if nominated , Seward could not carry crucial battleground states such as Pennsylvania . Greeley 's estrangement from Seward was not widely known , giving the editor more credibility . Greeley ( and Seward ) biographer Glyndon G. Van Deusen noted that it is uncertain how great a part Greeley played in Seward 's defeat by Lincoln — he had little success gaining delegates for Bates . On the first two ballots , Seward led Lincoln , but on the second only by a small margin . After the third ballot , on which Lincoln was nominated , Greeley was seen among the Oregon delegation , a broad smile on his face . According to Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning historian Doris Kearns Goodwin , " it is hard to imagine Lincoln letting Greeley 's resentment smolder for years as Seward did " .
Seward 's forces made Greeley a target of their anger at the senator 's defeat . One subscriber cancelled , regretting the three @-@ cent stamp he had to use on the letter ; Greeley supplied a replacement . When he was attacked in print , Greeley responded in kind . He launched a campaign against corruption in the New York Legislature , hoping voters would defeat incumbents and the new legislators would elect him to the Senate when Seward 's term expired in 1861 ( senators were until 1913 elected by state legislatures ) . But his main activity during the campaign of 1860 was boosting Lincoln and denigrating the other presidential candidates . He made it clear that a Republican administration would not interfere with slavery where it already was , and denied that Lincoln was in favor of voting rights for African Americans . He kept up the pressure until Lincoln was elected in November .
Lincoln soon let it be known that Seward would be Secretary of State , meaning he would not be a candidate for re @-@ election to the Senate . Weed wanted William M. Evarts elected in his place , while the anti @-@ Seward forces in New York gathered around Greeley . The crucial battleground was the Republican caucus , as the party held the majority in the legislature . Greeley 's forces did not have enough votes to send him to the Senate , but they had enough strength to block Evarts 's candidacy . Weed threw his support to Ira Harris , who had already received several votes , and who was chosen by the caucus and elected by the legislature in February 1861 . Weed was content to have blocked the editor , and stated that he had " paid the first installment on a large debt to Mr. Greeley " .
= = = Civil War = = =
= = = = War breaks out = = = =
After Lincoln 's election , there was talk of secession in the South . The Tribune was initially in favor of peaceful separation , with the South becoming a separate nation . According to an editorial on November 9 @,@
If the Cotton States shall become satisfied that they can do better out of the Union than in it , we insist on letting them go in peace . The right to secede may be a revolutionary one , but it exists nevertheless .... And whenever a considerable section of our Union shall deliberately resolve to go out , we shall resist all coercive measures designed to keep it in . We hope never to live in a republic where of one section is pinned to the residue by bayonets .
Similar editorials appeared through January 1861 , after which Tribune editorials took a hard line on the South , opposing concessions . Williams concludes that " for a brief moment , Horace Greeley had believed that peaceful secession might be a form of freedom preferable to civil war " . This brief flirtation with disunion would have consequences for Greeley — it was used by his opponents against him when he ran for president in 1872 .
In the days leading up to Lincoln 's inauguration , the Tribune headed its editorial columns each day , in large capital letters : " No compromise ! / No concession to traitors ! / The Constitution as it is ! " Greeley attended the inauguration , sitting close to Senator Douglas , as the Tribune hailed the beginning of Lincoln 's presidency . When southern forces attacked Fort Sumter , the Tribune regretted the loss of the fort , but applauded the fact that war to subdue the rebels , who formed the Confederate States of America , would now take place . The paper criticized Lincoln for not being quick to use force .
Through the spring and early summer of 1861 , Greeley and the Tribune beat the drum for a Union attack . " On to Richmond " , a phrase coined by a Tribune stringer , became the watchword of the newspaper as Greeley urged the occupation of the rebel capital of Richmond before the Confederate Congress could meet on July 20 . In part because of the public pressure , Lincoln sent the half @-@ trained Union Army into the field at the First Battle of Manassas in mid @-@ July where it was soundly beaten . The defeat threw Greeley into despair , and he may have suffered a nervous breakdown .
= = = = " Prayer of Twenty Millions " = = = =
Restored to health by two weeks at the farm he had purchased in Chappaqua , Greeley returned to the Tribune and a policy of general backing of the Lincoln administration , even having kind words to say about Secretary Seward , his old foe . He was supportive even during the military defeats of the first year of the war . Late in 1861 , he proposed to Lincoln through an intermediary that the president provide him with advance information as to its policies , in exchange for friendly coverage in the Tribune . Lincoln eagerly accepted , " having him firmly behind me will be as helpful to me as an army of one hundred thousand men . "
By early 1862 , however , Greeley was again sometimes critical of the administration , frustrated by the failure to win decisive military victories , and perturbed at the president 's slowness to commit to the emancipation of the slaves once the Confederacy was defeated , something the Tribune was urging in its editorials . This was a change in Greeley 's thinking which began after First Manassas , a shift from preservation of the Union being the primary war purpose to wanting the war to end slavery . By March , the only action against slavery that Lincoln had backed was a proposal for compensated emancipation in the border states that had remained loyal to the Union , though he signed legislation abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia . Lincoln supposedly asked a Tribune correspondent , " What in the world is the matter with Uncle Horace ? Why can 't he restrain himself and wait a little while ? "
Greeley 's prodding of Lincoln culminated in a letter to him on August 19 , 1862 , reprinted on the following day in the Tribune as the " Prayer of Twenty Millions " . By this time , Lincoln had informed his Cabinet of the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation he had composed , and Greeley was told of it the same day the prayer was printed . In his letter , Greeley demanded action on emancipation , and strict enforcement of the Confiscation Acts . Lincoln must " fight slavery with liberty " , and not fight " wolves with the devices of a sheep " .
Lincoln 's reply would become famous , much more so than the prayer that provoked it . " My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union , and is not either to save or to destroy slavery . If I could save the Union without freeing any slave , I would do it , and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it ; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that . What I do about slavery , and the colored race , I do because it helps to save the Union ; and what I forbear , I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union . " Lincoln 's statement angered abolitionists ; William Seward 's wife Frances complained to her husband that Lincoln had made it seem " that the mere keeping together a number of states is more important than human freedom . " Greeley felt Lincoln had not truly answered him , " but I 'll forgive him everything if he 'll issue the proclamation " . When Lincoln did , on September 22 , Greeley hailed the Emancipation Proclamation as a " great boon of freedom " . According to Williams , " Lincoln 's war for Union was now also Greeley 's war for emancipation . "
= = = = Draft Riots and peace efforts = = = =
After the Union victory at Gettysburg in early July 1863 , the Tribune wrote that the rebellion would be quickly " stamped out " . A week after the battle , the New York City draft riots erupted . Greeley and the Tribune were generally supportive of conscription , though feeling that the rich should not be allowed to evade it by hiring substitutes . Support for the draft made them targets of the mob , and the Tribune Building was surrounded , and at least once invaded . Greeley secured arms from the Brooklyn Navy Yard and 150 soldiers kept the building secure . Mary Greeley and her children were at the farm in Chappaqua ; a mob threatened them , but dispersed without doing harm .
In August 1863 , Greeley was requested by a firm of Hartford publishers to write a history of the war . Greeley agreed , and over the next eight months penned a 600 @-@ page volume , which would be the first of two , entitled The American Conflict . The books were very successful , selling a total of 225 @,@ 000 copies by 1870 , a large sale for the time .
Throughout the war , Greeley played with ideas as to how to settle it . In 1862 , Greeley had approached the French minister to Washington , Henri Mercier , to discuss a mediated settlement . However , Seward rejected such talks and the prospect of European intervention receded after the bloody Union victory at Antietam in September 1862 . In July 1864 , Greeley received word that there were Confederate commissioners in Canada , empowered to offer peace . In fact , the men were in Niagara Falls , Canada to aid Peace Democrats and otherwise undermine the Union war effort. but they played along when Greeley journeyed to Niagara Falls , at Lincoln 's request : the president was willing to consider any deal that included reunion and emancipation . The Confederates had no credentials and were unwilling to accompany Greeley to Washington under safe conduct . Greeley returned to New York , and the episode , when it became public , embarrassed the administration . Lincoln said nothing publicly concerning Greeley 's credulous conduct , but privately indicated that he had no confidence in him anymore .
Greeley did not initially support Lincoln for nomination in 1864 , casting about for other candidates . In February , he wrote in the Tribune that Lincoln could not be elected to a second term . Nevertheless , no candidate made a serious challenge to Lincoln , who was nominated in June , which the Tribune applauded slightly . In August , fearing a Democratic victory and acceptance of the Confederacy , Greeley engaged in a plot to get a new convention to nominate another candidate , with Lincoln withdrawing . The plot came to nothing . Once Atlanta was taken by Union forces on September 3 , Greeley became a fervent supporter of Lincoln . Greeley was gratified both by Lincoln 's re @-@ election and continued Union victories .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
As the war drew to a close in April 1865 , Greeley and the Tribune urged magnanimity towards the defeated Confederates , arguing that making martyrs of Confederate leaders would only inspire future rebels . This talk of moderation ceased when Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth . Many concluded that Lincoln had fallen as the result of a final rebel plot , and the new president , Andrew Johnson , offered $ 100 @,@ 000 for the capture of fugitive Confederate president Jefferson Davis . After the rebel leader was caught , Greeley initially advocated that " punishment be meted out in accord with a just verdict " .
Through 1866 , Greeley editorialized that Davis , who was being held at Fortress Monroe , should either be set free or put on trial . Davis 's wife Varina urged Greeley to use his influence to gain her husband 's release . In May 1867 , a Richmond judge set bail for the former Confederate president at $ 100 @,@ 000 . Greeley was among those who signed the bail bond , and the two men met briefly at the courthouse . This act resulted in public anger against Greeley in the North . Sales of the second volume of his history ( published in 1866 ) declined sharply . Subscriptions to the Tribune ( especially the Weekly Tribune ) also dropped off , though they recovered during the 1868 election .
Beginning as a supporter , Greeley soon became disillusioned with President Johnson , whose Reconstruction policies allowed the quick formation of state governments without provision for suffrage for the freedman . When Congress convened and gradually took control of Reconstruction , Greeley generally supported their actions , favoring universal male suffrage and , his anger against the Confederates having cooled , amnesty . While Greeley generally supported the Radical Republicans , he did not like the harshness of Thaddeus Stevens . Greeley ran for Congress in 1866 , but lost badly , and for Senate in the legislative election held in early 1867 , to be defeated by Roscoe Conkling .
As president and Congress battled , Greeley remained firmly opposed to Johnson , and when the president was impeached in 1868 , Greeley and the Tribune strongly supported his removal , strongly attacking Johnson . Nevertheless , the president was acquitted by the Senate , much to Greeley 's disappointment . Also in 1868 , Greeley sought the Republican nomination for governor , but was frustrated by the Conkling forces . Greeley supported the successful Republican presidential nominee , General Ulysses S. Grant in the 1868 election .
= = = Grant years = = =
In 1868 , Whitelaw Reid joined the Tribune ' s staff as managing editor . In Reid , Greeley had found a reliable second @-@ in @-@ command . Also on the Tribune 's staff in the late 1860s was Mark Twain ; Henry George sometimes contributed pieces , as did Bret Harte . In 1870 , Lincoln 's assistant private secretary , John Hay , joined the staff as an editorial writer . Greeley soon pronounced Hay the most brilliant at that craft ever to write for the Tribune .
Greeley maintained his interest in associationism . Beginning in 1869 , he was heavily involved in an attempt to found a utopia on the prairie in a scheme led by Nathan Meeker . Named Greeley , Colorado Territory , its namesake served as treasurer of the town association , bought two lots there , which he inspected in 1870 , and lent Meeker money to keep the colony afloat . Greeley 's close friend P. T. Barnum also interested himself in the project , and built a hotel there . After early struggles , the colony survived under Meeker 's leadership , though adopting a normal municipal government . In 1871 , Greeley published a book What I Know About Farming , based on his childhood experience and that from his country home in Chappaqua .
Greeley continued to seek political office , running for state comptroller in 1869 and the House of Representatives in 1870 , losing both times . In 1870 , President Grant offered Greeley the post of minister to Santo Domingo ( today , the Dominican Republic ) , which he declined .
= = Presidential candidate = =
As had been the case for much of the 19th century , political parties continued to be formed and to vanish after the Civil War . In September 1871 , Missouri Senator Carl Schurz formed the Liberal Republican Party , founded on opposition to President Grant , opposition to corruption , and support of civil service reform , lower taxes , and land reform . He gathered around him an eclectic group of supporters whose only real link was their opposition to Grant , whose administration had proved increasingly corrupt . The party needed a candidate , with a presidential election upcoming . Greeley was one of the best @-@ known Americans , as well as being a perennial candidate for office . He was more minded to consider a run for the Republican nomination , fearing the effect on the Tribune should he bolt the party . Nevertheless , he wanted to be president , as a Republican if possible , if not , as a Liberal Republican .
The Liberal Republican national convention met in Cincinnati in May 1872 . Greeley was spoken of as a possible candidate , as was Missouri Governor Benjamin Gratz Brown . Schurz was ineligible as foreign @-@ born . On the first ballot , Supreme Court Justice David Davis led , but Greeley took a narrow lead on the second ballot . Former minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams took the lead , but on the sixth ballot , after a " spontaneous " demonstration staged by Reid , Greeley gained the nomination , with Brown as vice presidential candidate .
The Democrats , when they met in Baltimore in July , faced a stark choice — either nominate Greeley , long a thorn in their side , or split the anti @-@ Grant vote and go to certain defeat . They chose the former , and even adopted the Liberal Republican platform , calling for equal rights for African Americans . This was the first time one man had been nominated for president by two political parties . Greeley resigned as editor of the Tribune for the campaign , and , unusually for the time , embarked on a speaking tour to bring his message to the people . As it was more usual for candidates for major office to not actively campaign , he was attacked as a seeker after office . Nevertheless , in late July , Greeley ( and others , such as former Ohio governor Rutherford B. Hayes ) thought he would very likely be elected . Greeley campaigned on a platform of intersectional reconciliation , arguing that the war was over and the issue of slavery was resolved . It was time to restore normalcy and end the continuing military occupation of the South .
The Republican counterattack was well @-@ financed , accusing Greeley of support for everything from treason to the Ku Klux Klan . The anti @-@ Greeley campaign was famously and effectively summed up in the cartoons of Thomas Nast , whom Grant later credited with a major role in his re @-@ election . Nast 's cartoons showed Greeley giving bail money for Jefferson Davis , throwing mud on Grant , and shaking hands with John Wilkes Booth across Lincoln 's grave . The Crédit Mobilier scandal — corruption in the financing of the Union Pacific Railroad — broke in September , but Greeley was unable to take advantage of the Grant administration 's ties to the scandal as he had stock in the railroad himself , and some alleged it had been given him in exchange for favorable coverage .
Greeley 's wife Mary had returned ill from a trip to Europe in late June . Her condition worsened in October , and he effectively broke off campaigning after October 12 to be with her . She died on October 30 , plunging him into despair a week before the election . Poor results for the Democrats in those states that had elections for other offices in September and October presaged defeat for Greeley , and so it proved . He received 2 @,@ 834 @,@ 125 votes to 3 @,@ 597 @,@ 132 for Grant , who secured 286 electors to 66 chosen for Greeley . The editor @-@ turned @-@ candidate won only six states : Georgia , Kentucky , Maryland , Missouri , Tennessee and Texas .
= = = Final month and death = = =
Greeley resumed the editorship of the Tribune , but quickly learned there was a movement under way to unseat him . He found himself unable to sleep , and after a final visit to the Tribune on November 13 ( a week after the election ) remained under medical care . At the recommendation of a family physician , Greeley was sent to the asylum of Dr. George S. Choate at Pleasantville , New York . There , he continued to worsen , and died on November 29 , with his two surviving daughters and Whitelaw Reid at his side .
His death came before the Electoral College convened . His 66 electoral votes were divided among four others , principally Indiana governor @-@ elect Thomas A. Hendricks and Greeley 's vice presidential running mate , Benjamin Gratz Brown .
Although Greeley had requested a simple funeral , his daughters ignored his wishes and arranged a grand affair . He is buried in Brooklyn 's Green @-@ Wood Cemetery . Among the mourners were old friends , Tribune employees including Reid and Hay , his journalistic rivals , and a broad array of politicians , led by President Grant .
= = Appraisal = =
Despite the venom that had been spewed over him in the presidential campaign , Greeley 's death was publicly mourned . Harper 's Weekly , which had printed Nast 's cartoons , wrote , " Since the assassination of Mr. Lincoln , the death of no American has been so sincerely deplored as that of Horace Greeley ; and its tragical circumstances have given a peculiarly affectionate pathos to all that has been said of him . " Henry Ward Beecher wrote in the Christian Union , " when Horace Greeley died , unjust and hard judgment of him died also " . Harriett Beecher Stowe noted Greeley 's eccentric dress , " That poor white hat ! If , alas , it covered many weaknesses , it covered also much strength , much real kindness and benevolence , and much that the world will be better for " .
Greeley 's view of freedom was based in the desire that all should have the opportunity to better themselves . According to his biographer , Erik S. Lunde , " a dedicated social reformer deeply sympathetic to the treatment of poor white males , slaves , free blacks , and white women , he still espoused the virtues of self @-@ help and free enterprise " . Van Deusen stated : " His genuine human sympathies , his moral fervor , even the exhibitionism that was a part of his makeup , made it inevitable that he should crusade for a better world . He did so with apostolic zeal . "
Nevertheless , Greeley 's effectiveness as a reformer was undermined by his idiosyncrasies : according to Williams , he " must have looked like an apparition , a man of eccentric habits dressed in an old linen coat that made him look like a farmer who came into town for supplies " . Van Deusen wrote , " Greeley 's effectiveness as a crusader was limited by some of his traits and characteristics . Culturally deficient , he was to the end ignorant of his own limitations , and this ignorance was a great handicap . "
The Tribune remained under that name until 1924 , when it merged with the New York Herald to become the New York Herald @-@ Tribune , which ceased to publish in 1966 . The name survived until 2013 , when the International Herald @-@ Tribune became the International New York Times .
There is a statue of Greeley in City Hall Park in New York , donated by the Tribune Association . Cast in 1890 , it was not dedicated until 1916 . A second statue of Greeley is located in Greeley Square in Midtown Manhattan . Greeley Square , at Broadway and 33rd Street , was named by the New York City Common Council in a vote after Greeley 's death . Van Deusen concluded his biography of Greeley :
More significant still was the service that Greeley performed as a result of his faith in his country and his countrymen , his belief in infinite American progress . For all his faults and shortcomings , Greeley symbolized an America that , though often shortsighted and misled , was never suffocated by the wealth pouring from its farms and furnaces ... For through his faith in the American future , a faith expressed in his ceaseless efforts to make real the promise of America , he inspired others with hope and confidence , making them feel that their dreams also had the substance of realty . It is his faith , and theirs that has given him his place in American history . In that faith he still marches among us , scolding and benevolent , exhorting us to confidence and to victory in the great struggles of our own day .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
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= Stede Bonnet =
Stede Bonnet ( c.1688 – 10 December 1718 ) was an early 18th @-@ century Barbadian pirate , sometimes called " The Gentleman Pirate " because he was a moderately wealthy landowner before turning to a life of crime . Bonnet was born into a wealthy English family on the island of Barbados , and inherited the family estate after his father 's death in 1694 . In 1709 , he married Mary Allamby , and engaged in some level of militia service . Because of marital problems , and despite his lack of sailing experience , Bonnet decided to turn to piracy in the summer of 1717 . He bought a sailing vessel , named it Revenge , and traveled with his paid crew along the Eastern Seaboard of what is now the United States , capturing other vessels and burning other Barbadian ships .
Bonnet set sail for Nassau , Bahamas , to the haven for pirates known as the ' Pirates ' republic ' , but he was seriously wounded en route during an encounter with a Spanish warship . After arriving in Nassau , Bonnet met Edward Teach , the infamous pirate Blackbeard . Incapable of leading his crew , Bonnet temporarily ceded his ship 's command to Blackbeard . Before separating in December 1717 , Blackbeard and Bonnet plundered and captured merchant ships along the East Coast . After Bonnet failed to capture the Protestant Caesar , his crew abandoned him to join Blackbeard aboard the Queen Anne 's Revenge . Bonnet stayed on Blackbeard 's ship as a guest , and did not command a crew again until summer 1718 , when he was pardoned by North Carolina governor Charles Eden and received clearance to go privateering against Spanish shipping . Bonnet was tempted to resume his piracy , but did not want to lose his pardon , so he adopted the alias " Captain Thomas " and changed his ship 's name to Royal James . He had returned to piracy by July 1718 .
In August 1718 , Bonnet anchored the Royal James on an estuary of the Cape Fear River to careen and repair the ship . In late August and September , Colonel William Rhett , with the authorisation of South Carolina governor Robert Johnson , led a naval expedition against pirates on the river . Rhett and Bonnet 's men fought each other for hours , but the outnumbered pirates ultimately surrendered . Rhett arrested the pirates and brought them to Charleston in early October . Bonnet escaped on 24 October , but was recaptured on Sullivan 's Island . On 10 November , Bonnet was brought to trial and charged with two acts of piracy . Judge Nicholas Trott sentenced Bonnet to death . Bonnet wrote to Governor Johnson to ask for clemency , but Johnson endorsed the judge 's decision , and Bonnet was hanged in Charleston on 10 December 1718 .
= = Pre @-@ criminal life = =
Bonnet is believed to have been born in 1688 , as he was christened at Christ Church parish on 29 July 1688 . His parents , Edward and Sarah Bonnet , owned an estate of over 400 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 km2 ) southeast of Bridgetown , which was bequeathed to Bonnet upon his father 's death in 1694 . It is not known where Bonnet received his education , but many who knew him described him as bookish , and Judge Nicholas Trott alluded to Bonnet 's liberal education when sentencing him . Bonnet married Mary Allamby in Bridgetown on 21 November 1709 . They had three sons — Allamby , Edward , and Stede — and a daughter , Mary . Allamby died before 1715 , while the other children survived to see their father abandon them for piracy . Edward 's granddaughter , Anne Thomasine Clarke , was the wife of General Robert Haynes , for 36 years Speaker of the Assembly of Barbados .
In A General History of the Pyrates , Charles Johnson wrote that Bonnet was driven to piracy by Mary 's nagging and " [ d ] iscomforts he found in a married State . " Details of Bonnet 's military service are unclear , but he held the rank of major in the Barbados militia . The rank was probably due to his land holdings , since deterring slave revolts was an important function of the militia . Bonnet 's militia service coincided with the War of the Spanish Succession , but there is no record that he took part in the fighting .
= = Early career as a pirate = =
During the spring of 1717 , Stede Bonnet decided to become a pirate , despite having no knowledge of shipboard life . He contracted a local shipyard to build him a sixty @-@ ton sloop , which he equipped with six guns and named the Revenge . This was unusual , as most pirates seized their ships by mutiny or boarding , or else converted a privateer vessel to a pirate ship . Bonnet enlisted a crew of more than seventy men . He relied on his quartermaster and officer for their knowledge of sailing , and as a result , he was not highly respected by his crew . In another break from tradition , Bonnet paid his crew wages , not shares of plunder as most pirates did . Royal Navy intelligence reported that he departed Carlisle Bay , Barbados under cover of darkness .
Bonnet 's initial cruise took him to the coast of Virginia near the entrance of the Chesapeake Bay , where he captured and plundered four vessels , and burned the Barbadian ship Turbet to keep news of his crimes from his home island . He then sailed north to New York , taking two more ships , and picking up naval supplies and releasing captives at Gardiners Island . By August 1717 , Bonnet had returned to the Carolinas , where he attacked two more ships , a brigantine from Boston and a Barbadian sloop . He stripped the brigantine , but brought the cargo @-@ filled Barbadian sloop to an inlet off North Carolina to use for careening and repairing the Revenge . After the Barbadian sloop 's tackle was used to careen the Revenge , the ship was dismantled for timber , and the remains were then burned . In September 1717 , Bonnet set course for Nassau , which was then an infamous pirate den on the island of New Providence in the Bahamas . En route , he encountered , fought , and escaped from a Spanish man of war . The Revenge was badly damaged , Bonnet was seriously wounded , and half the crew of the sloop was killed or wounded in the encounter . Putting in at Nassau , Bonnet replaced his casualties and refitted the Revenge , increasing the sloop 's armament to twelve guns .
= = Collaboration with Blackbeard = =
While at Nassau , Bonnet met Captain Benjamin Hornigold and Edward Teach for the first time ; Teach , better known as Blackbeard , played a large role in the remainder of Bonnet 's life . Disabled by his wounds , Bonnet temporarily ceded command of the Revenge to Blackbeard , but remained aboard as a guest of the more experienced pirate captain . Blackbeard and Bonnet weighed anchor and sailed northward to Delaware Bay , where they plundered eleven ships . On 29 September 1717 , the Revenge , captained by Blackbeard , plundered the sloop Betty , which had a cargo full of Madeira wine . Captain Codd , whose merchant ship was taken on 12 October , described Bonnet as walking the deck in his nightshirt , lacking any command and still unwell from his wounds . The Revenge later captured and looted the Spofford and Sea Nymph , which were leaving Philadelphia . On 22 October , the Revenge stopped and robbed the Robert and Good Intent of their supplies .
Blackbeard and Bonnet left Delaware Bay and returned to the Caribbean in November , where they successfully continued their piracy . On 17 November , a 200 @-@ ton ship named the Concorde was attacked by two pirate craft nearly 100 miles ( 160 km ) away from the island of Martinique . The lieutenant on board described the pirate vessels as one having 12 guns and 120 men and the other having eight guns and 30 men . The crew of the Concorde put up a fight , but surrendered after the pirates bombarded them with " two volleys of cannons and musketry . " Blackbeard took the Concorde and sailed south into the Grenadines , where he renamed the ship Queen Anne 's Revenge , possibly as an insult to King George I of Great Britain . Some time after 19 December , Bonnet and Blackbeard separated . Bonnet now sailed into the western Caribbean . In March 1718 , he encountered the 400 @-@ ton merchant vessel Protestant Caesar off Honduras . The ship escaped him , and his frustrated crew became restive . When Bonnet encountered Blackbeard again shortly afterward , Bonnet 's crew deserted him to join Blackbeard . Blackbeard put a henchman named Richards in command of the Revenge . Bonnet , surprised that his colleague had betrayed him , found himself as a guest aboard the Queen Anne 's Revenge . Bonnet confided in a few loyal crew members that he was ready to give up his criminal life if he could exile himself in Spain or Portugal . Bonnet would not exercise command again until the summer of 1718 .
Under Captain Richards , the Revenge captured a Jamaican sloop , the Adventure , captained by David Herriot . Herriot joined the pirates , and Blackbeard now possessed three ships . Bonnet accompanied Blackbeard to South Carolina , where Blackbeard 's four vessels blockaded the port of Charleston in the late spring of 1718 . Needing a place to rest and refit their vessels , Blackbeard and Bonnet headed north to Topsail Inlet , where the Queen Anne 's Revenge ran aground and was lost . Leaving the remaining three vessels at Topsail Inlet , Blackbeard and Bonnet went ashore and journeyed to Bath , which was then capital of North Carolina . Once there , both men accepted pardons from Governor Charles Eden under King George 's Act of Grace , putatively on condition of their renouncing piracy forever . While Blackbeard quietly returned to Topsail Inlet , Bonnet stayed in Bath to get a " clearance " to take the Revenge to Denmark 's Caribbean colony of St. Thomas , where he planned to buy a letter of marque and go privateering against Spanish shipping . Eden granted Bonnet this clearance .
= = Resumption of pirate command = =
Bonnet returned to Topsail Inlet to find that Blackbeard had beached the majority of their former crew , robbed the Revenge and two other vessels of the squadron of most of their supplies , and sailed away for parts unknown aboard the sloop Adventure , carrying all the loot with him . Bonnet now ( probably late June or early July 1718 ) resumed command of the Revenge . Few , if any , of his original crew from Barbados were still aboard . Bonnet reinforced the Revenge by rescuing a number of men whom Blackbeard had marooned on a sandbar in Topsail Inlet .
Shortly after Bonnet resumed command , a bumboat 's crew told him that Blackbeard was moored in Ocracoke Inlet . Bonnet set sail at once to hunt down his treacherous ex @-@ confederate , but could not find him , and Bonnet never met Blackbeard again . Although Bonnet apparently never discarded his hopes of reaching St. Thomas and getting his letter of marque , two pressing problems now tempted him back into piracy . First , Blackbeard had stolen the food and supplies he and his men needed to subsist ( one pirate testified at his trial that no more than ten or eleven barrels remained aboard the Revenge ) . Second , St. Thomas was now in the midst of the Atlantic hurricane season , which would last until autumn . However , returning to freebooting meant nullifying Bonnet 's pardon .
Hoping to preserve his pardon , Bonnet adopted the alias " Captain Thomas " and changed the Revenge 's name to the Royal James . The name Royal James that Bonnet conferred on his sloop was presumably a reference to the younger Prince James Stuart , and may suggest that Bonnet or his men had Jacobite sympathies . One of Bonnet 's prisoners further reported witnessing Bonnet 's men drinking to the health of the Old Pretender and wishing to see him king of the English nation .
Bonnet further tried to disguise his return to piracy by engaging in a pretense of trade with the next two vessels he robbed . Soon afterward , Bonnet quit the charade of trading and reverted to naked piracy . In July 1718 , he cruised north to Delaware Bay , pillaging another eleven vessels . He took several prisoners , some of whom joined his pirate crew . While Bonnet set loose most of his prizes after looting them , he retained control of the last two ships he captured : the sloops Francis and Fortune . On 1 August 1718 , the Royal James and the two captured sloops sailed southward from Delaware Bay . The captured sloops lagged behind , and Bonnet threatened to sink them if they did not stay closer . During the passage , Bonnet and his crew divided their loot into shares of about £ 10 or £ 11 and distributed them amongst themselves . This is the only time Bonnet is known to have practiced this important pirate custom , and it suggests he had by then abandoned his unorthodox practice of paying regular wages to his crew .
Twelve days out of Delaware Bay , Bonnet entered the estuary of the Cape Fear River and anchored near the mouth of a small waterway now known as Bonnet 's Creek . The Royal James had begun to leak badly and was in need of careening . Shortly afterward , a small shallop entered the river and was captured . Bonnet had the shallop broken up to help repair the Royal James . The work of careening was done , in whole or in part , by the prisoners Bonnet had captured . Bonnet threatened at least one man with marooning if he did not work the Royal James ' pumps . Bonnet remained in the Cape Fear River for the next 45 days . According to Bonnet 's boatswain , Ignatius Pell , the pirates intended to wait out the hurricane season there .
= = Battle of Cape Fear River = =
By the end of August , news had reached Charleston that Bonnet 's vessels were moored in the Cape Fear River . Robert Johnson , governor of South Carolina , authorised Colonel William Rhett to lead a naval expedition against the pirates , even though the Cape Fear River was in North Carolina 's jurisdiction . After a false start due to the appearance of another pirate ship near Charleston , Rhett arrived at the mouth of the Cape Fear River on 26 September with two eight @-@ gun sloops , the Henry and the Sea Nymph , and a force of 130 militia men . Bonnet initially mistook Rhett 's squadron for merchantmen and sent three canoes to capture them . Unfortunately for Rhett , his flagship Henry had run aground in the river mouth , enabling Bonnet 's canoe crews to approach , recognise the heavily armed and manned sloops as hostile and return uninjured to warn Bonnet . The sun had set by the time the rising tide lifted the Henry off the river bottom .
The 46 pirates were scattered among the three sloops . During the night , Bonnet brought all of them aboard the Royal James and planned to fight his way out to sea in the morning rather than risk the Cape Fear River 's narrow channels in the dark . Bonnet also wrote a letter to Governor Johnson , threatening to burn all the ships in Charleston harbor . At daybreak , on 27 September 1718 , Bonnet set sail toward Rhett 's force , and all three sloops opened fire , initiating the Battle of Cape Fear River . The two South Carolinian sloops split up in an effort to bracket the Royal James . Bonnet tried to avoid the trap by steering the Royal James close to the river 's western shore , but ran aground in the process . Rhett 's closing sloops also ran aground , leaving only the Henry in range of the Royal James .
The battle was at a stalemate for the next five or six hours , with all the participants immobilised . Bonnet 's men had the advantage that their deck was heeled away from their opponents , giving them cover , while the Henry 's deck was tilted toward the pirates , thus exposing Rhett 's men to punishing musket volleys . Bonnet 's force suffered twelve casualties while killing ten and wounding fourteen of Rhett 's 70 @-@ man crew . Most of Bonnet 's men fought enthusiastically , challenging their enemies to board and fight hand to hand , and tying a knot in their flag as a mock signal to come aboard and render aid . Bonnet himself patrolled the deck with a pistol drawn , threatening to kill any pirate who faltered in the fight . Nevertheless , some of the prisoners who had been forced to join the pirate crew refused to fire on Rhett 's men , and one narrowly escaped death at Bonnet 's hands in the confusion of the engagement .
The battle was ultimately decided when the rising tide lifted Rhett 's sloops free while temporarily leaving the Royal James stranded . Bonnet was left helpless , watching while the enemy vessels repaired their rigging and closed to board his paralysed vessel . Outnumbered almost three to one , Bonnet 's men would have had little hope of winning a boarding action . Bonnet ordered his gunner , George Ross , to blow up the Royal James 's powder magazine . Ross apparently attempted this , but was overruled by the remainder of the crew , who surrendered . Rhett arrested the pirates and returned to Charleston with his prisoners on 3 October .
= = Escape , recapture , and execution = =
In Charleston , Bonnet was separated from the bulk of his crew and held for three weeks in the provost marshal 's house along with his boatswain , Ignatius Pell , and his sailing master , David Herriott . On 24 October , Bonnet and Herriott escaped , probably by colluding with local merchant Richard Tookerman . Governor Johnson at once placed a £ 700 bounty on Bonnet 's head and dispatched search teams to track him down . Bonnet and Herriott , accompanied by a slave and an Indian , obtained a boat and made for the north shore of Charleston Harbor , but foul winds and lack of supplies forced the four of them onto Sullivan 's Island . Governor Johnson sent a posse under Rhett to Sullivan 's Island to hunt for Bonnet . The posse discovered Bonnet after an extensive search , and opened fire , killing Herriott and wounding the two slaves . Bonnet surrendered and was returned to Charleston . While awaiting trial , some sort of civil uprising in his support took place within the city , an event authorities would later describe as having nearly resulted in the burning of the town and the overthrow of the government .
On 10 November 1718 , Bonnet was brought to trial before Sir Nicholas Trott , sitting in his capacity as Vice @-@ Admiralty judge . Trott had already sat in judgment on Bonnet 's crew and sentenced most of them to hang . Bonnet was formally charged with only two acts of piracy , against the Francis and the Fortune , whose commanders were on hand to testify against Bonnet in person . Ignatius Pell had turned King 's evidence in the trial of Bonnet 's crew and now testified , somewhat reluctantly , against Bonnet himself . Bonnet pleaded not guilty and conducted his own defence without assistance of counsel , cross @-@ examining the witnesses to little avail , and calling a character witness in his favor . Trott rendered a damning summation of the evidence , and the jury delivered a guilty verdict . Two days later , after treating the convicted man to a stern lecture on his violation of Christian duties , Trott sentenced Bonnet to death .
While awaiting his execution , Bonnet wrote to Governor Johnson , begging abjectly for clemency and promising to have his own arms and legs cut off as assurance that he would never again commit piracy . Charles Johnson wrote that Bonnet 's visibly disintegrating mind moved many Carolinians to pity , particularly the female population , and London papers later reported that the governor delayed his execution seven times . Bonnet was eventually hanged at White Point Garden , in Charleston , on 10 December 1718 .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Bonnet 's authority = = =
The actual degree of authority any pirate captain exercised over his crew was questionable , as he had no access to the procedures and sanctions of admiralty law that supported legitimate captains . Many pirate captains were elected by their crews and could be deposed in the same manner . Because of his ignorance of nautical matters , Bonnet was in an even weaker position than other pirate captains , as is demonstrated by the utter domination Blackbeard exercised over him during their collaboration . During Bonnet 's early career , his crew seems to have been less than loyal to him and to have greatly preferred the more charismatic and experienced Blackbeard .
At his trial , Bonnet downplayed his own authority over his pirate crew . He told the court that his crew engaged in piracy against his will , and said he had warned them that he would leave the crew unless they stopped robbing vessels . He further stated that he had been asleep during the capture of the sloop Francis . The court did not accept these protestations . Boatswain Ignatius Pell testified that Bonnet 's quartermaster , Robert Tucker , had more power than Bonnet . A powerful quartermaster appears to have been a common feature of pirate crews in the early modern era .
Nevertheless , Bonnet 's crew represented him as being a leader , and it appears likely that , after his rescue of Blackbeard 's marooned crewmen , he became at least a co @-@ equal commander aboard the Royal James . He appears to have been entrusted with the company 's treasure , and made most major command decisions such as the direction of the ship and what vessels to attack . Most significantly , at Delaware Bay he ordered two of his crew to be flogged for breaches of discipline . Pirates did not lightly submit to flogging , as they resented the frequent use of this punishment in the naval and merchant services from which most of them came , and thus only a leader who commanded the obedience of his crew could successfully order such penalties .
= = = Bonnet 's pirate flag = = =
Bonnet 's flag is traditionally represented as a white skull above a horizontal long bone between a heart and a dagger , all on a black field . Despite the frequent appearance of this flag in modern pirate literature , no known early @-@ Georgian period source describes any such device , much less attributes it to Bonnet . This version of Bonnet 's flag is probably one of a number of pirate flags appearing on an undated manuscript with unknown provenance in Britain 's National Maritime Museum , which was donated by Dr. Philip Gosse in 1939 . Bonnet 's crew and contemporaries generally referred to him flying a " bloody flag " , which likely means a dark red flag . There is also a report from the 1718 Boston News @-@ Letter of Bonnet flying a death 's @-@ head flag during his pursuit of the Protestant Caesar , with no mention of color or of any long bone , heart , or dagger .
= = = Walking the plank = = =
Bonnet is alleged to have been one of the few pirates to make his prisoners walk the plank . No contemporary source makes any mention of Bonnet forcing prisoners to walk the plank , and modern scholars such as Marcus Rediker , Professor of History at the University of Pittsburgh , generally agree that the whole concept of pirates forcing prisoners to walk the plank belongs to a later age than Bonnet 's .
= = = Popular culture = = =
Bonnet has been portrayed several times in literature . He is a major character in Tim Powers ' On Stranger Tides , along with other famous piratical characters , particularly Blackbeard . In this novel , Bonnet takes up piracy after having been framed by Blackbeard , who has used Bonnet 's hatred for his wife ( only married two years in the novel ) against him . Kate Bonnet : The Romance of a Pirate 's Daughter , by 19th century author Frank Stockton , is a satirical novel relating the adventures of a fictional daughter of Bonnet named Kate . Portrayals of Bonnet also extend to video games , such as Sid Meier 's Pirates ! and Assassin 's Creed IV : Black Flag
A plaque commemorating Bonnet stands near Bonnet 's Creek in Southport , North Carolina , on the Cape Fear River . The Yacht Basin Provision Company also holds an annual Stede Bonnet Regatta near Southport , commemorating the infamous pirate 's dash for the ocean .
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= Henry DeWolf Smyth =
Henry DeWolf " Harry " Smyth ( / ˈhɛnri dəˈwʊlf ˈsmaɪθ / ; May 1 , 1898 – September 11 , 1986 ) was an American physicist , diplomat , and bureaucrat . He played a number of key roles in the early development of nuclear energy , as a participant in the Manhattan Project , a member of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) , and U.S. ambassador to the International Atomic Energy Agency ( IAEA ) .
Educated at Princeton University and the University of Cambridge , he was a faculty member in Princeton 's Department of Physics from 1924 to 1966 . He chaired the department from 1935 to 1949 . His early research was on the ionization of gases , but his interests shifted toward nuclear physics beginning in the mid @-@ 1930s .
During World War II he was a member of the National Defense Research Committee 's Uranium Section and a consultant on the Manhattan Project . He wrote the Manhattan Project 's first public official history , which came to be known as the Smyth Report .
On the AEC from 1949 to 1954 , Smyth argued unsuccessfully against a crash course to develop the hydrogen bomb and in favor of international control of nuclear weapons . He was the sole member of the commission to vote against stripping J. Robert Oppenheimer 's security clearance . As IAEA ambassador from 1961 to 1970 he played an important role in the realization of the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty .
He received the Atoms for Peace Award in 1968 and the U.S. State Department 's Distinguished Honor Award in 1970 . The American Nuclear Society 's award for " nuclear statesmanship " , of which he was the first recipient , is named in his honor .
= = Personal life = =
Smyth was born May 1 , 1898 , in Clinton , New York , to Ruth Anne Phelps and Charles Henry Smyth , Jr . , a professor of geology at Hamilton College . Woodrow Wilson , then President of Princeton University , convinced Smyth pére to join the faculty at Princeton , and in 1905 the family moved to Princeton , New Jersey .
Henry DeWolf Smyth 's elder brother , Charles Phelps Smyth , attended the same primary and secondary schools as Henry . The elder brother also received undergraduate and master 's degrees from Princeton , but in chemistry . He earned his Ph.D. at Harvard University but like Henry and their father became a faculty member at Princeton . Both brothers served in the Chemical Warfare Service in World War I and on the Manhattan Project .
Henry DeWolf Smyth married Mary de Coningh on June 30 , 1936 . He was a member of the Democratic Party .
= = Education = =
In Princeton , Smyth attended Miss Fine 's School , which later became the Princeton Day School , and the Lawrenceville School . After graduating from Lawrenceville in 1914 , he entered Princeton University , where he received a classical education and graduated first in his class in 1918 . He was elected to Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi .
Smyth remained at Princeton to do graduate work ; he and Allen Shenstone were the only graduate students in the Department of Physics . Smyth earned a master 's degree and Ph.D. in physics from Princeton in 1920 and 1921 , respectively , studying under Karl Taylor Compton . The U.S. National Research Council awarded Smyth a fellowship , and he joined the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge . There he studied under Ernest Rutherford and earned a second Ph.D. in 1923 . At Cambridge he was affiliated with Caius College and formed a friendship with Pyotr Kapitsa , a Soviet physicist who would go on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics and work briefly on the Soviet atomic bomb project .
= = Early career = =
During World War I , Smyth worked in the Chemical Warfare Service and at the Aberdeen Proving Ground . After earning his second Ph.D. , he returned to Princeton for the last year of his NRC fellowship . During his early years on the Princeton faculty he lived in the Graduate College west of the main campus . He was appointed an instructor in 1924 , an assistant professor in 1925 , an associate professor in 1929 , and a full professor in 1936 . In 1935 he became chairman of the Department of Physics , a position he held until 1949 . During 1931 – 32 he was a Guggenheim Fellow at the University of Göttingen , where he studied the spectra of triatomic molecules , particularly carbon dioxide , with James Franck .
Smyth 's early research was in spectroscopy , focusing on ionization of gases by impact with electrons as a means to study the gases ' critical energy levels . He published his first research article , on the radiating potentials of nitrogen gas , in 1919 ; this became the basis of his first dissertation . In a 1922 article , he described a method for determining the ionization energy of a molecule using anode rays and demonstrated the method on mercury vapor . In the following year he used this same method to study nitrogen . He also published on the ionization of hydrogen , carbon dioxide , nitrous oxide , nitrogen dioxide , water vapor , sulfur dioxide , and carbon disulfide . As Robert H. Dicke , Val Logsdon Fitch , and Rubby Sherr wrote in 1989 , " By 1935 his 30 published papers established him as a leading experimentalist " in the field . In 1929 Kenneth Bainbridge completed his Ph.D. dissertation at Princeton working under Smyth , using anode rays to search for element 87 .
In the mid @-@ 1930s , Smyth began to shift his interest to nuclear physics , inspired by James Chadwick 's discovery of the neutron , John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton splitting the atom , and Ernest Lawrence 's invention of the cyclotron . Three of his last research articles concerned detection of triatomic hydrogen and helium @-@ 3 . His appointment as department chair forced him to devote more time to administrative work , at the expense of research . As department chair , he had two cyclotrons built at Princeton , one in 1935 and the other in 1946 .
He was a member of the subcommittee on physics of the National Research Council from 1928 to 1935 . In 1936 Smyth responded to media criticism of basic science research as " useless " by suggesting that seemingly useless research could turn out to be very useful later .
= = World War II = =
During World War II , Smyth was involved in helping the United States build the atomic bomb . From 1941 – 43 he was a member of the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) ' s Uranium Section charged with producing fissile material for the bomb . Smyth proposed the electromagnetic methods that were used to enrich the first large U @-@ 235 samples for the project . He also oversaw a nuclear fission @-@ related project for the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) . During 1943 – 45 he was a consultant to the Manhattan Project , which built and tested the weapon , and associate director of the University of Chicago 's Metallurgical Laboratory , which contributed to the Manhattan Project . At the Metallurgical Laboratory he headed research on heavy water . He remained chairman of Princeton 's physics department throughout the war , and the attendant obligations forced him to participate less actively in the project 's later stages .
In August 1944 General Leslie Groves , director of the Manhattan Project , appointed Smyth to the Postwar Policy Committee , which was charged with proposing government policy for research and development of atomic energy after the war was over . The committee recommended that a national commission modeled on the OSRD fund and oversee continued production and fundamental research in government laboratories , universities , and the private sector .
= = = Smyth Report = = =
Smyth advocated within the NDRC for a comprehensive report to be released to the public following the weapon 's first use . Vannevar Bush , who as civilian director of the OSRD oversaw the NDRC , agreed , and selected Smyth to write the report following the recommendation of NDRC chairman James Bryant Conant . Groves granted Smyth unlimited access , waiving his usual security @-@ minded insistence on compartmentalization . Smyth wrote what became known as the Smyth Report in his office in Princeton 's Palmer Laboratory , which later became the Frist Campus Center .
The report was first released to the press on August 12 , 1945 , days after the attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The Government Printing Office could not print enough copies to meet demand , so Smyth persuaded the director of the Princeton University Press to print more . By the end of the Press 's 1946 fiscal year it had printed 103 @,@ 000 copies . Smyth held the copyright to the work to prevent others from claiming it , but he permitted widespread reproduction , essentially releasing it into the public domain . He later reported that " my financial balance from the Smyth Report is minus two dollars , the copyright fee . "
In the report , Smyth called it " a semi @-@ technical report which it is hoped men of science in this country can use to help their fellow citizens in reaching wise decisions " in the new Atomic Age . At the urging of his superiors , he removed several discussions of the bomb 's moral implications and its creators ' unease . Rebecca Press Schwartz argues that Smyth 's academic background and his report 's security @-@ driven focus on physics at the expense of engineering caused the Smyth Report to promote a public perception of the Manhattan Project as primarily an achievement of physicists .
= = Postwar = =
Following the war , Smyth returned full @-@ time to his duties at Princeton . He continued to chair the Physics Department and was named the Joseph Henry Professor of Physics in 1946 . During this time he spoke and wrote regularly about nuclear energy and science policy and worked to expand the physics department .
In early 1949 , physicist Robert Bacher stepped down from the Atomic Energy Commission . He and AEC Chairman David Lilienthal wanted a physicist to replace Bacher , and they ultimately recommended Smyth for the position . President Harry Truman nominated Smyth to the AEC later that year , prompting Smyth resign as Physics Department chairman . ( His old colleague Allen Shenstone took up the post . ) Smyth was the commission 's only scientist . He spent his first weeks in the position attending hearings of the U.S. Congress 's Joint Committee on Atomic Energy . Led by Senator Bourke Hickenlooper , the hearings inquired into a small amount of uranium that was alleged to be unaccounted for in AEC labs . Smyth later condemned the hearings as grounded in misconceptions about the work of nuclear scientists .
Following the Soviet Union 's successful nuclear test in August 1949 , the U.S. was considering a crash course to develop a hydrogen bomb . The AEC 's nine @-@ member General Advisory Committee , chaired by J. Robert Oppenheimer , recommended unanimously against such a course , and Smyth was one of three of the five AEC commissioners to agree . Smyth urged Truman to endorse international control of nuclear weapons , but Truman decided instead to authorize a hydrogen bomb program . In his autobiography , Smyth 's Princeton colleague John Archibald Wheeler recalled that Smyth recruited him to the Ivy Mike hydrogen bomb project and expressed support for the project in response to the Soviet test .
In 1953 Smyth and John A. Hall served as principal advisors to President Dwight Eisenhower in preparing his Atoms for Peace speech to the United Nations . The IAEA traces its origins to this speech .
In 1954 the AEC was considering rescinding Oppenheimer 's security clearance on suspicion that he was a Communist . Smyth was still the only scientist on the commission . Despite his personal dislike of Oppenheimer and pressure from the commission 's new chairman , Lewis Strauss , Smyth was the sole commissioner to vote against stripping Oppenheimer 's clearance on June 29 , 1954 . Smyth resigned from the AEC on September 30 of that year out of frustration with Strauss . Eulogizing Oppenheimer in 1967 , Smyth said of Oppenheimer 's treatment , " Such a wrong can never be righted ; such a blot on our history never erased .... We regret that his great work for his country was repaid so shabbily " .
Smyth returned to Princeton and served on several high @-@ level administrative committees . This work included advising on the construction of a particle accelerator built jointly with the University of Pennsylvania and overseeing Project Matterhorn , which became the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory . He chaired the committee that chose Robert F. Goheen to succeed Harold W. Dodds as President of Princeton . He also served as a consultant on nuclear power to Congress , the AEC , and private industry . He retired from Princeton in 1966 .
Smyth was a fellow of the American Physical Society and served as its Vice President in 1956 and its President in 1957 . He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1947 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1956 . He was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations .
= = IAEA representative = =
President John F. Kennedy appointed Smyth as the representative of the United States to the IAEA , a position with the rank of Ambassador . Smyth assumed the position on June 13 , 1961 , following confirmation by the U.S. Senate . Smyth shared the organization 's stated goal of developing nuclear technology for peaceful purposes . He helped develop what Glenn Seaborg later called " an unprecedented atmosphere of rapport " at the IAEA and played a crucial role in the adoption of the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty in 1970 . He retired from the IAEA on August 31 , 1970 .
In September 1961 , Harlan Cleveland , then Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs , appointed Smyth to chair a committee to review U.S. policy toward the IAEA . The committee 's report affirmed the importance of civilian uses of nuclear energy . In 1962 Cleveland again tapped Smyth , this time as an adviser to the State Department on the IAEA . In this position Smyth advocated for a transfer of national nuclear safeguards to the IAEA .
In December 1965 , Smyth was elected Chairman of the Board of the Universities Research Association . During Smyth 's tenure , the URA signed a contract with the U.S. government to construct and operate the National Accelerator Laboratory , which later became known as Fermilab . Construction began , and research programs were planned . Smyth stepped down as chairman in 1970 but remained on the board . He also served on the board of Associated Universities , Inc . , which operated the Brookhaven National Laboratory and National Radio Astronomy Observatory .
Smyth received the Atoms for Peace Award in 1968 ( with Sigvard Eklund and Abdus Salam ) and the State Department 's Distinguished Honor Award in 1970 . In 1972 he became the first recipient of an award for nuclear statesmanship given jointly by the American Nuclear Society and the Nuclear Energy Institute . By 1974 , when the award was next given , it had been named the Henry DeWolf Smyth Nuclear Statesman Award .
= = Later life and legacy = =
After retiring from the IAEA , Smyth remained active . On the 40th anniversary of the Trinity test in 1985 , he denounced President Ronald Reagan 's Strategic Defense Initiative and called for joint arms reductions between the United States and the Soviet Union . He died September 11 , 1986 , in Princeton . The cause was cardiac arrest , though he had long battled cancer .
Smyth endowed a chair in the Physics Department in his will . The sitting Henry DeWolf Smyth Professor of Physics is Suzanne Staggs .
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= Sebaceous gland =
Sebaceous glands are microscopic exocrine glands in the skin that secrete an oily or waxy matter , called sebum , to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair of mammals . In humans , they occur in the greatest number on the face and scalp , but also on all parts of the skin except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet . The type of secretion of the sebaceous glands is referred to as holocrine .
In the eyelids , meibomian glands , also called tarsal glands , are a type of sebaceous gland that secrete a special type of sebum into tears . Fordyce spots are ectopic ( misplaced ) sebaceous glands found usually on the lips , gums and inner cheeks . Areolar glands surround the female nipples . Preputial glands also known as Tyson 's glands are found in the genitals of both sexes of mice and rats .
Several related medical conditions involve sebum — including acne , sebaceous cysts , hyperplasia , and sebaceous adenoma . These are usually attributable to overactive sebaceous glands , which produce excess sebum .
= = Structure = =
= = = Location = = =
The sebaceous glands are found throughout all areas of the skin except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet . There are two types of sebaceous gland , those connected to hair follicles , in pilosebaceous units , and those that exist independently .
Sebaceous glands are found in hair @-@ covered areas , where they are connected to hair follicles . One or more glands may surround each hair follicle , and the glands themselves are surrounded by arrector pili muscles . The glands have an acinar structure ( like a many @-@ lobed berry ) , in which multiple glands branch off a central duct . The glands deposit sebum on the hairs , and bring it to the skin surface along the hair shaft . The structure consisting of hair , hair follicle , arrector pili muscles , and sebaceous gland is an epidermal invagination known as a pilosebaceous unit .
Sebaceous glands are also found in hairless areas ( glabrous skin ) of the eyelids , nose , penis , labia minora , the inner mucosal membrane of the cheek , and nipples . Some sebaceous glands have unique names . Sebaceous glands on the lip and mucosa of the cheek are known as Fordyce spots , and glands on the eyelids are known as meibomian glands . Sebaceous glands of the breast are also known as Montgomery 's glands .
= = = Development = = =
Sebaceous glands are first visible from the 13th to the 16th week of fetal development , as bulgings off hair follicles . Sebaceous glands develop from the same tissue that gives rise to the epidermis of the skin . Overexpression of the signalling factors Wnt , Myc and SHH all increase the likelihood of sebaceous gland presence .
The sebaceous glands of a human fetus secrete a substance called vernix caseosa , a waxy , translucent white substance coating the skin of newborns . After birth , activity of the glands decreases until there is almost no activity during ages 2 – 6 years , and then increases to a peak of activity during puberty , due to heightened levels of androgens .
= = Function = =
Sebaceous glands secrete the oily , waxy substance called sebum ( Latin : fat , tallow ) that is made of triglycerides , wax esters , squalene , and metabolites of fat @-@ producing cells . Sebum waterproofs and lubricates the skin and hair of mammals . Sebaceous secretions in conjunction with apocrine glands also play an important thermoregulatory role . In hot conditions , the secretions emulsify the sweat produced by the eccrine glands and this produces a sheet of sweat that is not readily lost in drops of sweat . This is of importance in delaying dehydration . In colder conditions , the nature of sebum becomes more lipid and in coating the hair and skin , rain is effectively repelled .
Sebum is produced in a holocrine process , in which cells within the sebaceous gland rupture and disintegrate as they release the sebum and the cell remnants are secreted together with the sebum . The cells are constantly replaced by mitosis at the base of the duct .
= = = Sebum = = =
Sebum , secreted by the sebaceous gland in humans , is primarily composed of triglycerides ( ~ 41 % ) , wax esters ( ~ 26 % ) , squalene ( ~ 12 % ) , and free fatty acids ( ~ 16 % ) . The composition of sebum varies across species . Wax esters and squalene are unique to sebum and not produced as final products anywhere else in the body . Sapienic acid is a sebum fatty acid that is unique to humans , and is implicated in the development of acne . Sebum is odorless , but its breakdown by bacteria can produce strong odors .
Sex steroids are known to affect the rate of sebum secretion ; androgens such as testosterone have been shown to stimulate secretion , and estrogens have been shown to inhibit secretion . Dihydrotestosterone acts as the primary androgen in the prostate and in hair follicles .
= = = Immune function and nutrition = = =
Sebaceous glands are part of the body 's integumentary system and serve to protect the body against germs . Sebaceous glands secrete acids that form the acid mantle . This is a very fine , slightly acidic film on the surface of the skin that acts as a barrier to bacteria , viruses , and other potential contaminants that might penetrate the skin . The pH of the skin is between 4 @.@ 5 and 6 @.@ 2 , and this acidity helps to neutralise the primarily alkaline nature of contaminants .
Sebaceous lipids make an important contribution in maintaining the integrity of the skin barrier , and express both pro @-@ inflammatory and anti @-@ inflammatory properties . Sebum may act as a delivery system for antioxidants , antimicrobial lipids , pheromones , and hydration of the stratum corneum . The insoluble fatty acids contained within sebum have broad antimicrobial activity . Additionally , sebaceous gland secretion provides vitamin E to the upper layers of facial skin .
= = = Unique sebaceous glands = = =
During the last three months of fetal development , the sebaceous glands of the fetus produce vernix caseosa , a waxy white substance that coats the skin to protect it from amniotic fluid .
The areolar glands are in the areola that surrounds the nipple in the female breast . These glands secrete an oily fluid that lubricates the nipple , and also secrete volatile compounds that are thought to serve as an olfactory stimulus for the newborn . During pregnancy and lactation these glands , also called Montgomery 's glands , become enlarged .
Meibomian glands , in the eyelids , secrete a form of sebum called meibum onto the eye , that slows the evaporation of tears . It also serves to create an airtight seal when the eyes are closed and its lipid quality also prevents the eyelids from sticking together . The meibomian glands are also known as tarsal glands , Zeis glands and palpebral glands . They attach directly to the follicles of the eyelashes , which are arranged vertically within the tarsal plates of the eyelids .
Fordyce spots , or Fordyce granules , are ectopic sebaceous glands found on the genitals and oral mucosa . They show themselves as yellowish @-@ white milia ( milkspots ) .
Earwax is partly composed of sebum produced by glands in the ear canal . These secretions are viscous and have a high lipid content , which provides good lubrication .
= = Clinical significance = =
Sebaceous glands are involved in skin problems such as acne and keratosis pilaris . In the skin pores , sebum and keratin can create a hyperkeratotic plug called a comedo .
= = = Acne = = =
Acne is a very common problem , particularly during puberty in teenagers , and is thought to relate to an increased production of sebum due to hormonal factors . The increased production of sebum can lead to a blockage of the sebaceous gland duct . This can cause a comedo , ( commonly called a blackhead or a whitehead ) , which can lead to infection , particularly by the bacteria Propionibacterium acnes . This can inflame the comedones , which then change into the characteristic acne lesions . Comedones generally occur on the areas with more sebaceous glands , particularly the face , shoulders , upper chest and back . Comedones may be ' black ' or ' white ' depending on whether the entire pilosebaceous unit , or just the sebaceous duct , is blocked . Sebaceous filaments — innocuous build @-@ ups of sebum — are often mistaken for whiteheads .
There are many treatments available for acne from reducing sugars in the diet , to medications that include antibiotics , benzoyl peroxide , retinoids and hormonal treatments . Retinoids reduce the amount of sebum produced by the sebaceous glands . Should the usual treatments fail , the presence of the Demodex mite could be looked for as the possible cause .
= = = Other = = =
Other conditions that involve the sebaceous glands include :
Seborrhoea refers to overactive sebaceous glands , a cause of oily skin or hair .
Sebaceous hyperplasia , referring to excessive proliferation of the cells within the glands , and visible macroscopically as small papules on the skin , particularly on the forehead , nose and cheeks .
Seborrhoeic dermatitis , a chronic , usually mild form of dermatitis effected by changes in the sebaceous glands . In newborn infants seborrhoea dermatitis can occur as cradle cap .
Seborrheic @-@ like psoriasis ( also known as " Sebopsoriasis , " and " Seborrhiasis " ) is a skin condition characterized by psoriasis with an overlapping seborrheic dermatitis .
Sebaceous adenoma , a benign slow @-@ growing tumour — which may , however , in rare cases be a precursor to a cancer syndrome known as Muir @-@ Torre syndrome .
Sebaceous carcinoma , an uncommon and aggressive cutaneous tumour .
Sebaceous cyst is a term used to refer to both an epidermoid cyst and a pilar cyst , though neither of these contain sebum , only keratin and do not originate in the sebaceous gland and so are not true sebaceous cysts . A true sebaceous cyst is relatively rare and is known as a steatocystoma .
Phymatous rosacea is a cutaneous condition characterized by an overgrowth of sebaceous glands .
= = History = =
The word sebaceous , meaning " consisting of sebum " , was first termed in 1728 and comes from the Latin for tallow . Sebaceous glands have been documented since at least 1746 by Jean Astruc , who defined them as " ... the glands which separate the fat . " He describes them in the oral cavity , on the head , eyelids and ears , as " universally " acknowledged . , viii Astruc describes them being blocked by " small animals " that are " implanted " in the excretory ducts , and attributes their presence in the oral cavity to apthous ulcers , noting " these glands naturally [ secrete ] a viscous humour , which puts on various colours and consistencies ... in its natural state is very mild , balsamic , and intended to wet and lubricate the mouth " In The Principles of Physiology 1834 , A. Combe noted that the glands were not present in the palms of the hands or soles of the feet .
= = Other animals = =
The preputial glands of mice and rats are large modified sebaceous glands that produce pheromones used for territorial marking . These and the scent glands in the flanks of hamsters have a similar composition to human sebaceous glands , are androgen responsive , and have been used as a basis for study .
Sebaceous adenitis is an autoimmune disease that affects sebaceous glands . It is mainly known to occur in dogs , particularly poodles and akitas , where it is thought to be generally autosomal recessively inherited . It has also been described in cats , and one report describes this condition in a rabbit . In these animals , it causes hair loss , though the nature and distribution of the hair loss differs greatly .
= = Additional images = =
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= Nansen 's Fram expedition =
Nansen 's Fram expedition was an 1893 – 1896 attempt by the Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen to reach the geographical North Pole by harnessing the natural east – west current of the Arctic Ocean . In the face of much discouragement from other polar explorers , Nansen took his ship Fram to the New Siberian Islands in the eastern Arctic Ocean , froze her into the pack ice , and waited for the drift to carry her towards the pole . Impatient with the slow speed and erratic character of the drift , after 18 months Nansen and a chosen companion , Hjalmar Johansen , left the ship with a team of dogs and sledges and made for the pole . They did not reach it , but they achieved a record Farthest North latitude of 86 ° 13 @.@ 6 ′ N before a long retreat over ice and water to reach safety in Franz Josef Land . Meanwhile , Fram continued to drift westward , finally emerging in the North Atlantic Ocean .
The idea for the expedition had arisen after items from the American vessel Jeannette , which had sunk off the north coast of Siberia in 1881 , were discovered three years later off the south @-@ west coast of Greenland . The wreckage had obviously been carried across the polar ocean , perhaps across the pole itself . Based on this and other debris recovered from the Greenland coast , the meteorologist Henrik Mohn developed a theory of transpolar drift , which led Nansen to believe that a specially designed ship could be frozen in the pack ice and follow the same track as the Jeannette wreckage , thus reaching the vicinity of the pole .
Nansen supervised the construction of a vessel with a rounded hull and other features designed to withstand prolonged pressure from ice . The ship was rarely threatened during her long imprisonment , and emerged unscathed after three years . The scientific observations carried out during this period contributed significantly to the new discipline of oceanography , which subsequently became the main focus of Nansen 's scientific work . Fram 's drift and Nansen 's sledge journey proved conclusively that there were no significant land masses between the Eurasian continents and the North Pole , and confirmed the general character of the north polar region as a deep , ice @-@ covered sea . Although Nansen retired from exploration after this expedition , the methods of travel and survival he developed with Johansen influenced all the polar expeditions , north and south , which followed in the subsequent three decades .
= = Background = =
In September 1879 the Jeannette , an ex @-@ Royal Navy gunboat converted by the US Navy for Arctic exploration , and commanded by George Washington De Long , entered the pack ice north of the Bering Strait . She remained ice @-@ bound for nearly two years , drifting to the area of the New Siberian Islands , before being crushed and sunk on 13 June 1881 . Her crew escaped in boats and made for the Siberian coast ; most , including De Long , subsequently perished either during the boat journey or in the wastelands of the Lena River delta . Three years later , relics from the Jeannette appeared on the opposite side of the world , in the vicinity of Julianehaab on the southwest coast of Greenland . These items , frozen into the drifting ice , included clothing bearing crew members ' names and documents signed by De Long ; they were indisputably genuine .
In a lecture given in 1884 to the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters Dr. Henrik Mohn , one of the founders of modern meteorology , argued that the finding of the Jeannette relics indicated the existence of an ocean current flowing from east to west across the entire Arctic ocean . The Danish governor of Julianehaab , writing of the find , surmised that an expedition frozen into the Siberian sea might , if its ship were to prove strong enough , cross the polar ocean and land in South Greenland . These theories were read with interest by the 23 @-@ year @-@ old Fridtjof Nansen , then working as a curator at the Bergen Museum while completing his doctoral studies . Nansen was already captivated by the frozen north ; two years earlier he had experienced a four @-@ month voyage on the sealer Viking , which had included three weeks trapped in drifting ice . An expert skier , Nansen was making plans to lead the first crossing of the Greenland icecap , an objective delayed by the demands of his academic studies , but triumphantly achieved in 1888 – 89 . Through these years Nansen remembered the east – west Arctic drift theory and its inherent possibilities for further polar exploration , and shortly after his return from Greenland he was ready to announce his plans .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Plan = = =
In February 1890 Nansen addressed a meeting of the Norwegian Geographical Society in Oslo ( then called Christiania ) . After drawing attention to the failures of the many expeditions which had approached the North Pole from the west , he considered the implications of the discovery of the Jeannette items , along with further finds of driftwood and other debris from Siberia or Alaska that had been identified along the Greenland coast . " Putting all this together , " Nansen said , " we are driven to the conclusion that a current flows ... from the Siberian Arctic Sea to the east coast of Greenland , " probably passing across the Pole . It seemed that the obvious thing to do was " to make our way into the current on that side of the Pole where it flows northward , and by its help to penetrate into those regions which all who have hitherto worked against [ the current ] have sought in vain to reach . "
Nansen 's plan required a small , strong and manoeuvrable ship , powered by sail and an engine , capable of carrying fuel and provisions for twelve men for five years . The vessel would follow Jeannette 's route to the New Siberian Islands , and in the approximate position of Jeannette 's sinking , when ice conditions were right " we shall plough our way in amongst the ice as far as we can . " The ship would then drift with the ice towards the pole and eventually reach the sea between Greenland and Spitsbergen . Should the ship founder , a possibility which Nansen thought very unlikely , the party would camp on a floe and allow itself to be carried towards safety . Nansen observed : " If the Jeannette Expedition had had sufficient provisions , and had remained on the ice @-@ floe on which the relics were found , the result would doubtless have been very different from what it was . "
When Nansen 's plans became public knowledge The New York Times was enthusiastic , deeming it " highly probable that there is a comparatively short and direct route across the Arctic Ocean by way of the North Pole , and that nature herself has supplied a means of communication across it . " However , most experienced polar hands were dismissive . The American explorer Adolphus Greely called it " an illogical scheme of self @-@ destruction " ; his assistant , Lieutenant David Brainerd , called it " one of the most ill @-@ advised schemes ever embarked on " , and predicted that it would end in disaster . Sir Allen Young , a veteran of the searches for Sir John Franklin 's lost expedition , did not believe that a ship could be built to withstand the crushing pressure of the ice : " If there is no swell the ice must go through her , whatever material she is made of . " Sir Joseph Hooker , who had sailed south with James Clark Ross in 1839 – 43 , was of the same opinion , and thought the risks were not worth taking . However , the equally experienced Sir Leopold McClintock called Nansen 's project " the most adventurous programme ever brought under the notice of the Royal Geographical Society " . The Swedish philanthropist Oscar Dickson , who had financed Baron Nordenskiöld 's conquest of the North @-@ East Passage in 1878 – 79 , was sufficiently impressed to offer to meet Nansen 's costs . With Norwegian nationalism on the rise , however , this gesture from their union partner Sweden provoked hostility in the Norwegian press ; Nansen decided to rely solely on Norwegian support , and declined Dickson 's proposal .
= = = Finance = = =
Nansen 's original estimate for the total cost of the expedition was NOK 300 @,@ 000 . After giving a passionate speech before the Parliament of Norway ( the Storting ) , Nansen was awarded a grant of NOK 200 @,@ 000 ; the balance was raised from private contributions which included 20 @,@ 000 kroner from King Oscar II of Norway and Sweden . The Royal Geographical Society in London gave £ 300 ( about NOK 6 @,@ 000 ) . Unfortunately , Nansen had underestimated the financing required — the ship alone would cost more than the total at his disposal . A renewed plea to the Storting produced a further NOK 80 @,@ 000 , and a national appeal raised the grand total to NOK 445 @,@ 000 . According to Nansen 's own account , he made up the remaining deficiency from his own resources . His biographer Roland Huntford records that the final deficit of NOK 12 @,@ 000 was cleared by two wealthy supporters , Axel Heiberg and an English expatriate , Charles Dick .
= = = Ship = = =
To design and build his ship Nansen chose Colin Archer , Norway 's leading shipbuilder and naval architect . Archer was well known for a particular hull design that combined seaworthiness with a shallow draught , and had pioneered the design of " double @-@ ended " craft in which the conventional stern was replaced by a point , increasing manoeuvrability . Nansen records that Archer made " plan after plan of the projected ship ; one model after another was prepared and abandoned " . Finally , agreement was reached on a design , and on 9 June 1891 the two men signed the contract .
Nansen wanted the ship in one year ; he was eager to get away before anyone else could adopt his ideas and forestall him . The ship 's most significant external feature was the roundness of the hull , designed so that there was nothing upon which the ice could get a grip . Bow , stern and keel were rounded off , and the sides smoothed so that , in Nansen 's words , the vessel would " slip like an eel out of the embraces of the ice " . To give exceptional strength the hull was sheathed in South American greenheart , the hardest timber available . The three layers of wood forming the hull provided a combined thickness of between 24 and 28 inches ( 60 – 70 cm ) , increasing to around 48 inches ( 1 @.@ 25 metres ) at the bow , which was further protected by a protruding iron stem . Added strength was provided by crossbeams and braces throughout the length of the hull .
The ship was rigged as a three @-@ masted schooner , with a total sail area of 6 @,@ 000 square feet ( 560 m2 ) . Its auxiliary engine of 220 horse @-@ power was capable of speeds up to 7 knots ( 13 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 mph ) . However , speed and sailing qualities were secondary to the requirement of providing a safe and warm stronghold for Nansen and his crew during a drift that might extend for several years , so particular attention was paid to the insulation of the living quarters . At around 400 gross register tonnage , the ship was considerably larger than Nansen had first anticipated , with an overall length of 128 feet ( 39 m ) and a breadth of 36 feet ( 11 m ) , a ratio of just over three to one , giving her an unusually stubby appearance . This odd shape was explained by Archer : " A ship that is built with exclusive regard to its suitability for [ Nansen 's ] object must differ essentially from any known vessel . " On 6 October 1892 , at Archer 's yard at Larvik , the ship was launched by Nansen 's wife Eva after a brief ceremony . The ship was named Fram , meaning " Forward " .
= = = Crew = = =
For his Greenland expedition of 1888 – 89 Nansen had departed from the traditional dependence on large @-@ scale personnel , ships and backup , relying instead on a small well @-@ trained group . Using the same principle for the Fram voyage , Nansen chose a party of just twelve from the thousands of applications that poured in from all over the world . One applicant was the 20 @-@ year @-@ old Roald Amundsen , future conqueror of the South Pole , whose mother stopped him from going . The English explorer Frederick Jackson applied , but Nansen wanted only Norwegians , so Jackson organised his own expedition to Franz Josef Land .
To captain the ship and act as the expedition 's second @-@ in @-@ command Nansen chose Otto Sverdrup , an experienced sailor who had taken part in the Greenland crossing . Theodore Jacobsen , who had experience in the Arctic as skipper of a sloop , signed on as Fram 's mate , and a young naval lieutenant , Sigurd Scott Hansen , took charge of meteorological and magnetic observations . The ship 's doctor , and the expedition 's botanist , was Henrik Blessing , who graduated in medicine just before Fram 's sailing date . Hjalmar Johansen , an army reserve lieutenant and dog @-@ driving expert , was so determined to join the expedition that he agreed to sign on as stoker , the only position by then available . Likewise Adolf Juell , with 20 years ' experience at sea as mate and captain , took the post of cook on the Fram voyage . Ivar Mogstad was an official at Gaustad psychiatric hospital , but his technical abilities as a handyman and mechanic impressed Nansen . The oldest man in the party , at 40 , was the chief engineer , Anton Amundsen ( no relation of Roald ) . The second engineer , Lars Pettersen , kept his Swedish nationality from Nansen , and although it was soon discovered by his shipmates , he was allowed to remain with the expedition , the only non @-@ Norwegian in the party . The remaining crew members were Peter Henriksen , Bernhard Nordahl and Bernt Bentzen , the last – named joining the expedition in Tromsø at very short notice .
= = Voyage = =
= = = Journey to the ice = = =
Before the start of the voyage Nansen decided to deviate from his original plan : instead of following Jeannette 's route to the New Siberian Islands by way of the Bering Strait , he would make a shorter journey , taking Nordenskiöld 's North @-@ East Passage along the northern coast of Siberia . Fram left Christiania on 24 June 1893 , seen on her way by a cannon salute from the fort and the cheers of thousands of well @-@ wishers . This was the first of a series of farewells as Fram sailed round the coast and moved northward , reaching Bergen on 1 July ( where there was a great banquet in Nansen 's honour ) , Trondheim on 5 July and Tromsø , north of the Arctic Circle , a week later . The last Norwegian port of call was Vardø , where Fram arrived on 18 July . After the final provisions were taken on board , Nansen , Sverdrup , Hansen and Blessing spent their last hours ashore in a sauna , being beaten with birch twigs by two young girls .
The first leg of the journey eastward took Fram across the Barents Sea towards Novaya Zemlya and then to the North Russian settlement of Khabarova where the first batch of dogs was brought on board . On 3 August Fram weighed anchor and moved cautiously eastward , entering the Kara Sea the next day . Few ships had sailed the Kara Sea before , and charts were incomplete . On 18 August , in the area of the Yenisei River delta , an uncharted island was discovered and named Sverdrup Island after Fram 's commander . Fram was now moving towards the Taimyr Peninsula and Cape Chelyuskin , the most northerly point of the Eurasian continental mass . Heavy ice slowed the expedition 's progress , and at the end of August it was held up for four days while the ship 's boiler was repaired and cleaned . The crew also experienced the dead water phenomenon , where a ship 's forward progress is impeded by energy dissipation caused by a layer of fresh water lying on top of heavier salt water . On 9 September a wide stretch of ice @-@ free water opened up , and next day Fram rounded Cape Chelyuskin — the second ship to do so , after Nordenskiöld 's Vega in 1878 — and entered the Laptev Sea .
After being prevented by ice from reaching the mouth of the Olenyok River , where a second batch of dogs was waiting to be picked up , Fram moved north and east towards the New Siberian Islands . Nansen 's hope was to find open water to 80 ° north latitude and then enter the pack ; however , on 20 September ice was sighted just south of 78 ° . Fram followed the line of the ice before stopping in a small bay beyond the 78 ° mark . On 28 September it became evident that the ice would not break up , and the dogs were moved from the ship to kennels on the ice . On 5 October the rudder was raised to a position of safety and the ship , in Scott Hansen 's words , was " well and truly moored for the winter " . The position was 78 ° 49 ′ N , 132 ° 53 ′ E.
= = = Drift ( first phase ) = = =
On 9 October Fram had her first experience of ice pressure . Archer 's design was quickly vindicated as the ship rose and fell , the ice being unable to grip the hull . Otherwise the first weeks in the ice were disappointing , as the unpredictable drift moved Fram in gyratory fashion , sometimes north , sometimes south ; by 19 November , after six weeks , Fram was south of the latitude at which she had entered the ice .
After the sun disappeared on 25 October the ship was lit by electric lamps from a wind @-@ powered generator . The crew settled down to a comfortable routine in which boredom and inactivity were the main enemies . Men began to irritate each other , and fights sometimes broke out . Nansen attempted to start a newspaper , but the project soon fizzled out through lack of interest . Small tasks were undertaken and scientific observations maintained , but there was no urgency . Nansen expressed his frustration in his journal : " I feel I must break through this deadness , this inertia , and find some outlet for my energies . " And later : " Can 't something happen ? Could not a hurricane come and tear up this ice ? " Only after the turn of the year , in January 1894 , did the northerly direction become generally settled . The 80 ° mark was finally passed on 22 March .
Based on the uncertain direction and slow speed of the drift , Nansen calculated that it might take the ship five years to reach the pole . In January 1894 he had first discussed with both Henriksen and Johansen the possibility of making a sledge journey with the dogs , from Fram to the pole , though they made no immediate plans . Nansen 's first attempts to master dog @-@ driving were an embarrassing failure , but he persevered and gradually achieved better results . He also discovered that the normal cross @-@ country skiing speed was the same as that of dogs pulling loaded sledges . Men could travel under their own power , skiing , rather than riding on the sledge , and loads could be correspondingly increased . This , according to biographer and historian Roland Huntford , amounted to a revolution in polar travel methods .
On 19 May , two days after the celebrations for Norway 's National Day , Fram passed 81 ° , indicating that the ship 's northerly speed was slowly increasing , though it was still barely a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) a day . With a growing conviction that a sledge journey might be necessary to reach the pole , in September Nansen decreed that everyone would practice skiing for two hours a day . On 16 November he revealed his intention to the crew : he and one companion would leave the ship and start for the pole when the 83 ° mark was passed . After reaching the pole the pair would make for Franz Josef Land , and then cross to Spitsbergen where they hoped to find a ship to take them home . Three days later Nansen asked Hjalmar Johansen , the most experienced dog @-@ driver among the crew , to join him on the polar journey .
The crew spent the following months preparing for the forthcoming dash for the pole . They built sledges that would facilitate fast travel over rough terrain and constructed kayaks on the Inuit model , for use during the expected water crossings . There were endless trials of special clothing and other gear . Violent and prolonged tremors began to shake the ship on 3 January 1895 , and two days later the crew disembarked , expecting the ship to be crushed . Instead the pressure lessened , and the crew went back on board and resumed preparations for Nansen 's journey . After the excitement it was noted that Fram had drifted beyond Greely 's Farthest North record of 83 ° 24 , and on 8 January was at 83 ° 34 ′ N.
= = = March for the Pole = = =
On 17 February 1895 Nansen began a farewell letter to his wife , Eva , writing that should he come to grief " you will know that your image will be the last I see . " He was also reading everything he could about Franz Josef Land , his intended destination after the pole . The archipelago had been discovered in 1873 by Julius Payer , and was incompletely mapped . It was , however , apparently the home of countless bears and seals , and Nansen saw it as an excellent food source on his return journey to civilization .
On 14 March , with the ship at 84 ° 4 ′ N , the pair finally began their polar march . This was their third attempt to leave the ship ; on 26 February and again on the 28th , damage to sledges had forced them to return after travelling short distances . After these mishaps Nansen thoroughly overhauled his equipment , minimised the travelling stores , recalculated weights and reduced the convoy to three sledges , before giving the order to start again . A supporting party accompanied the pair and shared the first night 's camp . The next day , Nansen and Johansen skied on alone .
The pair initially traveled mainly over flat snowfields . Nansen had allowed 50 days to cover the 356 nautical miles ( 660 km ; 410 mi ) to the pole , requiring an average daily journey of seven nautical miles ( 13 km ; 8 @.@ 1 mi ) . On 22 March a sextant observation showed that the pair had travelled 65 nautical miles ( 120 km ; 75 mi ) towards the pole at a daily average of over nine nautical miles ( 17 km ; 10 mi ) . This had been achieved despite very low temperatures , typically around − 40 ° F ( − 40 ° C ) , and small scale mishaps including the loss of the sledgemeter that recorded mileage . However , as the surfaces became uneven and made skiing more difficult , their speeds slowed . A sextant reading on 29 March of 85 ° 56 ′ N indicated that a week 's travel had brought them 47 nautical miles ( 87 km ; 54 mi ) nearer to the pole , but also showed that their average daily distances were falling . More worryingly , a theodolite reading that day suggested that they were at only 85 ° 15 ′ N , and they had no means of knowing which of the readings was correct . They realised that they were fighting a southerly drift , and that distances travelled did not necessarily equate to northerly progression . Johansen 's diary indicated his failing spirits : " My fingers are all destroyed . All mittens are frozen stiff ... It is becoming worse and worse ... God knows what will happen to us " .
On 3 April , after days of difficult travel , Nansen privately began to wonder if the pole might , after all , be out of reach . Unless the surface improved , their food would not last them to the pole and then on to Franz Josef Land . The next day they calculated their position at a disappointing 86 ° 3 ' ; Nansen confided in his diary that : " I have become more and more convinced we ought to turn before time . " After making camp on 7 April Nansen scouted ahead on snowshoes looking for a path forward , but saw only " a veritable chaos of iceblocks stretching as far as the horizon " . He decided that they would go no further north , and would head for Cape Fligely in Franz Josef Land . Nansen recorded the latitude of their final northerly camp as 86 ° 13 @.@ 6 ′ N , almost three degrees ( 169 @.@ 6 nautical miles , or 314 km ) beyond Greely 's previous Farthest North mark .
= = = Retreat to Franz Josef Land = = =
The change of direction to south @-@ west provided much better travelling conditions , probably because the course to Franz Josef Land was broadly parallel to the lines of disturbance in the ice instead of perpendicular to them . Progress was swift : " If this goes on , " Nansen recorded on 13 April , " the return journey will be quicker than I thought . " However , the same diary entry records a mishap that day : both men 's watches had stopped . Although Nansen 's journal comment is mild , the incident was potentially disastrous . Without the correct time they could not calculate their longitude and thus maintain the correct course to Franz Josef Land . They restarted the watches based on Nansen 's guesswork that their longitude was 86 ° E , but the pair were no longer certain where they were . If they were farther west than Nansen 's assumption , they might miss Franz Josef Land altogether , and head for the open Atlantic .
The direction of the drift became northerly , hampering the pair 's progress . By 18 April , after 11 days ' travel from Farthest North , they had only made 40 nautical miles ( 74 km ; 46 mi ) to the south . They now travelled over much more broken terrain with wide open leads of water . On about 20 April they were cheered by the sight of a large piece of driftwood stuck in a floe , the first object from the outside world they had seen since Fram had entered the ice . Johansen carved his and Nansen 's initials on it , with the latitude and date . A day or two later they spotted the tracks of an Arctic fox , the first trace of a living creature other than their dogs since leaving Fram . Other tracks soon appeared , and Nansen began to believe that land might be near .
The latitude calculated on 9 May , 84 ° 3 ′ N , was disappointing — Nansen had hoped they were farther south . However , as May progressed they began to see bear tracks , and by the end of the month seals , gulls and whales were plentiful . By Nansen 's calculations , they had reached 82 ° 21 ′ N on 31 May , placing them only 50 nautical miles ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) from Cape Fligely at the northern extremity of Franz Josef Land , if his longitude estimate was accurate . In the warmer weather the ice began to break up , making travel more difficult . Since 24 April dogs had been killed at regular intervals to feed the others , and by the beginning of June only seven of the original 28 remained . On 21 June the pair jettisoned all surplus equipment and supplies , planning to travel light and live off the now plentiful supplies of seal and birds . After a day 's travel in this manner they decided to rest on a floe , waterproof the kayaks and build up their own strength for the next stage of their journey . They remained camped on the floe for a whole month .
On 23 July , the day after leaving the camp , Nansen had the first indisputable glimpse of land . He wrote : " At last the marvel has come to pass — land , land , and after we had almost given up our belief in it ! " In the succeeding days the pair struggled towards this land , which seemingly grew no nearer , although by the end of July they could hear the distant sound of breaking surf . On 4 August they survived a polar bear attack ; two days later they reached the edge of the ice , and only water lay between them and the land . On 6 August they shot the last two Samoyed dogs , converted the kayaks into a catamaran by lashing sledges and skis across them , and raised a sail .
Nansen called this first land " Hvidtenland " ( " White Island " ) . After making camp on an ice foot they ascended a slope and looked about them . It was apparent that they were in an archipelago , but what they could see bore no relation to their incomplete map of Franz Josef Land . They could only continue south in the hopes of finding a geographical feature they could pinpoint with certainty . On 16 August Nansen tentatively identified a headland as Cape Felder , marked on Payer 's maps as on the western coast of Franz Josef Land . Nansen 's objective was now to reach a hut and supplies that had been left by an earlier expedition at a location known as Eira Harbour , at the southern end of the islands . However , contrary winds and loose ice made further progress in the kayak hazardous , and on 28 August Nansen decided that , with another polar winter drawing near , they should stay where they were and await the following spring .
= = = To Cape Flora = = =
As the base for their winter quarters , Nansen and Johansen found a beach in a sheltered cove on what is now called Jackson Island , with a plentiful supply of stones and moss for building materials . They excavated a hole three feet deep , raised walls around it using loose rocks and stones , and stretched walrus skins over the top to form a roof . A chimney was improvised using snow and walrus bones . This shelter , which they called " The Hole " , was finally ready on 28 September , and was to be their home for the next eight months . Their situation was uncomfortable , but not life @-@ threatening ; there was a plentiful supply of bear , walrus and seal to stock up their larder . The chief enemy was boredom ; to pass time they were reduced to reading Nansen 's sailing almanac and navigation tables by the light of their blubber lamp , and then reading them again .
At Christmas the pair celebrated with chocolate and bread from their sledging rations . On New Year 's Eve Johansen recorded that Nansen finally adopted the familiar form of address , having until then maintained formalities ( " Mr Johansen " , " Professor Nansen " ) throughout the journey . In the New Year they fashioned themselves simple outer clothing — smocks and trousers — from a discarded sleeping bag , in readiness for the resumption of their journey when the weather grew warmer . On 19 May 1896 , after weeks of preparation , they were ready . Nansen left a note in the hut to inform a possible finder : " We are going south west , along the land , to cross over to Spitsbergen " .
For more than two weeks they followed the shoreline southwards . Nothing they saw seemed to fit with their rudimentary map of Franz Josef Land , and Nansen speculated whether they were in uncharted lands between Franz Josef Land and Spitsbergen . On 4 June a change in conditions allowed them to launch their kayaks for the first time since leaving their winter quarters . A week later , Nansen was forced to dive into the icy waters to rescue the kayaks which , still tied together , had drifted away after being carelessly moored . He managed to reach the craft and , with a last effort , to haul himself aboard . Despite his frozen condition he shot and retrieved two guillemots as he paddled the catamaran back .
On 13 June walruses attacked and damaged the kayaks , causing another stop for repairs . On 17 June , as they prepared to leave again , Nansen thought he heard a dog bark and went to investigate . He then heard voices , and a few minutes later encountered a human being . It was Frederick Jackson , who had organised his own expedition to Franz Josef Land after being rejected by Nansen , and had based his headquarters at Cape Flora on Northbrook Island , the southernmost island of the archipelago . Jackson 's own account records that his first reaction to this sudden meeting was to assume the figure to be a shipwrecked sailor , perhaps from the expedition 's supply ship Windward which was due to call that summer . As he approached , Jackson saw " a tall man , wearing a soft felt hat , loosely made , voluminous clothes and long shaggy hair and beard , all reeking with black grease " . After a moment 's awkward hesitation , Jackson recognised his visitor : " You are Nansen , aren 't you ? " , and received the reply " Yes , I am Nansen . "
Johansen was rescued , and the pair taken to the base at Cape Flora , where they posed for photographs ( in one instance re @-@ enacting the Jackson – Nansen meeting ) before taking baths and haircuts . Both men seemed in good health , despite their ordeal ; Nansen had put on 21 pounds ( 9 @.@ 5 kg ) in weight since the start of the expedition , and Johansen 13 pounds ( 5 @.@ 9 kg ) . In honour of his rescuer , Nansen named the island where he had wintered " Frederick Jackson Island " . For the next six weeks Nansen had little to do but await the arrival of Windward , worrying that he might have to spend the winter at Cape Flora , and sometimes regretting that he and Johansen had not pressed on to Spitsbergen . Johansen noted in his journal that Nansen had changed from the overbearing personality of the Fram days , and was now subdued and polite , adamant that he would never undertake such a journey again . On 26 July Windward finally arrived ; on 7 August , with Nansen and Johansen aboard , she sailed south and on 13 August reached Vardø . A batch of telegrams was sent , informing the world of Nansen 's safe return .
= = = Drift ( second phase ) = = =
Before his departure from Fram , Nansen appointed Sverdrup as leader of the rest of the expedition , with orders to continue with the drift towards the Atlantic Ocean unless circumstances warranted abandoning the ship and marching for land . Nansen left precise instructions about keeping up the scientific work , especially the ocean depth soundings and the tests for the thickness of the ice . He concluded : " May we meet in Norway , whether it be on board of this vessel or without her . "
Sverdrup 's main task now was to keep his crew busy . He ordered a thorough spring cleaning , and set a party to chip away some of the surrounding ice which was threatening to destabilise the ship . Although there was no immediate danger to Fram , Sverdrup oversaw the repair and overhaul of sledges , and the organisation of provisions should it after all be necessary to abandon ship and march to land . With the arrival of warmer weather as the 1895 summer approached , Sverdrup resumed daily ski practice . Amid these activities a full programme of meteorological , magnetic and oceanographic activities continued under Scott Hansen ; Fram had become a moving oceanographic , meteorological and biological laboratory .
As the drift proceeded the ocean became deeper ; soundings gave successive depths of 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) , 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) and 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) , a progression which indicated that no undiscovered land mass was nearby . On 15 November 1895 Fram reached 85 ° 55 ′ N , only 19 nautical miles ( 35 km ; 22 mi ) below Nansen 's Farthest North mark . From this point on , the drift was generally to the south and west , although progress was for long periods almost imperceptible . Inactivity and boredom led to increased drinking ; Scott Hansen recorded that Christmas and New Year passed " with the usual hot punch and consequent hangover " , and wrote that he was " getting more and more disgusted with drunkenness " . By mid @-@ March 1896 , the position was 84 ° 25 ′ N , 12 ° 50 ′ E , placing the ship north of Spitsbergen . On 13 June a lead opened and , for the first time in nearly three years , Fram became a living ship . It was a further two months , on 13 August 1896 , before she found open water and , with a blast from her cannon , left the ice behind . She had emerged from the ice just north and west of Spitsbergen , close to Nansen 's original prediction , proving him right and his detractors wrong . Later that same day a ship was sighted — Søstrone , a seal hunter from Tromsø . Sverdrup rowed across for news , and learned that nothing had been heard from Nansen . Fram called briefly at Spitsbergen , where the Swedish explorer @-@ engineer Salomon Andrée was preparing for the balloon flight that he hoped would take him to the pole . After a short time ashore , Sverdrup and his crew began the trip south to Norway .
= = Reunion and reception = =
In the course of the expedition , rumours circulated that Nansen had reached the North Pole , the first as early as April 1894 , in the French Newspaper Le Figaro . In September 1895 Eva Nansen was informed that messages signed by Nansen had been discovered , " sent from the North Pole " . In February 1896 The New York Times ran a dispatch from Irkutsk , in Siberia , from a supposed Nansen agent , claiming that Nansen had reached the pole and found land there . Charles P. Daly of the American Geographical Society called this " startling news " and , " if true , the most important discovery that has been made in ages . "
Experts were sceptical of all such reports , and Nansen 's arrival in Vardø quickly put paid to them . In Vardø , he and Johansen were greeted by Professor Mohn , the originator of the polar drift theory , who was in the town by chance . The pair waited for the weekly mail steamer to take them south , and on 18 August arrived in Hammerfest to an enthusiastic reception . The lack of news about Fram was preying on Nansen 's mind ; however , on 20 August he received news that Sverdrup had brought the ship to the tiny port of Skjervøy , south of Hammerfest , and was now continuing with her to Tromsø . The next day , Nansen and Johansen sailed into Tromsø and joined their comrades in an emotional reunion .
After days of celebration and recuperation the ship left Tromsø on 26 August . The voyage south was a triumphal procession , with receptions at every port . Fram finally arrived in Christiania on 9 September , escorted into the harbour by a squadron of warships and welcomed by thousands — the largest crowds the city had ever seen , according to Huntford . Nansen and his crew were received by King Oscar ; on the way to the reception they passed through a triumphal arch formed by 200 gymnasts . Nansen and his family stayed at the palace as special guests of the king ; by contrast , Johansen remained in the background , largely overlooked , and writing that " reality , after all , is not so wonderful as it appeared to me in the midst of our hard life . "
= = Assessment and aftermath = =
The traditional approach to Arctic exploration had relied on large @-@ scale forces , with a presumption that European techniques could be successfully transplanted into the hostile polar climate . Over the years this strategy had brought little success , and had led to heavy losses of men and ships . By contrast , Nansen 's method of using small , trained crews , and harnessing Inuit and Sami expertise in his methods of travel , had ensured that his expedition was completed without a single casualty or major mishap .
Although it did not achieve the objective of reaching the North Pole , the expedition made major geographical and scientific discoveries . Sir Clements Markham , president of Britain 's Royal Geographical Society , declared that the expedition had resolved " the whole problem of Arctic geography " . It was now established that the North Pole was located not on land , nor on a permanent ice sheet , but on shifting , unpredictable pack ice . The Arctic Ocean was a deep basin , with no significant land masses north of the Eurasian continent — any hidden expanse of land would have blocked the free movement of ice . Nansen had proved the polar drift theory ; furthermore , he had noted the presence of a Coriolis force driving the ice to the right of the wind direction , due to the effect of the Earth 's rotation . This discovery would be developed by Nansen 's pupil , Vagn Walfrid Ekman , who later became the leading oceanographer of his time . From its programme of scientific observation the expedition provided the first detailed oceanographic information from the area ; in due course the scientific data gathered during the Fram voyage would run to six published volumes .
Throughout the expedition Nansen continued to experiment with equipment and techniques , altering the designs of skis and sledges and investigating types of clothing , tents and cooking apparatus , thereby revolutionising methods of Arctic travel . In the era of polar exploration which followed his return , explorers routinely sought Nansen 's advice as to methods and equipment — although sometimes they chose not to follow it , usually to their cost . According to Huntford , the South Pole heroes Amundsen , Scott , and Ernest Shackleton were all Nansen 's acolytes .
Nansen 's status was never seriously challenged , although he did not escape criticism . American explorer Robert Peary wondered why Nansen had not returned to the ship when his polar dash was thwarted after a mere three weeks away . " Was he ashamed to go back after so short an absence , or had there been a row ... or did he go off for Franz Josef Land from sensational motives or business reasons ? " Adolphus Greely , who had initially dismissed the entire expedition as infeasible , admitted that he had been proved wrong but nevertheless drew attention to " the single blemish " — Nansen 's decision to leave his comrades hundreds of miles from land . " It passes comprehension " , Greely wrote , " how Nansen could have thus deviated from the most sacred duty devolving on the commander of a naval expedition . " Nansen 's reputation nevertheless survived ; a hundred years after the expedition the British explorer Wally Herbert called the Fram voyage " one of the most inspiring examples of courageous intelligence in the history of exploration " .
The Fram voyage was Nansen 's final expedition . He was appointed to a research professorship at the University of Christiania in 1897 , and to a full professorship in oceanography in 1908 . He became independently wealthy as a result of the publication of his expedition account ; in his later career he served the newly independent kingdom of Norway in different capacities , and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for 1922 , in recognition of his work on behalf of refugees . Hjalmar Johansen never settled back into normal life . After years of drifting , debt and drunkenness he was given the opportunity , through Nansen 's influence , to join Roald Amundsen 's South Pole expedition in 1910 . Johansen quarreled violently with Amundsen at the expedition 's base camp , and was omitted from the South Pole party . He committed suicide within a year of his return from Antarctica . Otto Sverdrup remained as captain of Fram , and in 1898 took the ship , with a new crew , to the Canadian Arctic for four years ' exploration . In later years Sverdrup helped to raise funds that enabled the ship to be restored and housed in a permanent museum . He died in November 1930 , seven months after Nansen 's death .
Nansen 's farthest north record lasted for just over five years . On 24 April 1900 a party of three from an Italian expedition led by the Duke of the Abruzzi reached 86 ° 34 ′ N , having left Franz Josef Land with dogs and sledges on 11 March . The party barely made it back ; one of their support groups of three men vanished entirely .
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= The Monkey Suit =
" The Monkey Suit " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the seventeenth season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 14 , 2006 . In the episode , Ned Flanders is shocked after seeing a new display at the museum about evolution . Together with Reverend Lovejoy , he spreads the religious belief of creationism in Springfield , and at a later town meeting , teaching evolution is made illegal . As a result , Lisa decides to hold secret classes for people interested in evolution . However , she is quickly arrested and a trial against her is initiated .
J. Stewart Burns wrote " The Monkey Suit " , for which he received inspiration from the 1925 Scopes Monkey Trial . The episode features a few references to this legal case , as well as several references to popular culture . Many analysts have commented on the episode 's treatment of the creation – evolution controversy , a dispute about the origin of humanity between those who support a creationist view based upon their religious beliefs , versus those who accept evolution , as supported by scientific evidence .
Critics have given the episode generally positive reviews , praising it for its satire of the creation – evolution debate . " The Monkey Suit " has won an award from the Independent Investigations Group ( IIG ) for being " one of those rare shows in the media that encourage science , critical thinking , and ridicule those shows that peddle pseudoscience and superstition . " In 2007 , a scene from the episode was highlighted in the scientific journal Nature .
= = Plot = =
On the last day of summer vacation , Lisa brings the family to the museum to see a weaving exhibit as her summer activity , but they quickly discover that it has been canceled and replaced by a " History of Weapons " exhibit . Faced with an incredibly long line , Homer notices Ned Flanders and his children at the front of the line and cuts in front of them . Others start taking advantage of Ned ’ s kindness as well , until the Flanders family is stuck at the end . At the end of the day , they are still waiting , and are denied entry , as it is closing time for the weapons exhibit . They therefore decide to check out the evolution exhibit next door . Ned is horrified to hear that humans evolved from apes and that the creation account in the Genesis is characterized as a myth . Covering his children 's eyes , he drags them out of the exhibit .
Ned meets up with the church council to suggest promotion of creationism . The next day , he and Reverend Lovejoy blackmail Principal Skinner into introducing creationism in the school . Lisa is perturbed by this , and at a town meeting asks everyone to make a choice between creationism and Darwinism , as there is only one truth . The townspeople vote for creationism , much to her chagrin , and the act of teaching or learning Darwinism and evolution is made illegal . Lisa therefore decides to start holding secret classes for people interested in evolution . However , just as the first lesson is about to begin , she is arrested by Chief Wiggum . She asks why she 's being arrested when there are far worse crimes out there , and embarrassed he tells her they only have enough manpower to enforce the last three laws passed , even stating that it 's the worst law system there is . Lisa is brought to trial , which is dubbed Lisa Simpson v. God . Representing her is Clarice Drummond , a despised American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) lawyer , while on God ’ s ( i.e. , Ned 's ) side is Wallace Brady , a beloved , overweight , southern lawyer . The trial does not go smoothly for Lisa , as Professor Frink ( called by Clarice ) gives ambiguous answers regarding God 's existence , while a creationist scientist says that evolution cannot be real , as there is no proof of a " missing link " ( depicted in a picture as a savage hominid , holding a rock over his head ) .
With Lisa now facing a long jail sentence , Marge decides to help her out . She starts reading Charles Darwin 's The Origin of Species and becomes addicted to it . When the trial resumes , Marge tells Lisa that she now knows a way that she can help her . While Ned is being cross @-@ examined by Clarice , Marge gives Homer a cold beer . Homer , ecstatic at getting a beer , tries to open it unsuccessfully . The more he tries , the more primitive he gets , hooting and banging the bottle on the bench , disrupting the trial . Finally , Ned loses his cool and refers to Homer as a " big monkey @-@ faced gorilla . " Clarice then asks Ned to compare the picture of the " missing link " and Homer shaking the beer over his head , and asks if he truthfully believes Homer cannot be related to apes . Ned cannot and concedes victory to Lisa . Lisa kindly tells Ned that she fully respects religious beliefs , but she just does not think it is proper for the church to dominate the school , the same way that Mr. Flanders and Reverend Lovejoy do not want scientists taking over the church . Ned agrees and offers to take Lisa and his kids out for ice cream .
= = Production = =
" The Monkey Suit " was written by J. Stewart Burns and directed by Raymond S. Persi as part of the seventeenth season of The Simpsons ( 2005 – 2006 ) . Burns received inspiration for the episode from the Scopes Monkey Trial , a 1925 legal case in which high school science teacher John Scopes was accused of violating Tennessee 's Butler Act which made teaching evolution unlawful . Clarice Drummond , the ACLU lawyer who represents Lisa , is a reference to the ACLU lawyer Clarence Darrow who defended Scopes , while Wallace Brady is a reference to William Jennings Bryan , an attorney in the Scopes Monkey Trial . American actor Larry Hagman guest starred in the episode as Wallace Brady , while American actress Melanie Griffith played herself as the narrator of an audio tour at the museum . Burns did research for " The Monkey Suit " by reading Richard Dawkins ' book The Selfish Gene and watching Inherit the Wind ( a film based on the Scopes Monkey Trial ) . He also visited a natural history museum .
The opening of the episode , in which Bart rushes to do everything he planned on doing during summer vacation , was originally written and animated for the season fourteen episode " I 'm Spelling as Fast as I Can " ( 2003 ) but was cut . This episode came in short , and to fill in time , the sequence was added . Burns has said commented the episode " ended up being incredibly short because when you do an episode where there 's really just one good side of an argument [ creation vs. evolution ] , you don 't fill out as much time as you need to . " The opening sequence features a large number of allusions to popular culture , including references to The Natural ( 1984 film ) , Happy Days ( television sitcom ) , and Men in Black ( 1997 film ) .
= = Themes = =
" The Monkey Suit " is an episode that tackles the creation – evolution controversy , and according to Theresa Sanders in her book Approaching Eden : Adam and Eve in Popular Culture , " skewered antievolution legislation . " The authors of the book Chronology of the Evolution @-@ Creationism Controversy commented that the episode " caricatures creationism as an intellectual joke . " Burns has cited the episode as " a nice example of The Simpsons really taking one clear side " . However , as pointed out by Sanders , it " should be pointed out that though the Simpsons episode clearly sides with Darwin , evolutionists come in for criticism as well . When Ned and his sons go into the museum 's Hall of Man , one of the exhibits they see in support of evolution is a collection of dinosaur bones with the title ' Indisputable Fossil Records . ' The cartoon 's inclusion of the sign can be interpreted as mocking the pretension that science knows all and may not be questioned . " Sanders cited another scene as an example of this ; at the trial , Drummond asks Professor Frink if " this theory of evolution necessarily mean that there is no God ? " , to which he replies , " No , of course not . It just says that God is an impotent nothing from nowhere with less power than the undersecretary of Agriculture . " Sanders wrote that " His arrogance is clear , and equally clear is the show 's satirical presentation of science 's hubris . "
Ted Gournelos analyzed " The Monkey Suit " in his 2009 book Popular Culture and the Future of Politics : Cultural Studies and the Tao of South Park , writing : " More than anything , the episode is used to critique the demonization of evolutionary theory by religious propaganda , by an instructional video used in the school ( that shows a drunken Charles Darwin passionately kissing Satan ) as well as by the prosecuting attorney . This allows for a somewhat leftist discussion of the issue , but ultimately is unable to address the rise of Christian fundamentalism in the United States [ ... ] " . Gournelos noted that the episode focuses on the old Scopes Monkey Trial and does not address contemporary creation – evolution debates , adding : " Interestingly , The Simpsons continues to place creationism at a higher popular plain than evolution , as the jury and trial audience are obviously biased towards the creationists ( who , unlike in contemporary cases , are the prosecutors rather than the plaintiffs ) . " Gournelos concluded that the episode " pokes gentle fun at media rhetoric and the questioning of evolutionary theory [ ... ] , but is unable or unwilling to address the rise of intelligent design or contemporary court battles ( in Pennsylvania [ see Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District ] , Kansas [ see Kansas evolution hearings ] , and elsewhere ) that might encourage debate in its audience . "
= = Release = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 14 , 2006 . During this broadcast , it was seen by approximately 8 @.@ 41 millions viewers , finishing forty @-@ sixth in the ratings for the week of May 8 – 14 , 2006 . Since airing , the episode has received generally positive reviews from critics . In a retrospective that was published on the twentieth anniversary of The Simpsons in 2010 , writers for BBC News selected " The Monkey Suit " as one of the show 's " 10 classic episodes " , one they said demonstrated that " the writers still have fire in their bellies . " TV Squad critic Adam Finley wrote that " Last night 's episode had some good moments , but it did feel like they were treading upon somewhat familiar ground and not saying anything especially new , " referring to the fact the issue of science and religion has been dealt with before on the show , " most notably in the ' Lisa the Skeptic ' episode in which the supposed skeleton of a dead angel is found . " In 2007 , " The Monkey Suit " won an award from the Independent Investigations Group ( IIG ) for being " one of those rare shows in the media that encourage science , critical thinking , and ridicule those shows that peddle pseudoscience and superstition . " J. Stewart Burns , the writer of the episode , was present at the awards ceremony to accept the award .
While reviewing the seventeenth season of The Simpsons , Jesse Hassenger of PopMatters noted that he thought the show had declined in quality compared to its earlier years , and added that the stronger episodes in the later seasons are that ones that " satirize topical issues " , giving " The Monkey Suit " as an example . Similarly , Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram staff writer Robert Philpot commented that " Even in its weak seasons , this show has always been good for at least one belly laugh per episode . Not this year [ season seventeen ] . Aside from an installment that took on the evolution -vs.-creationism edge and a couple of other bits , the satirical edge has really dulled , making the announcement that it will have at least two more seasons a cause for concern rather than celebration . " In the July 26 , 2007 issue of Nature , the scientific journal 's editorial staff listed among " The Top Ten science moments in The Simpsons " the scene from the episode in which " Flanders is flabbergasted that the science museum 's exhibit on the origins of man both highlights evolution and makes light of creationism — and , to top it all , has a unisex bathroom . "
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= Horse =
The horse ( Equus ferus caballus ) is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus . It is an odd @-@ toed ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae . The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi @-@ toed creature , Eohippus , into the large , single @-@ toed animal of today . Humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BC , and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC . Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated , although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses . These feral populations are not true wild horses , as this term is used to describe horses that have never been domesticated , such as the endangered Przewalski 's horse , a separate subspecies , and the only remaining true wild horse . There is an extensive , specialized vocabulary used to describe equine @-@ related concepts , covering everything from anatomy to life stages , size , colors , markings , breeds , locomotion , and behavior .
Horses ' anatomy enables them to make use of speed to escape predators and they have a well @-@ developed sense of balance and a strong fight @-@ or @-@ flight response . Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait : horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down . Female horses , called mares , carry their young for approximately 11 months , and a young horse , called a foal , can stand and run shortly following birth . Most domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in harness between the ages of two and four . They reach full adult development by age five , and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years .
Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament : spirited " hot bloods " with speed and endurance ; " cold bloods " , such as draft horses and some ponies , suitable for slow , heavy work ; and " warmbloods " , developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods , often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes , particularly in Europe . There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today , developed for many different uses .
Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non @-@ competitive recreational pursuits , as well as in working activities such as police work , agriculture , entertainment , and therapy . Horses were historically used in warfare , from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed , using many different styles of equipment and methods of control . Many products are derived from horses , including meat , milk , hide , hair , bone , and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares . Humans provide domesticated horses with food , water and shelter , as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers .
= = Biology = =
Specific terms and specialized language are used to describe equine anatomy , different life stages , colors and breeds .
= = = Lifespan and life stages = = =
Depending on breed , management and environment , the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years . Uncommonly , a few animals live into their 40s and , occasionally , beyond . The oldest verifiable record was " Old Billy " , a 19th @-@ century horse that lived to the age of 62 . In modern times , Sugar Puff , who had been listed in Guinness World Records as the world 's oldest living pony , died in 2007 at age 56 .
Regardless of a horse or pony 's actual birth date , for most competition purposes a year is added to its age each January 1 of each year in the Northern Hemisphere and each August 1 in the Southern Hemisphere . The exception is in endurance riding , where the minimum age to compete is based on the animal 's actual calendar age .
The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages :
Colt : A male horse under the age of four . A common terminology error is to call any young horse a " colt " , when the term actually only refers to young male horses .
Filly : A female horse under the age of four .
Foal : A horse of either sex less than one year old . A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling . Most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age , although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects .
Gelding : A castrated male horse of any age .
Mare : A female horse four years old and older .
Stallion : A non @-@ castrated male horse four years old and older . The term " horse " is sometimes used colloquially to refer specifically to a stallion .
Yearling : A horse of either sex that is between one and two years old .
In horse racing , these definitions may differ : For example , in the British Isles , Thoroughbred horse racing defines colts and fillies as less than five years old . However , Australian Thoroughbred racing defines colts and fillies as less than four years old .
= = = Size and measurement = = =
The height of horses is usually measured at the highest point of the withers , where the neck meets the back . This point is used because it is a stable point of the anatomy , unlike the head or neck , which move up and down in relation to the body of the horse .
In English @-@ speaking countries , the height of horses is often stated in units of hands and inches : one hand is equal to 4 inches ( 101 @.@ 6 mm ) . The height is expressed as the number of full hands , followed by a point , then the number of additional inches , and ending with the abbreviation " h " or " hh " ( for " hands high " ) . Thus , a horse described as " 15 @.@ 2 h " is 15 hands plus 2 inches , for a total of 62 inches ( 157 @.@ 5 cm ) in height .
The size of horses varies by breed , but also is influenced by nutrition . Light riding horses usually range in height from 14 to 16 hands ( 56 to 64 inches , 142 to 163 cm ) and can weigh from 380 to 550 kilograms ( 840 to 1 @,@ 210 lb ) . Larger riding horses usually start at about 15 @.@ 2 hands ( 62 inches , 157 cm ) and often are as tall as 17 hands ( 68 inches , 173 cm ) , weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 100 to 1 @,@ 320 lb ) . Heavy or draft horses are usually at least 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) high and can be as tall as 18 hands ( 72 inches , 183 cm ) high . They can weigh from about 700 to 1 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 540 to 2 @,@ 200 lb ) .
The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire horse named Mammoth , who was born in 1848 . He stood 21 @.@ 2 1 ⁄ 4 hands ( 86 @.@ 25 inches , 219 cm ) high and his peak weight was estimated at 1 @,@ 524 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 360 lb ) . The current record holder for the world 's smallest horse is Thumbelina , a fully mature miniature horse affected by dwarfism . She is 17 in ( 43 cm ) tall and weighs 57 lb ( 26 kg ) .
= = = = Ponies = = = =
Ponies are taxonomically the same animals as horses . The distinction between a horse and pony is commonly drawn on the basis of height , especially for competition purposes . However , height alone is not dispositive ; the difference between horses and ponies may also include aspects of phenotype , including conformation and temperament .
The traditional standard for height of a horse or a pony at maturity is 14 @.@ 2 hands ( 58 inches , 147 cm ) . An animal 14 @.@ 2 h or over is usually considered to be a horse and one less than 14 @.@ 2 h a pony , but there are many exceptions to the traditional standard . In Australia , ponies are considered to be those under 14 hands ( 56 inches , 142 cm ) , For competition in the Western division of the United States Equestrian Federation , the cutoff is 14 @.@ 1 hands ( 57 inches , 145 cm ) The International Federation for Equestrian Sports , the world governing body for horse sport , uses metric measurements and defines a pony as being any horse measuring less than 148 centimetres ( 58 @.@ 27 in ) at the withers without shoes , which is just over 14 @.@ 2 h , and 149 centimetres ( 58 @.@ 66 in ) , or just over 14 @.@ 2 ½ h , with shoes .
Height is not the sole criterion for distinguishing horses from ponies . Breed registries for horses that typically produce individuals both under and over 14 @.@ 2 h consider all animals of that breed to be horses regardless of their height . Conversely , some pony breeds may have features in common with horses , and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14 @.@ 2 h , but are still considered to be ponies .
Ponies often exhibit thicker manes , tails , and overall coat . They also have proportionally shorter legs , wider barrels , heavier bone , shorter and thicker necks , and short heads with broad foreheads . They may have calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers . Small size , by itself , is not an exclusive determinant . For example , the Shetland pony which averages 10 hands ( 40 inches , 102 cm ) , is considered a pony . Conversely , breeds such as the Falabella and other miniature horses , which can be no taller than 30 inches ( 76 cm ) , are classified by their registries as very small horses , not ponies .
= = = Genetics = = =
Horses have 64 chromosomes . The horse genome was sequenced in 2007 . It contains 2 @.@ 7 billion DNA base pairs , which is larger than the dog genome , but smaller than the human genome or the bovine genome . The map is available to researchers .
= = = Colors and markings = = =
Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings , described by a specialized vocabulary . Often , a horse is classified first by its coat color , before breed or sex . Horses of the same color may be distinguished from one another by white markings , which , along with various spotting patterns , are inherited separately from coat color .
Many genes that create horse coat colors and patterns have been identified . Current genetic tests can identify at least 13 different alleles influencing coat color , and research continues to discover new genes linked to specific traits . The basic coat colors of chestnut and black are determined by the gene controlled by the Melanocortin 1 receptor , also known as the " extension gene " or " red factor , " as its recessive form is " red " ( chestnut ) and its dominant form is black . Additional genes control suppression of black color to point coloration that results in a bay , spotting patterns such as pinto or leopard , dilution genes such as palomino or dun , as well as graying , and all the other factors that create the many possible coat colors found in horses .
Horses which have a white coat color are often mislabeled ; a horse that looks " white " is usually a middle @-@ aged or older gray . Grays are born a darker shade , get lighter as they age , but usually keep black skin underneath their white hair coat ( with the exception of pink skin under white markings ) . The only horses properly called white are born with a predominantly white hair coat and pink skin , a fairly rare occurrence . Different and unrelated genetic factors can produce white coat colors in horses , including several different alleles of dominant white and the sabino @-@ 1 gene . However , there are no " albino " horses , defined as having both pink skin and red eyes .
= = = Reproduction and development = = =
Gestation lasts approximately 340 days , with an average range 320 – 370 days , and usually results in one foal ; twins are rare . Horses are a precocial species , and foals are capable of standing and running within a short time following birth . Foals are usually born in the spring . The estrous cycle of a mare occurs roughly every 19 – 22 days and occurs from early spring into autumn . Most mares enter an anestrus period during the winter and thus do not cycle in this period . Foals are generally weaned from their mothers between four and six months of age .
Horses , particularly colts , sometimes are physically capable of reproduction at about 18 months , but domesticated horses are rarely allowed to breed before the age of three , especially females . Horses four years old are considered mature , although the skeleton normally continues to develop until the age of six ; maturation also depends on the horse 's size , breed , sex , and quality of care . Larger horses have larger bones ; therefore , not only do the bones take longer to form bone tissue , but the epiphyseal plates are larger and take longer to convert from cartilage to bone . These plates convert after the other parts of the bones , and are crucial to development .
Depending on maturity , breed , and work expected , horses are usually put under saddle and trained to be ridden between the ages of two and four . Although Thoroughbred race horses are put on the track as young as the age of two in some countries , horses specifically bred for sports such as dressage are generally not put under saddle until they are three or four years old , because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed . For endurance riding competition , horses are not deemed mature enough to compete until they are a full 60 calendar months ( five years ) old .
= = = Anatomy = = =
= = = = Skeletal system = = = =
The horse skeleton averages 205 bones . A significant difference between the horse skeleton and that of a human is the lack of a collarbone — the horse 's forelimbs are attached to the spinal column by a powerful set of muscles , tendons , and ligaments that attach the shoulder blade to the torso . The horse 's legs and hooves are also unique structures . Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human . For example , the body part that is called a horse 's " knee " is actually made up of the carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist . Similarly , the hock contains bones equivalent to those in the human ankle and heel . The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot , and the fetlock ( incorrectly called the " ankle " ) is actually the proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones ( a single equivalent to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones ) and the proximal phalanges , located where one finds the " knuckles " of a human . A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks , only skin , hair , bone , tendons , ligaments , cartilage , and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the hoof .
= = = = Hooves = = = =
The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage , " no foot , no horse " . The horse hoof begins with the distal phalanges , the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe , surrounded by cartilage and other specialized , blood @-@ rich soft tissues such as the laminae . The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made of keratin , the same material as a human fingernail . The end result is that a horse , weighing on average 500 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) , travels on the same bones as would a human on tiptoe . For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions , some horses have horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional farrier . The hoof continually grows , and in most domesticated horses needs to be trimmed ( and horseshoes reset , if used ) every five to eight weeks , though the hooves of horses in the wild wear down and regrow at a rate suitable for their terrain .
= = = = Teeth = = = =
Horses are adapted to grazing . In an adult horse , there are 12 incisors at the front of the mouth , adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation . There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing , the premolars and molars , at the back of the mouth . Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors , a type of canine teeth called " tushes " . Some horses , both male and female , will also develop one to four very small vestigial teeth in front of the molars , known as " wolf " teeth , which are generally removed because they can interfere with the bit . There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the gums , or " bars " of the horse 's mouth when the horse is bridled .
An estimate of a horse 's age can be made from looking at its teeth . The teeth continue to erupt throughout life and are worn down by grazing . Therefore , the incisors show changes as the horse ages ; they develop a distinct wear pattern , changes in tooth shape , and changes in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet . This allows a very rough estimate of a horse 's age , although diet and veterinary care can also affect the rate of tooth wear .
= = = = Digestion = = = =
Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material , consumed steadily throughout the day . Therefore , compared to humans , they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients . A 450 @-@ kilogram ( 990 lb ) horse will eat 7 to 11 kilograms ( 15 to 24 lb ) of food per day and , under normal use , drink 38 to 45 litres ( 8 @.@ 4 to 9 @.@ 9 imp gal ; 10 to 12 US gal ) of water . Horses are not ruminants , they have only one stomach , like humans , but unlike humans , they can utilize cellulose , a major component of grass . Horses are hindgut fermenters , Cellulose fermentation by symbiotic bacteria occurs in the cecum , or " water gut " , which food goes through before reaching the large intestine . Horses cannot vomit , so digestion problems can quickly cause colic , a leading cause of death .
= = = = Senses = = = =
The horses ' senses are based on their status as prey animals , where they must be aware of their surroundings at all times . They have the largest eyes of any land mammal , and are lateral @-@ eyed , meaning that their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads . This means that horses have a range of vision of more than 350 ° , with approximately 65 ° of this being binocular vision and the remaining 285 ° monocular vision . Horses have excellent day and night vision , but they have two @-@ color , or dichromatic vision ; their color vision is somewhat like red @-@ green color blindness in humans , where certain colors , especially red and related colors , appear as a shade of green .
Their sense of smell , while much better than that of humans , is not quite as good as that of a dog . It is believed to play a key role in the social interactions of horses as well as detecting other key scents in the environment . Horses have two olfactory centers . The first system is in the nostrils and nasal cavity , which analyze a wide range of odors . The second , located under the nasal cavity , are the Vomeronasal organs , also called Jacobson 's organs . These have a separate nerve pathway to the brain and appear to primarily analyze pheromones .
A horse 's hearing is good , and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180 ° , giving the potential for 360 ° hearing without having to move the head . Noise impacts the behavior of horses and certain kinds of noise may contribute to stress : A 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled horses were calmest in a quiet setting , or if listening to country or classical music , but displayed signs of nervousness when listening to jazz or rock music . This study also recommended keeping music under a volume of 21 decibels . An Australian study found that stabled racehorses listening to talk radio had a higher rate of gastric ulcers than horses listening to music , and racehorses stabled where a radio was played had a higher overall rate of ulceration than horses stabled where there was no radio playing .
Horses have a great sense of balance , due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly developed proprioception — the unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times . A horse 's sense of touch is well developed . The most sensitive areas are around the eyes , ears , and nose . Horses are able to sense contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body .
Horses have an advanced sense of taste , which allows them to sort through fodder and choose what they would most like to eat , and their prehensile lips can easily sort even small grains . Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants , however , there are exceptions ; horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when there is adequate healthy food .
= = = Movement = = =
All horses move naturally with four basic gaits : the four @-@ beat walk , which averages 6 @.@ 4 kilometres per hour ( 4 @.@ 0 mph ) ; the two @-@ beat trot or jog at 13 to 19 kilometres per hour ( 8 @.@ 1 to 11 @.@ 8 mph ) ( faster for harness racing horses ) ; the canter or lope , a three @-@ beat gait that is 19 to 24 kilometres per hour ( 12 to 15 mph ) ; and the gallop . The gallop averages 40 to 48 kilometres per hour ( 25 to 30 mph ) , but the world record for a horse galloping over a short , sprint distance is 70 @.@ 76 kilometres per hour ( 43 @.@ 97 mph ) . Besides these basic gaits , some horses perform a two @-@ beat pace , instead of the trot . There also are several four @-@ beat " ambling " gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace , though smoother to ride . These include the lateral rack , running walk , and tölt as well as the diagonal fox trot . Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds , known collectively as gaited horses . Often , gaited horses replace the trot with one of the ambling gaits .
= = = Behavior = = =
Horses are prey animals with a strong fight @-@ or @-@ flight response . Their first reaction to threat is to startle and usually flee , although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is impossible or if their young are threatened . They also tend to be curious ; when startled , they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright , and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non @-@ threatening . Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed , agility , alertness and endurance ; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors . However , through selective breeding , some breeds of horses are quite docile , particularly certain draft horses .
Horses are herd animals , with a clear hierarchy of rank , led by a dominant individual , usually a mare . They are also social creatures that are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals , including humans . They communicate in various ways , including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying , mutual grooming , and body language . Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated , but with training , horses can learn to accept a human as a companion , and thus be comfortable away from other horses . However , when confined with insufficient companionship , exercise , or stimulation , individuals may develop stable vices , an assortment of bad habits , mostly stereotypies of psychological origin , that include wood chewing , wall kicking , " weaving " ( rocking back and forth ) , and other problems .
= = = = Intelligence and learning = = = =
Studies have indicated that horses perform a number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis , meeting mental challenges that include food procurement and identification of individuals within a social system . They also have good spatial discrimination abilities . Studies have assessed equine intelligence in areas such as problem solving , speed of learning , and memory . Horses excel at simple learning , but also are able to use more advanced cognitive abilities that involve categorization and concept learning . They can learn using habituation , desensitization , classical conditioning , and operant conditioning , and positive and negative reinforcement . One study has indicated that horses can differentiate between " more or less " if the quantity involved is less than four .
Domesticated horses may face greater mental challenges than wild horses , because they live in artificial environments that prevent instinctive behavior whilst also learning tasks that are not natural . Horses are animals of habit that respond well to regimentation , and respond best when the same routines and techniques are used consistently . One trainer believes that " intelligent " horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style that best fits with an individual animal 's natural inclinations .
= = = = Temperament = = = =
Horses are mammals , and as such are warm @-@ blooded , or endothermic creatures , as opposed to cold @-@ blooded , or poikilothermic animals . However , these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine terminology , used to describe temperament , not body temperature . For example , the " hot @-@ bloods " , such as many race horses , exhibit more sensitivity and energy , while the " cold @-@ bloods " , such as most draft breeds , are quieter and calmer . Sometimes " hot @-@ bloods " are classified as " light horses " or " riding horses " , with the " cold @-@ bloods " classified as " draft horses " or " work horses " .
" Hot blooded " breeds include " oriental horses " such as the Akhal @-@ Teke , Arabian horse , Barb and now @-@ extinct Turkoman horse , as well as the Thoroughbred , a breed developed in England from the older oriental breeds . Hot bloods tend to be spirited , bold , and learn quickly . They are bred for agility and speed . They tend to be physically refined — thin @-@ skinned , slim , and long @-@ legged . The original oriental breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these traits into racing and light cavalry horses .
Muscular , heavy draft horses are known as " cold bloods " , as they are bred not only for strength , but also to have the calm , patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people . They are sometimes nicknamed " gentle giants " . Well @-@ known draft breeds include the Belgian and the Clydesdale . Some , like the Percheron , are lighter and livelier , developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates . Others , such as the Shire , are slower and more powerful , bred to plow fields with heavy , clay @-@ based soils . The cold @-@ blooded group also includes some pony breeds .
" Warmblood " breeds , such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian , developed when European carriage and war horses were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds , producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse , but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed . Certain pony breeds with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders . Warmbloods are considered a " light horse " or " riding horse " .
Today , the term " Warmblood " refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that are used for competition in dressage and show jumping . Strictly speaking , the term " warm blood " refers to any cross between cold @-@ blooded and hot @-@ blooded breeds . Examples include breeds such as the Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay . The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians , such as the Morgan horse .
= = = = Sleep patterns = = = =
Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down . In an adaptation from life in the wild , horses are able to enter light sleep by using a " stay apparatus " in their legs , allowing them to doze without collapsing . Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators . A horse kept alone will not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a constant eye out for danger .
Unlike humans , horses do not sleep in a solid , unbroken period of time , but take many short periods of rest . Horses spend four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest , and from a few minutes to several hours lying down . Total sleep time in a 24 @-@ hour period may range from several minutes to a couple of hours , mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes each . The average sleep time of a domestic horse is said to be 2 @.@ 9 hours per day .
Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep . They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements . However , if a horse is never allowed to lie down , after several days it will become sleep @-@ deprived , and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing . This condition differs from narcolepsy , although horses may also suffer from that disorder .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The horse adapted to survive in areas of wide @-@ open terrain with sparse vegetation , surviving in an ecosystem where other large grazing animals , especially ruminants , could not . Horses and other equids are odd @-@ toed ungulates of the order Perissodactyla , a group of mammals that was dominant during the Tertiary period . In the past , this order contained 14 families , but only three — Equidae ( the horse and related species ) , the tapir , and the rhinoceros — have survived to the present day .
The earliest known member of the family Equidae was the Hyracotherium , which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago , during the Eocene period . It had 4 toes on each front foot , and 3 toes on each back foot . The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with the Mesohippus , which lived 32 to 37 million years ago . Over time , the extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished . All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of small vestigial bones on the leg below the knee , known informally as splint bones . Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal capable of running at great speed . By about 5 million years ago , the modern Equus had evolved . Equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft , tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material , then to grazing of tougher plains grasses . Thus proto @-@ horses changed from leaf @-@ eating forest @-@ dwellers to grass @-@ eating inhabitants of semi @-@ arid regions worldwide , including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America .
By about 15 @,@ 000 years ago , Equus ferus was a widespread holarctic species . Horse bones from this time period , the late Pleistocene , are found in Europe , Eurasia , Beringia , and North America . Yet between 10 @,@ 000 and 7 @,@ 600 years ago , the horse became extinct in North America and rare elsewhere . The reasons for this extinction are not fully known , but one theory notes that extinction in North America paralleled human arrival . Another theory points to climate change , noting that approximately 12 @,@ 500 years ago , the grasses characteristic of a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra , which was covered with unpalatable plants .
= = = Wild species surviving into modern times = = =
A truly wild horse is a species or subspecies with no ancestors that were ever domesticated . Therefore , most " wild " horses today are actually feral horses , animals that escaped or were turned loose from domestic herds and the descendants of those animals . Only two never @-@ domesticated subspecies , the Tarpan and the Przewalski 's Horse , survived into recorded history and only the latter survives today .
The Przewalski 's horse ( Equus ferus przewalskii ) , named after the Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky , is a rare Asian animal . It is also known as the Mongolian wild horse ; Mongolian people know it as the taki , and the Kyrgyz people call it a kirtag . The subspecies was presumed extinct in the wild between 1969 and 1992 , while a small breeding population survived in zoos around the world . In 1992 , it was reestablished in the wild due to the conservation efforts of numerous zoos . Today , a small wild breeding population exists in Mongolia . There are additional animals still maintained at zoos throughout the world .
The tarpan or European wild horse ( Equus ferus ferus ) was found in Europe and much of Asia . It survived into the historical era , but became extinct in 1909 , when the last captive died in a Russian zoo . Thus , the genetic line was lost . Attempts have been made to recreate the tarpan , which resulted in horses with outward physical similarities , but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and not true wild horses .
Periodically , populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to be relict populations of wild horses , but generally have been proven to be feral or domestic . For example , the Riwoche horse of Tibet was proposed as such , but testing did not reveal genetic differences from domesticated horses . Similarly , the Sorraia of Portugal was proposed as a direct descendant of the Tarpan based on shared characteristics , but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely related to other horse breeds and that the outward similarity is an unreliable measure of relatedness .
= = = Other modern equids = = =
Besides the horse , there are seven other species of genus Equus in the Equidae family . These are the ass or donkey , Equus asinus ; the mountain zebra , Equus zebra ; plains zebra , Equus quagga ; Grévy 's zebra , Equus grevyi ; the kiang , Equus kiang ; and the onager , Equus hemionus .
Horses can crossbreed with other members of their genus . The most common hybrid is the mule , a cross between a " jack " ( male donkey ) and a mare . A related hybrid , a hinny , is a cross between a stallion and a jenny ( female donkey ) . Other hybrids include the zorse , a cross between a zebra and a horse . With rare exceptions , most hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce .
= = Domestication = =
Domestication of the horse most likely took place in central Asia prior to 3500 BC . Two major sources of information are used to determine where and when the horse was first domesticated and how the domesticated horse spread around the world . The first source is based on palaeological and archaeological discoveries ; the second source is a comparison of DNA obtained from modern horses to that from bones and teeth of ancient horse remains .
The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan , dating to approximately 3500 – 4000 BC . By 3000 BC , the horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BC there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe , indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent . The most recent , but most irrefutable evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were interred with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c . 2100 BC .
Domestication is also studied by using the genetic material of present @-@ day horses and comparing it with the genetic material present in the bones and teeth of horse remains found in archaeological and palaeological excavations . The variation in the genetic material shows that very few wild stallions contributed to the domestic horse , while many mares were part of early domesticated herds . This is reflected in the difference in genetic variation between the DNA that is passed on along the paternal , or sire line ( Y @-@ chromosome ) versus that passed on along the maternal , or dam line ( mitochondrial DNA ) . There are very low levels of Y @-@ chromosome variability , but a great deal of genetic variation in mitochondrial DNA . There is also regional variation in mitochondrial DNA due to the inclusion of wild mares in domestic herds . Another characteristic of domestication is an increase in coat color variation . In horses , this increased dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BC .
Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse , various hypotheses were proposed . One classification was based on body types and conformation , suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their environment prior to domestication . Another hypothesis held that the four prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication . However , the lack of a detectable substructure in the horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses .
= = = Feral populations = = =
Feral horses are born and live in the wild , but are descended from domesticated animals . Many populations of feral horses exist throughout the world . Studies of feral herds have provided useful insights into the behavior of prehistoric horses , as well as greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive horses that live in domesticated conditions .
There are also semi @-@ feral horses in many parts of the world , such as Dartmoor and the New Forest in the UK , where the animals are all privately owned but live for significant amounts of time in " wild " conditions on undeveloped , often public , lands . Owners of such animals often pay a fee for grazing rights .
= = = Breeds = = =
The concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled , written breed registry has come to be particularly significant and important in modern times . Sometimes purebred horses are incorrectly or inaccurately called " thoroughbreds " . Thoroughbred is a specific breed of horse , while a " purebred " is a horse ( or any other animal ) with a defined pedigree recognized by a breed registry . Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring , such as conformation , color , performance ability , or disposition . These inherited traits result from a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods . Horses have been selectively bred since their domestication . An early example of people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin , who had a reputation for careful practices , keeping extensive pedigrees of their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure bloodlines . These pedigrees were originally transmitted via an oral tradition . In the 14th century , Carthusian monks of southern Spain kept meticulous pedigrees of bloodstock lineages still found today in the Andalusian horse .
Breeds developed due to a need for " form to function " , the necessity to develop certain characteristics in order to perform a particular type of work . Thus , a powerful but refined breed such as the Andalusian developed as riding horses with an aptitude for dressage . Heavy draft horses developed out of a need to perform demanding farm work and pull heavy wagons . Other horse breeds developed specifically for light agricultural work , carriage and road work , various sport disciplines , or simply as pets . Some breeds developed through centuries of crossing other breeds , while others descended from a single foundation sire , or other limited or restricted foundation bloodstock . One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for Thoroughbreds , which began in 1791 and traced back to the foundation bloodstock for the breed . There are more than 300 horse breeds in the world today .
= = Interaction with humans = =
Worldwide , horses play a role within human cultures and have done so for millennia . Horses are used for leisure activities , sports , and working purposes . The Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) estimates that in 2008 , there were almost 59 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 horses in the world , with around 33 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 in the Americas , 13 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 in Asia and 6 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 in Europe and smaller portions in Africa and Oceania . There are estimated to be 9 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 horses in the United States alone . The American Horse Council estimates that horse @-@ related activities have a direct impact on the economy of the United States of over $ 39 billion , and when indirect spending is considered , the impact is over $ 102 billion . In a 2004 " poll " conducted by Animal Planet , more than 50 @,@ 000 viewers from 73 countries voted for the horse as the world 's 4th favorite animal .
Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity ; to aid this process horses are usually ridden with a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning , and a bridle or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control . Sometimes horses are ridden without a saddle , and occasionally , horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other headgear . Many horses are also driven , which requires a harness , bridle , and some type of vehicle .
= = = Sport = = =
Historically , equestrians honed their skills through games and races . Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle . Many sports , such as dressage , eventing and show jumping , have origins in military training , which were focused on control and balance of both horse and rider . Other sports , such as rodeo , developed from practical skills such as those needed on working ranches and stations . Sport hunting from horseback evolved from earlier practical hunting techniques . Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers . All forms of competition , requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider , resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport . The popularity of equestrian sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat .
Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in a variety of sporting competitions . Examples include show jumping , dressage , three @-@ day eventing , competitive driving , endurance riding , gymkhana , rodeos , and fox hunting . Horse shows , which have their origins in medieval European fairs , are held around the world . They host a huge range of classes , covering all of the mounted and harness disciplines , as well as " In @-@ hand " classes where the horses are led , rather than ridden , to be evaluated on their conformation . The method of judging varies with the discipline , but winning usually depends on style and ability of both horse and rider . Sports such as polo do not judge the horse itself , but rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of the game . Although the horse requires specialized training to participate , the details of its performance are not judged , only the result of the rider 's actions — be it getting a ball through a goal or some other task . Examples of these sports of partnership between human and horse include jousting , in which the main goal is for one rider to unseat the other , and buzkashi , a team game played throughout Central Asia , the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback .
Horse racing is an equestrian sport and major international industry , watched in almost every nation of the world . There are three types : " flat " racing ; steeplechasing , i.e. racing over jumps ; and harness racing , where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small , light cart known as a sulky . A major part of horse racing 's economic importance lies in the gambling associated with it .
= = = Work = = =
There are certain jobs that horses do very well , and no technology has yet developed to fully replace them . For example , mounted police horses are still effective for certain types of patrol duties and crowd control . Cattle ranches still require riders on horseback to round up cattle that are scattered across remote , rugged terrain . Search and rescue organizations in some countries depend upon mounted teams to locate people , particularly hikers and children , and to provide disaster relief assistance . Horses can also be used in areas where it is necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil , such as nature reserves . They may also be the only form of transport allowed in wilderness areas . Horses are quieter than motorized vehicles . Law enforcement officers such as park rangers or game wardens may use horses for patrols , and horses or mules may also be used for clearing trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less effective .
Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world , an estimated 100 million horses , donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas . This number includes around 27 million working animals in Africa alone . Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses . In agriculture , less fossil fuel is used and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of draft animals such as horses . Logging with horses can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging .
= = = Entertainment and culture = = =
Modern horses are often used to reenact many of their historical work purposes . Horses are used , complete with equipment that is authentic or a meticulously recreated replica , in various live action historical reenactments of specific periods of history , especially recreations of famous battles . Horses are also used to preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial purposes . Countries such as the United Kingdom still use horse @-@ drawn carriages to convey royalty and other VIPs to and from certain culturally significant events . Public exhibitions are another example , such as the Budweiser Clydesdales , seen in parades and other public settings , a team of draft horses that pull a beer wagon similar to that used before the invention of the modern motorized truck .
Horses are frequently seen in television , films and literature . They are sometimes featured as a major character in films about particular animals , but also used as visual elements that assure the accuracy of historical stories . Both live horses and iconic images of horses are used in advertising to promote a variety of products . The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in heraldry , in a variety of poses and equipment . The mythologies of many cultures , including Greco @-@ Roman , Hindu , Islamic , and Norse , include references to both normal horses and those with wings or additional limbs , and multiple myths also call upon the horse to draw the chariots of the Moon and Sun . The horse also appears in the 12 @-@ year cycle of animals in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar .
= = = Therapeutic use = = =
People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial results from association with horses . Therapeutic riding is used to mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them improve their lives through improved balance and coordination , increased self @-@ confidence , and a greater feeling of freedom and independence . The benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the Paralympic Games and recognition of para @-@ equestrian events by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports ( FEI ) . Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for different physical , occupational , and speech therapy treatment strategies that utilize equine movement . In hippotherapy , a therapist uses the horse 's movement to improve their patient 's cognitive , coordination , balance , and fine motor skills , whereas therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills .
Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not . " Equine @-@ assisted " or " equine @-@ facilitated " therapy is a form of experiential psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals to assist people with mental illness , including anxiety disorders , psychotic disorders , mood disorders , behavioral difficulties , and those who are going through major life changes . There are also experimental programs using horses in prison settings . Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior of inmates and help reduce recidivism when they leave .
= = = Warfare = = =
Horses have been used in warfare for most of recorded history . The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to between 4000 and 3000 BC , and the use of horses in warfare was widespread by the end of the Bronze Age . Although mechanization has largely replaced the horse as a weapon of war , horses are still seen today in limited military uses , mostly for ceremonial purposes , or for reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are ineffective . Horses have been used in the 21st century by the Janjaweed militias in the War in Darfur .
= = = Products = = =
Horses are raw material for many products made by humans throughout history , including byproducts from the slaughter of horses as well as materials collected from living horses .
Products collected from living horses include mare 's milk , used by people with large horse herds , such as the Mongols , who let it ferment to produce kumis . Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols and other nomadic tribes , who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling . Drinking their own horses ' blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat . The drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogens extracted from the urine of pregnant mares ( pregnant mares ' urine ) , and was previously a widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy . The tail hair of horses can be used for making bows for string instruments such as the violin , viola , cello , and double bass .
Horse meat has been used as food for humans and carnivorous animals throughout the ages . It is eaten in many parts of the world , though consumption is taboo in some cultures , and a subject of political controversy in others . Horsehide leather has been used for boots , gloves , jackets , baseballs , and baseball gloves . Horse hooves can also be used to produce animal glue . Horse bones can be used to make implements . Specifically , in Italian cuisine , the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a spinto , which is used to test the readiness of a ( pig ) ham as it cures . In Asia , the saba is a horsehide vessel used in the production of kumis .
= = = Care = = =
Horses are grazing animals , and their major source of nutrients is good @-@ quality forage from hay or pasture . They can consume approximately 2 % to 2 @.@ 5 % of their body weight in dry feed each day . Therefore , a 450 @-@ kilogram ( 990 lb ) adult horse could eat up to 11 kilograms ( 24 lb ) of food . Sometimes , concentrated feed such as grain is fed in addition to pasture or hay , especially when the animal is very active . When grain is fed , equine nutritionists recommend that 50 % or more of the animal 's diet by weight should still be forage .
Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water , a minimum of 10 US gallons ( 38 L ) to 12 US gallons ( 45 L ) per day . Although horses are adapted to live outside , they require shelter from the wind and precipitation , which can range from a simple shed or shelter to an elaborate stable .
Horses require routine hoof care from a farrier , as well as vaccinations to protect against various diseases , and dental examinations from a veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist . If horses are kept inside in a barn , they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well @-@ being . When turned outside , they require well @-@ maintained , sturdy fences to be safely contained . Regular grooming is also helpful to help the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin .
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= Patience ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Patience " is the third episode of the eighth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on November 19 , 2000 . The episode was written and directed by series creator Chris Carter . " Patience " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . The episode received a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 2 and was viewed by 13 @.@ 3 million viewers . The episode received mixed to negative reviews from critics .
The series centers on FBI special agents Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and her new partner John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) — following the alien abduction of her former partner , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , John Doggett , after having been assigned to the X @-@ Files , joins Scully to investigate a series of gruesome murders that appear to be the work of a bat @-@ like creature . This being their first case together , Scully and Doggett find that their investigative techniques are less than similar .
Carter was inspired to write " Patience " to emulate the " back @-@ to @-@ basics stand alones [ … ] of the earlier seasons " . The episode was the first The X @-@ Files entry to neither feature actor David Duchovny nor feature his name in the opening credits . Furthermore , the episode was crafted to be the first to test Doggett 's skepticism of paranormal activity .
= = Plot = =
In Burley , Idaho , an undertaker and his wife are brutally murdered by some sort of flying creature . Later , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , who has been assigned to the X @-@ Files , begin talking about the case . Scully explains about the death of the undertaker and his wife and notes that the cause of death being blood loss from human bite marks on their bodies .
Scully and Doggett arrive at the crime scene in Idaho and meet Detective Yale Abbott . He says they are less sure that the bites were made by a human and draws their attention to the strange footprint , believing that wild animals fed on the bodies after the fact . Scully points out that there is only one footprint , which looks ominously human , and that if it were left by an animal there would be more footprints leading to the bodies . Scully and Doggett check out the house and find prints leading upstairs and into the attic . Inside , Scully and Doggett find the missing fingers of the undertaker . They look like they have been regurgitated by something and the claw marks in the attic suggest something was hanging from the rafters . Meanwhile , elderly Mrs. McKesson is killed in her attic while looking at a photo album .
At the morgue , Scully explains that she studied the bite wounds and discovered that they are similar , but intrinsically different , than human bites ; the saliva on the regurgitated fingers has anti @-@ coagulants in it , which only bats have in their saliva . Doggett finds the evidence interesting , due to the newspaper article he brought Scully : in 1956 , a series of deaths was reported that ended when a group of hunters killed a man @-@ bat creature and brought it to the county morgue in part of Montana . The coroner said the creature was neither bat nor man . Then the coroner was killed a few days later and soon after a few more people were killed or disappeared .
Scully and Doggett join the investigation at McKesson ’ s home . Scully suggests a connection between the burned body of Ariel McKesson who disappeared in 1956 and her mother , the latest victim . Scully believes that the burned body should be exhumed to potentially learn the connection with the other deaths . Later , the gravediggers already have the coffin excavated when Detective Abbott shows up at the town cemetery . They tell him that they did not have to dig because somebody already dug the coffin up and scratched the lid up . While they drive off with the body , Abbott inspects a dead tree . The creature is within and it eviscerates Abbott .
The police are upset about Abbott ’ s death and blame Scully while Doggett reminds them that only the thing that killed Abbott and the others is to blame . Scully explains Ariel McKesson died of heart failure and then was burned to cover something up . She realizes that all the victims were people who came in contact with the body of Ariel McKesson : Abbott investigated the crime , her mother identified the body , the undertaker prepared the body , and Myron Stefaniuk pulled the body from the river . All but Myron Stefaniuk are now dead . Doggett and Scully find Myron and ask him about Ernie Stefaniuk , one of the hunters from 1956 , who he reveals disappeared along time ago . The two eventually track down Ernie Stefaniuk , who tells them that he hid on an island in the middle of the town 's lake with his wife , Ariel , for 44 years . Ernie says that the bat creature kills anyone with Ernie ’ s scent on them , so he had burned his wife ’ s body to try and cover up the scent . He informs them that it hunts only at night and Myron is in danger . Doggett goes back to find Myron only to be attacked and badly torn up by the creature at the river .
Ernie says Scully is now marked and the creature will go after her too . When his ground radar goes off , Scully goes outside . Ernie stays inside and is butchered by the bat creature . Scully returns to see it ravaging Ernie ; she manages to shoot it before being knocked down . Doggett appears and shoots the creature several more times , saving Scully . The creature disappears into the night while Scully helps the injured Doggett .
= = Production = =
" Patience " was written and directed by series creator Chris Carter . The episode , inspired by the " back @-@ to @-@ basics stand alones [ … ] of the earlier seasons " , was the first episode of The X @-@ Files to neither feature actor David Duchovny nor feature his name in the opening credits . After settling his contract dispute with Fox , Duchovny quit full @-@ time participation in the show after the seventh season . In order to explain Mulder 's absence , Duchovny 's character was abducted by aliens in the seventh season finale , " Requiem " , and as such , did not appear in " Patience " .
The episode 's main villain , the human @-@ bat hybrid , was inspired by the 1970s comic book villain , Man @-@ Bat , one of the arch @-@ nemeses of Batman . During the filming of the episode , live bats were used ; the type of bat used in " Patience " was the Egyptian Fruit Bat . Furthermore , the episode was the first to test Doggett 's skepticism of paranormal activity . As Robert Patrick explained , " [ ' Patience ' ] is where it starts to toy with my willingness to believe in the paranormal and strange happenings . You 've got a guy that 's a bat , which is sort of out of the norm . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Patience " first aired on Fox on November 19 , 2000 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 2 , meaning that it was seen by 8 @.@ 2 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 27 million households , and 13 @.@ 3 million viewers . The episode ranked as the 42nd most @-@ watched episode for the week ending November 19 . The episode subsequently aired in the United Kingdom on the BBC Two on July 28 , 2002 . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " More deadly than a man . More ruthless than a bat . A hungry predator waits in the darkness for its next prey ... Scully and Doggett . "
= = = Reviews = = =
" Patience " received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Jay Anderson , writing for What Culture , was positive toward the episode . While noting the show 's return to its " dark , creepy [ ... ] roots " in the eighth season , Anderson described the episode as an " early success at returning to the realm of the scary " . Anderson ranked the human bat as the eighth creepiest creature of the show . Television Without Pity writer Jessica Morgan rated the episode a D and criticized the episode 's references to Mulder 's absence , most notably the scene wherein Scully put Mulder 's nameplate away , asking , sardonically , " Is that supposed to be symbolic , I wonder ? " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two noted that , despite the fact that " a lot of [ the episode ] works [ … ] because the scenes between Doggett and Scully are so good " , the positive aspects of the episode were not " put to better use in a more exciting episode ; this particular case hardly stretched anyone 's deductive prowess . " Shearman and Pearson later wrote that if the episode had been " a Mulder and Scully adventure , this would have been bottom of the barrel stuff . "
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C + " and criticized both its monster , and its guest cast . Concerning the former , he wrote that it was " just ridiculous " and that its design was " bland and generic " . Concerning the latter , he wrote that the cast was filled with " actors hamming it up " . VanDerWerff did note that the episode was better " than its reputation " suggested , but that it still was " undone by some very strange story choices and a dumb monster " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Vitaris bluntly wrote , " if you 're looking for a suspenseful , bite @-@ your @-@ nails , monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week X @-@ Files episode … this isn 't it . " Furthermore , she criticized the villain , calling it " a dull monster in fake @-@ looking make @-@ up " .
= = = Awards = = =
" Patience " earned a nomination for an ASC Award by the American Society of Cinematographers for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography - Regular Series .
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= First Massacre of Machecoul =
The Machecoul massacre is one of the first events of the War in the Vendée , a revolt against mass conscription and the civil constitution of the clergy . The first massacre took place on 11 March 1793 , in the provincial city of Machecoul , in the district of the lower Loire . The city was a thriving center of grain trade ; most of the victims were administrators , merchants and citizens of the city .
Although the Machecoul massacre , and others that followed it , are often viewed ( variously ) as a royalist revolt , or a counter @-@ revolution , twenty @-@ first century historians generally agree that Vendee revolt was a complicated popular event brought on by anti @-@ clericalism of the Revolution , mass conscription , and Jacobin anti @-@ federalism . In the geographic area south of the Loire , resistance to recruitment was particularly intense , and much of this area also resented intrusion by partisans of the republic , called " blue coats " , who brought with them new ideas about district and judicial organization , and who required reorganization of parishes with the so @-@ called juring priests ( those who had taken the civil oath ) . Consequently , the insurgency became a combination of many impulses , at which conscription and the organization of parishes led the list . The response to it was incredibly violent on both sides .
= = Background = =
In 1791 , two representatives on mission informed the National Convention of the disquieting condition of Vendée , and this news was quickly followed by the exposure of a royalist plot organized by the Marquis de la Rouerie . It was not until the social unrest combined with the external pressures from the Civil Constitution of the Clergy ( 1790 ) and the introduction of a levy of 300 @,@ 000 on the whole of France , decreed by the National Convention in February 1793 , that the region erupted .
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy required all clerics to swear allegiance to it and , by extension , to the increasingly anti @-@ clerical National Constituent Assembly . All but seven of the 160 French bishops refused the oath , as did about half of the parish priests . Persecution of the clergy and of the faithful was the first trigger of the rebellion . Those who refused the oath , called non @-@ juring priests , had been exiled or imprisoned . Women on their way to Mass were beaten in the streets . Religious orders had been suppressed and Church property , confiscated . On 3 March 1793 , most of the churches were ordered closed . Soldiers confiscated sacramental vessels and the people were forbidden to place crosses on graves .
Nearly all the purchasers of church land were bourgeois ; very few peasants benefited from the sales . To add to this insult , on 23 February 1793 the Convention required the raising of an additional 300 @,@ 000 troops from the provinces , an act which enraged the populace , who took up arms instead as The Catholic Army ; the term " Royal " was added later . This army fought first and foremost for the reopening of parish churches with the former priests .
In March 1793 , as word of the conscription requirements filtered into the countryside , many Vendéans refused to satisfy the decree of the levee en masse issued on 23 February 1793 . Within weeks the rebel forces had formed a substantial , if ill @-@ equipped , army , the Royal and Catholic Army , supported by two thousand irregular cavalry and a few captured artillery pieces . Most of the insurgents operated on a much smaller scale , using guerrilla tactics , supported by the local knowledge and the good @-@ will of the people .
= = Massacre = =
The irregular army raised in the countryside had not reached Machecoul , but the officials from the conscription officers had . On Monday , 11 March 1793 , a crowd arrived in the center of the town , from the surrounding countryside ; they started the chant Pas de milice ( no enlistments ) and surrounded the Republic 's conscription officers in the town . A nervous soldier opened fire and the enraged crowd retaliated . Between 22 and 26 soldiers were killed , including their lieutenant , Pierre @-@ Claude Ferré . The immediate victims also included the juring priest , Pierre Letort , who was bayoneted to death and whose body was mutilated , Pagnot the magistrate , and Étienne Gaschignard , the principal of the college . The National Guard was routed , and the rebels , including many women , seized those they called " patriots " — also called the " Blues " , or the people who supported the republican cause — and led them to prison in the old castle and the convent of Sisters of Cavalry . There they killed the guardsmen and some notable inhabitants , about 20 in total , although according to some testimony , as many as 26 were killed on the first day and 18 the next day . Alfred Lallié , another witness , gave 22 as the count of dead .
The situation then spiraled out of control . In the following days , the insurgents swelled to some six thousand men and women , and some of the republican adherents and their families fled to Nantes and other strongholds . On 19 March , many counter @-@ revolutionary suspects were rounded up and the republicans inflicted their own massacres : in La Rochelle , six non @-@ juring priests were hacked to death and their heads ( and other body parts ) shown throughout the city . About a week later , the insurgents from Machecoul seized the neighboring harbor town of Pornic ( approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the northwest ) on 23 March , this time joined by some of the irregular army that had been forming elsewhere , and sacked it . A republican patrol surprised the Vendeans , who were carousing on liberated cellars , and killed between 200 and 500 of them . The angry peasants returned to Machecoul and in reprisal killed another dozen prisoners on 27 March . In total , about 200 died ( not all in the battle ) , and when the survivors of Pornic returned to Machecoul , they pulled the detained " blue coats " out of the prisoner and shot them , a process that lasted over the next few weeks , into mid @-@ April .
Tales of brutality , some of which may have been true , abounded ; numbers of those killed escalated . Current research suggests that 150 were executed in the town overall , but contemporary republican reports put the figure at 500 . Despite the demonization of the insurgents , though , twenty @-@ two " blue coats " from the parish were saved by the request of their own neighborhoods ; others were even cleared by tribunals established to monitor executions , and overseen by the local jurist , René François Souchu . Souchu , a lawyer and judge by profession , directed the execution of approximately 50 republican officials and adherents on 3 April ; they were shot down and buried in a field outside of the city .
= = = Contemporary reports = = =
The most influential of the contemporary reports came from Citizen Boullemer , and was published in over 1000 pamphlets later in the year . Boullemer claimed to be among the few surviving eyewitnesses : " there arrived from all exits of the city , five to six thousand peasants , women and children , armed [ with ] guns , scythes , knives , shovels and pikes . They shouted , running the streets : peace ! peace ! " Boullemer 's account continues : they descended on Machecoul , confronted a detachment of the National guard that had come to enforce the levy . One hundred National Guardsmen and police defended the town against them . Louis @-@ Charles @-@ César Maupassant , a farmer , merchant and a deputy to the Convention , tried to harangue the attackers into quiescence , but could not be heard above the din . Most of the Republican troops and officials scattered before the threatening crowd . According to Louis Mortimer @-@ Ternaux , another eye @-@ witness , only three officers and five or six gendarmes remained at their posts . At that time , according to him , some national guardsmen who had tried to escape through an alley were ambushed by peasants , pursued , and finally brought down by the crowd at the feet of the deputy , Maupassant . The crowd then pulled him off his horse and killed him with a stroke of a shovel .
Boullemer 's wrote his sensational account well after the fact , in the safety of Rennes , where he was taken after being rescued by republican forces . Boullemer admitted that he had spent most of the six weeks of the upheaval at Machecoul in the safety of his granary , hiding from the peasants . His account of the terror , though lost nothing in the fact that he had seen little : the peasants in the town sounded the tocsin , he wrote , and others exploded from the surrounding fields . Within a short time the entire affair had become a wholesale massacre of republican troops , the constitutional priest , known radical sympathizers and anyone involved with the municipal administration . Prisoners had their hands tied behind their backs , and were linked with a rope passed under their armpits , in a so @-@ called rosary ; then they were dragged into fields and forced to dig their own graves before being gunned down . Patriots , those who supported the revolution , were hunted down , lashed to trees , and emasculated . Patriot women were raped and cut down in orchards . Boullemer placed the count of the dead at 552 .
= = View from Paris = =
From the Jacobin clubs , the Convention , and the streets and alleyways in Paris , this could only be viewed as insurrection . For them , the Revolution meant a France indivisible . Anything that divided France — anything that varied from the path set the revolutionary government — was dangerous to the success for the revolution itself . Any idea , an action , or thought that ran counter to the revolutionary ideology smacked of federalism or , worse , of royalist sentiment . The historians ' debate over federalism and the French Revolution reaches almost to the days of the Revolution itself . To be called a " federalist " in 1793 , 1794 , or 1795 , or any other time in the revolution , for that matter , was tantamount to being labeled as an anti @-@ revolutionary ; to be called anti @-@ revolutionary meant one was de facto a royalist . It was a convenient epithet : to be called a federalist alienated one from the principal radical goal of the revolution , which was to create a single , unified French Republic . Any notion of sectionalism — the possibility that a department or departments could establish for themselves a set of conditions and a government — must be labeled as anti @-@ revolutionary . For the moderate Girondins and the radical Montagnards , federalism meant the watering @-@ down of the Revolution , the violation of the civic body , and the loss of their dreams . If the peasants of the Vendée did not want to fight for the Revolution , if they preferred their priests and their ( dead ) king to their liberty , then they must be against the Revolution and , consequently , they must be severed from its benefits .
This uncompromising vision of revolutionary goals implied a plain and brutal truth : " convert heads or chop them off . " One deputy complained , " if there were only 30 @,@ 000 , it would be a simple matter of putting them all to the sword , but there are so many ! " Boullemer 's written description of the event was published as a pamphlet in November 1793 , and the representative on mission , Jacques Garnier , sent a thousand copies to the Convention , the Executive Council and to all departments ; it also served as a basis for the official report that François Toussaint Villers presented to the Convention .
= = Aftermath = =
There were other levy riots across France , when the departments started to draft men into the army in response to the Levy Decree but reaction in the northwest in March was particularly pronounced with large scale rioting verging on insurrection . By early April , in areas north of the Loire , order had been restored by the revolutionary government , but south of the river , in the four departments that became known as the Vendée Militaire , there were few troops to control rebels and what had started as rioting quickly took on the form of a full insurrection led by priests and the local nobility .
Evidence links these events to local dissatisfaction with the reorganization of the church into a government entity . The unrest began half way through Lent ; Easter that year occurred on 31 March 1793 , and , significantly , the initial violence was directed at the local priest Letort . Letort personified the revolution , and the republican government in Paris by taking the Civil Oath of the Clergy , essentially becoming a puppet of the republicans in Paris , at least in the eyes of the insurgents . The violence followed what Raymond Jonas called a singular pattern of logic : it targeted those who personified the revolution in their function or status : National Guard Lieutenant Ferré , such prominent townsmen as Deputy Maupassant , and the constitutional priest Letort . Yet , the local district administrator , the jurist Souchu , was left alone : apparently he was known for his anti @-@ republican sentiments and actually threw his lot in with the insurgents . After the furor in Machecoul died down later in the spring , the former pastor at Machecoul , the non @-@ juring priest François Priou , refused to celebrate at the now " liberated " church because the schismatic constitutional priest had profaned it . Instead , he said the Mass outside on a makeshift altar .
Class differences were not as great in the Vendée as in Paris or in other French provinces . In the rural Vendée , the local nobility seems to have been more permanently in residence and less bitterly resented than in other parts of France . Alexis de Tocqueville noted that most French nobles lived in cities by 1789 . An Intendants ' survey showed one of the few areas where they still lived with the peasants was the Vendée . Consequently , the conflicts that drove the revolution in Paris , for example , were also lessened in this particularly isolated part of France by the strong adherence of the populace to their Catholic faith .
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= Ersatz Yorck @-@ class battlecruiser =
The Ersatz Yorck class was a group of three battlecruisers ordered for the Imperial German Navy in April 1915 . The name derived from the fact that the lead ship was intended as a replacement ( German : ersatz ) for the armored cruiser Yorck , lost to mines in 1914 . They were a slightly enlarged version of the Mackensen @-@ class battlecruiser , armed with 38 cm ( 15 in ) guns as opposed to the 35 cm ( 13 @.@ 8 in ) weapons on the preceding design . The boilers would have been trunked into a single massive funnel . The three ships were originally ordered as part of the Mackensen class but the design was changed when details of the British Admiral @-@ class battlecruisers became known to German intelligence . The vessels were ordered under the provisional names Ersatz Yorck , Ersatz Gneisenau , and Ersatz Scharnhorst . They were considered to be replacements for the armored cruisers Yorck , which had been sunk by German mines in 1914 , and Gneisenau and Scharnhorst , both of which had been sunk at the Battle of the Falkland Islands also in 1914 .
As with the Mackensens , the three ships of the Ersatz Yorck class were never completed . This was primarily due to shifting wartime construction priorities ; U @-@ boats were deemed more important to Germany 's war effort , and so work on other types of ships was slowed or halted outright . The lead ship , Ersatz Yorck , was the only vessel of the three to have construction begin , though she was over two years from completion by the time work was abandoned . With the hull incomplete , the ship could not be launched and towed to ship @-@ breakers ; as a result , Ersatz Yorck was broken up in situ .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Ersatz Yorck @-@ class ships were an enlargement of the previous Mackensen @-@ class ships . They were 227 @.@ 80 m ( 747 ft 5 in ) long , compared to 223 m ( 731 ft 8 in ) on the earlier vessels . Ersatz Yorck had the same beam as the earlier vessels , at 30 @.@ 40 m ( 99 ft 9 in ) , and the same draft of 9 @.@ 30 m ( 30 ft 6 in ) . The ships were planned to displace 33 @,@ 500 tonnes ( 33 @,@ 000 long tons ) at standard weight , and up to 38 @,@ 000 t ( 37 @,@ 000 long tons ) fully laden . This was approximately 2 @,@ 500 t ( 2 @,@ 500 long tons ) heavier than the Mackensens . The Ersatz Yorck @-@ class ships ' hulls were to have been constructed with longitudinal steel frames with the outer plating riveted on .
= = = Machinery = = =
As with all German battlecruisers that had been built , the Ersatz Yorck @-@ class ships would have been equipped with four sets of Parsons turbine engines , each of which drove a 3 @-@ bladed screw that was 4 @.@ 20 m ( 13 ft 9 in ) in diameter . The turbines were supplied with steam by 24 coal @-@ fired Schulz @-@ Thornycroft single ended boilers and 8 oil @-@ fired Schulz @-@ Thornycroft double ended boilers . Ersatz Yorck and Ersatz Gneisenau were intended to use Föttinger fluid transmission for their turbines , while Ersatz Scharnhorst 's turbines retained direct coupled geared transmissions . The ships were to have electrical power provided by diesel generators . The Ersatz Yorcks were intended to mount a pair of twin rudders alongside each other for steering .
The power plant was rated 90 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower and 295 revolutions per minute , the same as the preceding Mackensen @-@ class ships . Their slightly greater size reduced their speed somewhat , from 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) in the Mackensen @-@ class ships to 27 @.@ 3 knots ( 50 @.@ 6 km / h ; 31 @.@ 4 mph ) for the new vessels . The ships were designed to store 850 t ( 840 long tons ) of coal and 250 t ( 250 long tons ) of oil in purpose @-@ designed fuel bunkers . However , the areas of the hull between the torpedo bulkhead and the outer wall of the ship were also used for fuel storage . This additional space provided an increased total of 4 @,@ 000 t ( 3 @,@ 900 long tons ) of coal and 2 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ) of oil . With fuel stores topped off , the ships were estimated to have been able to steam for 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at a cruising speed of 14 kn ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships ' main battery was to have consisted of eight 38 cm ( 15 in ) SK L / 45 guns in four Drh LC / 1913 twin gun turrets , placed in superfiring pairs fore and aft of the superstructure . These were the same " Langer Max " guns as those mounted on the Bayern @-@ class battleships . The guns could initially depress to − 8 degrees and elevate to 16 degrees ; this provided maximum range of 20 @,@ 400 m . The gun mountings were modified to allow elevation up to 20 degrees ; the range was correspondingly increased to 23 @,@ 200 m . The turrets could train 150 degrees to either side of the centerline . The main battery was supplied with a total of 720 shells or 90 rounds per gun . The guns had a rate of fire of around 2 @.@ 5 shells per minute . Post @-@ war tests conducted by the British Royal Navy showed that the guns on the battleship Baden could be ready to fire again 23 seconds after firing ; this was significantly faster than their British contemporaries , the 38 cm guns on the Renown class , which took 36 seconds between salvos . The guns fired 750 kg ( 1 @,@ 650 lb ) armor @-@ piercing shells with a 277 kg ( 610 lb ) RPC / 12 propellant charge in a brass cartridge . The shells were fired at a muzzle velocity of 800 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 625 fps ) . Each gun was expected to fire 300 shells before replacement was required .
The ships ' secondary battery consisted of twelve 15 cm SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns mounted in armored casemates along the central superstructure . Each gun was supplied with 160 rounds , and had a maximum range of 13 @,@ 500 m , though this was later extended to 16 @,@ 800 m . The guns had a sustained rate of fire of 5 to 7 rounds per minute . The shells were 45 @.@ 3 kg ( 100 lb ) , and were loaded with a 13 @.@ 7 kg ( 30 lb ) RPC / 12 propellant charge in a brass cartridge . The guns fired at a muzzle velocity of 835 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 740 ft / s ) . The guns were expected to fire around 1 @,@ 400 shells before they needed to be replaced .
The ships were also armed with eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) L / 45 Flak guns in single pedestal mounts . Four were arranged around the rear superfiring main battery turret and the other four around the forward conning tower . The Flak guns were emplaced in MPL C / 13 mountings , which allowed depression to − 10 degrees and elevation to 70 degrees . These guns fired 9 kg ( 20 lb ) shells , and had an effective ceiling of 9 @,@ 150 m at 70 degrees .
As was standard for warships of the period , the Ersatz Yorcks were equipped with submerged torpedo tubes . There were three 60 cm ( 24 in ) tubes : one in the bow , and one on each flank of the ship . The torpedoes were the H8 type , which were 8 m long and carried a 210 kg ( 460 lb ) Hexanite warhead . The torpedoes had a range of 6 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 yd ) when set at a speed of 36 knots ; at a reduced speed of 30 knots , the range increased significantly to 14 @,@ 000 m ( 15 @,@ 300 yd ) .
= = = Armor = = =
The Ersatz Yorck @-@ class ships were protected with Krupp cemented steel armor , as was the standard for German warships of the period . The armor layout was identical to the preceding Mackensen class , which was itself very similar to the armor scheme on the preceding Derfflinger @-@ class ships . They had an armor belt that was 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick in the central citadel of the ship , where the most important parts of the ship were located . This included the ammunition magazines and the machinery spaces . The belt was reduced in less critical areas , to 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) forward and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) aft . The belt tapered down to 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) at the bow , though the stern was not protected by armor at all . A 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) thick torpedo bulkhead ran the length of the hull , several meters behind the main belt . The main armored deck ranged in thickness from 30 mm thick in less important areas , to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in the sections that covered the more critical areas of the ship .
The forward conning tower was protected with heavy armor : the sides were 300 mm thick and the roof was 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The rear conning tower was less well armored ; its sides were only 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick and the roof was covered with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor plate . The main battery gun turrets were also heavily armored : the turret sides were 270 mm ( 11 in ) thick and the roofs were 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick . The 15 cm guns had 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) worth of armor plating in the casemates ; the guns themselves had 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick shields to protect their crews from shell splinters .
= = Construction and cancellation = =
Three ships were ordered for the new design . Ersatz Yorck , a replacement for the armored cruiser Yorck , was ordered from AG Vulcan in Hamburg , laid down in July 1916 under construction number 63 . After 1917 , work on the ship only took place in order to keep dockyard workers occupied . Construction was suspended to concentrate on the U @-@ boat program , and the hull frames that had been assembled were subsequently scrapped on the slip . Ersatz Gneisenau , a replacement for the armored cruiser Gneisenau , was ordered from Germaniawerft in Kiel under construction number 250 . Work was not started due to shifting priorities , though some material had been constructed . The diesel engines that had been built were subsequently installed on the first four Type U 151 U @-@ boats U @-@ 151 , U @-@ 152 , U @-@ 153 , and U @-@ 154 . Ersatz Scharnhorst , a replacement for the armored cruiser Scharnhorst , was ordered from Blohm + Voss in Hamburg under construction number 246 . Construction never began on her as well , due to shifting priorities . However , the design formed the basis for the Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships built by the Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s .
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= Rameswaram =
Rameswaram , ( also spelt as Ramesvaram , Rameshwaram or Ramisseram ) is a town and a second grade municipality in the Ramanathapuram district in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu . It is located on Pamban Island separated from mainland India by the Pamban channel and is about 50 kilometres from Mannar Island , Sri Lanka . It is situated in the Gulf of Mannar , at the very tip of the Indian peninsula . Pamban Island , also known as Rameswaram Island , is connected to mainland India by the Pamban Bridge . Rameswaram is the terminus of the railway line from Chennai and Madurai . Together with Varanasi , it is considered to be one of the holiest places in India to Hindus , and part of the Char Dham pilgrimage .
It is said that this is the place from where the Hindu god Rama built a bridge across the sea to Lanka to rescue his wife Sita from her abductor Ravana . The Ramanathaswamy Temple , dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva , is located at the centre of the town and is closely associated with Rama . The temple , along with the town , is considered a holy pilgrimage site for both shaivas and vaishnavas .
Rameswaram is the closest point from which to reach Sri Lanka from India , and geological evidence suggests that the Rama Sethu was a former land connection between India and Sri Lanka . The town has been in the news over the Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project , Kachchatheevu , Sri Lankan Tamil refugees and capturing local fishermen for alleged cross @-@ border activities by Sri Lankan Forces . Rameswaram is administered by a municipality established in 1994 . The town covers an area of 53 km2 and had a population of 44 @,@ 856 as of 2011 . Tourism and fishery employ the majority of workforce in Rameswaram .
= = Legend = =
Rameswara means " Lord of Rama " in Sanskrit , an epithet of Shiva , the presiding deity of the Ramanathaswamy Temple . According to Hindu epic Ramayana , Rama , the seventh avatar of the god Vishnu , prayed to Shiva here to absolve any sins that he might have committed during his war against the demon @-@ king Ravana in Sri Lanka . According to the Puranas ( Hindu scriptures ) , upon the advice of sages , Rama along with his wife Sita and his brother Lakshmana , installed and worshipped the lingam ( an iconic symbol of Shiva ) here to expiate the sin of Brahmahatya incurred while killing of the Brahmin Ravana . To worship Shiva , Rama wanted to have the largest lingam and directed his monkey lieutenant Hanuman to bring it from Himalayas . Since it took longer to bring the lingam , Sita built a small lingam , which is believed to be the one in the sanctum of the temple . This account is not supported by the original Ramayana authored by Valmiki , nor in the Tamil version of the Ramayana authored by Tamil poet , Kambar ( 1180 – 1250 CE ) . Support for this account is found in some of the later versions of the Ramayana , such as the one penned by Tulasidas ( 15th century ) . Sethu Karai is a place 22 km before the island of Rameswaram from where Rama is believed to have built a floating stone bridge , the Ramsetu bridge , that further continued to Dhanushkodi in Rameswaram till Talaimannar in Sri Lanka . According to another version , as quoted in Adhyatma Ramayana , Rama installed the lingam before the construction of the bridge to Lanka .
= = History = =
The history of Rameswaram is centred around the island being a transit point to reach Sri Lanka ( Ceylon historically ) and the presence of Ramanathaswamy Temple . Tevaram , the 7th – 8th century Tamil compositions on Shiva by the three prominent Nayanars ( Saivites ) namely Appar , Sundarar and Thirugnanasambandar . The Chola king Rajendra Chola I ( 1012 – 1040 CE ) had a control of the town for a short period . The Jaffna kingdom ( 1215 – 1624 CE ) had close connections with the island and claimed the title Setukavalan meaning custodians of the Rameswaram . Hinduism was their state religion and they made generous contribution to the temple . Setu was used in their coins as well as in inscriptions as marker of the dynasty .
According to Firishta , Malik Kafur , the head general of Alauddin Khilji , the ruler of Delhi Sultanate , reached Rameswaram during his political campaign in spite of stiff resistance from the Pandyan princes in the early 14th century . He erected a mosque by name Alia al @-@ Din Khaldji in honour of victory of Islam . During the early 15th century , the present day Ramanathapuram , Kamuthi and Rameswaram were included in the Pandya dynasty . In 1520 CE , the town came under the rule of Vijayanagara Empire . The Sethupathis , the breakaway from Madurai Nayaks , ruled Ramanathapuram and contributed to the Ramanathaswamy temple . The most notable of them are the contributions of Muthu Kumara Ragunatha and Muthu Ramalinga Sethupathi , who transformed the temple to an architectural ensemble . The region was repeatedly captured several times by Chanda Sahib ( 1740 – 1754 CE ) , Arcot Nawab and Muhammed Yusuf Khan ( 1725 – 1764 CE ) in the middle of 18th century . In 1795 CE , Rameswaram came under the direct control of the British East India Company and was annexed to the Madras Presidency . After 1947 , the town became a part of Independent India .
= = Geography = =
Rameswaram has an average elevation of 10 metres ( 32 feet ) . The island is spread across an area of 61 @.@ 8 square kilometres and is in the shape of a conch . 74 % of the area has sandy soil due to the presence of sea and it has many islands surrounding it , the Palk Strait in the north west and Gulf of Mannar in the south East . The Ramanathaswamy Temple occupies major area of Rameswaram . The beach of Rameswaram is featured with no waves at all – the sea waves rise to a maximum height of 3 cm and the view looks like a very big river . Rameswaram has dry tropical climate with low humidity , with average monthly rainfall of 75 @.@ 73 mm , mostly from North East monsoon from October to January . The highest ever temperature recorded at Pamban station was 37 ° C and the lowest was 17 ° C.
Ramsetu Bridge is a chain of limestone shoals , between Rameswaram and Mannar Island , off the northwestern coast of Sri Lanka . Geological evidence suggests that this bridge is a former land connection between India and Sri Lanka . The bridge is 18 miles ( 30 km ) long and separates the Gulf of Mannar ( north east ) from the Palk Strait ( South West ) . It was reportedly passable on foot up to the 15th century until storms deepened the channel . The temple records record that Rama ’ s Bridge was completely above sea level until it broke in a cyclone in 1480 CE . The bridge was first mentioned in the ancient Indian Sanskrit epic Ramayana of Valmiki . The name Rama 's Bridge or Rama Setu ( Sanskrit ; setu : bridge ) refers to the bridge built by the Vanara ( ape men ) army of Rama in Hindu mythology , which he used to reach Lanka and rescue his wife Sita from the demon king Ravana . The Ramayana attributes the building of this bridge to Rama in verse 2 @-@ 22 @-@ 76 , naming it as Setubandhanam . The sea separating India and Sri Lanka is called Sethusamudram meaning " Sea of the Bridge " . Maps prepared by a Dutch cartographer in 1747 CE , available at the Tanjore Saraswathi Mahal Library show this area as Ramancoil , a colloquial form of the Tamil Raman Kovil ( or Rama 's Temple ) . Many other maps in Schwartzberg 's historical atlas and other sources such as travel texts by Marco Polo call this area by various names such as Sethubandha and Sethubandha Rameswaram .
= = Demographics = =
According to 2011 census , Rameswaram had a population of 44 @,@ 856 with a sex @-@ ratio of 969 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males , much above the national average of 929 . A total of 5 @,@ 022 were under the age of six , constituting 2 @,@ 544 males and 2 @,@ 478 females . Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 6 @.@ 8 % and .03 % of the population respectively . The average literacy of the town was 73 @.@ 36 % , compared to the national average of 72 @.@ 99 % . The town had a total of 10579 households . There were a total of 16 @,@ 645 workers , comprising 69 cultivators , 20 main agricultural labourers , 148 in house hold industries , 15 @,@ 130 other workers , 1 @,@ 278 marginal workers , 11 marginal cultivators , 26 marginal agricultural labourers , 44 marginal workers in household industries and 1 @,@ 197 other marginal workers . The total number of households below poverty lane ( BPL ) in 2003 were 976 , which is 10 @.@ 45 % of the total households in the town and these were raised to 3003 ( 29 @.@ 12 % ) in 2007 .
As per the religious census of 2011 , Rameswaram had 87 @.@ 4 % Hindus , 4 @.@ 36 % Muslims , 8 @.@ 13 % Christians , 0 @.@ 03 % Sikhs , 0 @.@ 01 % Buddhists , and 0 @.@ 07 % following other religions .
= = Municipal Administration and politics = =
According to the Madras Presidency Panchayat Act of 1885 , Rameswaram was declared a panchyat union during British times . It became a township during 1958 and was declared a municipality in 2004 . Rameswaram is a 3rd grade municipality having 21 wards , out of which 6 are General wards for women and one is reserved for SC ( Scheduled Caste ) women . The major sources of budgeted income for Rameswaram municipality comes from Devolution Fund of ₹ 17 million ( US $ 0 @.@ 3 million ) and property tax of ₹ 2 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 43 @,@ 000 ) . The major expense heads are for salaries of ₹ 06 million ( US $ 0 @.@ 1 million ) , operating expenses of ₹ 03 @.@ 7 million ( US $ 65 @,@ 000 ) and repair & maintenance expenditure of ₹ 02 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 42 @,@ 000 ) . The functions of the municipality are devolved into six departments : General , Engineering , Revenue , Public Health , Town planning and the Computer Wing . All these departments are under the control of a Municipal Commissioner who is the supreme executive head . The legislative powers are vested in a body of 21 members , one each from the 21 wards . The legislative body is headed by an elected Chairperson assisted by a Deputy Chairperson .
Rameswaram comes under the Ramanathapuram assembly constituency and it elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years . The current MLA of the constituency is Dr. Manikandan from the AIADMK .
Rameswaram is a part of the Ramanathapuram ( Lok Sabha constituency ) – it has been realigned in 2008 to have the following assembly constituencies – Paramakudi ( SC ) , Ramanathapuram , Mudukulathur , Aranthangi , Tiruchuli ( newly created ) . The constituency was traditionally a stronghold of the Indian National Congress that won 6 times till the 1991 elections , after which it was won twice each by the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( ADMK ) and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) . The current Member of Parliament from the constituency is A. Anwhar Raajhaa from the AIADMK party .
India 's renowned scientist and former President of India , A. P. J. Abdul Kalam , was born in Rameswaram .
= = Economy = =
Being a pilgrimage town , the majority of the population is involved in tourism related industry consisting of trade and services . Service sector increased from 70 % in 1971 to 98 @.@ 78 % in 2001 , while the agricultural sector reduced from 23 % in 1971 to 0 @.@ 13 % in 2001 . Rameswaram is an industrially backward town – there has been no demarcation for industrial land due to the pilgrim sanctity and ecological fragile geography . Being an island town , the traditional occupation was fishing , but due to poor returns , the people in fishing community have gradually shifted to other professions . Banks such as State Bank of India , Indian Bank and RDCC Bank have their branches in Rameswaram .
= = Transport and Communication = =
Pamban Bridge is a cantilever bridge on the Palk Strait that connects Rameswaram to mainland India . The railway bridge is 6 @,@ 776 ft ( 2 @,@ 065 m ) and was opened to traffic in 1914 . The railroad bridge is a double @-@ leaf bascule bridge section that can be raised to let ships pass under it . The railway bridge historically carried metre @-@ gauge trains on it , but Indian Railways upgraded the bridge to carry broad @-@ gauge trains in a project that finished on 12 August 2007 . Historically , the two leaves of the bridge were opened manually using levers by workers . About 10 ships – cargo carriers , coast guard ships , fishing vessels and oil tankers pass through the bridge every month . After completion of bridge , metre @-@ gauge lines were laid from Mandapam up to Pamban Station , from where the railway lines bifurcated into two directions , one towards Rameswaram about 6 @.@ 25 miles ( 10 @.@ 06 km ) up and another branch line of 15 miles ( 24 km ) terminating at Dhanushkodi . The noted Boat Mail ran on this track between 1915 and 1964 from Chennai Egmore up to Dhanushkodi , from where the passengers were ferried to Talaimannar in Ceylon . The metre @-@ gauge branch line from Pamban Junction to Dhanushkodi was abandoned after it was destroyed in a cyclone in 1964 .
There are daily express trains connecting major cities in Tamil Nadu like Chennai , Madurai , Trichy and Coimbatore . There are weekly express trains connecting Coimbatore , Varanasi and Bhubaneswar . Passenger trains ply from Rameswaram to Madurai and Trichy daily , making railways as the major mode of transportation . The Ramanathapuram – Rameswaram National Highway is the main connecting link from Rameswaram to the mainland . Prior to the 1914 train service linking the mainland with Rameswaram , boats were the only mode of transport to Rameswaram island .
The National highway NH 49 connects Madurai to Dhanushkodi , linking major towns like Manamadurai , Paramakkudi , and Ramanathapuram in the Ramanathapuram district . The Rameswaram municipality covers a total road length of 52 km and 20 km of national highway covering about 80 percent of the town . The Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation runs daily services connecting various cities to Rameswaram and operates a computerised reservation centre in the municipal bus stand of Rameswaram .
Rameswaram is the important port among all the ports in the district , having a ferry service to Talaimannar of Sri Lanka , though not operational throughout the year . Limited foreign trade is conducted with Jaffna , Kaits , Talaimannar and Colombo .
The Rameswaram TV Tower is the tallest tower in India . The tower is a 323m tall circular concrete tower with a square steel mast of 45m height , diameter of 24m at the bottom tapering to 6.5m at top . The tower has been designed for a wind velocity of 160 km / h . There are two lighthouses in Rameswaram , the Pamban lighthouse and Rameswaram lighthouse .
= = Education and utility services = =
Ramanathapuram district has one of the lowest literacy rates in the state of Tamil Nadu and Rameswaram , following the district statistics has a lower literacy rate . There are a couple of Government high schools , one each for boys and girls . There are seven other schools namely , Swami . Vivekananda vidyalaya Matriculation School ( which provide excellent education in the island and secure district and state level ranks in board exams frequently ) , St. Joseph Higher Secondary School , Mandapam Panchayat Union 9 – School , Micro Matriculation School , Sri Sankara Vidhyalaya , Holy Island Little Flower School and Kendriya Vidhyalaya School . Alagappa University Evening College is the only college present in the town and all the nearest colleges are located in Ramanathapuram and Paramakudi .
Electricity supply to the town is regulated and distributed by the Ramanathapuram circle of Tamil Nadu Electricity Board ( TNEB ) . Water supply is provided by the Rameswaram Municipality – the head works is located at Nambunayaki Amman Kovil , Meyyambuli , Semmamadam & Natarajapuram and distributed through four over head tanks having a total capacity of 1430 @,@ 000 litres . About 6 metric tonnes of solid waste are collected from the town every day in the four zones covering the whole of the town . Rameswaram does not have a sewerage system for disposal of sullage and the disposal system consists of septic tanks and public conveniences . Roadside drains carry untreated sewage out of the town to let out raw into the sea or accumulates in low @-@ lying area .
Rameswaram comes under the Karaikudi Telecom circle of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited ( BSNL ) , India 's state @-@ owned telecom and internet services provider . Apart from telecom , BSNL also provides broadband internet service along with other major internet service provider like Reliance .
= = Religion = =
Being a Hindu pilgrimage centre , Hindus form the visitor base of the city . There is a minority of Christians belonging to the fishing community . C.S.I island mission church and St Antony 's Church at Oriyur on the eastern shore of the island are prominent Churches in the island .
= = = Ramanathaswamy Temple = = =
The Ramanathaswamy Temple is the most notable historic landmark of the town . Located in the centre of town , Ramanathaswamy Temple is a famous Hindu temple dedicated to the god Shiva . The temple is one of the 12 Jyotirlinga shrines , where Shiva is worshipped in the form of a Jyotirlinga meaning " pillar of light " . It is also one of the 275 Paadal Petra Sthalam temples and is glorified in hymns by the three of the most revered Nayanar saints ( 7th century Saivite saints ) , Appar , Sundarar and Tirugnana Sambandar . The temple in its current structure was built during the 12th century by Pandya Dynasty . The temple has the longest corridor among all Hindu temples in India . The breadth of these columned corridors varies from 17 to 21 feet with a height of 25 feet . Each pillar is sculpted in Nayak style as in Madurai Meenakshi Amman Temple . The contribution of the kings of the Sethupathy dynasty ( 17th century ) to the temple was considerable . Large amount of money was spent during the tenure of Pradani Muthirulappa Pillai towards the restoration of the pagodas which were falling into ruins – the Chockattan Mantapam or the cloistered precincts of the temple was reconstructed by him . The rulers of Sri Lanka contributed to the temple – Parakrama Bahu ( 1153 – 1186 CE ) was involved in the construction of the sanctum sanctorum of the temple . The eastern tower and shrine of Nataraja were built by Dalavai Sethupathy in 1649 CE . The second enclosure is ascribed to Chinna Udayar Sethupathy and his son Ragunatha Thirumalai ( 1500 – 1540 CE ) . The third enclosure was constructed by Muthu Ramalinga Sethupathy ( 1725 – 1771 CE ) – his statue is located in the entrance of the corridor .
= = = Temple Tanks = = =
There are sixty @-@ four Tīrthas or Theerthams ( holy water bodies ) in and around Rameswaram . According to the Skanda Purana , twenty @-@ four of them are important . Of the 24 , 14 are in the form of tanks and wells within the precincts of the temple . Bathing in these tanks is a major aspect of the pilgrimage to Rameswaram and is considered equivalent to penance . Twenty @-@ two of the tanks are within the Ramanathaswamy Temple . The foremost one is called Agni Theertham , the sea ( Bay of Bengal ) . Jatayu , King of the Birds , who fought in vain with the demon @-@ king Ravana to save Sita , is said to have fallen down at Jadayu Theertham as his wings were severed . Villoondi Theertham literally translates to ' buried bow ' , is located around 7 kilometres from the main temple on the way to Pamban . It is believed to be the place where Rama quenched the thirst of Sita by dipping the bow into the sea water . Other major holy bodies are Hanuman Theertham , Sugreeva Theertham and Lakshmana Theertham .
= = = Gandhamathana Parvatham = = =
Gandhamathan Parvatham , a hillock situated 3 km to the north of the temple is the highest point in the island . There is a two storeyed hall , where Rama 's feet is found as an imprint on a chakra ( wheel ) . The Ramarpatham Temple is located on the hillock .
= = = Dhanushkodi = = =
Dhanushkodi is the southernmost tip of the island and houses the Kothandaramaswamy Temple dedicated to Rama . Though Dhanushkodi was washed away during the 1964 cyclone , the temple alone remained intact . It is 18 km way from the centre of the town and can be reached by road . A popular belief is that , Dhanushkodi is where Vibishana , a brother of Ravana surrendered before Rama in the epic Ramayana .
= = = Hindu Pilgrimage = = =
Rameswaram is significant for many Hindus as a pilgrimage to Varanasi is considered to be incomplete without a pilgrimage to Rameswaram . The town along with the Ramanathaswamy temple is one of the holiest Hindu Char Dham ( four divine sites ) sites comprising Badrinath , Puri and Dwarka . Though the origins are not clearly known , the Advaita school of Hinduism established by Sankaracharya , attributes the origin of Char Dham to the seer . The four monasteries are located across the four corners of India and their attendant temples are Badrinath Temple at Badrinath in the North , Jagannath Temple at Puri in the East , Dwarakadheesh Temple at Dwarka in the West and Ramanathaswamy Temple at Rameswaram in the South . Though ideologically the temples are divided between the sects of Hinduism , namely Saivism and Vaishnavism , the Char Dham pilgrimage is an all Hindu affair . The journey across the four cardinal points in India is considered sacred by Hindus who aspire to visit these temples once in their lifetime . Traditionally the trip starts at the eastern end from Puri , proceeding in clockwise direction in a manner typically followed for circuambulation in Hindu temples . The temple is one of the famous pilgrimage sites historically – the Maratha kings who ruled Thanjavur established chatrams or rest houses all through Mayiladuthurai and Rameswaram between 1745 and 1837 CE and donated them to the temple .
= = Interaction with Sri Lanka = =
Rameswaram is frequently in headlines over fishermen issues like attack , arrest and alleged harassment by Sri Lankan navy for alleged cross border activities , Sethusamudram canal project , Kachchatheevu , Sri Lankan Tamil refugees and also on intercountry smuggling between India and Sri Lanka . As an initial step to curb enhanced smuggling , the Tamil Nadu government has set up 30 more marine police stations to bring the state ’ s entire coastal belt under close vigil .
= = = Sri Lankan Tamil Refugees = = =
During the intense civil war of Sri Lanka , post 1980 , Rameswaram acted as one of the focal points of smuggling and intense patrolling was carried out during the period . There are a total of 65 @,@ 940 registered destitute Sri Lankan refugees dwelling in 129 Refugee camps situated in different parts of Tamil Nadu as of Apr 2000 and a majority of them enter via Rameswaram . There are an additional 20 @,@ 667 non @-@ camp refugees who entered via Rameswaram , registered in Mandapam transit camp and opted to reside outside the camps in various parts of Tamil Nadu . On 11 March 1990 , a record number of 2 @,@ 337 refugees in 38 boats arrived from Talaimannar in Sri Lanka to Rameswaram – this was the largest number of refugees arriving in a single day since the ethnic violence from July 1983 . As of October 2006 , an estimated 200 @,@ 000 refugees have been reported in Mandapam Camp . Sivarasan , one of the mastermind behind the Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi , the ex @-@ prime minister of India registered as refugee in Rameswaram camp on 12 September 1990 .
= = = Rameswaram Fishery = = =
Being an island , a significant population is involved in fishery traditionally . There have been incremental cases of Rameswaram fishermen allegedly killed or arrested by Sri Lankan navy along the maritime borders of India and Sri Lanka from the time of Sri Lankan civil war during 1983 . In the face of simmering tension after the 1985 January Colombo bound Yaldevi train attack in which 22 Sri Lankan soldiers and 16 civilians were killed , Rameswaram fishermen dared to venture to seas spelling acute hardship for the 10 @,@ 000 fishermen family . An estimated 381 fishermen have been killed in the sea due to shoot outs from 1983 to 2009 . The Sri Lankan army attributed the killings to the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam ( LTTE ) , but the casualty continues even after the end of LTTE in the region . The Tamil Nadu state government has increased the compensation of casualty from the original ₹ 100 @,@ 000 to 500 @,@ 000 ( US $ 1 @,@ 800 to $ 9 @,@ 000 ) . There has not been a single prosecution in any of the 381 killings committed so far from the Indian judiciary . The cases not being filed is attributed to the fact that people killed beyond the maritime boundary of India are not eligible for compensation and not many file complaints against the Sri Lankan navy . Though the Indian judiciary has provisions to prosecute foreigners , there is little progress due to the diplomatic overheads involved . Indian government has also ventured into the use of technology like use of Global positioning system ( GPS ) by the fishermen and enabling cellphone blips to alert their mobile phones whenever they are crossing into Sri Lankan waters . The Sri Lankan navy has confirmed reports on Indian fishermen risking the international boundary due to depleted catch in Indian waters .
There is a yearly 45 @-@ day ban on fishery with motorboats in the region . The fishing ban for the year 2012 was effective during the months of April – May . The jetty at Rameswaram is the largest landing centre for fishing boats in the region and it usually comes alive after the ban , with the arrival of fishermen , boat captains , shore workers and others from their native places .
Sea World Aquarium is a natural habitat lying opposite to the Rameswaram Bus Stand , having an assortment of underwater creatures – it is the only one of its kind in the state , filled with such varied marine life forms including exotic species .
= = = Kachchatheevu = = =
Another focal point on the simmering tension between Indian and Sri Lankan governments is over the use of Kachchatheevu , an uninhabited island 15 km north of Rameswaram , belonging to Sri Lanka . The accord of 1974 allows fishermen of both the countries for resting and soaking the nets in the island . Repeated allegations on attacks by the Lankan navy , which on many occasions killed Indian fishermen , prevented them from making it to the island . The annual two @-@ day Saint Anthony fest at the island draws huge number of people from the fishermen community of both the countries . The number of pilgrims for the 2012 function crossed 4 @,@ 000 , the largest attendance in the past two decades . The feast also provides an opportunity for the Indian fishermen to meet their Sri Lankan counterparts and exchange views on their mutual problems . The event served as a meeting point to find brides and grooms from both countries , but this practice has now been stopped from the 90s due to political constraint of fishermen family living in different countries .
= = = Sethusamudram Canal Project = = =
Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project proposes linking the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka by creating a shipping canal through the shallow sea sometimes called Setu Samudram , and through the chain of islands variously known as Ram Sethu or the Rama 's Bridge . A few organisations are opposing the dredging of Ramasethu on religious , environmental and economical grounds . Many of these parties and organisations support implementation of this project using one of the five alternative alignments considered earlier without damaging the structure considered sacred by Hindus . With 22 km of dredging remaining , the project is held from March 2010 by a Supreme Court order seeking the Central Government to clarify the status of the bridge as a national monument .
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= Archaeoraptor =
" Archaeoraptor " is the informal generic name for a fossil from China in an article published in National Geographic magazine in 1999 . The magazine claimed that the fossil was a " missing link " between birds and terrestrial theropod dinosaurs . Even prior to this publication there had been severe doubts about the fossil 's authenticity . Further scientific study showed it to be a forgery constructed from rearranged pieces of real fossils from different species . Zhou et al. found that the head and upper body actually belong to a specimen of the primitive fossil bird Yanornis . A 2002 study found that the tail belongs to a small winged dromaeosaur , Microraptor , named in 2000 . The legs and feet belong to an as yet unknown animal .
The scandal brought attention to illegal fossil deals conducted in China . Although " Archaeoraptor " was a forgery , many true examples of feathered dinosaurs have been found and demonstrate the evolutionary connection between birds and other theropods .
= = Scandal = =
" Archaeoraptor " was unveiled at a press conference held by National Geographic magazine in October 1999 . At the same press conference , plans were announced to return the fossil to Chinese authorities , as it was illegally exported . In November 1999 National Geographic featured the fossil in an article written by art editor Christopher Sloan . The article in general discussed feathered dinosaurs and the origin of birds . It claimed the fossil was " a missing link between terrestrial dinosaurs and birds that could actually fly " and informally referred to it as " Archaeoraptor liaoningensis " , announcing it would later be formally named as such . This name means " ancient robber of Liaoning " . This drew immediate criticism from Storrs L. Olson , Curator of Birds at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington , D.C. Writing in Backbone , the newsletter of his museum , he denounced the publication of a scientific name in a popular journal , without peer review , as a " nightmare " .
On February 3 , 2000 , National Geographic issued a press release stating that the fossil could be a composite , and that an internal investigation had begun . In that same month Bill Allen , National Geographic editor , told Nature that he was " furious " to learn that the fossil might have been faked . In the March issue , in the forum section , a letter from Dr. Xu Xing pointed out that the tail section probably did not match the upper body . In October 2000 National Geographic published the results of their investigation , in an article written by Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning investigative journalist Lewis M. Simons . Simons concluded that the fossil was a composite and that virtually everyone involved in the project had made some mistakes .
= = = Chronology = = =
According to National Geographic 's report , the story of " Archaeoraptor " begins in July 1997 in Xiasanjiazi , China , where farmers routinely dug in the shale pits with picks and sold fossils to dealers for a few dollars . This was an illegal practice , but it was common then . In this case one farmer found a rare fossil of a toothed bird , complete with feather impressions . The fossil broke into pieces during collection . Nearby , in the same pit , he found pieces including a feathered tail and legs . He cemented several of these pieces together in a manner that he believed was correct . He apparently knew that it would make a more complete @-@ looking and , thus , more expensive fossil . It was sold in June 1998 to an anonymous dealer and smuggled to the United States . According to authorities in Beijing , no fossils may leave China legally .
By the fall 1998 annual meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology , held in Utah , United States , rumors were circulating about a striking fossil of a primitive bird that was in private hands . This fossil was presented by an anonymous dealer at a gem show in Tucson , Arizona . The Dinosaur Museum in Blanding , Utah , purchased it in February 1999 . The museum is run by Stephen A. Czerkas and his wife , Sylvia Czerkas . Mr. Czerkas does not hold a university degree , but he is a dinosaur enthusiast and artist . He arranged for patrons of his museum , including trustee Dale Slade , to provide $ 80 @,@ 000 for the purchase of the fossil , in order to study it scientifically and prevent it from disappearing into an anonymous private collection .
The Czerkases contacted paleontologist Phil Currie , who contacted the National Geographic Society . Currie agreed to study the fossil on condition that it was eventually returned to China . The National Geographic Society intended to get the fossil formally published in the peer @-@ reviewed science journal Nature , and then follow up immediately with a press conference and an issue of National Geographic . Editor Bill Allen asked that all members of the project keep the fossil secret , so that the magazine would have a scoop on the story .
Slade and the Czerkases intended the fossil to be the " crown jewel " of the Dinosaur Museum and planned to keep it on display there for five years . Sloan says that he flew to Utah in the spring of 1999 to convince Stephen Czerkas to return the fossil to China immediately after publication , or he would not write about it for National Geographic and Currie would not work on it . Czerkas then agreed . Currie then contacted the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology in Beijing , and National Geographic flew the IVPP 's Xu Xing to Utah to be part of the " Archaeoraptor " team .
During the initial examination of the fossil on March 6 , 1999 it had already become clear to Currie that the left and right feet mirrored each other perfectly and that the fossil had been completed by using both slab and counterslab . He also noticed no connection could be seen between the tail and the body . In July 1999 , Currie and the Czerkases brought the fossil to the High @-@ Resolution X @-@ ray CT Facility of the University of Texas ( Austin ) founded and operated by Dr. Timothy Rowe to make CT scans . Rowe , having made the scans on July 29 , determined that they indicated that the bottom fragments , showing the tail and the lower legs , were not part of the larger fossil . He informed the Czerkases on August 2 that there was a chance of the whole being a fraud . During a subsequent discussion Rowe and Currie were pressured by the Czerkases to keep their reservations private .
Currie in the first week of September sent his preparator , Kevin Aulenback , to the Dinosaur Museum in Blanding to prepare the fossil for better study . Aulenback concluded that the fossil was " a composite specimen of at least 3 specimens ... with a maximum ... of five ... separate specimens " , but the Czerkases angrily denied this and Aulenbeck only reported this to Currie . Currie did not inform National Geographic of these problems .
On August 13 , 1999 , the team submitted a manuscript titled " A New Toothed Bird With a Dromaeosaur @-@ like Tail " under the names of Stephen Czerkas , Currie , Rowe , and Xu , to the journal Nature in London . The paper mentions in two places , and includes a figure illustrating the point that , one of the legs and the tail are counterparts that were composited into the main slab .
On August 20 Nature rejected the paper , indicating to the Czerkases that National Geographic had refused to delay publication , leaving too little time for peer review . The authors then submitted the paper to Science , which sent it out for peer review . Two reviewers informed Science that " the specimen was smuggled out of China and illegally purchased " and that the fossil had been " doctored " in China " to enhance its value . " Science then rejected the paper . According to Sloan , the Czerkases did not inform National Geographic about the details of the two rejections .
By that time the November issue of National Geographic was already in preparation for printing , but " Archaeoraptor " was never formally published in any peer @-@ reviewed journal .
National Geographic went ahead and published without peer review . The fossil was unveiled in a press conference on October 15 , 1999 , and the November 1999 National Geographic contained an article by Christopher P. Sloan — a National Geographic art editor . Sloan described it as a missing link that helped elucidate the connection between dinosaurs and birds . The original fossil was put on display at the National Geographic Society in Washington , DC , pending return to China . In the article Sloan used the name " Archaeoraptor liaoningensis " but with a disclaimer ( so that it would not count as a nomenclatural act for the purposes of scientific classification ) in anticipation of Czerkas being able to publish a peer @-@ reviewed description at some point in the future .
After the November National Geographic came out , Storrs L. Olson , curator of birds in the National Museum of Natural History of the Smithsonian Institution published an open letter on 1 November 1999 , pointing out that " the specimen in question is known to have been illegally exported " and protesting the " prevailing dogma that birds evolved from dinosaurs . " Olson complained that Sloan , a journalist , had usurped the process of scientific nomenclature by publishing a name first in the popular press : " This is the worst nightmare of many zoologists — that their chance to name a new organism will be inadvertently scooped by some witless journalist . "
In October 1999 , after having been informed by Currie of the problems and seeing the specimen for the first time , Xu noticed that the tail of " Archaeoraptor " strongly resembled an unnamed maniraptoran dinosaur that he was studying — later to be named Microraptor zhaoianus . He returned to China and traveled to Liaoning Province where he inspected the fossil site and contacted a number of fossil dealers . He eventually found a fairly complete fossil of a tiny dromaeosaur , and the tail of this new fossil corresponded so exactly to the tail on the " Archaeoraptor " fossil that it had to be the counterslab — it even had two matching yellow oxide stains . On December 20 , 1999 Xu Xing sent e @-@ mails to the authors and Sloan , announcing that the fossil was a fake .
On February 3 , 2000 The National Geographic News issued a press release stating that the " Archaeoraptor " fossil might be a composite , and that an internal investigation had begun . In the March issue of National Geographic Xu 's letter ran in the Forum section of the magazine , and Bill Allen had Xu change the word " fake " to " composite " .
On April 4 , 2000 Stephen Czerkas told a group of paleontologists in Washington that he and Sylvia had made " an idiot , bone @-@ stupid mistake " . Currie , Allen and Sloan all expressed regret . Rowe felt vindicated , claiming the affair as evidence that his scans were correct . Rowe published a Brief Communication in Nature in 2001 describing his findings . He concluded that , apart from the top part , several specimens had been used to complete the fossil : a first for the left femur , a second for the tibiae , a third for both feet and at least one more for the tail , which alone consisted of five separate parts .
In June 2000 the fossil was returned to China . In the October 2000 issue , National Geographic published the results of their investigation .
= = Ongoing confusion = =
The fossils involved in the " Archaeoraptor " scandal have led to ongoing confusion over taxon names . In December 2000 , Microraptor was described in Nature . Zhou et al . ( 2002 ) examined the upper body of the " Archaeoraptor " fossil and reported that it belonged to the previously @-@ named genus Yanornis .
= = = Dinosaur Museum Journal = = =
In 2002 the Czerkases published a volume through their Dinosaur Museum titled Feathered Dinosaurs and the Origin of Flight . In this journal they described and named several species . Of the six species named in the book , five are disputed .
Despite the work of Zhou et al . ( 2002 ) , Czerkas and co @-@ author Xu Xing described the upper portion of the " Archaeoraptor " fossil as a new bird genus , Archaeovolans , in the Dinosaur Museum Journal . The article does include the caveat that it might actually be a specimen of Yanornis . Thus , this same fossil specimen has been named " Archaeoraptor " , Archeovolans , and Yanornis , in different places .
Across the monographs in the Dinosaur Museum Journal , Stephen Czerkas built a case for his controversial view that maniraptoran dinosaurs are secondarily flightless birds . In so doing , he criticized prominent paleontologists . In the text on Cryptovolans , Czerkas accused Dr. Mark Norell of misinterpreting the fossil BPM 1 3 @-@ 13 as having long leg feathers due to the " blinding influences of preconceived ideas . " In fact , though , Norell 's interpretation was correct , and Czerkas added leg feathers to his own reconstruction of the fossil in the art that promotes the traveling exhibit .
Two other taxa that Czerkas and his co @-@ authors named were later treated as junior synonyms by other authors . Czerkas ' Cryptovolans was treated as Microraptor , and his Scansoriopteryx was treated as Epidendrosaurus . Czerkas described Omnivoropteryx , noting that it was similar to Sapeornis . Later specimens of Sapeornis with skulls demonstrated that the two were probably synonymous .
Another taxon that Czerkas assigned to the pterosauria and named Utahdactylus was reviewed by Dr. Chris Bennett . Bennett found multiple misidentifications of bones and inconsistencies between Czerkas ' diagrams and the actual fossils . Bennett found the specimen to be an indeterminate diapsid and criticized the previous authors for publishing a species name when no diagnostic characters below the class level could be verified . He made Utahdactylus a nomen dubium .
= = = Traveling exhibit = = =
In 2001 Stephen and Sylvia Czerkas compiled a traveling exhibit containing 34 other Chinese fossils . The show is titled Feathered Dinosaurs and the Origin of Flight . The San Diego Natural History Museum paid a set fee to the Dinosaur Museum to display this show in 2004 . When the show opened , Dr. Ji Qiang told reporters from Nature that about a dozen of the fossils had left China illegally . Ji arranged with the Czerkases to assign accession numbers to three of the most valuable specimens , thus formally adding them to the collection of Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences in Beijing , although they remain in the possession of the Czerkases . Stephen Czerkas denied Ji 's assertion that the fossils were illegal . Sylvia Czerkas told Nature magazine that she had worked out an agreement with officials of Liaoning Province in 2001 to borrow the fossils , and that they were to be repatriated in 2007 . Through March 2009 , however , the show is scheduled for the Fresno Metropolitan Museum of Art and Science in California . According to Nature , the Czerkases refused requests to make the officials from Liaoning available for interview .
Many scientists consider it unethical to work on fossils if there is any chance that they have been smuggled , and many disregard privately owned fossils altogether . Some professionals feel that private collectors put fossils in private hands where science may not be able to access or study them . Some believe that private collectors may damage important fossils , subject them to forgery , and obscure their origins or evidence about their ages . Illegal dealers have also participated in , and may encourage , governmental corruption . Another philosophy argues that if scientists could bend their ethics and agree to publish on important private fossils , this would encourage private holders to make them available for study .
= = = Taxonomic history = = =
In April 2000 Olson published an article in Backbone , the newsletter of the National Museum of Natural History . In this article he justified his views on the evolution of birds , but also revised and redescribed the species " Archaeoraptor liaoningensis " by designating just the tail of the original fraudulent specimen as the type specimen . To prevent the tainted name " Archaeoraptor " from entering paleornithological literature , this redescription assigned the name to that part of the chimeric specimen least likely to be classified under Aves , rather than to the portion which was later shown to represent a true bird species . Olson presumed that the National Geographic article had already validly named the fossil , and he therefore failed to explicitly indicate the name was new , as demanded by article 16 of the ICZN as a condition for a name to be valid . Several months afterwards Xu , Zhou and Wang published their description of Microraptor zhaoianus in Nature .
= = = Creationism = = =
The scandal is sometimes used by creationists like Kent Hovind , Kirk Cameron , and Ray Comfort to cast doubt on the hypothesis that birds evolved from dinosaurs . Many creationists insist that no missing links between birds and dinosaurs have been found , and commonly point to " Archaeoraptor " as evidence of misconduct performed to support the evolutionary theory . They see " Archaeoraptor " as a real " Piltdown Bird " . However , contrary to the Piltdown Man , " Archaeoraptor " was not a deliberate hoax . Furthermore , the authenticity of " Archaeoraptor " would not have been an essential proof for the hypothesis that birds are theropods , as this is sufficiently corroborated by other data ; paleontologist Christopher Brochu concluded in November 2001 : " That birds are derived theropod dinosaurs is no longer the subject of scholarly dispute . " Though playing the role of " terrestrial dinosaur " in the " Archaeoraptor " affair , Microraptor , showing wings and clear traces of rectrices , is generally assumed to have had at least a gliding capacity and is itself an excellent example of a transitional fossil .
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= Buddhaghoṣa =
Buddhaghoṣa ( Thai : พระพุทธโฆษาจารย ์ , Chinese : 覺音 / 佛音 ) was a 5th @-@ century Indian Theravada Buddhist commentator and scholar . His best @-@ known work is the Visuddhimagga " Path of Purification " , a comprehensive summary and analysis of the Theravada understanding of the Buddha 's path to liberation . The interpretations provided by Buddhaghosa have generally constituted the orthodox understanding of Theravada scriptures since at least the 12th century CE . He is generally recognized by both Western scholars and Theravadins as the most important commentator of the Theravada .
= = Biography = =
Limited reliable information is available about the life of Buddhaghosa . Three primary sources of information exist : short prologues and epilogues attached to Buddhaghosa 's works ; details of his life recorded in the Mahavamsa , a Sri Lankan chronicle ; and a later biographical work called the Buddhaghosuppatti . A few other sources discuss the life of Buddhaghosa , but do not appear to add any reliable material . His name means " Voice of the Buddha " ( Buddha + ghosa ) in Pali .
The biographical excerpts attached to works attributed to Buddhaghosa reveal relatively few details of his life , but were presumably added at the time of his actual composition . Largely identical in form , these short excerpts describe Buddhaghosa as having come to Sri Lanka from India and settled in Anuradhapura . Besides this information , they provide only short lists of teachers , supporters , and associates of Buddhaghosa , whose names are not generally to be found elsewhere for comparison .
The Mahavamsa records that Buddhaghosa was born into a Brahmin family in the kingdom of Magadha . He is said to have been born near Bodh Gaya , and to have been a master of the Vedas , traveling through India engaging in philosophical debates . Only upon encountering a Buddhist monk named Revata was Buddhaghosa bested in debate , first being defeated in a dispute over the meaning of a Vedic doctrine and then being confounded by the presentation of a teaching from the Abhidhamma . Impressed , Buddhaghosa became a bhikkhu ( Buddhism monk ) and undertook the study of the Tipiṭaka and its commentaries . On finding a text for which the commentary had been lost in India , Buddhaghosa determined to travel to Sri Lanka to study a Sinhalese commentary that was believed to have been preserved .
In Sri Lanka , Buddhaghosa began to study what was apparently a very large volume of commentarial texts that had been assembled and preserved by the monks of the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya . Buddhaghosa sought permission to synthesize the assembled Sinhalese @-@ language commentaries into a comprehensive single commentary composed in Pali . The elder monks sought to first test Buddhaghosa 's knowledge by assigning him the task of elaborating the doctrine regarding two verses of the suttas ; Buddhaghosa replied by composing the Visuddhimagga . His abilities were further tested when deities intervened and hid the text of his book , twice forcing him to recreate it from scratch . When the three texts were found to completely summarize all of the Tipiṭaka and match in every respect , the monks acceded to his request and provided Buddhaghosa with the full body of their commentaries .
Buddhaghosa went on to write commentaries on most of the other major books of the Pali Canon , with his works becoming the definitive Theravadin interpretation of the scriptures . Having synthesized or translated the whole of the Sinhalese commentary preserved at the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya , Buddhaghosa reportedly returned to India , making a pilgrimage to Bodh Gaya to pay his respects to the Bodhi Tree .
The details of the Mahavamsa account cannot readily be verified ; while it is generally regarded by Western scholars as having been embellished with legendary events ( such as the hiding of Buddhaghosa 's text by the gods ) , in the absence of contradictory evidence it is assumed to be generally accurate . While the Mahavamsa claims that Buddhaghosa was born in northern India near Bodh Gaya , the epilogues to his commentaries make reference to only one location in India as being a place of at least temporary residence : Kanci in southern India . Some scholars thus conclude ( among them Oskar von Hinüber and Polwatte Buddhadatta Thera ) that Buddhaghosa was actually born in South India and was relocated in later biographies to give him closer ties to the region of the Buddha .
The Buddhaghosuppatti , a later biographical text , is generally regarded by Western scholars as being legend rather than history . It adds to the Mahavamsa tale certain details , such as the identity of Buddhaghosa 's parents and his village , as well as several dramatic episodes , such as the conversion of Buddhaghosa 's father and Buddhaghosa 's role in deciding a legal case . It also explains the eventual loss of the Sinhalese originals that Buddhaghosa worked from in creating his Pali commentaries by claiming that Buddhaghosa collected and burnt the original manuscripts once his work was completed .
= = Writings and translations = =
Buddhaghosa was reputedly responsible for an extensive project of synthesizing and translating a large body of Sinhala commentaries on the Pāli Canon . His Visuddhimagga ( Pāli : Path of Purification ) is a comprehensive manual of Theravada Buddhism that is still read and studied today . The Mahavamsa ascribes a great many books to Buddhaghosa 's composition , some of which are not believed to have been his work , but rather were composed later and attributed to him .
Below is a listing of the fourteen commentaries on the Pāli Canon traditionally ascribed to Buddhaghosa , the Aṭṭhakathā :
While traditional accounts list Buddhaghosa as the author of all of these works , the current consensus among scholars accepts only the Visuddhimagga and the commentaries on the first four nikayas as Buddhaghosa 's work .
= = Influence and Legacy = =
In the 12th century , the Sri Lankan monk Sariputta became the leading scholar of the Theravada following the reunification of the Sri Lankan monastic community by King Parakramabahu I. Sariputta incorporated many of the works of Buddhaghosa into his own interpretations . In subsequent years , many monks from Theravada traditions in Southeast Asia sought ordination or re @-@ ordination in Sri Lanka because of the reputation of the Sri Lankan Mahavihara lineage for doctrinal purity and scholarship . The result was the spread of the teachings of the Mahavihara tradition — and thus Buddhaghosa — throughout the Theravada world . Buddhaghosa 's commentaries thereby became the standard method by which the Theravada scriptures were understood , establishing Buddhaghosa as the definitive interpreter of Theravada doctrine .
In later years , Buddhaghosa 's fame and influence inspired various accolades . His life story was recorded , in an expanded and likely exaggerated form , in a Pali chronicle known as the Buddhaghosuppatti , or " The Development of the Career of Buddhaghosa " . Despite the general belief that he was Indian by birth , he later may have been claimed by the Mon people of Burma as an attempt to assert primacy over Sri Lanka in the development of Theravada tradition . Other scholars believe that the Mon records refer to another figure , but whose name and personal history are much in the mold of the Indian Buddhaghosa .
Finally , Buddhaghosa 's works likely played a significant role in the revival and preservation of the Pali language as the scriptural language of the Theravada , and as a lingua franca in the exchange of ideas , texts , and scholars between Sri Lanka and the Theravada countries of mainland Southeast Asia . The development of new analyses of Theravada doctrine , both in Pali and Sinhalese , seems to have dried up prior to Buddhaghosa 's emergence in Sri Lanka . In India , new schools of Buddhist philosophy ( such as the Mahayana ) were emerging , many of them making use of classical Sanskrit both as a scriptural language and as a language of philosophical discourse . The monks of the Mahavihara may have attempted to counter the growth of such schools by re @-@ emphasizing the study and composition in Pali , along with the study of previously disused secondary sources that may have vanished in India , as evidenced by the Mahavamsa . Early indications of this resurgence in the use of Pali as a literary language may be visible in the composition of the Dipavamsa and the Vimuttimagga , both dating to shortly before Buddhaghosa 's arrival in Sri Lanka . The addition of Buddhaghosa 's works — which combined the pedigree of the oldest Sinhalese commentaries with the use of Pali , a language shared by all of the Theravada learning centers of the time — provided a significant boost to the revitalization of the Pali language and the Theravada intellectual tradition , possibly aiding the Theravada school in surviving the challenge to its position posed by emerging Buddhist schools of mainland India .
Some scholars have argued that Buddhaghosa 's writing evinces a strong but unacknowledged Yogācāra Buddhist influence , which subsequently came to characterize Theravada thought in the wake of his profound influence on the Theravada tradition .
= = Critics = =
The Visuddhimagga reflects changes in interpretation which appeared during the centuries since the Buddha 's time .
The Australian Buddhist monastic Shravasti Dhammika is critical of contemporary practice . He concludes that Buddhaghosa did not believe that following the practice set forth in the Visuddhimagga will really lead him to Nirvana , basing himself on the postscript to the Visuddhimagga :
Even Buddhaghosa did not really believe that Theravada practice could lead to Nirvana . His Visuddhimagga is supposed to be a detailed , step by step guide to enlightenment . And yet in the postscript [ ... ] he says he hopes that the merit he has earned by writing the Vishuddhimagga will allow him to be reborn in heaven , abide there until Metteyya ( Maitreya ) appears , hear his teaching and then attain enlightenment .
Yet Ñāṇamoli notes that this postscript does not appear in the original Pali .
According to Kalupahana , Buddhaghosa was influenced by Mahayana @-@ thought , which were subtly mixed with Theravada orthodoxy to introduce new ideas . Eventually this led to the flowering of metaphysical tendencies , in contrast to the original stress on anattā in early Buddhism
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= Idiotest =
Idiotest ( a portmanteau of " idiot " and " test " and stylized as Id ! otest ) is an American television game show broadcast by Game Show Network ( GSN ) . Hosted by Ben Gleib , the series features contestants in teams of two competing to answer brain teaser and puzzle questions . The winning team advances to a bonus round for an opportunity to increase their winnings to $ 10 @,@ 000 . The series was announced at GSN 's upfront presentation in March 2014 ; the first episode premiered on August 12 of that year .
Critical reception for the series has been mixed , with one writer calling it " enjoyable " while another called it " uninteresting . " Additionally , GSN released an online game midway through the first season that allows users to answer questions from the series ' past episodes .
= = Gameplay = =
The main game features two pairs of contestants answering brain teaser questions . In the first round , each team faces two questions , taking the form of a visual puzzle . Contestants can work together and must answer by pointing to the correct answer ( or answers depending on what the question is asking them ) on the screen . The question is often phrased so that the contestants may be misled if they do not read it correctly ( for example , " Touch the largest greenhouse " could be misread as " Touch the largest green house " ) The value of the question begins at $ 300 , with $ 20 deducted for every second the team takes in answering ; the money begins counting down when the puzzle first appears on the screen . The money stops counting down when the contestants submit an answer on the touchscreen . For all questions , a correct answer earns the remaining money , while a wrong answer or no answer earns nothing . In round two , there are 4 questions with each contestant working alone and cannot confer with their partners . The opening value of the question is $ 500 , decreasing by $ 25 each second until an answer is given . In the third round , one contestant from each team faces the same question simultaneously . Contestants have their own money countdown , which starts at $ 1 @,@ 000 and decreases by $ 50 per second . The other contestant from each team then faces a more difficult question , with an opening value of $ 2 @,@ 500 and decreasing by $ 100 per second . The host usually reads the question to the contestants during this round . After this second question , the team that has more money wins it and plays the bonus round for $ 10 @,@ 000 . If the game ended in a tie , the team who solves their puzzles the fastest are the winners .
= = = Smart Money Round = = =
In the bonus round , entitled the " Smart Money Round " , each member of the winning team plays the same question individually . While the first contestant is asked the question , the second is isolated offstage so that they cannot see or hear the question . The two teammates have a total of 40 seconds to answer ( in seasons 1 and 2 , the time limit was 30 seconds ) ; the clock stops when the first contestant submits an answer , and resumes when the second contestant first sees the question . If one team member answers the question correctly , they receive an additional $ 1 @,@ 000 ; if both answer correctly , their winnings are augmented to $ 10 @,@ 000 .
Midway through the first season , another version of the " Smart Money Round " was introduced requiring a team to correctly answer five questions in 60 seconds , with five @-@ second penalties for wrong answers . Each correct answer is worth $ 500 , with five correct answers winning $ 10 @,@ 000 .
= = = Online version = = =
An online game based on the series was developed for GSN 's website midway through the show 's first season . The game allows online users to answer questions seen on the actual show . Answering a certain amount of questions correctly allows players to level up and face more difficult questions ; a total of 32 levels are available .
= = Production = =
The show received very little advanced press before it was announced at GSN 's 2014 – 15 upfront presentation on March 18 , 2014 . At the presentation , GSN revealed plans to order 40 episodes of the series , while confirming August 12 as the premiere date on June 19 , 2014 . On October 28 , 2014 , the show was renewed for a 65 @-@ episode second season , which began airing April 1 , 2015 . The series was renewed for a third season on March 16 , 2016 , with the season premiere airing on April 12 .
The series has also produced some special editions featuring contestants from a preexisting rivalry . These episodes have included competitions between USC and UCLA graduates , as well as an Election Day special between pairs of Democrats and Republicans . This theme was revived with a special episode entitled Political Idiotest , which both taped and aired April 20 , 2016 and featured brain teasers referring to political subjects .
= = Reception = =
The series has received mixed reviews from critics . Carrie Grosvenor of About Entertainment argued the series to be " truly enjoyable to watch " while calling Gleib 's hosting " sarcastic and funny " . Conversely , Tim Conroy of Media Life Magazine argued that the show " just doesn 't do the trick " and thought Gleib had a difficult time " drawing amusing responses from the contestants " . Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times was equally unimpressed , saying that the show had " low ambitions " and arguing that Gleib 's hosting made the show " even more uninteresting " . Paired with the mixed critical reception , the series has seen a wide range of ratings for new episodes , bringing in between 245 @,@ 000 and 561 @,@ 000 total viewers during the first season .
The season two double episode premiere drew 388 @,@ 000 and 360 @,@ 000 viewers respectively .
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= Puzzlejuice =
Puzzlejuice is a 2012 indie puzzle video game for iOS produced and developed by video game company Sirvo . The game is a combination of Tetris , tile @-@ matching , and Boggle : players rearrange falling tetromino blocks into rows of similar colors , which turn into letters that are cleared from the board by forming words . The fast @-@ paced game also includes challenges and power @-@ ups . The development team consisted three people ; programmer Asher Vollmer initially developed the game alone , before reaching out to artist Greg Wohlwend for advice on the aesthetics . Composer Jimmy Hinson produced the game 's music .
The game was released January 19 , 2012 to what video game review score aggregator Metacritic called " generally favorable " reviews . Multiple reviewers mentioned the difficulty involved in juggling the three game components simultaneously .
= = Gameplay = =
In Puzzlejuice , the player turns falling tetrominos into letters , and those letters into words and points . The player taps and drags on the touchscreen to rotate and position multicolored tetrominos that fall from the top of the screen . When the player completes a solid row of tiles , or arranges the fallen blocks such that four or more like @-@ colored tiles touch , the color tiles turn into letters . Players connect these letter tiles with their eight adjacent tiles ( in ordinal directions ) to make words . Words of sufficient length are cleared from play as well as their adjacent tiles — thus longer words clear more blocks . The iPhone version shows a magnified version of the tile obscured by the player 's finger near the finger . The game has been compared to a cross between Boggle , Tetris , and tile @-@ matching .
The game also offers objectives to be accomplished over multiple sessions , like making a six @-@ letter word , or clearing three or more rows at once . This unlocks power @-@ ups that occasionally provide opportunities such as halting the rate of new tetromino drops , and removing blocks from the screen . Up to three power @-@ ups can be selected to be used in each game .
The object of the game is to get the highest score . There are two play modes : Zen and Core . There is a 90 @-@ second time limit in Zen mode . In Core mode , players play until the screen fills with poorly placed tetrominos , similar to Tetris . Core has two difficulties . On the easiest difficulty , three @-@ letter words suffice , but harder modes require five @-@ letter words at a minimum . A score multiplier grows as players maintain a combo of multiple words created in succession , and resets if players are too slow . Scores are uploaded to Game Center .
= = Development = =
Puzzlejuice was built by a group called Collaboratory and later renamed Sirvo . The three @-@ person team consisted of programmer Asher Vollmer , artist Greg Wohlwend , and composer Jimmy Hinson . The game began as Vollmer 's idea . He later reached out to Wohlwend for aesthetic advice , which resulted in a 365 @-@ message chain email and the final product . Wohlwend and Vollmer did not speak a word to each other — or use a medium outside of Gmail and Twitter — throughout the entire development process . The title was inspired by what Vollmer described as the " EXTREME " American culture of the 1990s , exemplified by the board game Crossfire and juice @-@ filled Gushers fruit snacks . A similar game , Spelltower , was released during Puzzlejuice 's development , but Vollmer and Wohlwend ultimately considered their game sufficiently different to proceed . Puzzlejuice was selected for the PAX 10 , a spotlighted group of indie games , in July 2012 . The game was released as a universal app for iPhone and iPad on January 19 , 2012 . Vollmer expressed an interest in bringing the game to Steam Greenlight in August 2012 .
= = Reception = =
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Multiple reviewers compared its core mechanics to a combination of Boggle , Tetris , and a tile @-@ matching game , such as Bejeweled or Puyo Puyo . Comparing word games , Edge called it the " fast @-@ paced action @-@ adventure " to Spelltower 's " survival horror " . Multiple reviewers mentioned the difficulty in mentally balancing the various components of the game , which VideoGamer.com compared to " doing open heart surgery while playing Dance Dance Revolution " .
Edge suggested playing on the game 's hardest difficulty , which they found the most engaging . They called it " mayhem , ... elegantly handled " . Pocket Gamer 's Harry Slater said the game " forces your brain to think in ways that it 's never been asked to before " . Edge compared the game 's challenges to Jetpack Joyride 's missions , and complimented the connection between Vollmer 's " magpie " design and Wohlwend 's " luminously flat pastel @-@ colored art " . Phil Eaves of Slide to Play wrote that the player should play with headphones or else miss a " wonderful " chiptune soundtrack .
Edge called the game " too hectic and exhausting " to return to often . VideoGamer.com 's Mark Brown struggled with registering the right input on the small screen , and found himself inadvertently making words from letters instead of moving color blocks . Slide to Play 's Eaves was also troubled by the controls , and recommended the iPad version for the extra screen space . Pocket Gamer 's Slater said it was too easy to clear the board with three @-@ letter words , and thus that the design execution was not as robust as the concept , never being " more than the sum of its strange combination of parts " . While TouchArcade 's Troy Woodfield called the gameplay " not ... totally original " in how it combines three common game ideas , he still found the combination " a stroke of genius " , and highly recommended the game as " a breath of fresh air " . Brown of VideoGamer.com agreed that Puzzlejuice distinguished itself from the crowded iOS puzzle game genre , and Slide to Play 's Eaves called its balance between game types " perfect " .
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= Potlatch River =
The Potlatch River is in the state of Idaho in the United States . About 56 miles ( 90 km ) long , it is the lowermost major tributary to the Clearwater River , a tributary of the Snake River that is in turn a tributary of the Columbia River . Once surrounded by arid grasslands of the Columbia Plateau adjacent to the western foothills of the Rocky Mountains , the Potlatch today is used mainly for agriculture and irrigation purposes .
Its name derives from potlatch , a type of ceremony held by the indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest ; one such tribe lived along the river for hundreds of years before the arrival of whites . Pioneers settled the watershed and established farms and ranches in the late 19th century . After that , logging eliminated most of the forests within the watershed and the ecology of the river is still in the process of recovery . Fishing , hiking and camping are popular recreational activities on the river ; 14 percent the watershed lies on public lands . Before logging and agriculture , many varieties of riparian and forest plants once populated the catchment , and several species of fish still swim the river and its tributaries .
= = Course and drainage = =
The Hoodoo Mountains are the source of the Potlatch River . The Potlatch 's course traces a southwesterly line across the eastern Columbia Plateau in the arid Rocky Mountain foothills . Two forks form the river 's headwaters in the southern part of the Idaho Panhandle . The West Fork drains part of Latah County and the East Fork is in Clearwater County . These two forks combine near Helmer , and soon the river descends into a canyon that continues all the way to the mouth . While in the canyon , it receives Pine , Big Bear , Middle Potlatch and Little Potlatch Creeks from the north , and Boulder and Cedar Creeks from the south . Idaho State Highway 3 follows part of the lower canyon , and the town of Juliaetta is located at the Middle Potlatch Creek confluence . The river merges with the Clearwater at the elevation of 801 feet ( 244 m ) between the towns of Myrtle and Spalding . Its average discharge at the mouth , according to a USGS stream gauge , is 379 @.@ 8 cubic feet per second ( 10 @.@ 75 m3 / s ) . A peak flow of 8 @,@ 150 cubic feet per second ( 231 m3 / s ) was recorded there in 2006 . The river reaches its highest peaks in the winter and early spring , while it reduces to a trickle by summer and autumn . The river mainly flows over and through coarse Columbia River basalts that comprise the Columbia Plateau , similar in geology to the Palouse River farther west .
= = History = =
Native Americans of the Nez Perce tribe have lived along the Potlatch River for hundreds of years . The Potlatch River area was once a broad sweep of dry grassland bordered by forested mountains , on the eastern edge of the arid Columbia Plateau . Because of its location just southwest of the foothills of the Rockies , the Potlatch River receives much more rainfall than watersheds just to the west , such as the Palouse and Tucannon Rivers . In 1805 and again in 1806 , the Lewis and Clark Expedition passed the mouth of the Potlatch River while traveling down the Clearwater River . They referred to it as " a large creek " and named it Colter 's Creek , in honor of John Colter , a member of the expedition . It is not known if they were the first whites to see the river . The modern name of the river was adopted in 1897 .
The native environment stayed relatively intact until settlers began to arrive in western Idaho in great numbers in the 1870s , and miners also were attracted by a gold strike at nearby Orofino , on the banks of the Clearwater River . Many of these emigrants set up dryland farms and ranches in the prairies surrounding the Potlatch River . Soil conditions generally improve as one travels southwards through the watershed , but there was a major drawback to growing crops in the southern part of the basin : the inaccessibility of water . Already scarce in the arid Potlatch River drainage , the river 's water was hard to reach because of the steep canyon it passes through in most of its lower course . Farmers were restricted to growing crops that did not require irrigation , and many of the lands that did not have access to abundant @-@ enough water were relegated to pasture or hay producing status .
At first , the forests of the watershed were not significantly affected , but after logging operations sprung up near the start of the 20th century , most of the virgin timber in the watershed was cleared . The first sawmills were built to provide lumber for local uses , such as building houses and barns . Soon , however , the Washington , Idaho and Montana Railway extended its tracks into the area , allowing lumber to be exported out of the basin . Logging turned out to be a very profitable industry but had a lasting negative effect on the ecology of the Potlatch River watershed .
Splash dams , greased chutes , railroad landings , railroad branch lines and steam donkey operations were among the strategies utilized to exploit the watershed 's resources of timber . Unfortunately , railroad embankments and fills used to build up tributaries had artificially straightened them in the process , and erosion increased dramatically on the barren hillside , causing many streams to become much siltier than they naturally would be . Nearly all the old @-@ growth forest in the watershed is now gone , and the forests that remain are mostly second @-@ growth stands .
= = Ecology = =
At one time the river 's watershed was dominated by grassland mostly consisting of Idaho fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass . Cottonwoods , quaking aspen , maple , and alder formed the riparian zone along the Potlatch River . In the foothills , a meadow steppe environment abounding with black hawthorn , snowberry and small conifers flourished , while along the banks of smaller tributaries , hawthorn and mock orange grew . Camas and forbs thrived in the thinly distributed seasonal wetlands along the river and its larger tributary creeks . The forests were mainly a mix of Douglas fir and ponderosa pine , interspersed with rare stands of grand fir , western redcedar , western white pine , and larch , and an understory of oceanspray , ninebark , serviceberry , wild rose and snowberry . Wildfires burned through the watershed from time to time , clearing the way for new growth . After human intervention , these vegetation communities continued to persist , but in lesser numbers , and the grasslands have mostly been wiped out by farming . The average annual precipitation ranges from 15 to 50 inches ( 380 to 1 @,@ 270 mm ) per year , and annual variations in temperature are around 25 to 100 ° F ( − 4 to 38 ° C ) .
According to a study from 2003 – 2004 , there were 13 different species of fish in the Potlatch River watershed , including speckled dace , longnose dace , rainbow trout ( both wild and farm @-@ raised ) , brook trout , largemouth bass , pumpkinseed , northern pikeminnow , redside shiner , sculpin , bridgelip sucker , largescale sucker , and yellow perch . Migration of steelhead , the anadromous phase of rainbow trout , has been impacted by the construction of dams downstream on the Snake and Columbia Rivers . The two species of dace were cumulatively the largest individual fish population in the watershed , while steelhead accounted for 58 @.@ 4 % of the biomass . Of all the streams sampled during the study , the West Fork Potlatch River had the highest diversity because of its relatively pristine condition . The lower section of the river suffers from chronic pollution caused by agricultural runoff . From 2005 to 2008 , the population of steelhead ( rainbow ) trout in the watershed was recorded by the Potlatch River Steelhead Monitoring and Evaluation Program ( PRSME ) . There was no data for steelhead populations in the main stem but 197 adult steelhead were recorded in the East Fork of the river , while an average of 226 was recorded annually in one of the river 's larger tributaries , Big Bear Creek . Over 1 @,@ 000 steelhead are estimated to return to the Potlatch drainage in strong run years . Outmigration of steelhead smolt from the East Fork was estimated at 6 @,@ 976 fish while the average for Big Bear Creek was 9 @,@ 491 . The Idaho Department of Fish and Game began a series of seven projects in 2009 in order to conserve fish habitat in the Potlatch .
= = = Land use = = =
Forests cover about 57 % of the Potlatch River watershed , while about 38 % is used for agriculture and ranching . 78 % of the land is privately owned while 14 % lie within national forests . 7 % is owned by the state , while the Bureau of Land Management and Bureau of Indian Affairs each have a 1 % share .
= = Recreation = =
Many of the mountainous and forested sections of the drainage basin lie protected under national forest lands . There are several campgrounds overseen by the U.S. Forest Service in the headwaters of the Potlatch River watershed . Fishing is also good in the Potlatch River and many of its tributaries . Anglers are only permitted to catch brook trout , cutthroat trout , and rainbow and steelhead trout . The Department of Fish and Game annually stocks fish in the river . Fishing is permitted on the Potlatch from its mouth upstream to where Moose Creek joins the river near Bovill , as well as on the East Fork .
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= When You Reach Me =
When You Reach Me is a Newbery Medal @-@ winning science fiction and mystery novel by Rebecca Stead , published in 2009 . It takes place in the Upper West Side in New York during 1978 and 1979 and follows the protagonist , Miranda Sinclair . She receives a strange note asking her to record future events and write down the location of her spare key . As the novel progresses , Miranda receives three more notes with requests . The novel contains three storylines — the appearance of Miranda 's mom on the game show , The $ 20 @,@ 000 Pyramid , Miranda 's best friend Sal suddenly not talking with Miranda , and the appearance of a laughing man . Central themes in the novel include independence , redemption and friendship . Stead also wanted to demonstrate the possibilities that she saw in time travel . The author hoped to show her children what New York was like in her childhood , and demonstrate how in an earlier time children were more independent .
When You Reach Me was inspired by a newspaper article about a man suffering from amnesia , and by parts of her childhood and her favorite book , A Wrinkle in Time . After completing much of the novel , Stead gave the draft to her editor , Wendy Lamb , who liked it . They expanded on the initial concepts and published When You Reach Me on July 14 , 2009 , under Wendy Lamb Books , an imprint of Random House . The book was well received by critics , who praised its realistic setting and the author 's deft handling of small details . The novel has reached the best @-@ seller lists of The New York Times , Los Angeles Times and USA Today . In addition to receiving the 2010 Newbery Medal , When You Reach Me won several Best Book of the Year awards .
= = Concept and development = =
The two main characters are Miranda , and the laughing man . Stead began writing When You Reach Me in 2007 after reading an article in The New York Times gave her an idea for a novel about traveling in time to save someone 's life . The article was about a man who woke up in Denver suffering from amnesia , having forgotten who he was or why he was there . Many people worked with the man to help him regain his memory . Under hypnosis , he spoke about his apparent wife , Penny , and two daughters who died in a car crash . However , when he and Penny reunited , the man found out she was only his fiancée — and they had no children . Upon reading this , Stead wondered if somehow the man had returned to the past to prevent an accident but lost his memory along the way . In addition , the article reminded Stead of a strange old man , called the ' laughing man ' , who lived near her house as a child .
While the news story initially inspired Stead , she also tied in parts of her childhood into the novel . Besides the laughing man , she included her primary school , her apartment and a sandwich store where she used to work . Stead also added memories of herself acting mean without reason . Slowly the novel became " more and more about these ordinary mysteries of life and less about the fantastic time @-@ travel @-@ y one " . After developing the basic idea , Stead began researching the science behind time travel to make sure her ideas would be logical . She asked her father for help with the science and complicated technical aspects , since he enjoyed mathematical puzzles . As they talked about time travel , Stead " just kept falling into the same hole with the logic , and he really helped me straighten it out " .
When Stead was only halfway done , she hit a wall : she wondered if she had focused the novel too much on her own personal life and problems . By her 40th birthday in January 2008 , she had stopped writing . One week after her birthday celebration , Stead went to a writers ' conference where the presenter advised attendees to stop thinking and just write . This speech worked as an antidote to Stead 's writer 's block ; she started working on When You Reach Me again . After she had written two @-@ thirds of the novel , Stead sent the draft to her editor Wendy Lamb at Random House . Perusing the script , Lamb found herself absorbed and wanted to help develop the book . Unlike Stead 's debut novel First Light , which Lamb heavily edited , Lamb modified nothing on the first draft of When You Reach Me . Throughout the process , Stead helped Lamb understand the complicated concepts in the book and had drafts read by others to make sure " revision hadn 't created any holes or contradictions in the plot " .
= = = A Wrinkle in Time = = =
Throughout the story , the main character Miranda is often reading Madeleine L 'Engle 's A Wrinkle in Time , Stead 's favorite book as a child ; she read and reread it multiple times . She recalls that L 'Engle was the only author she met in her childhood . Stead described the novel as a talisman for Miranda ; she included it in the first draft and planned to remove it , " because you can 't just toss A Wrinkle in Time in there casually " . Her editor suggested leaving it in if it could be better tied into the story . Stead was aware that she did not want A Wrinkle in Time to have too big an influence on When You Reach Me . Keeping this in mind , she reread A Wrinkle in Time through the perspective of different characters , which enabled her to develop new connections and ideas in her own work .
= = = Setting = = =
When You Reach Me takes place during the 1978 @-@ 1979 school year of Miranda , the main character . Stead placed Miranda 's home in the Upper West Side , New York City , where Stead grew up . Many parts of the novel explore " the same streets where Stead grew up , and riffs on some of her experiences " . Stead was inspired to use this setting because she moved into an apartment near her childhood home early in the development of the story . There she had experienced her first independence while exploring the streets , only to find a scary man near her house . Wondering why he was there , Stead later used this encounter as " the anchor as she wrote When You Reach Me " .
= = Plot summary = =
When You Reach Me follows a sixth @-@ grade protagonist , Miranda . She lives with her single mother who has a kindhearted boyfriend , Richard . Miranda 's best friend Sal , who she knew since she was a small child , had recently started ignoring Miranda after he had been punched in the stomach by another boy , Marcus .
A homeless man lives on the corner of Miranda 's street . She calls him the " laughing man " for his tendency to laugh without cause . Miranda notices that he always utters the words " book bag pocket shoe " . The phrase refers to the order and place he will send Miranda notes — her library book , a bread bag , her coat pocket and Richard 's shoe . The first three notes instruct Miranda to write a letter describing the future events . The notes , whose writer claims to be coming to Miranda 's time to save a life , offer three signs of the truth of the messages . As the plot develops , the proofs come true , and Miranda is intrigued .
Miranda and her new friends , Annemarie and Colin find a sandwich shop on the corner , wondering if they can get paid for a job there . The owner , Jimmy , agrees , but he does not wish to pay them with money instead he intends to give a free pop and a sandwich each day of their work . Miranda , Annemarie and Colin discover a Flintstone bank in the back of sandwich shop . Colin , wanting to see more of the bank , is pulled way by Annemarie insisting that Jimmy could find them . The next day , Jimmy fires the three workers , thinking that one of them stole the Flintstone bank , when it was actually Marcus who stole it . The workers write a card , give it to Jimmy and insist that they did not steal the bank . Jimmy believes them and let them work at the sandwich shop . He then tells them that he figured out who stole the bank . He thinks that it is Julia , a classmate in their class , and a best friend to Annemarie . He thinks she did it because she is African American . This upsets Annemarie greatly and she immediately quits her job .
At school , Julia starts shouting at Miranda for letting Annemarie drink soda and eat sandwiches . Julia explains that because Annemarie is epileptic she has to eat a special diet . Miranda explains that she didn 't know any of that . Colin was later hanging out with Sal . Miranda was home alone until her mom got home from work . Someone did a type of tap on her door which scares her because she doesn 't know anyone that knocks like that . She looks though the peep hole and sees Colin . She opens the door and he looks at her then kisses her . She then kisses him back . Colin smiles and then runs off .
In a later scene , Marcus encounters Sal . Marcus wants to apologize for his misbehavior , and chases Sal when he flees . Sal runs onto a street right ahead of an oncoming truck . Before the truck can hit Sal , the laughing man kicks Sal out of the way , sacrificing his own life for Sal 's . Miranda finds the fourth note in Richard 's shoe and learns that the laughing man came from the future to save Sal 's life . The note asks Miranda to prepare a chronicle of recent events and deliver it by hand . Miranda obeys this command .
Miranda 's mom is expected to appear on the $ 20 @,@ 000 Pyramid . In hopes of winning the money and having a better life , Miranda and her mom 's boyfriend Richard prep her for the show . Miranda and Sal are friends again . While her mother is on @-@ stage , Miranda reminisces about a conversation with Marcus about how no one would recognize a time @-@ traveler from a different age . She suddenly realizes that the laughing man is an older incarnation of Marcus , who has come from the future to save Sal 's life . He needed to deliver the notes to the young Marcus through Miranda , who is conveniently her friend . The novel ends as Miranda reflects on the events in an epilogue .
= = Genres = =
When You Reach Me is classified in the science fiction and mystery genres , but includes features of some other genres . Monica Edinger of The New York Times found When You Reach Me to be " a hybrid of genres , it is a complex mystery , a work of historical fiction , a school story and one of friendship , with a leitmotif of time travel running through it . " Augusta Scattergood of the Christian Science Monitor wondered , " Is When You Reach Me science fiction ? Time travel ? A highly imaginative girl 's completely conceived experience ? Maybe it 's historical fiction . After all , it is set in 1979 . " According to Mary Quattlebaum of The Washington Post , the novel is of the science fiction and time travel genres . Quattlebaum found that , unlike the usual time travel stories , When You Reach Me does not involve " cheesy time travel machines and rock- ' em @-@ sock- ' em action [ but instead ] far surpasses the usual whodunit or sci @-@ fi adventure to become an incandescent exploration of ' life , death , and the beauty of it all . ' " Both Kirkus Reviews and Publishers Weekly found that despite the book 's science @-@ fiction devices , the setting was still " firmly rooted in reality . "
Some reviewers have placed parts the novel in the mystery genre . Edinger found that despite the broad genres , the novel is mainly " a thrilling puzzle " . She relates the pieces slowly ; clues are found in the story itself , on the map , in words and chapter titles . At the end of the book everything is tied together and makes sense . Ann Crewdson of School Library Journal found that each note Miranda receives foreshadows the next event . Each note is " skillfully " integrated into the novel , along with subsequent clues , until the climax is reached and all the clues come together . Stead 's editor Lamb agreed with the mystery genre , in that " there 's plenty to wonder about after you finish the book . Just as we wonder why our feelings change so suddenly , or why someone like the laughing man appears on the corner one day . " Gurdon of The Wall Street Journal concurred with Lamb , adding that although the novel is clearly a mystery , the mystery itself is not revealed until the end where the last note comes and where everything ties together .
= = Themes = =
Aaron Mead found that , " the novel addresses the question of how to hold on to old friendships without stifling them , and it insightfully brings out the stabilizing effect that new friendships can have in the effort to preserve or reclaim old ones " . He noted that the novel deeply helps children in middle school . Crewdson opined that the book deals with the " intricacies of friendship " .
This theme of friendship is explored when Sal abandons his friendship with Miranda after he is hit by Marcus . Elli Housden of The Courier @-@ Mail found that Miranda is forced to deal with the fact that Sal seemingly abandons their friendship and ignores her for no apparent reason . Scattergood considered the novel an " ordinary friendship story " with Sal ignoring Miranda to find other friends . Julie Long from Reading Time noted how the incident forces Miranda to find new friends and become more active in school , where she starts learning the dynamics of that environment .
Mead noted that " the book builds toward second chances for Miranda 's mother — both vocationally and relationally . " As the novel progresses , Miranda gives second chances to Julia , a girl whom Miranda initially hates , and Alice , a girl who always needs to use the bathroom but never does . Miranda previously considered Julia " a competitor for Annemarie 's affection , and Alice as the weird kid who waited too long to go to the bathroom " . By the end of the book , she finds Julia to be Annemarie 's friend and discovers that Alice is an insecure girl .
Stead finds that kids today are much less independent since her childhood . She wrote , " [ F ] rom age nine , my friends and I were on the streets , walking home , going to each other 's houses , going to the store . I really wanted to write about that : the independence that 's a little bit scary but also a really positive thing in a lot of ways . And I 'm not sure that most kids have that today " . Throughout the novel , Miranda and her friends often walk around town without any adults . They are even found working in a sandwich store at lunch and walking home from school while trying to avoid the laughing man . While writing the novel , Stead hoped to show her sons the time period in which she lived , " send [ ing ] them on a little time @-@ travel journey of their own " . Laura Miller of The New Yorker found that this lack of independence in today 's youth is mainly due to the fact that kids now grow up with adults constantly watching them . Miller noted how , despite the lower crime rate in current times , the " characters , middle @-@ class middle school students , routinely walk around the Upper West Side by themselves , a rare freedom in today 's city . "
= = = Time travel = = =
Julianna Helt from the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette found that time travel forms a central theme as Miranda constantly wonders how time travel could be possible . In When You Reach Me , Marcus helps Miranda realize that the three old ladies from A Wrinkle in Time lied to Meg by promising they would return five minutes before they left . Marcus explains :
" So the garden is where they appear when they get home at the end of the book . Remember ? They land in the broccoli . So if they had gotten home five minutes before they left , like those ladies promised they would , then they would have seen themselves get back . Before they did " .
Roger Sutton from Horn Magazine felt that the moment Marcus explains this flaw to Miranda is the first exchange that shows the novel to be complicated and mysterious . Quattlebaum noted , " The story 's structure – an expert interweaving of past , present and future – brilliantly contradicts Miranda 's commonsensical belief that the end can 't happen before the middle . " Stead explained her view of time travel in her novel , where going back in time is fulfilling the future , rather than changing it . She hoped to make the time travel element logical to show that " Miranda wasn 't struggling to understand the seeming randomness and infinity of the universe , but learning that her world has value and that people do care about her " .
= = Audiobook adaption = =
The audiobook adaption of When You Reach Me was released by Listening Library and contains four disks . In praise of Cynthia Holloway 's performance of Miranda , M.V.P from Horn Book Magazine stated that her tone " emphasized the novel 's interpersonal aspects " . The reviewer found it beneficial that the chapter titles were added to the audio , since they seemed to add more detail about the book , but can be easily skipped over when reading . M.V.P criticized the voicing of Miranda 's mom . AudioFile praised Halloway for " a strong reading ... [ that ] makes listeners curious about this story 's nonlinear structure " and for managing the different elements of the story .
= = Critical reception = =
When You Reach Me was published on July 14 , 2009 , in hardcover format by Wendy Lamb Books , an imprint of Random House Children 's Books . Reception of When You Reach Me was positive . Reviewers praised the details and characters . The novel has reached many bestseller lists ; it was on the New York Times Best Seller list for 16 weeks ending May 9 , 2010 . It was number 127 on USA Today 's bestseller list during the week of January 28 , 2010 . On April 22 , 2010 , after staying at number 15 for two weeks , When You Reach Me left the Los Angeles Times bestseller list .
Reviewers lauded the realistic setting and characters . Ilene Cooper of Booklist acknowledged that although she was unsure if the ending was logical , " everything else is quite wonderful " . She praised the realistic portrayal of New York and mentioned that " the characters , children and adults ... are honest bits of humanity " . Julianna M. Helt of The Post Gazette felt that along with the " wonderful sense of middle school dynamics " , Stead 's depiction of New York City in the 1970s was superb . Quattlebaum considered no character to be minor ; each plays an important part in the story . Caitlin Augusta of School Library Journal found the setting to be " consistently strong . The stores — and even the streets — in Miranda 's neighborhood act as physical entities and impact the plot in tangible ways " .
Reviewers praised how Stead made every small detail matter . Augusta Scattergood of the Christian Science Monitor enjoyed the detailed work : " The beauty of Stead 's writing is found in the way she weaves subplots and settings together seamlessly . Richard 's stolen shoe drops into place . A reference to forbidden grapes is tied up sweetly . Stolen $ 2 bills ? Another part of the enigma explained by the end . " Edginer agreed , commenting that despite the small size of the novel compared to other popular books , When You Reach Me is a " taut novel , every word , every sentence , has meaning and substance . " Publishers Weekly added that even the smallest of details — Miranda 's name , her strange habits and why she carries A Wrinkle in Time with her — have a reason for their inclusion by the end of the novel .
= = = 2010 Newbery Medal = = =
Stead won the annual Newbery Medal recognizing When You Reach Me as the year 's " most distinguished contribution to American literature for children " . The judges chose the novel for making the small details important to the plot . Chairwoman of the Newbery committee Katie O 'Dell felt that " Every scene , every nuance , every word is vital both to character development and the progression of the mystery that really is going to engage readers and satisfy them " . The committee was " very excited about this book because it is exceptionally conceived , finely crafted and highly original " .
On January 18 , 2010 , a worker at Random House had tweeted the result 17 minutes prior the official announcement . The tweet was quickly taken down when the mistake was noticed .
= = = 2012 survey = = =
In 2012 , When You Reach Me was ranked number 11 among all @-@ time best children 's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal , a monthly with primarily U.S. audience . It was the only 21st @-@ century work among the top 20 .
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Flekkefjord Station =
Flekkefjord Station ( Norwegian : Flekkefjord stasjon ) is a former railway station located in Flekkefjord , Norway . It served as the terminus of the 1 @,@ 067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) gauge Flekkefjord Line from 1904 to 1990 . The station building was designed by Paul Armin Due and was built in brick Art Nouveau .
The station was important for transport along the coast until 1944 , when the completion of the Sørland Line made Flekkefjord a branch station . At the same time , the line was converted to standard gauge , the number of station tracks was reduced , and the station received an overhaul . The station building was demolished in 1970 , but the station was still served until the line closed in 1990 . The tracks and depot buildings still exist .
= = History = =
The Flekkefjord Line ran from Egersund to Flekkefjord , as an extension of the Jæren Line , that ran from Stavanger to Egersund . The Norwegian Parliament voted in favor of the line in 1894 , and construction started two years later . While initial plans were to open the line in 1902 , the station and line did not open until 1 November 1904 . The line was built as a 3 ft 6 in ( 1 @,@ 067 mm ) gauge line , and the first rolling stock was reallocated from the Voss Line .
Initially , there were four trains daily in each direction , reduced to three on holidays . The most important train was the one that coordinated with the west @-@ bound steam ship ; the train would wait up to 45 minutes if the ship was delayed . This become the dominant route for people to get from Stavanger to cities along the South Coast , as well as to Oslo . In addition to passengers , major cargo shipments included seasonal shipments of herring , as well as lumber from the surrounding areas . Coal for the trains was imported by steam ship to Flekkefjord .
With the arrival of the Kragerø Line to Kragerø in 1927 , and the Sørland Line to Arendal in 1935 , buses were used between Flekkefjord and the terminus cities , allowing land connection between Stavanger and Oslo via Flekkefjord . At the same time , diesel multiple units were introduced on the " lightning trains " , cutting travel time to Stavanger by 50 minutes to 3 hours 15 minutes .
The Flekkefjord Line was planned as part of the Sørland Line , that would make Flekkefjord a station on the line between Oslo , Kristiansand and Stavanger . Instead , the route of the Sørland Line was chosen to traverse an inner route , and the Flekkefjord Line became a 17 @.@ 1 km ( 10 @.@ 6 mi ) branch line of the Sørland Line in 1944 . As part of the construction , the Flekkefjord Line was converted in 1940 – 41 to standard gauge . The first standard gauge train , a NSB Class 18 , operated on 8 August 1941 . The large traffic during the reconstruction period caused so much damage to the wharf that it had to be taken out of service . The speed on the line was also reduced to 40 kilometres per hour ( 25 mph ) , as the gauge conversion was done without changing the right @-@ of @-@ way profile . Dual gauge was kept until 1 March 1944 . At the same time the four tracks at the station were reduced to three . The cargo building was also moved three metres . In June 1945 , twelve people were employed at the station .
With the introduction of standard gauge , Flekkefjord went from being an important hub for transport along the south coast , to merely being a branch station . However , the number of daily trains to Sira and Moi had increased to twelve , operated with Class 86 and Class 87 multiple units . The Class 87 was used until 1956 , when Class 86 came into service . In 1966 , Class 87 was reintroduced . Important cargo customers at the time were Draco ( who made boats ) and Halvorsens Kjelfabrikk ( who made boilers ) . From 1981 , the Class 89 came into use , remaining until the station was closed in 1990 .
= = Facilities = =
As the only proper station on the line , Flekkefjord was built in brick in Art Nouveau . The two @-@ story 338 m2 ( 3 @,@ 640 sq ft ) building which was designed by Paul Armin Due had a ground floor with a ticket office , four offices and three waiting rooms . The second story was an apartment for the station master . Due chose to design the building symmetrically around the waiting room . It had arched widows and doors , curved corners and two round towers . This gave both a tight and soft form in organic interaction . It has been considered one of Due 's best works of Art Nouveau . Beside the station there was a 196 m2 ( 2 @,@ 110 sq ft ) single story restaurant building . In addition to a large main building , the station had a freight building , a wharf , a locomotive and wagon depot , and a loading area . There were four tracks past the station , in addition to two track to the cargo area . The cargo building had room for three wagons . The locomotive depot had places for six steam locomotives .
The restaurant was converted into housing in the 1950s , and in May 1970 the station building was demolished to make room for a new bus station . The cargo building was refurbished to serve as a station building for passengers and as offices . The wharf was sold by the municipality in 1987 , and the last train to serve the station departed on 31 December 1990 . Most of the line and infrastructure is however intact .
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= Case of the Dean of St Asaph =
The Case of the Dean of St Asaph , formally R v Shipley , was the 1784 trial of William Davies Shipley , the Dean of St Asaph , for seditious libel . In the aftermath of the American War of Independence , electoral reform had become a substantial issue , and William Pitt the Younger attempted to bring a Bill before Parliament to reform the electoral system . In its support Shipley republished a pamphlet written by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Sir William Jones , which noted the defects of the existing system and argued in support of Pitt 's reforms . Thomas FitzMaurice , the brother of British Prime Minister Earl of Shelburne , reacted by indicting Shipley for seditious libel , a criminal offence which acted as " the government 's chief weapon against criticism " , since merely publishing something that an individual judge interpreted as libel was enough for a conviction ; a jury was prohibited from deciding whether the material was actually libellous . The law was widely seen as unfair , and a Society for Constitutional Information was formed to pay Shipley 's legal fees . With financial backing from the society Shipley was able to secure the services of Thomas Erskine KC as his barrister .
Shipley was tried in 1784 by Mr Justice Buller and a specially convened jury at Shrewsbury . Edward Bearcroft , counsel for the prosecution , argued that on the basis of the existing system the jury could not decide on the nature of the pamphlet , while Erskine argued not only that they could , but that the material did not constitute seditious libel , containing as it did " a solemn protest against all sedition " . Persuaded by Erskine 's arguments , the jury ruled that Shipley was neither " guilty " or " not guilty " , but instead " guilty of publication only " , a confusing and non @-@ standard ruling which , after a long dialogue , Mr Justice Buller declared to mean " guilty on all charges " . Erskine appealed the decision to the Court of King 's Bench on 8 November , where the judges again ruled that juries could not decide whether material was libellous , but nevertheless released Shipley on a technicality ; his freedom was greeted with fireworks and bonfires , and Erskine was rewarded with the Freedom of the City of Gloucester . Still seeking to reform the law , Erskine sent the court records to Charles James Fox and Lord Camden , who , after much effort , passed the Libel Act 1792 , which secured the right of juries to decide whether material was libellous .
= = Background = =
Following the end of the American War of Independence , British public attention had turned to the need for Parliamentary reform – specifically , the lack of franchise in many towns and the presence of rotten boroughs . In response , William Pitt the Younger brought the idea of reform before Parliament and , in support of his actions , Sir William Jones wrote and published a pamphlet titled A Dialogue between a Farmer and a Country Gentleman on the Principles of Government , which covered the " virtues of government and defects in the representation of the people " . In 1783 Shipley , Jones 's father @-@ in @-@ law , recommended it to a group of Welsh constitutional reformers and had it reprinted in Welsh with his own preface suggesting it was " just , rational and constitutional " . As a result , Thomas FitzMaurice , the brother of the Earl of Shelburne , indicted Shipley for seditious libel , specifically for " publishing a false , scandalous and malicious libel ... to raise seditions and tumults within the kingdom , and to excite His Majesty 's subjects to attempt , by armed rebellion and violence , to subvert the state and constitution of the nation " .
The law dealing with seditious libel was particularly strict . Acting as " the government 's chief weapon against criticism " , it followed principles laid down in De Libellis Famosis and R v Carr : that seditious libel was a criminal offence , that the intention of the publisher or the truth of the allegations was irrelevant , that mere publication was sufficient for a conviction , and that juries were only allowed to deliver a verdict on whether the material had been published by the defendant , not whether it was libellous . Traditionally , matters of fact were left to the jury and matters of law to the judge , but with seditious libel " matters of law " was construed very widely ; it was the judge 's job to decide if the material was libellous , what constituted " seditious libel " , and the nature of " publication " , which was understood to include almost anything . Even a private letter , if intercepted , could lead to a prosecution .
Because of public disquiet with these principles , Shipley 's trial acted as a " test case " for the law of seditious libel ; a Society for Constitutional Information was formed by concerned citizens and began raising money to pay for his defence . Able to afford the best representation , the society gave the brief to Thomas Erskine KC , a noted defence barrister . The trial was to be heard by Lord Kenyon , then Chief Justice of Chester , at Wrexam ; after travelling 200 miles to the court Erskine discovered that a paper had been circulated in the area arguing that in libel cases juries were allowed to decide whether a publication was libellous , as well as whether it had been published . Citing the paper 's circulation , the prosecution asked for a postponement ; ignoring claims that a delay would cause Shipley hardship , Kenyon agree to postpone the trial . The case was eventually heard on 6 August 1784 by Mr Justice Buller , at Shrewsbury .
= = Trial and appeal = =
Edward Bearcroft , lead counsel for the prosecution , described the Dialogue as libel and argued that the truth of this was not a question for the jury to decide on ; they were bound to convict the defendant as long as they decided that he had published the Dialogue , regardless of the contents . Those contents , Bearcroft went on , sought to persuade the public that " every man of age had a right to choose his own representative in Parliament " . Erskine , in his reply , argued that the Dialogue was not libellous ( it opened with a preface containing " a solemn protest against all sedition " ) , and insisted that the jury had the right to decide what constituted libel :
If they know that the subject of the paper is the topic that agitates the country around them ; if they see danger in that agitation , and have reason to think that the publisher must have intended it , they say he is guilty . If , on the other hand , they consider the paper to be legal and enlightening in principle ; likely to promote a spirit of activity and liberty , in times when the activity of such a spirit is essential to the public safety , and have reason to believe it to be written and published in that spirit ; they say , as they ought to do , that the writer or the publisher is not guilty .
To demonstrate his feelings on the subject , Erskine asked the jury to consider him a fellow defendant , since he intended to publish the pamphlet himself as soon as possible ; he then went through the Dialogue line by line , showing that not only would most people agree with it , but that it was the foundation of Pitt 's Reform Bill . After Erskine concluded his arguments , again stating that the jury should feel free to debate whether the material constituted libel , Mr Justice Buller began his summing up , instructing the jury that they were only allowed to decide on whether Shipley had published the work . The jury retired , and after half an hour of discussion returned to declare Shipley " guilty of publishing only " . After a long and " confounding " debate between Erskine , Buller , and the jury , Buller declared Shipley guilty on all counts .
Erskine immediately appealed the decision to the Court of King 's Bench , where he argued on 8 November that Buller 's statement had misdirected the jury , and that as the jury was traditionally not given the right to investigate Shipley 's actual guilt , the previous trial was invalid ; a jury should be permitted to determine not only whether a statement was published , but whether it was libellous . With the exception of Mr Justice Wiles , the court unanimously declared that Erskine 's arguments were incorrect , and that the jury had no such role ; accordingly , his appeal was denied . Shipley was , however , later freed when the King 's Bench held that the initial indictment had been invalid because " there were no averments to point the application of the paper as a libel on the king and government " .
= = Aftermath = =
Although the case did not directly lead to legal change , it was nevertheless widely seen as a victory ; upon his release Shipley was greeted with fireworks and bonfires , and Erskine was rewarded with the Freedom of the City of Gloucester . Erskine , however , perceived it differently , and had records of the entire trial printed and sent to Charles James Fox and Lord Camden . Taking this as a hint , Fox ( after much delay ) introduced a Bill to Parliament in May 1791 , seeking to reform the law relating to libel . After it was passed through the Commons it went to the House of Lords , where members of the judiciary attempted to delay it ; in response Lord Camden , then 78 , rose and bluntly stated that if the judges were to be the sole arbiters of public opinion , nothing would be able to appear that criticised the government , leading to a stifling of the freedom of the press . His appeal was successful – without it , historian H. M. Lubasz writes , the Bill would never have passed the Lords – and within three weeks Parliament had formally passed the Libel Act 1792 , commonly known as Fox 's Libel Act , allowing juries for the first time to decide precisely what constituted libel .
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= Colin Hall Simpson =
Major General Colin Hall Simpson , CBE , MC , VD ( 13 April 1894 – 23 August 1964 ) was an Australian Army officer who rose to the rank of major general as Signal Officer in Chief during the Second World War . He was one of the founders of Amcal , the largest retail pharmacy chain in Australia .
Simpson joined the First Australian Imperial Force in 1916 , and served on the Western Front in the Battle of Messines and Battle of Passchendaele . He was twice wounded , and was mentioned in despatches and awarded the Military Cross . After the war he worked as a pharmacist , and rose to the rank of colonel in the Militia . He transferred to the Australian Corps of Signals on its formation in 1925 .
During the Second World War he participated in the campaigns in Greece and Syria as Chief Signals Officer of the I Corps . He returned to Australia in 1942 to become the Australian Army 's Signal Officer in Chief . He also became the first Australian Corps of Signals officer to reach the rank of major general .
= = Early life = =
Colin Hall Simpson was born in St Kilda , Victoria , on 13 April 1894 , the son of Colin Simpson , a plumber , and his wife Elizabeth Fulton Simpson , née Jordan . He was educated at St Kilda Primary School , and , from 1911 , at Caulfield Grammar School . While at Caulfield Grammar , Simpson joined the Australian Army Cadets , rising to the rank of sergeant . After leaving school he became an apprentice pharmacist . He served with the 49th ( Prahran ) Battalion in which he was commissioned as a second lieutenant on 1 March 1914 . He became its assistant adjutant on 12 April 1915 and was promoted to lieutenant on 1 July 1915 .
= = First World War = =
Simpson was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 1 May 1916 , and posted to the 3rd Pioneer Battalion , part of the 3rd Division , which was then being raised in Australia . He embarked from Port Melbourne on the transport HMAT Wandilla on 6 June 1916 , arriving in England on 26 July 1916 . The 3rd Division trained on the Salisbury Plain in England , where he was promoted to lieutenant on 13 October 1916 . He was transferred to the 3rd Division Signal Company on 16 November 1916 . Soon after , the 3rd Division moved to the Western Front , moving into the line near Armentières . Simpson was mentioned in despatches on 4 January 1917 .
The 3rd Division carried out its first offensive at the Battle of Messines in June 1917 . For his part in the battle , Simpson was awarded the Military Cross . His citation read :
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty . He organised the Brigade Signal Service so thoroughly that communication was maintained with every unit throughout . He was continually under shell @-@ fire , but personally supervised all repairs , by his vigorous and cheerful manner impressing all ranks in the highest degree .
Simpson participated in the Battle of Passchendale where he was gassed and wounded . He was evacuated to England on 22 October 1917 . While in hospital he applied for nine months ' leave to return to Australia and complete his pharmaceutical studies . He had passed the Intermediate Examination before leaving Australia but not the Final Examination . This was granted , and he embarked for home on the transport HMAT Persic on 21 December 1917 . He passed the Final Examination , and was registered as a pharmacist on 10 July 1918 . He never returned to the front , and his AIF appointment was terminated on 9 August 1918 .
= = Between the wars = =
Simpson remained in the Army as a reservist . He was posted to the 2 / 14th Infantry on 1 October 1918 , and was promoted to captain on 16 April 1920 . In the post @-@ war reorganisation of the Army , the 2 / 14th was absorbed into the 14th Infantry Battalion in March 1921 . In May , he transferred to the Royal Australian Engineers and joined the 3rd Division Signals Company . He was promoted to major on 1 July 1922 , and became its commander , with the rank of lieutenant colonel , on 1 September 1922 . On 1 January 1925 , the signal units were separated from the Engineers to form the Australian Corps of Signals , and he was transferred to the new corps . He commanded the 39th Infantry Battalion from 1 July 1929 to 30 June 1933 , after which he was on the unattached list for two years before resuming command of the 3rd Division Signals Company . On 1 May 1939 , he assumed command of the 6th Infantry Brigade , with the temporary rank of colonel .
Simpson opened his own chemist shop in Brunswick West in 1918 . On 12 August 1919 he married Jean Elizabeth Watson at the Congregational Church in Ascot Vale , Victoria . Their marriage produced two children , a son who died in infancy and a daughter , Jean Marjorie . One of the witnesses at their wedding ceremony was a fellow Militia officer , Alan Ramsay , who later married Jean 's sister Edna . In 1937 , Simpson banded together with D. E. Robertson and A. E. Moore to create the Allied Master Chemists of Australia Ltd , today better known as Amcal . They invited other pharmacists to join them to compete against the growing market power of major retailers . The business grew from 12 members in 1937 to over 100 by 1946 . Today Amcal is the largest retail pharmacy chain in Australia .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Middle East = = =
Simpson joined the Second Australian Imperial Force on 15 October 1939 with the rank of lieutenant colonel . He was allocated the AIF service number VX79 , and assumed command of the Australian Corps Signals . When the I Corps was formed in April 1940 , Lieutenant General Sir Thomas Blamey was appointed its commander , and Simpson its Chief Signals Officer , with a promotion to the rank of colonel .
Simpson embarked on the transport Nieuw Holland on 15 September 1940 , arriving in Kantara , Egypt , on 12 October . He met with his British counterparts , and discussed arrangements for the creation of an AIF Signals School in the Middle East . Some negotiation was required before this proposal was finally accepted . He was disappointed at the standard of training that had been achieved by the I Corps and 6th Division signals units in the Middle East , and just as disappointed with the reinforcements arriving from Australia . Both the standard of training of the units and the establishment of the schools intended to remedy the situation were hampered by a serious shortage of equipment . The 6th Division 's list of critical shortfalls — by no means restricted to signals equipment — included 120 telephones and 120 miles ( 190 km ) of electrical cable . Not until January 1941 — after the 6th Division had been committed to battle in Libya — did the cable become available in Australia . Some units equipped themselves with captured enemy materiel .
Simpson arrived in Greece on 7 March 1941 as part of the I Corps advance party . The Battle of Greece presented a major challenge for Simpson 's signals units , as rugged terrain , enemy action and frequent troop movements conspired to frustrate their efforts to maintain reliable communications . The news that Yugoslavia had offered to surrender reached Blamey from a BBC broadcast on 15 April picked up on a receiver built into a kerosene case that Simpson had insisted that he take . Much signals equipment was lost during the fighting , and some had to be destroyed following the order to evacuate Greece . Simpson embarked for Crete on HMS Phoebe on 25 April . From there he took a flying boat to Alexandria . His first priority on arrival was arranging for the lost equipment to be replaced .
The shortage of signals equipment was an important factor in the delay in committing the I Corps to the Syria – Lebanon campaign until it became clear that General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson could not adequately control operations from his headquarters at the King David Hotel in Jerusalem . Once again , the signallers had to battle with inhospitable terrain . The hills and atmospheric conditions made reception difficult for the radio operations , and those same hills , along with shortages of cable , made the linesmen 's task no less difficult . He was mentioned in dispatches , and made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire for " maintenance of communications under difficult conditions in the Grecian campaign " .
Simpson was promoted to the rank of brigadier on 11 September 1941 , becoming the first officer of the Australian Corps of Signals to reach that rank . He was involved in a serious motor vehicle accident on 13 September 1941 and suffered severe lacerations , a concussion , and a broken collarbone , rib and finger . He was taken to the 2 / 1st General Hospital , and was evacuated to Australia on the hospital ship MS Wanganella . He returned to the Middle East by air , arriving back on 20 January 1942 .
= = = South West Pacific = = =
Within days , Simpson was heading east again , taking a flying boat to Batavia , where he joined the advance party of the I Corps , which was being sent from the Middle East to the Dutch East Indies to counter the Japanese threat . He met there with the local authorities regarding signals arrangements for the defence of Java . These were soon well in hand , but the tactical situation rapidly deteriorated to the extent that the I Corps was ordered to leave Java on 21 February 1942 . Simpson departed on the troop ship Orcades , which arrived in Adelaide on 14 March .
Blamey was appointed Commander in Chief of the Australian Military Forces on 27 March . He instituted a sweeping reorganisation of the Army , replacing officers with men who had experience in the Middle East . Simpson became the Signal Officer in Chief on 6 April , with the rank of major general , the first Australian Corps of Signals officer to reach that rank .
One of Simpson 's first tasks was to confer with the Chief Signals Officer at General Douglas MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) South West Pacific Area , Brigadier General Spencer B. Akin . The two established mechanisms to divide responsibility for the theatre 's communications between the two armies , which often worked together on the same projects . An important outcome of their first meeting was the creation of the Central Bureau as a combined signals intelligence organisation . Simpson had been thinking about such an organisation while on the Orcades . Blamey had an appreciation of signals intelligence from his time as Deputy Commander in Chief in the Middle East , and readily gave his support . After a slow start , signals intelligence became an important element of the war in the South West Pacific .
Perhaps Simpson 's most ambitious project was the laying of a submarine cable between Cape York and New Guinea . A cable laying ship , the SS Mernoo , was chartered , and two old cables that ran across the Bass Strait were lifted and re @-@ laid across the Torres Strait in October 1943 . When the land connections were completed in December 1943 , it became possible to send a message all the way from Melbourne to Port Moresby . Simpson , who was on an inspection tour of New Guinea , was on hand for the receipt of the first message . In November 1944 , he visited the front in the Netherlands , Belgium and France , returning to Australia via the United States and Canada .
To man his signals units , Simpson sought to obtain some 4 @,@ 000 Australian Women 's Army Service ( AWAS ) personnel . Two special signal training battalions were activated to cater for them , and Simpson inspected the 2nd Signal Training Battalion ( AWAS ) at Ivanhoe Grammar School with Lieutenant Colonel Sybil Irving on 6 July 1942 . By 1945 , the Australian Corps of Signals numbered some 25 @,@ 000 men and women . The large numbers of women serving in Signals units caused friction between Irving and Simpson over what degree of control he exercised over them .
Aware that signals is usually forgotten when the signallers are doing their best work , Simpson attempted to obtain various accolades for his corps . He held ceremonial parades through Melbourne to celebrate VE Day on 10 May 1945 , and VP Day on 20 August 1945 . He attempted to get the title " Royal " granted in recognition of its wartime service . This occurred on 10 November 1948 .
= = Later life = =
Simpson handed over the position of Signal Officer in Chief to Brigadier A. D. Malloy on 23 May 1946 . He was placed on the retired list with the honorary rank of major general on 19 December 1946 . He served as Colonel Commandant for the Australian Corps of Signals in Southern Command from June 1958 to June 1963 , and was Colonel Commandant of the corps from September 1959 to December 1960 . In 1946 he was appointed director of the Columbia Graphophone Company ( Australia ) .
Simpson was a keen supporter of the Essendon Football Club , serving as its vice president from 1947 to 1964 . He was awarded a life membership in 1957 . He was elected Victorian State President of the Australian Legion of Ex @-@ Servicemen and Women in 1948 . He resigned in October after a dispute with the State Council over its suspension of two members for being communists , which Simpson opposed . Yet Simpson was no communist sympathiser ; far from it . He organised The Association , a clandestine right wing paramilitary organisation headed by Blamey which was established to counter a possible communist coup . The Association disbanded in 1950 .
= = Death and legacy = =
Simpson died of cancer in Heidelberg Repatriation Hospital on 23 August 1964 . He was survived by his wife and daughter . He was buried in St Kilda Cemetery after a funeral service at St Cuthbert 's Church in Brighton , Victoria . His pall bearers included Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring and Major General Alan Ramsay .
Simpson Barracks at Watsonia in Melbourne was named in his honour in 1986 . It is considered the home of the Royal Australian Corps of Signals , and contains the Defence Force School of Signals and the Royal Australian Corps of Signals Museum .
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= Prince of Wales ( 1786 ship ) =
Prince of Wales was a transport ship in the First Fleet , assigned to carry convicts for the European colonisation of Australia . There is some ambiguity about her origins and she was probably launched in 1779 at Sidmouth and rebuilt at London in 1786 . Still , in 1787 she set sail for Australia , and reached Botany Bay in January 1788 . On a difficult return voyage in 1788 – 89 she became separated from her convoy , was taken eastward around the world instead of west and drifted helplessly off Rio de Janeiro for a day while her crew was incapacitated with scurvy .
After her return to Britain her owners deployed her as a whaler in the South Seas Fisheries . They then sold her and she became a privateer and letter of marque , before performing a voyage as a slave ship . During this voyage a French privateer captured Prince of Wales ; in a process that is currently unclear , she returned to British , albeit new , hands . Her new owners then employed her trading between London and the West Indies , the Mediterranean , and the West Indies again . She was last listed in 1810 .
= = Origins = =
Prince of Wales was a square @-@ sterned barque of 300 to 350 tons ( bm ) , 103 feet ( 31 m ) long and 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) wide and with a height between decks of 5 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 73 m ) amidships and 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) fore and aft .
By one account , she was built in 1779 at Sidmouth as a West Indiaman with ship 's master James Johnston . By another account , she was built on the River Thames in 1786 , by the firm Christopher Watson and Co. of Rotherhithe , which had also built HMS Sirius . Both accounts give her owner as Cornhill merchant John Mather , who had previously purchased and disposed of Captain Cook 's Endeavour after that vessel had returned from Botany Bay .
It is possible to reconcile these accounts somewhat . There is no mention of Prince of Wales in Lloyd 's Register until 1787 , when she appears in the supplemental pages as being of 300 tons ( bm ) , launched in 1779 at Sidmouth , with master J. Mason , and owner John Mather . The reconciliation between the two origins may rest in the notation that she had been almost totally rebuilt in 1786 . It is therefore quite reasonable to suppose that she was launched at Sidmouth in 1779 and rebuilt at Rotherhithe in 1786 .
The entry in Lloyd 's Register , however , adds further confusion of a different sort . It reports that in 1786 Prince of Wales had been named Hannibal . The situation is more complex than that . If one works back from 1787 , the only thing that is clear is that vessels have been bought , disposed of , and renamed .
What appears to have occurred is a mixing of records and a confusion of names . One may conjecture that one vessel was the South Carolina @-@ built slaver Heart of Oak , launched in 1762 , repaired in 1784 , of 310 tons ( bm ) , and renamed Hannibal in 1786 . The other was the West Indiaman Hannibal , Sidmouth @-@ built , launched in 1779 , not yet rebuilt , and of 300 tons ( bm ) , and eventually renamed Prince of Wales . Unfortunately , Lloyd 's Register for 1785 is not readily available on @-@ line . Furthermore , in 1784 , although J. Mather apparently owned 17 vessels , including Heart of Oak , none was built in Sidmouth in 1779 . Nor is there any other vessel listed built in Sidmouth in 1779 . Full resolution of the issue may have to await primary research .
= = Voyage to Australia = =
The south London shipbroker William Richards contracted Prince of Wales in 1787 for the First Fleet voyage . Richards selected her after consultation with Royal Marine officers Watkin Tench and David Collins . Both officers would sail with the Fleet to Australia , Tench as a captain of marines , and Collins as judge @-@ advocate for the new colony . She was the second @-@ smallest of the First Fleet transports after Friendship , and the last to be contracted to join the voyage .
The Navy Board assigned Prince of Wales to the First Fleet on 2 March 1787 under the immediate command of ship 's master John Mason , and the overall command of naval officer and future Governor of New South Wales , Arthur Phillip aboard Sirius . She was the last transport added to the Fleet before it sailed .
She left Portsmouth on 13 May 1787 with a crew of around 25 , and was accompanied by the other vessels of the Fleet : five transports , three storeships and two Royal Navy vessels . The 24 @-@ gun post ship HMS Hyaena accompanied the Fleet through the Channel as fleet escort , departing when the ships reached Atlantic waters . Prince of Wales arrived in Tenerife on 5 June , where she was resupplied . A second resupply took place in August in the Portuguese port of Rio de Janeiro , including the delivery aboard Prince of Wales of quantities of fresh fruit and vegetables , seeds , and some rum for the marines . Prince of Wales then turned southeast with the Fleet , reaching Cape Town in October and entering the Great Southern Ocean on 13 November for the last leg of the voyage to Australia . The first death among the crew occurred on the night of 24 November when a seaman fell overboard from the topsail yard and could not be rescued . A week later a second seaman , Yorgan Younginson , drowned after being washed overboard in heavy seas .
By mid @-@ December the ship 's supply of flour and butter for the voyage had been exhausted and Philip authorised Mason to broach the stores set aside for the future colony in order to continue to feed the convicts . A month later , on 20 January 1788 , Prince of Wales reached Australia 's Botany Bay . Six days later she sailed for Sydney Cove as part of the relocation of the convict settlement to Port Jackson . Leaving Botany Bay she collided with Friendship , losing her mainmast staysail and topsail , but the damage was swiftly repaired and she was able to enter Port Jackson in line with her fellow transports . There she landed 49 convicts , 31 marines and 23 civilians .
= = = Convicts = = =
Prince of Wales carried 47 female convicts on departure from Portsmouth . After five days at sea , 2 males were also brought across from Scarborough , ringleaders of a failed mutiny . They remained aboard Prince of Wales for the remainder of the voyage to Australia .
Convict health was comparatively good during the voyage , with a report by Governor Philip showing only nine cases of illness aboard Prince of Wales by the time she reached Tenerife , the least for any First Fleet transport . Indeed , Phillip wrote to Admiralty advising that " the convicts are not so sickly as when we sailed , " though the women aboard Prince of Wales had no new clothing and were still in the ragged apparel they had worn in prison . There was no ship 's surgeon aboard but Chief Surgeon John White , periodically came on board from Sirius when weather and sailing conditions permitted . As the Fleet headed toward Rio in July , humid conditions and heavy rains generated a " plague of bugs " below decks with more than a hundred insects found in one small sleeping area alone . There were also reports of rats , fleas and lice , and an outbreak of scurvy in late December .
Despite this , serious illness remained rare and the first convict death was from accidental causes rather than disease . On 24 July the ship 's longboat fell from a boom and struck 22 @-@ year @-@ old Jane Bonner in the head ; she died from her injuries six days later . A second convict , John Hartley , died of unknown causes on 5 August . These two deaths compared favourably with those on other transports , particularly Alexander ; Alexander recorded 30 deaths , a consequence of overcrowding and an overflowing bilge .
Convict discipline was also well maintained , except for prostitution between the female convicts and the crew , which was rampant on Prince of Wales , Friendship and Lady Penrhyn . The first recorded punishment of a convict aboard Prince of Wales was in October 1787 , nearly nine months after she had sailed ; six lashes for a woman caught stealing from her fellows while they were " at prayer . "
= = = Marines = = =
The ship also carried a contingent of 31 marines of the New South Wales Marine Corps , comprising lieutenants Thomas Davey and Thomas Timins , five non @-@ commissioned officers , and 24 privates . Sixteen of the marines embarked with their wives , and there were six children . Discipline was poor . In June 1787 two marines were court @-@ martialed for disobeying orders ; one received 300 lashes . Later in the voyage , two sergeants refused to share a mess after one insulted the other 's wife . Drunkenness was also common . In June one drunken marine sergeant fell through an open hatchway and injured the pregnant wife of another marine , for which offence he was placed in legcuffs for two weeks and then transferred to Alexander . Then in late October , First Lieutenant James Maxwell , who had recently transferred aboard from Charlotte , was found incoherently drunk on duty and promptly returned to Charlotte .
Two more children were born to the wives of marines during the voyage . In October 1787 the wife of marine drummer Benjamin Cook died from an unspecified illness and was buried at sea after a brief ceremony .
James Scott , a Sergeant of Marines , wrote an account of the voyage in his journals , now held at the State Library of New South Wales
= = = Return to England = = =
Prince of Wales remained anchored in Sydney Cove for five months after her voyage , while her stores were unloaded . A shipboard inspection during this time found her hull was rotten with shipworm and on 23 May 1788 she was careened on the beach for repairs . In July she was released from government service and set sail for England on the 14th of that month , in convoy with her First Fleet sister ships Alexander , Borrowdale and Friendship , and under the overall command of Lieutenant John Shortland in Alexander .
The plan was that the convoy sail north to rendezvous at Lord Howe Island , then set a course broadly parallel to the Great Barrier Reef with the aim of reaching the Dutch port of Batavia . From there the convoy would sail west through the Sunda Straits to the Cape of Good Hope , then north through the Atlantic to England . This route was comparatively well mapped – the first part largely mirroring that of James Cook in his first voyage in the Pacific from 1768 to 1771 , and the remainder from Batavia being the traditional route of Dutch East Indiamen returning to Europe . Shortland estimated the voyage would take the convoy between six and ten months .
This navigation plan was abandoned when both Prince of Wales and Borrowdale lost sight of Alexander and Friendship during a severe storm in late July , and found themselves alone and off course by the time the weather cleared . The two lost ships anchored while their masters , John Mason in Prince of Wales and Hobson Reed in Borrowdale , consulted . Neither considered it likely they could reach the Lord Howe Island rendezvous . They were also reluctant to hazard the voyage to Batavia through the Great Barrier Reef without Alexander in the lead . Instead , they agreed to turn their ships southeast into the open ocean and to return to England by sailing the other way around the world , via Cape Horn and Rio de Janeiro and then northeast across the Atlantic to Europe .
The Pacific weather proved favourable but by August the two ships had lost sight of each other and continued their voyage separately . On 23 August Prince of Wales rounded Cape Horn alone and headed northeast and north on a path to Rio . Throughout the voyage her crew had been heavily reliant on a diet of salted meat and by early September scurvy had incapacitated the majority . Mason died from the condition on 9 October , and another 13 men were too ill to leave their bunks . When Rio was finally sighted on 13 October the crew were too sick to bring the ship to port . She drifted helplessly in the outer harbor until Rio 's harbourmaster sighted her the following morning and had additional seamen rowed out to assist . Twelve of Prince of Wales ' sickest crew members were hospitalised in Rio while the remainder recovered on board .
A resupplied Prince of Wales set sail from Rio on Christmas Day 1788 , completing an uneventful final leg to reach Falmouth in England on 25 March 1789 . Despite the delays of disease , weather and an unfamiliar route , she was the first of the Fleet to return home , two months ahead of Alexander which did not reach England until 28 May .
= = Whaler = =
Between 1790 and into 1793 @-@ 4 Mather & Co. employed Prince of Wales as a whaler in the South Seas Fisheries , under the command of Captain F. Bolton . In 1790 she left for the Brazil Banks and Africa Grounds , but returned in November . By 10 August 1791 she was " All well " at Walwich ( Walvis ) Bay . In April 1792 Prince of Wales returned to England ; she sailed again in July . She sailed around Cape Horn to Peru , but returned to England by late in 1793 .
= = Privateer = =
Mather & Co. sold Prince of Wales to Clayton Tarleton in 1793 . Tarleton armed her with twenty 6 @-@ pounder guns and placed her under the command of William Scales . Scales received a letter of marque on 1 March 1793 . The letter indicated that Prince of Wales had a crew of 100 men , many more than she needed to sail her , suggesting that Tarleton intended her to sail as a privateer .
Prince of Wales departed on a cruise and on 7 April she captured the French merchant vessel " Le Federatis " , which was sailing from Cap @-@ François to Bordeaux with a cargo valued at £ 40 @,@ 000 , or £ 32 @,@ 000 . Prince of Wales brought her prize into Hoylake a week later .
Plans changed , and Tarleton appointed Captain James Thomson ( or Thompson ) to command of Prince of Wales , with the intent of sailing her on the Liverpool @-@ Africa trade , i.e. , as a slaver . James Thomson received a letter of marque on 4 September 1793 . His letter indicated that he would have a crew of 40 men .
In late 1793 , Thompson sailed from Viana ( probably Viana do Castello , Portugal ) , for Dartmouth , in company with the Somme . On 8 October he captured the Maryland , which was sailing from Baltimore to Bordeaux with a cargo of coffee , sugar , and barrel staves . He sent her into " Montserrat " . In December he recaptured the Best , which had been sailing from Lancaster to the West Indies when a French man @-@ of @-@ war had captured her . Thompson brought Best into the Mersey .
On 1 January 1794 , Thomson spoke with a ship that was sailing for Botany Bay . The ship had encountered a French privateer , of 14 guns , which the British ship managed to drive off after an engagement that lasted almost two hours . Reportedly , Prince of Wales went on to recapture a British brig that a French 74 @-@ gun ship of the line had captured . Prince of Wales sent the brig into Oporto . However , this may have been the Best . Lastly , in early 1974 , Prince of Wales captured and brought in the Flugen , of Malmö , which had been carrying wine , brandy , and bale goods from Bordeaux to Saint @-@ Domingue .
= = Slaver and capture = =
Later in 1794 a new captain replaced Thomson . Radcliffe Shimmin received a letter of marque on 11 June 1794 . A database of slave voyages by Liverpool @-@ registered ships also names Shimmin as master of Prince of Wales .
Shimmin 's voyage was ill @-@ fated . Lloyd 's List reported that as Prince of Wales was approaching Barbados , having sailed from West Africa for the West Indies , she encountered a French privateer . The privateer , possibly built in Baltimore , was armed with 28 guns and carried a crew of 300 men . She captured Prince of Wales and took her into Saint Thomas , then a Danish colony , and hence neutral. the capture took place in late 1794 or early 1795 .
Unsurprisingly , there is no listing for Prince of Wales in Lloyd 's Register in 1796 .
= = British merchantman = =
What is perhaps more surprising is that Prince of Wales returned to British ownership . There is an entry for her in the supplemental ( i.e. , late addition ) pages for the 1797 volume . One suspects that the Royal Navy recaptured her in the West Indies , but so far evidence for the conjecture is lacking .
Barclay and Co. sailed Prince of Wales between the West Indies and London , and particularly Martinique and London , from 1797 to 1800 . They then sold her to Fairbridge & Co . Under the command of Captain " Farbidge " , she sailed between London and the Mediterranean between 1801 and 1805 . In 1806 Prince of Wales received a large repair and new deck and sides . Fairbridge also rearmed her with six 6 @-@ pounder guns . From 1805 or so , she was under the command of Captain Stoker , who then sailed in the London @-@ St Vincent trade . She was still listed as sailing in 1810 .
= = Lloyd 's Register = =
Lloyd 's Register is only as accurate as the information owners gave it , and there are discrepancies between the entries for vessels and information from other sources . That said , there is generally a strong correspondence between the information in Lloyd 's Register , and other sources , at least with respect to Prince of Wales .
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= Garbage Museum =
The Garbage Museum was a waste @-@ management themed museum located in Stratford , Connecticut , United States . Constructed and opened in 1994 , the recycling facility and museum was constructed for a cost of $ 5 million and funded through a group of 19 local municipalities , collectively known as the Southwest Connecticut Recycling Committee . The museum was operated by the Connecticut Resources Recovery Authority which focused on empowering visitors with knowledge about waste management and allowed visitors to watch the sorting process of recyclables . The most iconic exhibit was Trash @-@ o @-@ saurus , a dinosaur sculpture made of garbage . Funding for the museum dropped in 2009 due to expiring contracts , but remained open until 2011 . The closure of the museum followed a failed fundraising campaign . In 2014 , the Connecticut General Assembly approved a measure to fund the museum by allowing the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection to award a grant of up to $ 100 @,@ 000 to the Connecticut Resource Recovery Authority .
= = Operation = =
The recycling facility and museum was constructed for a cost of $ 5 million and opened in 1993 . Funding for the museum was provided through a group of 19 local municipalities , known as the Southwest Connecticut Recycling Committee , which transported recyclables to the facility for processing . The museum was part of an active recycling operation that allows visitors to follow the recyclable materials through the sorting processes to the crushing and baling process before they are shipped to processors to be recycled into new products . The museum was overseen and operated by the Connecticut Resources Recovery Authority .
= = Exhibits = =
The museum 's goal was to empower its visitors to make good choices and be knowledgeable about waste management in the midst of a " waste crisis " . The center director of the museum , Valerie Knight @-@ Di @-@ Gangi said , " We 've created exhibits that encourage children to explore serious environmental issues , and do so in a fun way to have lasting impact and empower them to take responsibility for the environment . " The museum was operated by the Southwest Connecticut Regional Recycling Operating Committee which staffed the museum with " educational specialists who design [ ed ] and conduct [ ed ] the educational programs " .
The Garbage Museum was an operating recycling facility and featured a viewing area for the operation which processes around 60 @,@ 000 tons of recyclables from 20 local towns . Educational exhibits focused on the benefits of recycling drink cans and mining bauxite , the main source of aluminum , and reducing air pollution and water pollution . Another exhibit features a walk @-@ through tunnel depicting a compost pile . Interactive exhibits included a general store and a " Trash Bash " activity in which " imprison [ ed ] helmet @-@ wearing contestants ... answer questions . If the answer is wrong , others are given the green light to dump trash on them from an overhead opening . " There were also art exhibits made from recyclable material including a " life @-@ size mannequin made from crushed and colored milk containers strung together with pipe cleaners " . In 2004 , a new exhibit showcasing the trash @-@ to @-@ energy process was created by Mike Blasavage as part of a project funded by the Connecticut Resources Recovery Authority . The exhibit follows trash , represented as marbles , being transferred from bins to toy trucks , the trucks transfers the trash to the energy plant that generates energy to open and close a drawbridge .
A popular and unique exhibit was Trash @-@ o @-@ saurus , a 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) tall and 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) long dinosaur made out of junk that was prominently on display in the Garbage Museum . The one @-@ ton sculpture was created by Leo Sewell of Pennsylvania and made of " no parking " signs , cell phones , license plates , and other materials . The sculpture represents the average amount of garbage and recyclables that a person in Connecticut discards each year . The exhibit was focused on the importance of recycling and had an interactive checklist of items to find the comprise the sculpture . In April 2011 , the museum celebrated the 16th birthday of the Trash @-@ o @-@ saurus with a birthday party .
= = Closure = =
In 2009 , the fate of the Garbage Museum became uncertain due to financial problems when the recycling plant 's contracts expired on June 30 and the commodity prices dropped due to the economic recession . The museum began fundraising efforts and started collecting $ 2 for entrance fees in September 2008 . The United States Internal Revenue Service also ruled that museum donations could be tax @-@ deductible increasing opportunities for fundraising . The Connecticut Resources Recovery Authority also applied for federal funding as a " shovel @-@ ready " project to upgrade and automate the recycling center 's operations . In 2009 , Nonnenmacher stated that the museum 's operational costs were between $ 200 @,@ 000 and $ 250 @,@ 000 per year . Interest in the museum also came from a group of East Haven High School students who produced a short documentary video about the Garbage Museum , it went on to win a state award and attract some international interest .
Prior to its close in 2011 , the operating budget was $ 341 @,@ 000 , which funded staffing , educational programs , and the museum 's heating and lighting . In July 2011 , Milford 's Board of Aldermen approved allocating $ 26 @,@ 000 via a $ 0 @.@ 75 tax per ton of municipal solid waste , then representing the latest addition to a $ 100 @,@ 000 fundraising drive . On August 25 , 2011 , the museum was closed after the Connecticut Resources Recovery Authority Board of Directors voted to close the Garbage Museum immediately . In 2013 , Connecticut State Senator Kevin C. Kelly introduced legislation to reopen the museum , but the amendment failed to garner support . In 2014 , the Connecticut General Assembly approved a measure to fund the museum by allowing the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection to award a grant of up to $ 100 @,@ 000 to the Connecticut Resource Recovery Authority via funding of the Municipal Tipping Fee Fund .
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= The Boat Race 1950 =
The 96th Boat Race took place on 1 April 1950 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The Cambridge crew contained three Olympic silver medallists from the 1948 Summer Olympics ; six of their crew rowed for Lady Margaret Boat Club . In a race umpired by the Olympic medallist and former Cantabrigian rower Kenneth Payne , Cambridge won by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 20 minutes 15 seconds , taking the overall record in the event to 52 – 43 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1949 race by a quarter of a length , with Cambridge leading overall with 51 victories to Oxford 's 43 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by R. Beesly ( who had rowed for the Light Blues in the 1927 , 1928 and 1929 races ) , Roy Meldrum ( a coach for Lady Margaret Boat Club ) , Mike Nicholson ( non @-@ rowing boat club president for the 1947 race ) , Harold Rickett ( who rowed three times between 1930 and 1932 ) and R. H. H. Symonds ( who had rowed in the 1931 race ) . Oxford 's coaches were T. A. Brocklebank ( who had rowed for Cambridge three times between 1929 and 1931 and who had also coached the Light Blues in the 1934 race ) , R. E. Eason ( a Dark Blue in the 1924 race ) , Hugh " Jumbo " Edwards ( who rowed for Oxford in 1926 and 1930 ) and J. A. MacNabb ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1924 race ) . The race was umpired for the second time by the former British Olympian Kenneth Payne , who had rowed for Cambridge in the 1932 and 1934 races .
The Light Blues were initially considered " hot favourites " and were described by the rowing correspondent of The Manchester Guardian as " full of brilliant promise " while Oxford were " a collection of competent oarsmen who had to be moulded into a crew " . The Observer 's G. I. F. Thomson suggested that " it is anyone 's race " .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 8 @.@ 25 lb ( 79 @.@ 8 kg ) , 4 @.@ 75 pounds ( 2 @.@ 2 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford saw three rowers return to the boat with experience of the event , including number five G. C. Fisk who was rowing in his third consecutive Boat Race . Cambridge 's crew contained five rowers who had taken part in the Boat Race previously , including Paul Bircher who was also making his third appearance in the race . Four of the participants in the race were registered as non @-@ British , two in each crew . Oxford 's Fisk and Calvert came from Australia , as did Cambridge 's Charles Lloyd , while Light Blue W. T. Arthur was South African .
The Cambridge crew contained three rowers who had won silver medals at the 1948 Summer Olympics : Paul Massey , Bircher and Lloyd were in the crew that came second in the men 's eight in London . Chris Davidge , the Oxford University Boat Club president , was forced to drop out of the race through illness . Five of the Oxford rowers were educated at Eton College ; six of the Cambridge rowers were studying at St John 's College and so rowed for Lady Margaret Boat Club .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . Umpire Payne started the race at 12 : 30 p.m. , with the Dark Blues making a slightly faster start ; after a minute they were about a canvas @-@ length ahead of their opponents . Although having the outside of the first bend , they had extended their lead to a quarter of a length by Craven Cottage . By the time the crews passed the Mile Post , Cambridge were leading by a quarter @-@ length which they extended to half a length by Harrods Furniture Depository . Cambridge 's stroke Crick increased his crew 's rate ; his opposite number Cavenagh responded to prevent the Light Blues going clear .
While the conditions were not too rough , both crews slowed their stroke rate , with Cambridge passing below Hammersmith Bridge still half a length ahead . As they passed The Doves pub , Oxford slowly began to gain , rating marginally higher . Cavenagh pushed on again before Chiswick Eyot but could not prevent the Light Blues extending their lead to nearly a length by the time the crews passed Chiswick Steps . Despite further spurts from Oxford , Cambridge 's " better stride " saw them pass below Barnes Bridge two and a half lengths ahead . Cambridge passed the finishing post leading by three and a half lengths in a time of 20 minutes 15 seconds , their fourth consecutive win in the slowest time since the 1947 race . The victory took the overall record in the event to 52 – 43 in their favour . The rowing correspondent for The Times noted that " Cambridge rowed far better than they have recently " while " Oxford surpassed what anyone could reasonably have expected from them . " The Manchester Guardian 's rowing correspondent declared that Cambridge 's crew was " generally acknowledged to be one of the best seen on the tideway " , and that " Oxford could not , short of shipwreck or piracy , win the race " . Writing in The Observer , G. I. F. Thomson noted of Cambridge that " all through practice they had shown more promising form and power , as well as unity " while Oxford had " made great strides ... and were never out of the running . "
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= Sandsfoot Castle =
Sandsfoot Castle , also known historically as Weymouth Castle , is an artillery fort constructed by Henry VIII near Weymouth , Dorset . It formed part of the King 's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire , and defended the Weymouth Bay anchorage . The stone castle had an octagonal gun platform , linked to a residential blockhouse , and was completed by 1542 at a cost of £ 3 @,@ 887 . Earthwork defences were built around the landward side of the castle , probably in 1623 . Sandsfoot saw service during the English Civil War , when it was held by Parliament and Royalists in turn during the conflict . It survived the interregnum but , following Charles II 's restoration to the throne , the fortress was withdrawn from military use in 1665 .
By the early 18th century , Sandsfoot was in ruins , its stonework taken for use in local building projects . The clay cliffs on which the castle had been built had always been unstable and subject to erosion . The castle 's gun platform began to collapse into the sea and , by the 1950s , had been entirely destroyed . The ruins were closed to visitors on safety grounds , although civic gardens were planted alongside it in 1951 . Repairs were undertaken between 2009 and 2012 at a total cost of £ 217 @,@ 800 , enabling the site to be reopened to the public . Historic England considers Sandsfoot to be " one of the most substantial examples " of the 16th @-@ century blockhouses to survive in England .
= = History = =
= = = 16th century = = =
Sandsfoot Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale .
After 1533 , Henry broke with popes Pope Clement VII and Paul III in order to annul the long @-@ standing marriage to his wife , Catherine of Aragon , and remarry . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , and Charles took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England appeared certain . In response , Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline .
Sandsfoot Castle was built to protect the Weymouth Bay anchorage , being placed on cliffs overlooking the waterway , opposite Portland Castle on the other side . Sandsfoot was a blockhouse , intended to defeat enemy ships using a battery of heavy artillery , and had minimal protection against an attack from the land . It was completed by 1541 , run by a captain appointed by the Crown , and cost £ 3 @,@ 887 to build . There was probably an early agreement that the nearby village of Wyke Regis had a responsibility to support the castle , and in exchange they came to traditionally enjoy an exemption from taxes and militia duties . The antiquarian John Leland visited the castle soon after its construction , describing it as " a right goodlie and warlyke castle " with " one open barbican " , probably referring to the castle 's gun platform .
Coastal erosion quickly began to threaten the castle , causing what was reported as a " great gulf " on its seaward side , and repairs costing £ 383 were necessary by 1583 . During the invasion scare that accompanied the Spanish Armada of 1588 , the normal garrison of Sandsfoot was supplemented by another 50 men .
= = = 17th – 19th centuries = = =
Repairs were made to the castle between 1610 and 1611 by the captain , Sir George Bampfield , at a cost of £ 211 . A survey in 1623 carried out by Sir Richard Morryson showed the castle to be equipped with ten iron guns – one culverin , five demi @-@ culverins , two sakers , a minion and a falcon – and garrisoned by its captain , five gunners and three soldiers . It was in a poor condition , and one corner of the gun platform had been undermined by the sea ; Morryson 's team estimated the likely costs of repairs to amount to £ 459 .
During the English Civil War between the supporters of Charles I and Parliament , Weymouth was predominantly Parliamentarian in loyalty and the surrounding forts were held by their garrisons . Robert Dormer , the Earl of Carnarvon , entered Dorset with an army in 1643 and Weymouth surrendered , resulting in Sandsfoot Castle being controlled by the Royalists between August 1643 and June 1644 . During this period the castle may have been used as a Royalist mint . Robert Devereux , the Earl of Essex , then retook the county for Parliament ; Colonel William Ashburnham , the Royalist governor of Weymouth , retreated to Portland Castle without a fight . Devereux approached Sandsfoot and , after three hours of negotiations , the fort surrendered to him . In 1647 , Parliament ordered the garrison at the castle to be demobilised but this did not occur , and John Hayne was appointed as its new captain .
Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 and the next year a fresh order was given to demobilise the garrison at Sandsfoot . An argument then broke out between Humphrey Weld , the lieutenant @-@ governor of Portland and captain of Sandsfoot Castle , and Charles Stewart , the Duke of Richmond , over the control of the local defences . The village of Wyke Regis petitioned Weld in a bid to prevent the demobilisation , concerned that their traditional exemptions from militia service would be revoked by the Duke . Weld championed their case but was dismissed from his post as lieutenant @-@ governor , and the Duke occupied Sandsfoot with his militia . Weld appealed to the government and in 1665 a compromise was announced in which Weld would be reappointed to his role as lieutenant @-@ governor , while Sandsfoot would be declared redundant and be demolished . The order for its destruction was never carried out , and the castle was used as a storehouse until at least 1691 .
By 1725 , the castle had become ruinous . Early in the century , the remains of the castle was sold to the town of Weymouth , whose people reused some of the stone to construct their new town bridge . Local tradition in the 19th century maintained that several houses in Weymouth were also constructed using stone taken from the castle . In 1825 , the carved stone Elizabethan arms of the castle were moved to All Saints Church in Wyke Regis . Captains continued to be formally appointed , however , and Gabriel Stewart held the post as late as 1795 .
The majority of the gun platform collapsed into the sea as the cliffs eroded . It is uncertain precisely when this occurred ; in a prolonged historical debate over this during the late 19th and early 20th centuries , the historian Henry Symonds argued that the first falls occurred during the 18th century , W. Norman placed the main fall in 1835 , and T. Groves argued in favour of a more recent collapse in the second half of the 19th century . The ruined castle was drawn and painted by various artists in the 18th and 19th centuries , including Samuel Buck , J. H. Grimm , C. Sawyer and Edward Pritchard . The castle featured in Joseph Drew 's short novel " the Poisoned Cup " in 1876 .
= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =
In 1902 , the Weymouth Corporation purchased the castle for the town from the Department of Woods and Forests for a total of £ 150 . During the Second World War the castle probably housed an anti @-@ aircraft battery as part of the defences created around Portland Harbour . Despite the construction of the Portland breakwaters nearby , the unstable clay cliffs remained vulnerable to erosion ; in 1930 the ruins were closed to the public due to safety concerns and the remaining embrasure of the gun platform collapsed during in the 1950s .
In 2009 , £ 23 @,@ 100 was awarded by the Heritage Lottery Fund for an initial survey of the site , which by now had been placed on English Heritage 's register of listed buildings at risk of decline , followed by a further £ 194 @,@ 700 in 2011 for substantial repair work . As part of the work , a three @-@ dimensional laser scan of the stonework was undertaken , and a steel and oak walkway was installed around the interior of the castle . The castle reopened to the public in 2012 , and the following year it was removed from English Heritage 's at risk register . The castle is protected under UK law as a grade II * listed building and as a scheduled ancient monument .
= = Architecture = =
Sandsfoot Castle was built from Portland stone with ashlar facings and a rubble core . It comprised a main blockhouse attached to an octagonal gun room , overlooking the sea . The two @-@ storey blockhouse is 42 by 32 feet ( 12 @.@ 8 by 9 @.@ 8 m ) across , with a gate @-@ tower on its landward side . It probably originally had four rooms for the accommodation and cooking facilities for the garrison , with staircases leading up to the first floor and down into its basement . The gate @-@ tower held a small room on the first floor and was designed to hold a portcullis . The one @-@ storey gun room was approximately 36 by 28 feet ( 11 @.@ 0 by 8 @.@ 5 m ) across with five embrasures for guns and a flat roof that also probably supported artillery . Both the gun room and the main block were probably protected by parapets .
The gun room has been lost to erosion , although the south @-@ western embrasure is still visible where it fell onto the beach below . The ashlar facings of the blockhouse have been largely robbed , although some elements remain , and the roof and floors have been lost . Historic England considers that the castle " represents one of the most substantial examples " of an unaltered 16th @-@ century blockhouse in England .
The castle originally had an outer ward , reached over a bridge , and stables , although these have been both been lost . Protective rectangular earthworks were constructed to protect the castle on the landward side , probably in 1623 , with two bastions in the north and west corners , and some form of stone structure along the earthworks . In the 18th century these earthworks were described as forming a " deep trench " and mid @-@ 19th century accounts suggested that they were around 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) deep . Now only 100 feet ( 30 m ) of the bank and ditch survives , with the earthworks approximately 10 metres ( 33 ft ) wide overall and 2 @.@ 2 metres ( 7 ft 3 in ) deep between the top of the bank and the base of the ditch . The north bastion still survives largely intact , although the west has been mostly destroyed . Outside the entrance to the earthworks are the Sandsfoot Gardens , civic gardens dating from 1951 , designed in a Tudor style with an ornamental pond .
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= Salvia divinorum =
Salvia divinorum ( also known as sage of the diviners , ska maría pastora , seer 's sage , yerba de la pastora and just salvia ) is a psychoactive plant which can induce visions and other altered and spiritual experiences . Its native habitat is in cloud forest in the isolated Sierra Mazateca of Oaxaca , Mexico , where it grows in shady and moist locations . The plant grows to over a meter high , has hollow square stems , large leaves , and occasional white flowers with violet calyxes . Botanists have not determined whether Salvia divinorum is a cultigen or a hybrid ; native plants reproduce vegetatively , rarely producing viable seed .
Mazatec shamans have a long and continuous tradition of religious use of Salvia divinorum , using it to facilitate visionary states of consciousness during spiritual healing sessions . Most of the plant 's local common names allude to the Mazatecs ' post @-@ Columbian belief that the plant is an incarnation of the Virgin Mary , with its ritual use also invoking that relationship .
Its chief active psychoactive constituent is a structurally unique diterpenoid called salvinorin A , a potent κ @-@ opioid and D2 receptor agonist . Salvia divinorum is generally understood to be of low toxicity ( high LD50 ) and low addictive potential since it is a κ @-@ opioid agonist and a great deal of research has indicated that κ @-@ opioid agonist activation of the kappa opioid receptor as shown by salvia may , in fact , serve as a potent addiction treatment therapy .
Salvia divinorum remains legal in most countries and , within the United States , is legal in the majority of states . However , some have called for its prohibition . While not currently regulated by US federal drug laws , several states have passed laws criminalizing the substance . Some proposed state bills have failed to progress and have not been made into law ( with motions having been voted down or otherwise dying in committee stages ) . There have not been many publicized prosecutions of individuals violating anti @-@ salvia laws in the few jurisdictions in which it is prohibited .
= = History = =
Salvia divinorum is native to the Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca , Mexico , where it is still used by the Mazatec , primarily to facilitate shamanic visions in the context of curing or divination . S. divinorum is one of several species with hallucinogenic properties that are ritually used by Mazatec shamans . Others include certain morning glory seeds ( Turbina corymbosa ) , psilocybin mushrooms , and various coleus species . In their rituals , the shamans use only fresh S. divinorum leaves . They see the plant as an incarnation of the Virgin Mary , and begin the ritual with an invocation to Mary , Saint Peter , the Holy Trinity , and other saints . Ritual use traditionally involves being in a quiet place after ingestion of the leaf — the Maztec shamans say that " La Maria ( S. divinorum ) speaks with a quiet voice . "
It is also used remedially at lower dosages as a diuretic , and to treat ailments including diarrhea , anemia , headaches , rheumatism , and a semi @-@ magical disease known as panzón de borrego , or a swollen belly ( literally , " lamb belly " ) .
The history of the plant is not well known , and there has been no definitive answer to the question of its origin . Speculation includes Salvia divinorum being a wild plant native to the area ; a cultigen of the Mazatecs ; or a cultigen introduced by another indigenous group . Botanists have also not been able to determine whether it is a hybrid or a cultigen .
= = = Academic discovery = = =
Salvia divinorum was first recorded in print by Jean Basset Johnson in 1939 while he was studying Mazatec shamanism . He later documented its usage and reported its effects through personal testimonials . It was not until the 1990s that the psychoactive mechanism was identified by a team led by Daniel Siebert .
Gordon Wasson tentatively postulated that the plant could be the mythological pipiltzintzintli , the " Noble Prince " of the Aztec codices . Wasson 's speculation has been the subject of further debate amongst ethnobotanists , with some scepticism coming from Leander J. Valdés , and counterpoints more supportive of Wasson 's theory from Jonathan Ott .
The identity of another mysterious Aztec entheogen , namely that of poyomatli , has also been suggested as being Salvia divinorum . Here too there are other candidate plants , notably Cacahuaxochitl ( Quararibea funebris ) , again suggesting that there is no consensus .
= = = Etymology = = =
The genus name , Salvia , was first used by Pliny for a plant that was likely Salvia officinalis ( common sage ) and is derived from the Latin salvere . The specific epithet , divinorum , was given because of the plant 's traditional use in divination and healing. it is often loosely translated as " diviner 's sage " or " seer 's sage " . Albert Hofmann , who collected the first plants with Wasson , objected to the new plant being given the name divinorum :
I was not very happy with the name because Salvia divinorum means " Salvia of the ghosts " , whereas Salvia divinatorum , the correct name , means " Salvia of the priests " , But it is now in the botanical literature under the name Salvia divinorum .
There are many common names for S. divinorum , most of them relating to the plant 's association with the Virgin Mary . The Mazatec believe the plant to be an incarnation of the Virgin Mary , so they take great care in handling the plant . The name " Ska Maria Pastora " , often shortened to " Ska Maria " or " Ska Pastora " , refers to " the leaf or herb of Mary , the Shepherdess . " Other Spanish names include " hojas de Maria " , " hojas de la Pastora " , " hierba ( yerba ) Maria " , and " la Maria " . A plant believed to be S. divinorum was referred to as " hoja de adivinacion " ( leaf of prophecy ) by the Cuicatec and Mazatec . S. divinorum is also known as la hembra ( " the female " ) , when it is included by the Mazatec as part of a family of similar religious hallucinogens . The others it is connected with are Coleus pumila , called el macho ( " the male " ) , and two forms of Coleus blumei which are called el nene ( " the child " ) and el ahijado ( " the godson " ) .
Some researchers see the lack of an indigenous Mazatec name as demonstrating a non @-@ Mazatec origin for the plant . Others point out that the Virgin Mary is not normally viewed as a shepherdess in Christianity , and that image may hint at a pre @-@ Hispanic Mazatec cultural reference to the plant .
= = = Recent history = = =
Salvia divinorum has become both increasingly well @-@ known and available in modern culture . The Internet has allowed for the growth of many businesses selling live salvia plants , dried leaves , extracts , and other preparations .
Medical experts , as well as accident and emergency rooms , have not been reporting cases that suggest particular salvia @-@ related health concerns , and police have not been reporting it as a significant issue with regard to public order offences ; in any case , Salvia divinorum has attracted negative attention from the media and some lawmakers .
Media stories generally raise alarms over Salvia divinorum 's legal status and are sometimes headlined with generally ill @-@ supported comparisons to LSD or other psychoactive substances . Parental concerns are raised by focusing on salvia 's usage by younger teens — the emergence of YouTube videos purporting to depict its use being an area of particular concern in this respect . The isolated and controversial suicide of Brett Chidester received much media attention .
Salvia divinorum was the subject of the first use of YouTube within drug @-@ behavioral research when scientists at San Diego State University rated randomly selected videos of salvia users to study observed impairment . Their findings corroborate reports that the most profound effects of smoking salvia appear almost immediately and last about eight minutes . Effects include temporary speech and coordination loss .
= = Botany = =
Salvia divinorum has large green ovate ( often also dentate ) leaves , with a yellow undertone that reach 10 to 30 cm ( 4 to 12 in ) long . The leaves have no hairs on either surface , and little or no petiole . The plant grows to well over 1 metre ( 3 ft ) in height , on hollow square stems which tend to break or trail on the ground , with the plant rooting quite readily at the nodes and internodes .
The flowers , which bloom only rarely , grow in whorls on a 30 @-@ centimetre ( 12 in ) inflorescence , with about six flowers to each whorl . The 3 @-@ centimetre ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) flowers are white , curved and covered with hairs , and held in a small violet calyx that is covered in hairs and glands . When it does bloom in its native habitat , it does so from September to May .
Early authors erred in describing the flowers as having blue corollas , based on Epling and Játiva 's description . The first plant material they received was dried , so they based the flower color on an erroneous description by Hofmann and Wasson , who didn 't realize that their " blue flowers , crowned with a white dome " were in fact violet calyces with unopened white corollas .
= = = Distribution and habitat = = =
Salvia divinorum is endemic to the Sierra Mazateca in the state of Oaxaca in Mexico , growing in the primary or secondary cloud forest and tropical evergreen forest at elevations from 300 to 1 @,@ 830 metres ( 980 to 6 @,@ 000 ft ) . Its most common habitat is black soil along stream banks where small trees and bushes provide an environment of low light and high humidity .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Salvia divinorum produces few viable seeds even when it does flower — no seeds have ever been observed on plants in the wild . For an unknown reason , pollen fertility is also comparatively reduced . There is no active pollen tube inhibition within the style , but some event or process after the pollen tube reaches the ovary is aberrant . The likeliest explanations are inbreeding depression or hybridity . All of the Mazatec populations appear to be clonal . The plant 's square stems break easily and tend to trail on the ground , rooting easily at the nodes and internodes .
= = = Taxonomy = = =
Salvia divinorum was first documented in 1939 , but it was many years before botanists could identify the plant due to Mazatec secrecy about the growing sites . Flowers were needed for a definitive identification of the species . In 1962 , the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann , and ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson , traveled throughout the Sierra Mazateca researching Mazatec rituals and looking for specimens of the plant . They were unable to locate live plants . Eventually , the Mazatec provided them some flowering specimens . These specimens were sent to botanists Carl Epling and Carlos D. Játiva , who described and named the plant as Salvia divinorum , after its use in divination and healing by the Mazatec . By 1985 , up to fifteen populations of the plant had been found .
Until 2010 , there were differing opinions on whether Salvia divinorum is an interspecific hybrid . The plant 's partial sterility was suggestive of a hybrid origin , though no two parent species have been found with an obvious affinity to Salvia divinorum . One other possibility for the plant 's partial sterility is that long @-@ term cultivation and selection have produced an inbred cultigen .
In 2010 , a molecular phylogenetic approach by DNA sequencing of Salvia divinorum and a number of related species strongly suggest that the species is not a hybrid . One earlier proposed parent was Salvia cyanea ( a synonym for Salvia concolor ) , which Epling and Játiva believed to be closely allied to Salvia divinorum . The 2010 study demonstrated Salvia divinorum 's closest relative to be Salvia venulosa — a rare and endemic Salvia that is native to Colombia , growing in shaded , wooded gullies at 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 m ( 4 @,@ 900 to 6 @,@ 600 ft ) elevation . It also showed that Salvia divinorum does not belong to the Salvia section Dusenostachys , as believed earlier . The genetic study also indicated that Salvia venulosa was likely misplaced into Salvia section Tubiflorae , and that it may not be related to other Colombia Salvia species , though further tests are needed .
The origin of Salvia divinorum is still a mystery , one of only three plants in the extensive Salvia genus ( approximately 900 species ) with unknown origins — the other two are Salvia tingitana and Salvia buchananii .
= = = Strains = = =
There are two commonly cultivated strains which are known to be distinct . One is the strain that was collected in 1962 by ecologist and psychologist Sterling Bunnell ( the Bunnell strain ) , colloquially mis @-@ attributed as the Wasson @-@ Hofmann strain . The other was collected from Huautla de Jiménez in 1991 by anthropologist Bret Blosser ( the Blosser or Palatable strain ) . There are other strains that are not as well documented , such as the Luna strain ( possibly Bunnell ) isolated from a Hawaiian patch of Salvia divinorum clones , featuring unusually serrated and rounded rather than ovate leaves .
= = = Cultivation = = =
= = = = Propagation by cuttings = = = =
Salvia divinorum is usually propagated through vegetative reproduction . Small cuttings , between two and eight inches long , cut off of the mother plant just below a node , will usually root in plain tap water within two or three weeks .
= = = = Flowering = = = =
Blooms occur when the day length becomes shorter than 12 hours ( beginning in mid @-@ October in some places ) , necessitating a shade cloth in urban environments with exposure to light pollution ( HPS ) .
= = Chemistry = =
The known active constituent of Salvia divinorum is a trans @-@ neoclerodane diterpenoid known as salvinorin A ( chemical formula C23H28O8 ) . This compound is present in the dried plant at about 0 @.@ 18 % .
Salvinorin A is not an alkaloid , ( meaning it does not contain a basic nitrogen ) , unlike most known opioid receptor ligands . Salvinorin A is the first documented diterpene hallucinogen .
Similar to many psychoactive herbs , Salvia divinorum synthesizes and excretes its active constituent ( salvinorin A ) via trichomes , of the peltate @-@ glandular morphology , located just beneath the cuticle ( subcuticular ) layer .
= = = Potency = = =
By mass , salvinorin A " is the most potent naturally occurring hallucinogen . " It is active at doses as low as 200 µg . Synthetic chemicals , such as LSD ( active at 20 – 30 µg doses ) , can be more potent . Research has shown that salvinorin A is a potent and selective κ @-@ Opioid ( kappa @-@ Opioid ) receptor agonist . It has been reported that the effects of salvinorin A in mice are blocked by κ @-@ Opioid receptor antagonists . However , it is an even more potent D2 receptor partial agonist , and it is likely this action plays a significant role in its effects as well . Salvinorin A has no actions at the 5 @-@ HT2A serotonin receptor , the principal molecular target responsible for the actions of ' classic ' hallucinogens , such as mescaline and LSD , nor is it known to have affinity for any other sites to date .
Salvinorin 's potency should not be confused with toxicity . Rodents chronically exposed to dosages many times greater than those to which humans are exposed show no signs of organ damage .
= = = Other terpenoids = = =
Other terpenoids have been isolated from Salvia divinorum , including other salvinorins and related compounds named divinatorins and salvinicins . None of these compounds has shown significant ( sub @-@ micromolar ) affinity at the κ @-@ Opioid receptor , and there is no evidence that they contribute to the plant 's psychoactivity .
= = = Other pharmaceutical action = = =
Salvinorin A is capable of inhibiting excess intestinal motility ( e.g. diarrhea ) , through a combination of κ @-@ opioid and cannabinoid ( mainly CB1 receptor ) receptors in inflamed but not normal gut in vivo . The mechanism of action for Salvinorin A on ileal tissue has been described as ' prejunctional ' , as it was able to modify electrically induced contractions , but not those of exogenous acetylcholine . Results from a small study by an assistant professor at the University of Iowa indicate that it may have potential as an analgesic and as a therapeutic tool for treating drug addictions .
A pharmacologically important aspect of the contraction @-@ reducing ( antispasmodic ) properties of ingested Salvinorin A on gut tissue is that it is only pharmacologically active on inflamed and not normal tissue , thus reducing possible side @-@ effects .
= = Ingestion = =
There are a few ways to consume Salvia divinorum . In traditional Mazatec ritual , shamans use only fresh Salvia divinorum leaves . Modern methods have been developed to more effectively absorb the active principle , salvinorin A. If enough salvinorin A is absorbed , an altered state of consciousness can occur . The duration of experience varies with the method of ingestion and the amount of salvinorin A absorbed .
= = = Traditional methods = = =
Mazatec shamans crush the leaves to extract leaf juices from about 20 to 80 ( about 50g / 2 oz to 200g / 7 oz . ) or more fresh leaves . They usually mix these juices with water to create an infusion or ' tea ' which they drink to induce visions in ritual healing ceremonies .
Chewing and swallowing a large number of fresh leaves is the other Mazatec method . Oral consumption of the leaf makes the effects come on more slowly , over a period of 10 to 20 minutes . The experience , from the onset of effects , lasts from about 30 minutes up to one and a half hours .
Doses for chewing vastly exceed doses used for smoking . By calculating the concentrations per leaf ( " an average concentration of 2 @.@ 45 mg per gram " of leaf ) , the average weight per leaf ( " about 50 g " per 20 leaves , or 2.5g / leaf ) , and the standard dose for chewing ( about 8 @-@ 28 leaves ) , the doses can range from about 50 mg to 172 mg .
= = = Modern methods = = =
Modern methods of ingestion include smoking or chewing the leaf , or using a tincture , as described in the following sections .
Salvia divinorum is becoming more widely known and used in modern culture . The National Survey on Drug Use and Health , an annual US based survey sponsored by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration ( SAMHSA ) , for 2006 estimated that about 1 @.@ 8 million persons aged 12 or older had used Salvia divinorum in their lifetime , of which approximately 750 @,@ 000 had done so in that year . The following year , 2007 , saw the annual figure rise from 750 @,@ 000 to 1 million US users .
= = = = Smoking = = = =
Dry leaves can be smoked in a pipe , or through the use of a water pipe to cool the smoke . The temperature required to release salvinorin from the plant material is quite high ( about 240 ° C ) . A cooler flame will work , but the direct application of a more intense flame , such as that of a torch lighter , is often preferred .
Some find that untreated dry leaf produces unnoticeable or only light effects . Concentrated preparations or extracts which may be smoked in place of untreated leaves , have become widely available . This enhanced ( or " fortified " ) leaf is described by a number followed by an x ( e.g. 5x , 10x ) , the multiplicative factors being generally indicative of the relative amounts of leaf concentrate , though there is no accepted standard for these claims . Other sources may use a system of color codes to form their own standards of potency ; for example , " green " , " yellow " , and " red . "
These grades of potency may be roughly indicative of the relative concentration of the active principle , ( salvinorin A ) , but the measure should not be taken as absolute . Overall extract potency will depend on the ( naturally varying ) strength of the untreated leaf used in preparing the extract , as well as the efficiency of the extraction process itself . Extracts reduce the overall amount of inhalations needed to ingest a given amount of active principle , thus facilitating more powerful experiences .
If salvia is smoked , then the main effects are experienced quickly . The most intense ' peak ' is reached within a minute or so and lasts for 1 – 5 minutes , followed by a gradual tapering off . At 5 – 10 minutes , less intense yet still noticeable effects typically persist , giving way to a returning sense of the everyday and familiar until back to baseline after about 15 to 20 minutes .
= = = = Quid chewing = = = =
The traditional method of chewing the leaves has continued in modern use . However , salvinorin A is generally considered to be inactive when orally ingested , as salvinorin A is effectively deactivated by the gastrointestinal system . Therefore , in what 's understood to be a modern innovation , the ' quid ' of leaves is held in the mouth as long as possible in order to facilitate absorption of the active constituents through the oral mucosa . ' Quid ' refers to the fact that at the end of this method the user spits out the leaves rather than swallowing them because ingesting the leaves has no known effect . Chewing consumes more of the plant than smoking , and produces a longer @-@ lasting experience .
= = = = Using a tincture = = = =
Less commonly , some may ingest salvia in the form of a tincture . This is administered sublingually , usually with the aid of a glass dropper . It may be taken diluted with water just before use , which may slightly reduce the intensity of its effects , but can also serve to lessen or avoid a stinging sensation in the mouth caused by the presence of alcohol . Tinctures vary in potency , and the effects can range from inducing a mild meditative state to bringing about a more intense visionary one .
When taken as a tincture the effects and duration are similar to other methods of oral ingestion , though they may be significantly more intense , depending on extract potency .
= = Immediate effects = =
Psychedelic experiences are necessarily somewhat subjective and variations in reported effects are to be expected . Aside from individual reported experiences there has been a limited amount of published work summarising the effects . D.M. Turner 's book Salvinorin — The Psychedelic Essence of Salvia Divinorum quotes Daniel Siebert 's summarisation , mentioning that the effects may include :
Uncontrollable laughter
Past memories , such as revisiting places from childhood memory
Sensations of motion , or being pulled or twisted by forces
Visions of membranes , films , various two @-@ dimensional surfaces , and fractal patterns
Merging with or becoming objects
Overlapping realities , such as the perception of being in several locations at once
There also may be synesthetic experiences . Glossolalia ( speaking in tongues ) has been reported by Reason .
A survey of salvia users found that 38 % described the effects as unique in comparison to other methods of altering consciousness . 23 % said the effects were like yoga , meditation or trance .
One firsthand journalistic account has been published in the UK science magazine New Scientist ( note : the dose for this experience was not reported ) :
The salvia took me on a consciousness @-@ expanding journey unlike any other I have ever experienced . My body felt disconnected from ' me ' and objects and people appeared cartoonish , surreal and marvellous . Then , as suddenly as it had began , it was over . The visions vanished and I was back in my bedroom . I spoke to my ' sitter ' — the friend who was watching over me , as recommended on the packaging — but my mouth was awkward and clumsy . When I attempted to stand my coordination was off . Within a couple of minutes , however , I was fine and clear @-@ headed , though dripping with sweat . The whole experience had lasted less than 5 minutes .
There have been few books published on the subject . One notable example is Dale Pendell 's work " Pharmako / Poeia — Plant Powers , Poisons , and Herbcraft " , which won the 1996 Firecracker Alternative Book Award and has a chapter dedicated to Salvia divinorum . It includes some experience accounts :
It 's very intense , I call it a reality stutter , or a reality strobing . I think that having been a test pilot , and flying in that unforgiving environment with only two feet between our wingtips , helped to prepare me for this kind of exploration .
Other users have written extensive prose and / or poetry about their experiences ; some describe their visions pictorially , and there exist examples of visionary art which are ' salvia @-@ inspired ' . Others claim musical inspiration from the plant : including " Salvia divinorum " by 1200 Micrograms , " Salvia " by Deepwater Sunshine , and " Flight 77 " by Paul Dereas .
= = = Cautionary notes = = =
Dale Pendell expresses some concerns about the use of highly concentrated forms of salvia . In its natural form salvia is more balanced and benevolent , and quite strong enough , he argues . High strength extracts on the other hand can show " a more precipitous , and more terrifying , face " and many who try it this way may never wish to repeat the experience .
The Salvia Divinorum User 's Guide recommends having a trip sitter present to those who are new to salvia , are experimenting with a stronger form , or are using a more effective method of ingestion .
The guide says that while the effects of salvia are generally quite different from those of alcohol , like alcohol , it impairs coordination . It also emphasizes that salvia is not a ' party drug.'
Salvia is not ' fun ' in the way that alcohol or cannabis can be . If you try to party with salvia you probably will not have a good experience . Salvia is a consciousness @-@ changing herb that can be used in a vision quest , or in a healing ritual . In the right setting , salvia makes it possible to see visions . It is an herb with a long tradition of sacred use . It is useful for deep meditation . It is best taken in a quiet , nearly dark room ; either alone , or with one or two good friends present .
= = = = Vaporization = = = =
Daniel Siebert cautions that inhaling hot air can be irritating and potentially damaging to the lungs . Vapor produced by a heat gun needs to be cooled by running it through a water pipe or cooling chamber before inhalation .
The vaporizers that have been reported effective for use with dried S. divinorum leaves are those that use a paint stripper “ heat gun ” as the heat source . These get very hot , and people have reported that they work quite well sometimes too well — for smoking dried S. divinorum leaves ; we have heard of several people using this type of vaporizer who had experiences that were too intense , including one report of someone passing out . Measuring an accurate dose with these devices can be quite tricky , and they are not recommended .
An experienced salvia user who is chewing a quid , may often choose to do it alone , and may be quite safe in doing so . But having a pleasant , sensible , sober sitter is an absolute must if you are trying vaporization , smoking high doses of extract @-@ enhanced leaves , or using pure salvinorin .
= = After @-@ effects = =
= = = Short term = = =
After the peak effects , normal awareness @-@ of @-@ self and the immediate surroundings return but lingering effects may be felt . These short @-@ term lingering effects have a completely different character than the peak experience . About half of users report a pleasing ' afterglow ' , or pleasant state of mind following the main effects . Researchers from the University of California and California Pacific Medical Center Research Institute conducted a survey of 500 salvia users which identified that they ' sometimes or often ' experience certain effects , including :
Other commonly reported effects include :
Feelings of calmness : 42 @.@ 2 %
Weird thoughts : 36 @.@ 4 %
Things seeming unreal : 32 @.@ 4 %
Floating feelings : 32 %
Mind racing : 23 @.@ 2 %
Feeling lightheaded : 22 @.@ 2 %
= = = Long term = = =
Differing studies suggest no consensus so far with regard to the long @-@ term effects of Salvia divinorum on mood . It is well @-@ established that some k @-@ opioid agonists can cause dysphoria in humans . One study using rats in forced @-@ swim tests has been used to suggest that Salvia divinorum may have " depressive @-@ like " effects , although this conclusion has been contradicted by subsequent research . However , a report has been published detailing an individual case of Salvia divinorum use as self @-@ medicated treatment for depression , and Baggott 's survey of 500 people with firsthand experience of salvia found that 25 @.@ 8 % of respondents reported improved mood and " antidepressant @-@ like effects " lasting 24 hours or longer . Only 4 @.@ 4 % reported persisting ( 24 hours or more ) negative effects ( most often anxiety ) on at least one occasion .
There has been one report of salvia precipitating psychosis . The authors state that they suspect this patient was genetically predisposed to schizophrenia , but their own clinical report shows no family psychiatric history , no personal psychiatric history , and no abnormal lab results .
It has been suggested that the long @-@ term effects of salvia use may include feelings of déjà vu .
The Baggott survey found little evidence of addictive potential ( chemical dependence ) in its survey population . 0 @.@ 6 % percent of respondents reported feeling addicted to or dependent on salvia at some point , and 1 @.@ 2 % reported strong cravings . About this the researchers said " there were too few of these individuals to interpret their reports with any confidence " .
Most users report no hangover or negative after @-@ effects ( e.g. withdrawal , comedown or rebound effect ) the next day . This is consistent with the apparent low toxicity of salvia indicated by research conducted at the University of Nebraska .
= = = Effects on addiction = = =
Salvia researcher Griffith said that from animal testing salvia appears to not be addictive , also the intensity of the experience creates a dysphoria that causes people not to return to the drug .
Thomas Prisinzano , assistant professor of medicinal and natural products chemistry at the University of Iowa , has suggested that salvia may help treat cocaine addiction :
You can give a rat free access to cocaine , give them free access to Salvinorin A , and they stop taking cocaine .
= = = Therapeutic potential = = =
Aside from individual reports of self @-@ medicated use in the treatment of depression , research suggests that Salvia divinorum , in line with the studied effects of other κ @-@ opioid agonists , may have further therapeutic potential .
Professor Bryan L. Roth , director of the National Institute on Mental Health 's Psychoactive Drug Screening Program , has said :
We think that drugs derived from the active ingredient could be useful for a range of diseases : Alzheimer 's , depression , schizophrenia , chronic pain and even AIDS or HIV .
Clinical pharmacologist John Mendelsohn has said :
There may be some derivatives that could be made that would actually be active against cancer and HIV [ ... ] At the present time , there are a lot of therapeutic targets that have many people excited .
An ABC news story which reported on this went on to suggest " the excitement could vanish overnight if the federal government criminalized the sale or possession of salvia , as the Drug Enforcement Agency [ sic ] is considering doing right now . " A proposed Schedule I classification would mean ( among other things ) that there 's no " currently accepted medical use " as far as the United States government is concerned . Scientists worry that such legislation would restrict further work . Mendelsohn said scheduling salvia could scare away a great deal of research and development into salvia 's therapeutic promise .
= = Controversy = =
The relatively recent emergence of Salvia divinorum in modern Western culture , in comparison to its long continuing traditions of indigenous use , contrasts widely differing attitudes on the subject .
Opinions range from veneration of the plant as a spiritual sacrament or " a gift from the gods " , to ' threat to society ' , to be banned as quickly as possible in order to " spare countless families the horror of losing a loved one to the relentless tentacles of drug abuse " .
= = = Media coverage = = =
Interest in Salvia divinorum has been escalating in the news media , particularly in the United States , where an increasing number of newspaper reports have been published and television news stories broadcast .
These stories generally raise alarms over salvia 's legal status , for example comparing it to LSD , or describing it as " the new pot " , with parental concerns being raised by particular focus on salvia 's use by younger teens .
Story headlines may also include ' danger ' keywords , such as " Dangerous Herb is Legal ... " or " Deadly Dangers Of A Street Legal High " .
Mainstream news coverage and journalistic opinion has widely been negative on the subject . In a local news report aired on ABC affiliate WJLA in Washington , DC on July 11 , 2007 , the anchors are seen to exchange expressions of incredulity when referring to a salvia story with the following introduction " Now , an exclusive I @-@ Team investigation of a hallucinogenic drug that has begun to sweep the nation . What might amaze you is that right now the federal government is doing nothing to stop it " .
In March 2008 a Texas news report aired with the story " A legal drug that teenagers are now using to get high could soon be banned here in San Antonio - all because of a Fox News 4 investigation " , going on to say , " The drug is legal in Texas , at least for now . But a News 4 investigation could lead to a new ordinance to protect your kids . "
Many salvia media stories headline with comparisons to LSD . However , while LSD and salvinorin A may have comparative potencies , in the sense that both can produce their effects at low dosages , they are otherwise quite different . The two substances are not chemically similar or related , as salvinorin A is found naturally in a single plant while LSD is chemically semisynthesized from lysergamides like ergotamine . They are ingested in different ways and produce different effects , which manifest themselves over different timescales . For example , the effects of salvia when smoked typically last for only a few minutes as compared to LSD , whose effects can persist for 8 – 12 hours .
= = = Brett 's law = = =
A particular focus of many US media stories is the long @-@ running coverage of the case of Brett Chidester , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old Delaware student who committed suicide in January 2006 by carbon monoxide poisoning .
Reportedly , some months before this , Brett 's mother Kathleen Chidester had learned about his salvia use and questioned him about it . Brett said that he had ceased his experimentation , but his parents did not believe that he was telling the truth . They have instead argued that salvia @-@ induced depression was largely to blame for his death . Some of Brett 's earlier writings about his salvia experiences have been used to suggest that it made him think " existence in general is pointless . " Some media stories have referred to these earlier written experience reports as if they were part of Brett 's suicide note . In any case , a law was soon passed in Delaware classifying the herb as a Schedule I controlled substance in that state . This legislation was nicknamed Brett 's law ( formally referred to as Senate bill 259 ) .
Although the Chidester story has been given continued exposure by US media , there has not been anywhere else , either before or since this controversial incident , any other reported cases involving or alleging Salvia divinorum as a serious factor in suicide , overdose , accidental , or any other kind of death . Regarding this , San Francisco attorney Alex Coolman has commented , " It 's remarkable that Chidester 's parents , and only Chidester 's parents , continue to be cited over and over again by the mainstream media in their coverage of the supposed ' controversy ' over the risks of Salvia divinorum . "
Kathleen Chidester has continued campaigning for " Schedule I " -like legislation beyond their home state of Delaware . For example , three years after Brett 's death , in written testimony in support of Senator Richard Colburn 's proposed Senate Bill to the Maryland State Legislature , saying , " My hope and goal is to have salvia regulated across the US . It 's my son 's legacy and I will not end my fight until this happens . "
= = = Usage shown on YouTube = = =
A reported concern has been the emergence of YouTube videos showing alleged salvia users laughing uncontrollably , apparently unable to perform simple tasks or to communicate . In an interview with California @-@ based newspaper the San Francisco Chronicle , published in June 2007 , Daniel Siebert was quoted as saying :
" Those videos are certainly not going to help the situation . They make salvia look like some horrible drug that makes people nuts and dangerous [ ... ] " and " The sad thing is it creates this public image where people don 't realize there are sensible ways to use something like this . "
The New York Times has reported that " in state after state [ ... ] the YouTube videos have become Exhibit A in legislative efforts to regulate salvia . "
Waco Representative Charles Anderson ( R ) , who is sponsoring one of several bills to ban salvia in Texas saying , " When you see it , well , it sure makes a believer out of you . " Anderson told colleagues at a legislative hearing about a video that depicts a salvia user behind the wheel of a car .
" What we really worry about , " said Mr. Anderson at the hearing , " is youngsters doing this and then getting in a vehicle or getting on a motorcycle or jumping in a pool somewhere . "
Michigan Representative Michael Sak ( D ) submitted a bill which proposed Schedule I classification of Salvia divinorum and salvinorin A. He said that if people had questions about the deleterious effects of salvia , they should go on YouTube to watch the videos . A reporter questioned Sak as to whether he had ever seen a " Girls Gone Wild " video , and whether that would incite him to make alcohol illegal ( Sak replied that he hadn 't yet had a chance to review the material ) .
Nebraska Senator Vickie McDonald said :
" Anytime anything 's on YouTube it 's an issue , " and " Legislators , parents , grandparents , we need to be on top of these things , " [ ... ] " We need to protect our children ... "
Senator McDonald of Nebraska proposed Schedule I listing Salvia divinorum as part of their Controlled Substances Act , under which possession of salvia would have been considered a Class IV felony with a penalty of up to five years and trafficking would have fallen under a Class III felony with up to a 20 year penalty .
In Massachusetts , YouTube videos were shown by a retired police officer to public health and judiciary committees as evidence in favor of outlawing it there .
The issue has been raised of whether the salvia videos are in breach of YouTube 's own community guidelines , which ask users not to " cross the line " and post videos showing " bad stuff " like " drug abuse " . The question is considered as particularly problematical as the videos may be something of an enforcement grey area .
= = Legal status = =
At present Salvia divinorum remains legal in most countries . Countries where it is controlled in some manner include : Belgium , Canada , Denmark , Estonia , Italy , Japan , the United States , Russia , Spain , Sweden , Finland , and Romania .
The prohibitive degree of Salvia divinorum legislation varies widely from country to country . Australia has imposed its strictest ' schedule 9 ' ( US Schedule I equivalent ) , and Italy has also placed salvia in its ' Table I ' of controlled substances ( also US Schedule I equivalent ) . In Spain , there are controls focusing only on the commercial trade of Salvia divinorum , personal cultivation ( i.e. for non @-@ commercial use ) is not targeted .
Legislation may prove difficult to enforce . The plant has a nondescript appearance ; unlike many other drug plants , the leaves are non @-@ descript , and without a detectable odour . Salvia divinorum can be grown as an ordinary houseplant without the need of special equipment such as hydroponics or high @-@ power lights .
= = = UK legality = = =
In the United Kingdom , following a local newspaper story in October 2005 , a parliamentary Early Day Motion was raised calling for Salvia divinorum to be banned there . However , it only received 11 signatures . A second motion raised in October 2008 attracted 18 signatures , and it was reported that Mann had also written to Jacqui Smith , then Home Secretary . The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs , the independent body that advises UK government on drugs , was asked to investigate further .
= = = Australia legality = = =
Salvia divinorum is considered a Schedule 9 prohibited plant in Australia under the Poisons Standard ( October 2015 ) . A schedule 9 drug is outlined in the Poisons Act 1964 as " Substances which may be abused or misused , the manufacture , possession , sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research , or for analytical , teaching or training purposes with approval of the CEO . "
= = = US legality = = =
National legislation for amendment of the Controlled Substances Act to place salvinorin A and Salvia divinorum in Schedule I at the federal level in the United States was proposed in 2002 by Representative Joe Baca ( D- California ) . Those opposed to bill HR 5607 include Daniel Siebert , who sent a letter to Congress arguing against the proposed legislation , and the Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics ( CCLE ) , who sent key members of the US Congress a report on Salvia divinorum and its active principle , along with letters from an array of scientists who expressed concern that scheduling Salvia divinorum would negatively impact important research on the plant . The bill did not pass .
Although salvia is not regulated under the Controlled Substances Act , some American states , including Alabama , Delaware , Illinois , Louisiana , Michigan , Missouri , Ohio , Texas and others , have passed their own laws . Several other states have proposed legislation against salvia , including Alaska , California , Florida , Iowa , Maryland , New Jersey , New York , Oregon , and Pennsylvania . Many of these proposals have not made it into law , with motions having failed , stalled or otherwise died , for example at committee review stages .
Where individual state legislation does exist , it varies from state to state in its prohibitive degree .
Salvia divinorum has been banned by various branches of the U.S. military and some military bases .
= = = = Internet sale = = = =
Some internet vendors will not sell live salvia cuttings , leaf , or leaf products to states where its use is restricted or prohibited .
Per their drugs and drug paraphernelia policy , eBay does not permit sale of Salvia divinorum or derived products ( despite legality in most areas ) .
= = = Opinions and arguments = = =
Concerns expressed by some politicians on the subject of salvia reflect those of the media , with comparisons to LSD and particular focus on " protecting our children " being echoed ; and with legislative proposals following soon after news stories breaking .
Some arguments against salvia have been of a preventative nature , " We need to stop this before it gets to be a huge problem not after it gets to be a huge problem , " or of an imitative nature , " The Australians have clearly found a problem with it . There 's obviously a risk in people taking it . " Concerns about driving while under the influence of salvia have also been expressed .
Opponents of more prohibitive measures against salvia argue that such reactions are largely due to an inherent prejudice and a particular cultural bias rather than any actual balance of evidence , pointing out inconsistencies in attitudes toward other more toxic and addictive drugs such as alcohol and nicotine . While not objecting to some form of legal control , in particular with regard to the sale to minors or sale of enhanced high @-@ strength extracts , most salvia proponents otherwise argue against stricter legislation .
Those advocating consideration of Salvia divinorum 's potential for beneficial use in a modern context argue that more could be learned from Mazatec culture , where salvia is not really associated with notions of drug taking at all and it is rather considered as a spiritual sacrament . In light of this it is argued that Salvia divinorum could be better understood more positively as an entheogen rather than pejoratively as a hallucinogen .
= = = = Public opinion = = = =
Despite its growing notoriety in some circles , media stories generally suggest that the public at large are still mostly unaware of salvia , with the majority perhaps having never even heard of it .
Although published responses may not necessarily be representative of public opinion as a whole , some news agencies generally support reader and viewer feedback in connection with their stories .
= = = News references = = =
= = = = UK = = = =
= = = = US = = = =
= = Further research = =
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= New York State Route 251 =
New York State Route 251 ( NY 251 ) is an east – west state highway in western New York in the United States . It extends for 17 @.@ 79 miles ( 28 @.@ 63 km ) from NY 383 in Scottsville , Monroe County , to NY 96 in the town of Victor , Ontario County . NY 251 connects to Interstate 390 ( I @-@ 390 ) in Rush and serves the village of Honeoye Falls ( via NY 65 ) and the hamlet of Mendon within the town of the same name . The route , a two @-@ lane , rural highway for much of its length , also intersects NY 15 and NY 64 , two north – south highways leading to the Southern Tier and the Finger Lakes , respectively . Two sections of the route — from south of Scottsville to Rush and from Mendon to western Victor — follow linear east – west alignments . All but 3 miles ( 5 km ) of the route are located in Monroe County .
From 1911 to 1921 , the north – south section of modern NY 251 near Scottsville was part of Route 15 , an unsigned legislative route assigned by the New York State Legislature . The first portion of what is now NY 251 to receive a posted designation was the segment east of NY 64 in Mendon , which was part of the signed NY 15 from 1924 to 1930 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 251 was assigned to an alignment extending from Gates to Victor via Scottsville , utilizing modern NY 386 north of Scottsville and its current alignment east of the village . NY 251 was truncated to begin at NY 383 in Scottsville in the late 1970s , at which time the former routing of NY 251 between Scottsville and Gates became part of an extended NY 386 .
= = Route description = =
NY 251 begins at an intersection with NY 383 in the center of the village of Scottsville , located within the town of Wheatland . It departs Scottsville to the south as River Road and crosses over Oatka Creek before meeting Quaker Road at a rural intersection just south of the village . While River Road continues southward as the unsigned NY 940H , NY 251 turns east to begin its east – west trek across the mostly undeveloped southern portion of Monroe County . After roughly 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) , it crosses over the Genesee River and into the town of Rush , becoming Rush – Scottsville Road in the process . Just inside the town line , NY 251 passes through the hamlet of Industry , a location centered around NY 251 's grade crossing with the Livonia , Avon and Lakeville Railroad and the adjacent Rochester & Genesee Valley Railroad Museum .
Midway through the town of Rush , NY 251 widens from two to four lanes and meets I @-@ 390 at exit 11 . Just east of the freeway , NY 251 intersects NY 15 , which is also served by exit 11 by way of a pair of short collector / distributor roads paralleling I @-@ 390 from NY 251 to NY 15 . Past NY 15 , the route reverts to a two @-@ lane highway and veers southeast to parallel Honeoye Creek into the hamlet of Rush . Here , the route passes through a more populated area as it intersects NY 15A in the center of the community , at which point it becomes Rush – Mendon Road . NY 251 continues to follow Honeoye Creek through progressively less developed areas and into the town of Mendon , where the creek curves southward toward Honeoye Falls at Rochester Junction . The highway , however , turns northeastward to meet NY 65 at a roundabout . The northeasterly routing of NY 251 continues to Mendon Center , a small hamlet near the southern tip of Mendon Ponds Park , where it turns eastward once more .
NY 251 continues across open fields to the densely populated hamlet of Mendon , where it has a junction with NY 64 in the center of the community . East of the junction , NY 251 becomes Victor – Mendon Road as it heads out of Mendon . About 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from NY 64 , the open surroundings return as the route crosses into the Ontario County town of Victor . NY 251 continues on a virtual east – west line for its first 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) in the county , heading through slightly more developed but still sparsely populated areas . At Phillips Road , the route curves southeastward for 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before making one final turn to the northeast . On this last stretch , NY 251 crosses the Ontario Central Railroad at a grade crossing and ends at a junction with NY 96 northwest of the village of Victor .
= = History = =
The westernmost portion of what is now NY 251 between NY 383 in Scottsville and the junction of River and Quaker Roads south of the village was once part of Route 15 , an unsigned legislative route assigned by the New York State Legislature . Route 15 was extended northward from its original terminus in Caledonia to Scottsville via River Road on July 24 , 1911 ; however , it was realigned on March 1 , 1921 , to enter Scottsville on modern NY 383 instead . When the first set of posted routes were assigned in New York in 1924 , this piece of modern NY 251 did not receive a designation . Another section did , however , as the portion extending from Mendon east to Victor was designated as part of NY 15 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 15 was rerouted between Victor and Pittsford to follow current NY 96 . The former routing of NY 15 from Victor to Mendon became part of NY 251 , a new highway extending from NY 15 in Victor to NY 33 in Gates via Chili and Scottsville . West of Scottsville , NY 251 was routed on modern NY 383 and NY 386 .
From 1930 to c . 1938 , the River Road section of NY 251 overlapped with NY 35 , which initially entered Monroe County on the former routing of legislative Route 15 and continued north to Rochester on current NY 383 . The southwestern end of NY 35 was moved to Mumford c . 1938 , shifting the location of the overlap to Main Street in Scottsville . The concurrency was replaced with one with NY 383 when it supplanted most of NY 35 in the early 1940s . In the late 1970s , NY 251 was truncated to begin at the eastern end of its overlap with NY 383 in Scottsville . The former routing of NY 251 from the west end of the concurrency in Scottsville to Gates became an extension of NY 386 , which was a simple connector in northern Gates and southern Greece prior to the change .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Tropical Storm Lester ( 2004 ) =
Tropical Storm Lester was a weak tropical storm that paralleled the Mexican coastline in October 2004 . The 16th tropical cyclone and 12th named storm of the 2004 Pacific hurricane season , Lester originated from an area of disturbed weather that persisted southwest of the Gulf of Tehuantepec . After organizing , the system was designated as a tropical depression on October 11 . The depression was upgraded to a tropical storm the next day , and moved northwestward , just off the Mexican coastline . Due to the interaction with land among other factors , the storm degenerated on October 13 . The storm dropped locally heavy rainfall , which caused minor flooding and mudslides . No fatalities or significant damage were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
By October 10 , 2004 , an area of disturbed weather was situated well to the southwest of the Gulf of Tehuantepec . Later that day , a surface low pressure system developed , and convection began to organize into slightly curved bands . The disturbance continued to in this manner , and at 1800 UTC on October 11 , the low level circulation had become sufficiently organized to be designated as a tropical depression . At the time , the depression consisted of a well @-@ defined circulation , with some deep thunderstorm activity . Despite weak steering currents , the system started what was initially thought to be a westward drift , though just a few hours later was found to be towards the northwest . A small cyclone , a burst of deep convection formed at around the same time , and was said could have produced tropical storm @-@ force winds .
Continuing its slow , northwestward track under the weal steering currents of a weak mid @-@ level ridge to its north , and a broad cyclonic circulation to its southwest , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Lester at 1800 UTC on October 12 . Originally , it was unclear whether the center of circulation would remain slightly offshore , or move inland . Due to the presence of a weak upper @-@ level anticyclone that was centered just east of the system , favorable atmospheric conditions for strengthening prevailed , and the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) about 6 – 12 hours after being upgraded to a tropical storm . Early on October 13 , radar imagery from Acapulco , Mexico indicated that Lester remained a small and well @-@ organized cyclone as it passed just offshore . At the same time , light southwesterly wind shear began to develop . The interaction with land , combined with influence from the low to the southwest , started to weaken the storm , and it was downgraded to a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on October 13 . By later that day , reports from an Air Force Reserve Unit Hurricane Hunter Aircraft indicated that the cyclone had degenerated into a trough on the northeastern side of the larger low to the southwest .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On October 12 , in response to Lester , the Mexican government issued a tropical storm watch for the coast between Punta Maldonado to Zihuatanejo . It was upgraded to a warning later that day . It was extended to Lázaro Cárdenas on October 13 . Later that day , the warning was lifted when Lester dissipated . Lester brought rains to parts of Oaxaca and Guerrero , reaching 3 to 5 inches ( 76 to 127 mm ) . The highest 24 @-@ hour total peaked at 106 @.@ 5 mm ( 4 @.@ 19 in ) , recorded on October 12 . Localized flooding was likely caused by the storm , though no reports of deaths were received by the National Hurricane Center . However , the storm capsized two ships , and washed two more ashore . The heavy rain caused mudslides , which buried one man in his home ; he was later rescued by his family . In and around the port of Acapulco , about 14 trees were downed , and minor pooling of water was reported .
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= Tvrđa =
Tvrđa ( Citadel ) is the Old Town of the city of Osijek in Croatia . It is the best @-@ preserved and largest ensemble of Baroque buildings in Croatia and consists of a Habsburg star fort built on the right bank of the River Drava . Tvrđa has been described by the World Monuments Fund as " a unique example of an eighteenth @-@ century baroque military , administrative , and commercial urban center " .
The star fort was constructed in the immediate vicinity of medieval Osijek after the defeat of the Ottoman forces in 1687 , due to Osijek 's strategic importance . Constructed starting in 1712 to plans by Mathias von Kaiserfeld and then Maximilian Gosseau de Henef , all five planned bastions and two gates were complete by 1715 . By 1735 , the inner town was finished and three northern bastions had been added . When complete , it was the largest and most advanced Habsburg fortress on the border with the Ottoman Empire , consisting of eight bastions and featuring armories , depots , a garrison headquarters , military court , construction office , a garrison physician , guardhouse , officers ' apartments , a military hospital and seven barracks . The completed fort was entirely surrounded with walls and palisades and had four main gates at each side ( north , south , east , west ) . Tvrđa had street lights by 1717 and was the site of the first public water supply in Croatia , opened in 1751 .
Tvrđa 's military importance decreased after the Berlin Congress of 1878 , with the increasing stability of the surrounding region . Most of the fort walls and fortifications were destroyed in the 1920s due to the obstacle they presented to the development of Osijek . While the fortifications have largely been removed , the fort 's interior core remains intact and is now home to churches , museums , schools and other public buildings , as well as numerous bars and restaurants . Of the fortification system , only the northern side of the walls now remain intact , as well as parts of the first and eighth bastions along with the northern gate known as the ' water gate ' ( ' vodena vrata ' ) . Tvrđa sustained significant damage during the Croatian War of Independence during the 1990s and was featured on the 1996 World Monuments Watch List of Most Endangered Sites . It now features on Croatia 's ' tentative list ' for consideration as a nominee for a World Heritage Site .
= = History = =
= = = Medieval and Ottoman eras = = =
The new name of Osijek first appeared in 1196 . The center of medieval Osijek was on the banks of the River Drava where Tvrđa now stands . The town was a trade and port settlement from the early 12th century due to its position on the way from Pécs and Buda southwards . The site was home to the Romanesque church of the Holy Trinity . Between 1526 and 1687 Osijek was ruled by the Ottomans , who did not change the layout of the settlement in any substantial way but introduced Islamic places of worship , giving the area an Oriental appearance . Traces of medieval and Ottoman towns remain to this day , including a remnant of the old Ottoman fortress wall , known today as the " Turkish Wall " ( Turski zid ) or " Filibey 's Fort " ( Filibejeva utvrda ) , lying next to the Tvrđa access road .
During the Ottoman period , Osijek was internationally known because of the Suleiman Bridge . The construction of the bridge was begun by İbrahim Pasha on 16 August 1526 following the orders of Suleiman the Magnificent . The bridge , which connected Osijek and Darda , took the form of a wooden road on piers and was approximately 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) long and 6 metres ( 20 ft ) wide . Seen as a great threat to Christian Europe the bridge was attacked several times , being destroyed in 1664 , when it was set on fire on the orders of Croatian feudal lord Nicholas VII of Zrin ( Croatian : Nikola VII . Zrinski , Hungarian : VII . Zrínyi Miklós ) . The bridge was rebuilt during the rule of Suleiman II . Finally , it was burned down by the Habsburg armies in 1686 .
= = = Design and construction = = =
= = = = First layout in late 17th century = = = =
Development of the military settlement at Tvrđa started in 1687 when the Habsburg armies drove the Ottomans out of the city during the Great Turkish War . The chief commander of the Imperial army , Louis William , Margrave of Baden @-@ Baden , saw Osijek as a location of exceptional strategic importance in the war against the Ottomans . He urged the repair of the city walls , and proposed construction of a new fort according to Vauban 's principles of military engineering .
The town magistrate was established in 1690 , while the plans for the new fort were still being drawn up , and one of its documents from August of the same year described the condition of the settlement as " ruinous " . Two months later , on 29 October , the Ottoman army suddenly attacked . The attack was repulsed only thanks to a well @-@ organised defense , and the Turks withdrew on 6 November , after a brief siege . The event was a clear lesson that the construction of the fort must not be delayed any further . The first phase of Tvrđa 's conversion into a Baroque fortress was based on the plan devised by the engineer Mathias von Kaiserfeld from 1691 .
= = = = Second layout in 18th century = = = =
The original plan for Tvrđa was drafted because of the need to reinforce the town walls , but did not include provisions to redesign the interior and envisaged largely uncontrolled development . New plans for a fort on the right bank of the River Drava were drawn up by Maximilian Gosseau de Henef . Gosseau took over planning of the fort when construction was already under way . Starting in August 1712 , Austrian engineers , supervised by the fort 's commander , General Johann Stephan von Beckers , built barracks , staff headquarters , churches and monasteries , surrounded by system of moats , bastions and gun positions , respecting Gosseau 's design . The design followed the model of lowland Dutch military fortifications of the period .
By 1715 , all five planned bastions and two gates were complete . An additional , western , gate leading to the Upper Town was added in 1716 . The construction of the outwork on the opposite bank of the River Drava , designed to offer protection from the north and to serve as a bridgehead , was completed by 1721 . The final , fourth gate , leading to the Lower Town , was not added until 1783 . Construction of the inner town was completed by 1733 , and in 1735 three additional northern bastions were completed , along with a post office , the fort 's construction office and a hospital . The completed fort had " eight bastions , two armories , two major depots , garrison headquarters , military court , construction office , garrison physician , guardhouse , officer apartments , military hospital and seven barracks " . Based on the ' ring model ' , the fortifications took up an area of 80 hectares ( 200 acres ) , making Tvrđa the largest fortress on the border with the Ottoman Empire .
Gosseau 's plan left space for churches to be built where mosques had once stood . Initially , converted mosques were used as churches , but Franciscans started to build a Baroque church in 1709 and it was consecrated in 1732 . A Franciscan monastery was built between 1699 and 1705 , with a new wing being added between 1731 and 1733 , which subsequently became a new monastery in 1761 . In 1725 , the Jesuits commenced construction of the parish church of St. Michael ( Croatian : Sveti Mihovil ) , following the construction of their own monastery . This church was in use after 1734 , despite being incomplete . A Holy Trinity column was erected in the fort 's main square in 1730 as a plague monument featuring volutes with pedestals on which four protectors against the plague are placed . Four additional pedestals were added to the monument in 1784 , each featuring a statue of a saint . Tvrđa had street lighting as early as 1717 . The first system to supply public water in Croatia was opened in Tvrđa in 1751 .
In the mid @-@ 18th century there were reportedly more than 35 inns in Tvrđa , estimated to an account for one in three of the fort 's buildings . Crown prince Joseph stayed in one of the inns when visiting Osijek . In 1786 , as Joseph II , he decreed the merger of the Upper Town , Lower Town and Tvrđa into one single town council .
= = = 19th and 20th century = = =
As early as the second half of the 18th century there was little or no new constructions taking place in Tvrđa , and even maintenance of the fort became a burden . In 1809 Osijek was granted free royal town status . Osijek 's council was accommodated in a building at the south @-@ eastern corner of Tvrđa 's main square .
Tvrđa 's military importance decreased after the Berlin Congress of 1878 as a result of increasing political and military stability in the region . Two north @-@ western bastions were demolished in the 1870s , making way for Ambrose 's Park ( Croatian : Ambrozijev perivoj ) . Construction of the Royal Grammar School started in 1881 , and the Royal General Secondary School was completed in 1890 . Episcopal seminary was also built in the south @-@ western corner of the main square in 1898 . These were the only buildings erected within Tvrđa walls in the last three decades of the 19th century .
As Osijek grew as a city , the fort 's presence hindered the potential for urban development . The demolition of most of the fort walls happened between 1923 and 1926 , with the construction of an electric tramway . The last gunpowder magazine , located behind the church of St. Michael , was demolished in 1958 . While most of the fortifications have been demolished ( only the first and eighth bastions and the northern wall with its so @-@ called ' water gate ' were kept ) , the center of Tvrđa remains intact . The Yugoslav People 's Army maintained a garrison and a military hospital in Tvrđa , but in the 1980s these buildings were gradually being abandoned , and adapted into ateliers for local painters and sculptors .
The fort sustained considerable damage during the Croatian War of Independence , which lasted from 1991 until 1995 . The war brought structural damage from collapsing roofs , walls and floors . These damages threaten plaster , sculpture and murals that lack proper protection and are subject to continuing decay .
= = Present day = =
After the fortress 's military importance decreased at the end of the 19th century , Tvrđa became a center of administrative , educational , cultural , and scholarly life in Osijek and the entire region . The first school in Osijek was organized at Tvrđa ; the first scholarly curriculum was introduced in 1707 , to be later expanded and renewed , and the first printing press started working in 1735 . The significance of educational institutions of Tvrđa are best underlined by the fact that Croatian Nobel Prize laureates , Lavoslav Ružička and Vladimir Prelog , along with Serbian scientist Milutin Milanković ( Milankovitch cycles ) , were all alumni ( graduates ) of the Tvrđa schools . The Faculty of Agriculture of the Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek has occupied the former general headquarters since 1995 after its previous site was destroyed in the Croatian War of Independence . The Faculty of Food Technology has been relocated to a building that served as the first military hospital in Osijek , from the mid @-@ 17th century until the beginning of the 1990s . Other present @-@ day educational institutions in Tvrđa include the II and the III Gymnasium , Franjo Kuhač Music School ( former Roman Catholic Seminary ) , Jesuit Classical Gymnasium ( former logistics barracks built in the mid @-@ 18th century ) , and the Secondary School of Economics ( former grammar school for girls ) .
According to the 2001 census , within the Tvrđa city district , there are 10 @,@ 277 inhabitants living in 3 @,@ 310 households . The fort interior is now a centre of Osijek 's nightlife . There are numerous bars and restaurants in Tvrđa . The fort hosts the Museum of Slavonia , the largest general @-@ type museum in Croatia , located in Tvrđa since 1946 . The former town museum and archives building today houses the State Directorate for Monument Protection , a department of the Croatian Ministry of Culture . The patron saint of the Tvrđa is Saint Michael , and his feast day of September 29 is celebrated as the day of the Tvrđa city district .
= = Heritage status = =
" I have seen many European towns , but have never found an identical development whereby an existing urban nucleus was turned into a fortification , or a similar town @-@ planning solution " .
The World Monuments Fund has described Tvrđa as " a unique example of an eighteenth @-@ century baroque military , administrative , and commercial urban center " . Tvrđa is on Croatia 's ' Tentative List ' for consideration as nominee for the World Heritage Site . During the 1991 – 95 conflict in Croatia , 90 per cent of the buildings in Tvrđa were damaged to some extent and the fort was featured on the 1996 World Monuments Watch List of Most Endangered Sites . It has not appeared on the list , published every two years , since .
The building of the general headquarters , dating from 1726 , and the ground plan of the fortress are depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 200 kuna banknote , issued in 1993 and 2002 .
The Agency for Restoration of Osijek Tvrđa ( Croatian : Agencija za obnovu osječke Tvrđe ) was established in 1999 . Its stated goals are protection , restoration and revitalization of Tvrđa . The restoration process aims to preserve architectural , historical and aesthetic qualities of Tvrđa in full accordance with the restoration principles set by the International Council on Monuments and Sites , while maintaining its multifunctional character . International cooperation is also envisioned , in particular with the Council of Europe . The Agency is jointly funded by the Government of Croatia , Osijek @-@ Baranja County and the City of Osijek .
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= Bigeye thresher =
The bigeye thresher ( Alopias superciliosus ) is a species of thresher shark , family Alopiidae , found in temperate and tropical oceans worldwide . Like other thresher sharks , nearly half its total length consists of the elongated upper lobe of the tail fin . Its common name comes from its enormous eyes , which are placed in keyhole @-@ shaped sockets that allow them to be rotated upward . This species can also be distinguished by a pair of deep grooves on the top of its head , from which its scientific name is derived .
The large eyes of the bigeye thresher are adapted for hunting in low light conditions . It is one of the few sharks that conduct a diel vertical migration , staying in deep water during the day and moving into surface waters at night to feed . To protect its sensitive brain and eyes from the temperature changes accompanying these movements , the bigeye thresher has a vascular exchange system called the rete mirabile around those organs . This species feeds mainly on fish and squid , which are stunned via whip @-@ like strikes of the long tail . Bigeye threshers are ovoviviparous , usually bearing litters of two pups . The embryos are oophagous and feed on ova produced by the mother while inside the uterus . This shark is caught by commercial fisheries across its range ; the meat is not highly regarded but the skin , fins , and liver oil are valued . It has been assessed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
British biologist Richard Thomas Lowe was the first to scientifically describe the bigeye thresher , in papers published in Proceedings of the Royal Society of London ( 1840 ) and Transactions of the Zoological Society of London ( 1849 , sometimes given as 1839 ) . He based his description on a specimen caught off Madeira in the eastern Atlantic Ocean . However , Lowe 's description was subsequently overlooked by researchers and this species was known by different names until the 1940s , when new specimens from Cuba and Florida prompted its original scientific name to be resurrected . The specific epithet superciliosus is from the Latin super meaning " above " , and ciliosus meaning " eyebrow " , referring to the distinct lateral grooves above the eyes .
An allozyme analysis conducted by Blaise Eitner in 1995 showed that the closest relative of the bigeye thresher is the pelagic thresher ( A. pelagicus ) , with which it forms a clade . Fossil remains of the bigeye thresher dating to the Middle Miocene ( 16 @.@ 0 – 11 @.@ 6 Ma ) have been found in the Hokuriku region of Japan .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The bigeye thresher has a virtually circumtropical distribution . In the western Atlantic Ocean , it has been reported from New York to Florida , the Bahamas , Cuba , Venezuela , Tobago and southern Brazil . In the eastern Atlantic , it is known from Portugal , Madeira , Senegal , Guinea to Sierra Leone , Angola , and the Mediterranean Sea . In the western Indian Ocean , it occurs off South Africa , Madagascar , and the Arabian Sea . In the Pacific Ocean , it is known from southern Japan , Taiwan , New Caledonia , northwestern Australia , and New Zealand , and eastward to Hawaii , southern California , the Gulf of California , and west of the Galapagos Islands . Analysis of mitochondrial DNA has shown that Atlantic and Indo @-@ Pacific populations are somewhat genetically divergent from each other .
Bigeye threshers are usually found over the continental shelf and in the open sea , though they are occasionally encountered in shallow coastal waters . They occur in surface temperatures of 16 – 25 ° C ( 61 – 77 ° F ) , but have been tracked as far down as 723 m ( 2 @,@ 372 ft ) , where the temperature is only 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) . Little is known of their geographical movements ; one individual has been documented moving from New York to the Gulf of Mexico , a straight @-@ line distance of 2 @,@ 767 km ( 1 @,@ 719 mi ) .
= = Description = =
The eyes of the bigeye thresher can measure up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) across in adults . Each eye is taller than wide , with a bulbous upper portion . The orbits extend onto the dorsal surface of the head , allowing the eyes to orient upwards . There are also a pair of distinctive lateral grooves that extend from above the eyes to over the gill slits , giving it a " helmet " -like appearance . The snout is moderately long and bulbous , and there are no labial furrows at the corners of the mouth . The teeth are moderately large with a single , narrow cusp . There are 19 – 24 teeth in the upper jaw and 20 – 24 teeth in the lower jaw ; their shapes are similar in both jaws . There are large and small dermal denticles , with the smaller ones more numerous and interspersed amongst the larger ones . The smaller denticles taper to a point .
Up to half the body length is taken up by the long upper lobe of the caudal fin , which is broader than in other threshers . The large pectoral fins have a curved anterior margin and broad tips . The first dorsal fin is placed further back than in the other thresher sharks , with the free rear tip located above or just before the pelvic fins . Its coloration is a deep , metallic violet to purplish brown above and creamy white below . This color rapidly fades to a dull gray after death . Most bigeye threshers are 3 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 0 m ( 10 @.@ 8 – 13 @.@ 1 ft ) long and weigh 160 kg ( 350 lb ) . The largest known bigeye thresher measured 4 @.@ 9 m ( 16 ft ) long and weighed 364 kg ( 802 lb ) , and was caught near Tutukaka , New Zealand , in February 1981 .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The size and upward orientation of the bigeye thresher 's eyes are adapted to search for the silhouettes of prey in dim light . This species is one of a handful of shark species that conducts a diel vertical migration , spending daytime in deeper water between 300 – 500 m ( 980 – 1 @,@ 640 ft ) , beneath the thermocline where the temperature ranges from 6 to 12 ° C ( 43 to 54 ° F ) , and ascending above it to water less than 100 m ( 330 ft ) deep during nighttime . This migration likely relates to finding prey at night and avoiding predators during the day . The sharks ' daytime swimming patterns are usually steady , while at night they have a pattern of slow ascents and rapid descents .
Bigeye threshers are likely preyed upon by larger sharks and marine mammals . Known parasites of the bigeye thresher include the copepod Pagina tunica , and the tapeworm Litobothrium janovyi . Sea lampreys ( Petromyzon marinus ) have been seen attached near the cloaca of this shark . The bigeye thresher appears to be an ecological competitor of the blue shark ( Prionace glauca ) , and the numbers of the two species are negatively correlated such as that only one of two occurs in any given location .
= = = Feeding = = =
The bigeye thresher has larger teeth than other threshers and feeds on a wider variety of prey . Known food items include schooling forage fish such as mackerel and herring , benthic fishes such as hake and whiting , larger pelagic fishes such as lancetfish and small billfish , squid such as lycoteuthids and ommastrephids , and possibly crab megalopae . They likely use their long tails to stun their prey prior to capture , as they are often found hooked by their tails on longlines and with the bait fish in their stomachs . The shape of their eye sockets give them binocular vision in an upward direction to better aim their strikes . In the Mediterranean , they are strongly associated with schools of frigate mackerel ( Auxis rochei ) , suggesting that these sharks follow concentrations of their prey from place to place . It is said that the bigeye thresher uses its long tail to smack down birds .
= = = Life history = = =
Like other mackerel sharks , bigeye threshers are ovoviviparous and bear litters of two pups , one in each uterus . Very rarely , the litter size may be one , three , or four . There is no defined breeding season and most adult females are pregnant throughout the year without any apparent lag time between pregnancies . The gestation period is unknown . The developing fetuses are initially nourished by a yolk sac , and later on exhibit oophagy , in which they consume infertile eggs produced by their mother ( and possibly also uterine fluid ) . There is no evidence of sibling cannibalism as in the sand tiger shark ( Carcharias taurus ) . Unborn embryos are similar in appearance to adults , with proportionally larger heads and eyes . They are covered with a thin layer of epithelium that prevents the uterine wall from being abraded by the embryo 's sharp dermal denticles ; this has not been observed in the young of other thresher sharks . The young measure 1 @.@ 35 – 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 4 – 4 @.@ 6 ft ) long at birth . Males mature at a length around 2 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 9 m ( 8 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 5 ft ) and at an age of 9 – 10 years , while females mature at a length around 3 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 6 m ( 11 – 12 ft ) and at an age of 12 – 14 years . The maximum lifespan of this species is believed to be 19 years for a male and 20 years for a female . A female bigeye thresher is estimated to produce only 20 young over her entire life .
= = = Thermoregulation = = =
There is conflicting evidence on whether the bigeye thresher is warm @-@ bodied like the common thresher ( A. vulpinus ) . In a 1971 study , Carey et al. probed the swimming muscles of two bigeye threshers with a thermistor needle and reported finding a temperature elevation of 1 @.@ 8 and 4 @.@ 3 ° C ( 3 @.@ 8 and 9 @.@ 1 ° F ) compared to the ambient environment . However , an anatomical examination conducted by Sepulveda et al. in 2005 found that though the bigeye thresher possesses the aerobic red muscles responsible for generating heat in the common thresher , these muscles are arranged in two strips along the flanks just beneath the skin , as opposed to near the core of the body . There is also no blood vessel countercurrent exchange system ( the rete mirabile ) in the trunk to limit the loss of metabolic heat to the water . Based on these differences , the authors questioned earlier measurements and concluded it was unlikely that the bigeye thresher maintains an elevated body temperature . The bigeye thresher does possess a highly developed rete system around its brain and eyes . This is thought to function in buffering those sensitive organs against temperature changes during the shark 's daily migrations up and down the water column , which can be as much as 15 – 16 ° C ( 27 – 29 ° F ) .
= = Human interactions = =
The bigeye thresher shark is rarely encountered by divers underwater and poses no danger . This species is or was taken by longline fisheries operated by many countries , including the United States , Japan , Spain , Brazil , Uruguay , and Mexico , and constitutes about 10 % of the pelagic shark catch . The bigeye thresher comprises 20 % of the longline catch off Cuba , where it is attracted at night using cyalume sticks ( chemical lights ) . It is also significant to Taiwanese fisheries , which land about 220 metric tons annually . The meat is marketed fresh , smoked , or dried and salted , though it is not highly regarded due to its mushy texture . The skin is used to make leather products , the liver oil for vitamins , and the fins for shark fin soup .
In the waters of the United States , this species is considered a nuisance bycatch of longlines , gillnets , and trawls . It is also occasionally caught in shark nets around beaches in South Africa . Along with the other thresher species , the bigeye thresher is listed as a game fish by the International Game Fish Association ( IGFA ) , and is pursued by recreational anglers off the United States , South Africa , and New Zealand . The bigeye thresher is highly susceptible to over @-@ exploitation due to its low lifetime fecundity . All three thesher shark species were assessed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) in 2007 .
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= HMS Daring ( H16 ) =
HMS Daring was a D @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . The ship spent the bulk of her career on the China Station . She was briefly commanded by Louis Mountbatten before World War II . Daring escorted convoys in the Red Sea in October – November 1939 and then returned to the UK in January 1940 for the first time in five years . While escorting a convoy from Norway , she was sunk by the German submarine U @-@ 23 in February 1940 .
= = Description = =
Daring displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 890 long tons ( 1 @,@ 920 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Daring carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 870 km ; 6 @,@ 760 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Daring had a single 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) QF gun between her funnels and two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II guns mounted on the side of her bridge . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Career = =
Daring was ordered on 2 February 1931 under the 1930 Naval Estimates , and was laid down at John I Thornycroft 's yard at Woolston , Southampton on 18 June 1931 . She was launched on 7 April 1932 and completed on 25 November 1932 , at a total cost of £ 225 @,@ 536 , excluding equipment supplied by the Admiralty , such as weapons , ammunition and wireless equipment . The ship was initially assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean and made a brief deployment to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in September – October 1933 . Lord Louis Mountbatten assumed command on 29 April 1934 , and Daring was given a refit at Sheerness Dockyard from 3 September to 24 October to prepare the ship for service on the China Station .
In December 1934 she sailed to join the 8th Destroyer Flotilla in the Far East and served there until the outbreak of war . Upon the ship 's arrival at Singapore , Lord Mountbatten was transferred to command HMS Wishart and Commander Geoffrey Barnard assumed command .
The ship and her sisters Duncan , Diana , and Dainty were transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet shortly before World War II began in September 1939 . Daring was kept in the Red Sea for escort and patrol work until November 1939 . She was overhauled in Malta from 25 November to 20 December . The ship escorted the Union @-@ Castle Line ocean liner SS Dunnottar Castle to Belfast in early 1940 and was under repair at Portsmouth until 25 January . Daring joined the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla in Scapa Flow on 10 February 1940 for escort duties . While escorting Convoy HN12 from Norway , she was torpedoed on 18 February in position 58 ° 39 ′ N 01 ° 40 ′ W by U @-@ 23 , under the command of Otto Kretschmer . Daring capsized and sank very quickly after having her stern blown off ; 157 of the ship 's company were lost . The five survivors were rescued by the submarine HMS Thistle , which had witnessed the attack .
= = Acclaimed model = =
A model of HMS Daring by renowned marine model maker Norman A. Ough is held by the National Maritime Museum .
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= Kaga Rebellion =
The Kaga Rebellion or Chōkyō Uprising was a large @-@ scale revolt in Kaga Province ( present @-@ day southern Ishikawa Prefecture ) , Japan , in late 1487 through 1488 . Togashi Masachika , who ruled Kaga Province as shugo , had been restored to power in 1473 with aid from the Asakura clan as well as the Ikkō @-@ ikki , a loose collection of lesser nobility , monks , and farmers . By 1474 , however , the Ikkō @-@ ikki grew discontent with Masachika , and launched some initial revolts , which were easily quelled . In 1487 , when Masachika left on a military campaign , between one hundred thousand and two hundred thousand Ikkō @-@ ikki revolted . Masachika returned with his army , but the Ikkō @-@ ikki , backed by several disaffected vassal families , overwhelmed his army and surrounded him in his palace , where he committed seppuku . The former vassals of Masachika granted the position of shugo to Masachika 's uncle Yasutaka , but over the next several decades the Ikkō @-@ ikki increased their political hold on the province , which they would effectively control for almost a century .
= = Background and initial revolts = =
During the 15th century in Japan , peasant revolts , known as ikki , became much more commonplace . During the turmoil of the Ōnin War ( 1467 – 1477 ) and subsequent years , these rebellions increased in both frequency and success . Many of these rebels became known as Ikkō @-@ ikki , a collection of peasant farmers , Buddhist monks , Shinto priests , and jizamurai ( lesser nobles ) who all espoused belief in the Jōdo Shinshū sect of Buddhism . Rennyo , the Hongan @-@ ji abbot who led the Jōdo Shinshū movement , attracted a large following in Kaga and Echizen Province , but distanced himself from the political goals of the ikki , advocating violence only for self @-@ defense or defense of one 's religion .
During the mid @-@ 15th century , a civil war broke out among the Togashi clan over the position of shugo . Togashi Masachika had been driven out of Kaga by his younger brother , Kochiyo . When the Ōnin War broke out in 1467 , Masachika sided with Hosokawa and Kochiyo with Yamana . In 1473 , Masachika requested aid from Asakura Toshikaga , the lord of Echizen and ally of Hosokawa , as well as from the priests of Yoshizaki , who were associated with Rennyo . Masachika promised the ikki that if restored to power , he would lift his supporters out of their poverty . Further motivating the ikki to support Masachika were the religious policies of Kochiyo : Kochiyo patronized the Takada school of Jōdo Shinshū , a fierce rival to the Hongan @-@ ji for control of the Shinshū sect , and persecuted followers of the Hongan @-@ ji . Toshikaga pledged his support , as did the Yoshizaki priests , the latter prior to any approval from Rennyo . Rennyo eventually granted his approval to the actions of the Yoshizaki priests , and with Toshikaga providing military aid and the Ikkō @-@ ikki rioting throughout Kaga , Masachika quickly overthrew his brother . But Ikkō @-@ ikki support of Masachika was short @-@ lived . By 1474 , the Ikkō @-@ ikki were in dispute with Masachika as they claimed that he did not fulfill his promises of economic reward , and they attempted a rebellion . Rennyo refused to support their actions and the rebels were quickly defeated and forced to take refuge in Etchū Province . In 1475 , Shimotsuma Rensu , a disciple of Rennyo , falsely claimed that Rennyo supported a renewed uprising in Kaga . The revolt failed , and Rennyo excommunicated Rensu . Tiring of his efforts to restrain the unruly Ikkō @-@ ikki , Rennyo left Yoshizaki for the capital region .
= = 1488 revolt = =
Despite the previous revolts having been easily suppressed , unrest continued to simmer in Kaga under Masachika 's governance . The Ikkō @-@ ikki who remained in Kaga grew bolder , refusing to pay taxes and even seizing tax revenue and land , despite Rennyo 's continued protestations . In 1487 , Masachika left with a large army for Ōmi Province in response to a call for aid from shogun Ashikaga Yoshihisa , who was attempting to suppress the robber baron Rokkaku Tokoyori . In Masachika 's absence , the Ikkō @-@ ikki , led by Rengo , Renkō , and Rensei , three sons of Rennyo , launched their revolt and between one hundred thousand and two hundred thousand members took up arms . Masachika quickly returned from his military expedition , and defeated the rebels in several battles . However , several vassal families , discontent with Masachika , joined with the rebels . The rebels cut off Masachika from reinforcements from his allies in the bordering Echizen , Etchū , and Noto Provinces , and besieged his castle . Masachika , trapped in a burning castle and faced with certain defeat , committed seppuku . In his place , the vassal families who rebelled against Masachika put forward his uncle and ex @-@ shugo , Yasutaka , as a candidate to be the new shugo .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the overthrow of Masachika , Kaga became known as " hyakusho no motaru kuni " ( " the kingdom of peasants " , or " province ruled by peasants " ) . Shogun Yoshihisa , a friend and ally of Masachika , demanded that Rennyo excommunicate the Kaga ikki . However , Hosokawa Masamoto , an influential political figure who was also a close friend and patron of Rennyo , negotiated a deal which permitted Rennyo to merely reprimand the ikki while Masamoto would join the Hongan @-@ ji . In Kaga , Togashi Yasutaka took power as shugo , ruling the province until his death in 1504 . Afterward , under the rule of his son , Taneyasu , the ikki began to assert their influence over the vassal families that supported them in the uprising . The ikki soon split into rival political factions and initiated a series of political struggles which culminated in a civil war in 1531 . The heads of the three predominant Hongan @-@ ji temples in Kaga , as well as Taneyasu , were defeated when Renjun , a son of Rennyo , brought in Ikkō @-@ ikki troops from Mikawa Province . Upon Renjun 's victory , the office of shugo was abolished and the leaders of the opposition were exiled . The Ikkō @-@ ikki would control Kaga until 1580 , when forces loyal to Oda Nobunaga defeated them .
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= Clavaria zollingeri =
Clavaria zollingeri , commonly known as the violet coral or the magenta coral , is a widely distributed species of fungus . It produces striking tubular , purple to pinkish @-@ violet fruit bodies that grow up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) tall and 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) wide . The extreme tips of the fragile , slender branches are usually rounded and brownish . A typical member of the clavarioid or club fungi , Clavaria zollingeri is saprobic , and so derives nutrients by breaking down organic matter . The fruit bodies are typically found growing on the ground in woodland litter , or in grasslands . Variations in branching and color can often be used to distinguish C. zollingeri from similarly colored coral fungi such as Alloclavaria purpurea and Clavulina amethystina , although microscopy is required to reliably identify the latter species .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first described scientifically by French mycologist Joseph @-@ Henri Léveillé in 1846 . It was named after German botanist Heinrich Zollinger , who researched the genus Clavaria , and collected the type specimen in Java , Indonesia . Léveillé considered the dichotomous branching to be the prominent characteristic that separated this species from the otherwise similar Clavaria amethystina . American Charles Horton Peck published a species collected from Stow , Massachusetts as Clavaria lavendula in 1910 , but this is a synonym . The mushroom is commonly known as the " violet coral " , or the " magenta coral " .
In a 1978 classification of the genus Clavaria , Ronald Petersen placed C. zollingeri in the subgenus Clavaria , a grouping of species with clamp connections absent from all septa in the fruit body ; others in the subgenus included C. purpurea , C. fumosa , and the type , C. vermicularis . A large @-@ scale molecular analysis of the phylogenetic distributions and limits of clavarioid fungi in the family Clavariaceae was published by Bryn Dentiger and David McLaughlin in 2006 . Based on their analysis of ribosomal DNA sequences , C. zollingeri shared the greatest genetic similarity with Clavulinopsis laeticolor . Petersen 's concept of the infrageneric classification of Clavaria was largely rejected in this analysis , as two of the three subgenera he proposed were found to be polyphyletic .
= = Description = =
The coloring of the fruit bodies is quite variable , ranging from violet to amethyst , or violet shaded with brown or red . The colors may be variable over the fruit body ; in one instance the outside branches were brown while the inner branches in the center of the bundle were light violet . Dried specimens may lose their coloring almost entirely , as the pigments may be sensitive to light or dryness . The fruit body is typically 5 to 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) tall and 4 to 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 8 in ) wide . The stem , or base , is short , and the branching starts a short distance above the ground . The surfaces of the fragile branches are smooth and dry ; the branches are 2 – 6 thick , typically with rounded tips . It has no distinguishable odor , and a taste somewhat like radishes or cucumber . Although edible in small quantities , the fragile fruit bodies are of limited culinary value , and may have a laxative effect .
In mass , the spores ( produced on the surface of the branches ) are white . Light microscopy reveals additional details : the spores are roughly spherical to broadly elliptical , with dimensions of 4 – 7 by 3 – 5 μm . They have a clear apiculus about 1 μm long , and a single large oil droplet . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , do not have clamps , and measure 50 – 60 by 7 – 9 μm , gradually widening at the apex .
= = = Similar species = = =
Other lavender to violet @-@ colored corals include Clavulina amethystinoides , which is so multiply branched so as to appear toothed , and Clavulina amethystina , which can only be reliably distinguished by its two @-@ spored basidia in comparison to the four @-@ spored basidia of Clavaria species . In Alloclavaria purpurea , the branching is reduced and the color usually a duller purple . The Australian coral Clavaria versatilis is also similar in appearance to Clavaria zollinger , but has branch tips that end in two short and blunt processes that are the same color as the rest of the fruit body . Ramariopsis pulchella — a small , violet @-@ colored coral fungus rarely taller than 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) — could be mistaken for a small C. zollingeri . It has roughly spherical spores measuring 3 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 5 by 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 μm .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Clavaria zollingeri grow either solitarily , in groups , or in clusters on the ground in grassy spots , usually near hardwood trees , or with mosses . It is a saprobic species , deriving nutrients by breaking down organic matter . It has a widespread distribution , and has been found in Australia , New Zealand , North America , South America , and Asia ( including Brunei , India , and Korea ) . In North America , the distribution is restricted to the northeastern regions of the continent . Rare in Europe , it is listed in the Red Lists of threatened species in Denmark and Great Britain . In Ireland , it is used as an indicator species to help assess the fungal diversity of nutrient @-@ poor grasslands , a habitat under threat . It was recorded from the Netherlands for the first time in 2006 .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Clavaria zollingeri contains lectins , a class of proteins that bind specific carbohydrates on the surface of cells , causing them to clump together . A Korean study demonstrated that extracts of the fungus caused lymphoagglutination , a specific form of agglutination that involves white blood cells . In general , lectins are used in blood typing and serology , and they are widely used in affinity chromatography for purifying proteins .
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= Ashdod =
Ashdod ( Hebrew : אַשְׁדּוֹד ( audio ) ; Arabic : اشدود , إسدود Isdud ) is the sixth @-@ largest city in Israel , located in the Southern District of the country , on the Mediterranean coast where it is situated between Tel Aviv to the north ( 32 kilometres ( 20 miles ) away ) and Ashkelon to the south ( 20 km ( 12 mi ) away ) . Jerusalem is 53 km ( 33 mi ) to the east .
Ashdod is Israel 's largest port , accounting for 60 % of the country 's imported goods . The city is also an important regional industrial center .
Modern Ashdod covers the territory of two ancient twin towns , one inland and one on the coast , which were for most of their history two separate entities , connected though by close ties with each other . This article is dealing with both these historic towns and other ancient sites now located within the territory of modern Ashdod .
The first documented urban settlement at Ashdod dates to the Canaanite culture of the 17th century BCE , making the city one of the oldest in the world . Ashdod is mentioned 13 times in the Bible . During its pre @-@ 1956 history the city was settled by Philistines , Israelites , colonists coming in the wake of Alexander 's conquests , Romans and Byzantines , Arabs , Crusaders , and Ottoman Turks .
Modern Ashdod was established in 1956 on the sand hills near the site of the ancient town , and incorporated as a city in 1968 , with a land @-@ area of approximately 60 square kilometres ( 23 sq mi ) . Being a planned city , expansion followed a main development plan , which facilitated traffic and prevented air pollution in the residential areas , despite population growth . According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics , Ashdod had a population of 217 @,@ 959 in 2014 , with an area of 47 @,@ 242 dunams ( 47 @.@ 242 km2 ; 18 @.@ 240 sq mi ) .
= = History = =
= = = Stone Age = = =
Three stone tools dating from the Neolithic era were discovered , but no other evidence of a Stone Age settlement in Ashdod was found , suggesting that the tools were deposited here in a later period .
= = = Bronze and Iron Ages = = =
The site of Ashdod in the Bronze Age and Iron Ages was at a tell just south of the modern city . It was excavated by archaeologists in nine seasons between 1962 and 1972 . The effort was led during the first few years by David Noel Freedman of the Pittsburgh Theological Seminary and Moshe Dothan . The remaining seasons were headed by Dothan for the Israel Antiquities Authority .
The earliest major habitation in Ashdod dates to the 17th century BCE , when the acropolis of the tell was fortified . Ashdod is first mentioned in written documents from Late Bronze Age Ugarit , which indicate that the city was a center of export for dyed woolen purple fabric and garments . At the end of the 13th century BCE the Sea Peoples conquered and destroyed Ashdod . By the beginning of the 12th century BCE , the Philistines , generally thought to have been one of the Sea Peoples , ruled the city . During their reign , the city prospered and was a member of the Philistine Pentapolis , which included Ashkelon and Gaza on the coast and Ekron and Gath farther inland , in addition to Ashdod .
In 950 BCE Ashdod was destroyed during Pharaoh Siamun 's conquest of the region . The city was not rebuilt until at least 815 BCE .
Asdûdu led the revolt of Philistines , Judeans , Edomites , and Moabites against Assyria after expulsion of king Ahimiti , whom Sargon had installed instead of his brother Azuri . Gath ( Gimtu ) belonged to the kingdom of Ashdod at that time . Assyrian king Sargon II 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief ( turtanu ) , whom the King James Bible calls simply " Tartan " , Isaiah 20 : 1 regained control of Ashdod in 712 / 711 BCE and forced the usurper Yamani to flee . Sargon 's general destroyed the city and exiled its residents , including some Israelites who were subsequently settled in Media and Elam .
Mitinti was king at the time of Sargon 's son Sennacherib ( r . 705 – 681 BCE ) , and Akhimilki in the reign of Sennacherib 's son Esarhaddon ( r . 681 – 669 BCE ) .
Psamtik I of Egypt ( r . 664 – 610 BCE ) is reported to have besieged the great city Azotus for twenty @-@ nine years ( Herodotus , ii . 157 ) ; the biblical references to the remnant of Ashdod ( Jeremiah 25 : 20 ; cf Zephaniah 2 : 4 ) are interpreted as allusions to this event .
The city absorbed another blow in 605 BCE , when Nebuchadnezzar conquered it .
In 539 BCE the city was rebuilt by the Persians . In 332 BCE it was conquered in the wars of Alexander the Great .
In the Book of Nehemiah , the Ashdodites seem to represent the whole nation of the Philistines in the sixth century BCE , the speech of Ashdod ( which half of the children from mixed families are described as adopting ) would simply be the general Philistine dialect . Hugo Winckler explains the use of that name by the fact that Ashdod was the nearest of the Philistine cities to Jerusalem .
= = = In the Hebrew Bible = = =
There are Biblical episodes referencing Ashdod but they remain uncorroborated by archaeological finds :
Upon Joshua 's conquest of the Promised Land , Ashdod was allotted to the Tribe of Judah ( Book of Joshua 15 : 46 ) .
In I Samuel 6 : 17 Ashdod is mentioned among the principal Philistine cities . After capturing the Ark of the covenant from the Israelites , the Philistines took it to Ashdod and placed it in the temple of Dagon . The next morning Dagon was found prostrate before the Ark ; on being restored to his place , he was on the following morning again found prostrate and broken . The people of Ashdod were smitten with boils ; a plague of mice was sent over the land ( 1 Samuel 6 : 5 ) .
According to the Bible , during the 10th century BCE Ashdod became , along with all the kingdom of Philistia , a patronage area of the Kingdom of Israel under the control of King David .
The capture of the city by King Uzziah of Judah shortly after 815 BCE is mentioned within 2 Chronicles ( 26 : 6 ) and in the Book of Zechariah ( 9 : 6 ) , speaking of the false Jews .
In the Book of Nehemiah ( Nehemiah 13 : 23 – 24 ) , some 5th century BCE residents of Jerusalem are said to have married women from Ashdod , and half of the children of these unions were reportedly unable to understand Hebrew ; instead , they spoke " the language of Ashdod " .
= = = Hellenistic period = = =
Once Hellenised , the city changed its name to the more Greek @-@ sounding Αzotus ( Greek : Άζωτος ) and prospered until the Hasmonean Revolt . During the rebellion Judas Maccabeus " took it , and laid it waste " ( Antiquities of the Jews Book 12 , 8 : 6 ) His brother Jonathan conquered it again in 147 BCE and destroyed the temple of Dagon of biblical fame ( Antiquities Book 13 , 4 : 4 ; 1 Samuel 5 : 1 @-@ 5 ) . During the rule of Alexander Jannæus , Ashdod was part of his territory ( Antiquities Book 13 , 15 : 4 ) .
= = = Roman and Byzantine periods = = =
After the destruction wreaked during the succession wars between Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II , Pompey restored the independence of Azotus , as he did with all Hellenising coastal cities ( Antiquities Book 14 , 4 : 4 ) . A few years later , in 55 BCE , after more fighting , Roman general Gabinius helped rebuild Ashdod and several other cities left without protective walls ( Antiquities Book 14 , 5 : 2 ) . In 30 BCE Ashdod came under the rule of King Herod , who then bequeathed it to his sister Salome ( Antiquities Book 17 , 8 : 1 ) . By the time of the First Jewish – Roman War ( 66 @-@ 70 ) , there must have been a large enough Jewish presence in Ashdod for Vespasian to feel compelled to place a garrison in the city .
Despite its location four miles ( 6 km ) from the coast , Ptolemy ( c . 90 – c . 168 CE ) described it as a maritime city , as did Josephus in Antiquities Book 13 , 15 : 4 . The same Josephus though describes Ashdod as " in the inland parts " ( Antiquities Book 14 , 4 : 4 ) . This curious contradiction may refer to Ashdod 's control of a separate harbor , called Azotus Paralios , or Ashdod @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Sea ( παράλιος - " paralios " , Greek for " on the coast " ) . The landlocked city was called by the Romans Hippinos , " of the horsemen " , and by the Greeks until late in the medieval period , Azotus mesogaios or " inland Azotus " .
During the Byzantine period , the port city overshadowed its inland counterpart in size and importance . The 6th @-@ century Madaba Map is showing both under their respective names .
= = = In the New Testament = = =
The 1st century AD Book of Acts refers to Azotus as the place in which Philip the Evangelist reappeared after he converted the Ethiopian eunuch to Christianity . Philip preached the gospel throughout the area until he reached Caesarea , about 90 km to the north .
= = = Early Muslim period = = =
The prominence of Hellenised , then Christian Azotus continued until the 7th century , when it came under Muslim rule .
A coastal fort was erected by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al @-@ Malik , the builder of the Dome of the Rock , at or near the former Azotus Paralios , which was later reconstructed by the Fatimids and Crusaders .
The medieval Arabic name of the port town was Mahuz Azdud , " harbour of Azdud " , a very interesting combination between the by then already ancient Aramaic word for harbour , mahuz , and " Azdud " , a return to a form much closer to the old Semitic name " Ashdod " .
The geographer Ibn Khordadbeh ( c . 820 – 912 ) referred to the inland city as " Azdud " and described it as a postal station between al @-@ Ramla and Gaza .
= = = Crusader period = = =
Documents from the Crusader period indicate that Ashdod belonged to the lordship of Ramla , and it appears probable that in 1169 the old Arab sea fort was given by Hugh , lord of Ramla , to his knight Nicolas de Beroard . From this period the fort is known as Castellum Beroart .
= = = Ayyubid and Mamluk periods = = =
The port stops being mentioned during the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods , making it likely that it was destroyed by the Muslims along with the other port cities , due to fears that they might again be used by Crusader invasions from the sea . With the destruction of the port city , its inland counterpart regains its importance .
= = = Ottoman rule = = =
The location of the village on Via Maris enhanced the city 's importance during the Ottoman rule . In 1596 CE , administrated by nahiya ( " subdistrict " ) of Gaza under the liwa ' ( " district " ) of Gaza , the population of Ashdod numbered about 413 . The villagers paid taxes on wheat , barley , sesame and fruit crops , as well as goats and beehives .
In the late nineteenth century , Isdud was described as a village spread across the eastern slope of a low hill , covered with gardens . A ruined khan stood southwest of the village . Its houses were one @-@ storey high with walls and enclosures built of adobe brick . There were two main sources of water : a pond and a masonry well . Both were surrounded by groves of date @-@ palm and fig @-@ trees .
= = = British Mandate = = =
In the 1922 census of Palestine , conducted by the British Mandate authorities , Isdud had a population of 2 @,@ 566 ; 2 @,@ 555 Muslims and 11 Christians , where the Christians were all Catholics . The population increased in the 1931 census to 3 @,@ 240 ; 3 @,@ 238 Muslims and 2 Christians , in a total of 764 houses .
During the Mandatory period , Isdud had two elementary schools ; one for boys which was opened in 1922 , and one for girls which started in 1942 . By the mid @-@ 1940s the boy @-@ school had 371 students , while the girl @-@ school had 74 .
In 1945 Isdud had a population of 4 @,@ 620 Arabs and 290 Jews , with a total of 47 @,@ 871 dunams of land , according to an official land and population survey . Of this , 3 @,@ 277 dunams were used citrus and bananas , 8 @,@ 327 for plantations and irrigable land , 23 @,@ 762 for cereals , while 131 dunams were built @-@ up land .
= = = 1948 war = = =
The village of Isdud was occupied by the Egyptian army on May 29 , 1948 and became the Egyptians ' northernmost position during the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War . While the Israelis failed to capture territory , and suffered heavy casualties , Egypt changed its strategy from offensive to defensive , thus halting their advance northwards . Egyptian and Israeli forces clashed in the surrounding area , with the Egyptians being unable to hold the Ad Halom bridge over the Lachish River . Israeli forces surrounded the town during Operation Pleshet , and shelled and bombed it from the air . For three nights from 18 October the Israeli Air Force bombed Isdud and several other locations . Fearing encirclement , Egyptian forces retreated on October 28 , 1948 and the majority of the residents fled . The 300 townspeople who remained were driven southwards by the Israel Defense Forces .
= = = State of Israel = = =
In 1950 , the moshavim of Sde Uziyahu and Shtulim were established to the east of Isdud , and in 1949 and 1953 , Bnei Darom and Gan HaDarom were established north of Isdud . According to Khalidi , they were established on the village lands .
The modern city of Ashdod was founded in 1956 . On May 1 , 1956 , then finance minister Levi Eshkol approved the establishment of the city of Ashdod . " Ashdod Company Ltd . " , a daughter company of City @-@ Builders Company Ltd . , was created for that purpose by Oved Ben @-@ Ami and Philipp Klutznick . The first settlers , 22 families from Morocco , arrived in November 1956 , followed by a small influx of immigrants from Egypt . In July 1957 , the government granted a 24 square kilometres ( 9 square miles ) , approximately 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) from Tel Aviv , to the Ashdod Company Ltd . , for building the modern city of Ashdod . The building of the Eshkol A power station in Ashdod was completed in 1958 and included 3 units : 2 units of 50 megawatt , and one unit of 45 megawatt ( with sea water desalination capabilities ) .
The first local council was appointed in October 1959 . Dov Gur was appointed the first local council head on behalf of the Israeli Ministry of Interior . The Magistrates ' Court in the city was inaugurated in 1963 . The building of the port of Ashdod began in April 1961 . The port was inaugurated in November 1963 , and was first utilized in November 1965 , with the coming of the Swedish ship " Wiengelgad " .
Large @-@ scale growth of the city began in 1991 , with the massive arrival of immigrants from the Soviet Union and Ethiopia and infrastructure development . From 1990 to 2001 the city accepted more than 100 @,@ 000 new inhabitants , a 150 % growth .
Ashdod was one of six cities that won the 2012 Education Prize awarded by the Israel Ministry of Education .
= = Urban development = =
The modern city of Ashdod city was built outside the historic settlement site , on virgin sands . The development followed a main development plan . The planners divided the city into seventeen neighborhoods of ten to fifteen thousand people . Wide avenues between the neighborhoods make traffic flow relatively freely inside the city . Each neighborhood has access to its own commercial center , urban park , and health and education infrastructure . The original plan also called for a business and administrative center , built in the mid @-@ 1990s , when the city population grew rapidly more than doubling in ten years .
Three industrial zones were placed adjacent to the port in the northern part of the city , taking into account the prevailing southern winds which take air pollution away from the city . The plan had its problems , however , including asymmetric growth of upscale and poorer neighborhoods and the long @-@ time lack of a main business and administrative center .
The city was planned for a maximum of 250 @,@ 000 inhabitants , and an additional area in the south was reserved for further development .
In 2012 , a plan to build an industrial zone on part of the Ashdod Sand Dune was approved . The plan calls for a hi @-@ tech industrial park , events halls , and coffee shops to be built adjacent to the train station . It will cover 400 dunams ( 0 @.@ 4 km2 ; 0 @.@ 2 sq mi ) , including 130 dunams of built @-@ up space , with the rest of the area being preserved as a nature reserve . In addition , the Port of Ashdod is undergoing a massive expansion program , and a private hospital will be built in the city .
= = Geography = =
The Ashdod @-@ Nitzanim sand dune nature reserve is a 20 @-@ kilometer ( 12 @-@ mile ) stretch of sand dunes on the southern outskirts of Ashdod .
= = Climate = =
Ashdod has a Mediterranean climate with hot summers , pleasant spring and fall , and cool , rainy winters . As a seaside town , the humidity tends to be high many times year round , and rain occurs mainly from November to March . In winter , temperatures seldom drop below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) and are more likely to be in the range of 10 – 15 ° C ( 50 – 59 ° F ) , while in summer the average is 27 ° C ( 81 ° F ) . The average annual rainfall is 510 mm ( 20 in ) .
= = Economy = =
Ashdod is one of the most important industrial centers in Israel . All industrial activities in the city are located in northern areas such as the port area , the northern industrial zone , and around the Lachish River . The port of Ashdod is the largest port in Israel , handling about 60 % of Israel 's port cargo . It was mainly upgraded in recent years and will be able to provide berths for Panamax ships . Various shipping companies offices are also located in the port area which also is home to an Eshkol A power station and coal terminal .
The Northern industrial zone is located on Highway 41 and includes various industry including an oil refinery , which is one of only two in the country . The heavy industry zone located south of the Lachish River was once the main industrial center in Ashdod . Recently , however , leisure facilities have moved into the area . There is still some industry here , however , such as a Teva Pharmaceutical Industries plant , construction components producer Ashtrom , and Solbar a soybean oil producer . Ashdod is also home to Elta , a part of Israel Aircraft Industries where radar equipment , electronic warfare systems , and ELINT are developed .
= = Shopping , going out = =
Historically each neighborhood of Ashdod had its own commercial center . In 1990 , however , when the mall shopping culture developed in Israel , the main commercial activity in Ashdod moved to malls . The first mall to open in Ashdod was the Forum Center in the industrial zone . Restaurants , bars and night clubs were opened in the area . Today , the Forum center is mainly used for offices . Lev Ashdod Mall , which opened in 1993 , has been enlarged and upgraded since then . Ashdod Mall , billed at the time as the city 's largest shopping mall , has also been redesigned since its opening in 1995 . City Mall , Ashdod was opened in a combined building with the central bus station in 1996 , following the examples of the Tel Aviv Central Bus Station and the Jerusalem Central Bus Station . The Sea Mall , a three @-@ story mall near the government offices , has a climbing wall and movie theater . Star Center doubled in size in 2007 .
= = Education = =
In 2013 , Ashdod had 500 schools employing 3 @,@ 500 teachers . The student population was 55 @,@ 000 . The city 's education budget was NIS 418 million shekels .
Lycée français Guivat @-@ Washington , a French international high school , is in Givat Washington , in proximity to Ashdod .
= = Transportation = =
= = = Road = = =
Ashdod is located on the historic Via Maris . Highway 4 was developed following this route along the southern sea shore of Israel ; it serves as the main connection to the north , towards the Tel Aviv metropolitan area , and to the south , towards Ashkelon.Ad Halom junction was planned as the main entrance to the city from the east .
Ashdod Interchange was opened in 2009 . The interchange continues the freeway section of Highway 4 further south , by removing the traffic light at this junction , and also added grade separation with the railway . The other main road in the area is Highway 41 which served the city from the start of its modern history . This road runs from west to east towards Gedera and it is the main transport link to the port of Ashdod and the industrial zones , and connects to Highway 4 with an interchange .
In late 2012 , Ashdod won a NIS 220 million grant from the Israeli Transport Ministry to improve public transportation and decrease private car use . According to the municipality 's plans , a 20 @-@ kilometer ring of road arteries will be given priority in public transportation . These arteries will carry four bus rapid transit lines . In the city 's more crowded areas , such as Herzl Boulevard or the western part of Menachem Begin Boulevard , a public transportation lane will be paved in the center of the road . In other areas , the right @-@ hand lane will be reserved for public transportation . Buses will also be given priority at traffic lights ; electronic devices will allow a bus to signal its approach , causing the light to turn green . In addition , an electric @-@ powered bicycle rental network will be set up , and 22 kilometres ( 14 miles ) of bicycle paths will be paved in the city .
= = = Train = = =
The passenger railway connection to Ashdod opened in 1992 after the renovation of the historical railway to Egypt . Ashdod railway station is on Israel Railways ' Binyamina / Netanya – Tel Aviv – Ashkelon line and it is located near Ad Halom Junction . The station was upgraded in 2003 when a new terminal building was built . The station building is modern , but proper road access to it was only organized on September 23 , 2008 , when a new road to the station was opened .
There is also heavy freight traffic in the area . Port of Ashdod has its own railway spur line as well as a special terminal for potash brought from the Sodom area and exported abroad .
= = = Buses = = =
A new central bus station opened in 1996 . It serves as the terminus both for inter- and intracity lines . The central bus station is attached to the City Mall . Intercity bus lines connect the city with most population centers in central and southern Israel . Following is the list of bus companies serving routes at the central bus station :
The Egged Ta 'avura company has been operating urban buses in Ashdod since 2007 . In addition , a share taxi service exists in Ashdod , operated by Moniyot HaIr . Most share taxi lines coincide with intracity bus lines .
= = = Cruise ships and yachts = = =
There is a passenger pier in the Port of Ashdod . The traffic at this gateway is constantly growing , especially due to cruise ship activities . The other sea gateway is Blue Marina .
= = Demographics = =
According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics , Ashdod had a population of about 204 @,@ 400 at the end of 2006 , making it the fifth largest city in Israel . The annual population growth rate is 2 @.@ 6 % and the ratio of women to men is 1 @,@ 046 to 1 @,@ 000 . The population age distribution was recorded as 19 @.@ 7 % under the age of 10 , 15 @.@ 7 % from age 10 to 19 , 14 @.@ 9 % from 20 to 29 , 19 @.@ 1 % from 30 to 44 , 19 @.@ 1 % from 45 to 64 , and 11 @.@ 3 % were 65 or older . The population of Ashdod is significantly younger than the Israeli average because of the large number of young couples living in the city . The city is ranked medium @-@ low in socio @-@ economic grading , with a rating of 4 out of 10 . 56 @.@ 1 % of 12th grade students in Ashdod were eligible for matriculation certificates in 2000 . The average salary in 2000 was NIS 4 @,@ 821 compared to the national average of NIS 6 @,@ 835 .
= = = Immigrant absorption = = =
Ashdod has seen much of its growth as the result of absorption of immigrants . The first settlers were Jewish immigrants from Morocco and Egypt . In the 1960s Ashdod accepted a large number of immigrants from Romania , followed by a large number from Georgia ( then part of the Soviet Union ) in the 1970s . More than 60 @,@ 000 Russian Jews from the former Soviet Union who immigrated to Israel in the 1990s following the collapse of the Soviet Union settled in Ashdod . Recent demographic figures suggest that about 32 % of the city 's population are new immigrants , 85 % of whom are originally from the former Soviet Union . During the 1990s the city absorbed a large number of Beta Israel immigrants from Ethiopia , and in more recent years Ashdod absorbed a large number of immigrants from the United States , United Kingdom , France , Argentina , and South Africa . Many of the 60 @,@ 000 Marathi @-@ speaking Bene Israel from Maharashtra , India who moved to Israel also settled there . Ashdod also receives a significant amount of internal migration , especially from the Gush Dan region .
= = = Religion = = =
Over 95 % of Ashdod 's population is Jewish , over 30 % of whom are religiously observant . Despite this , the city is generally secular , although most of the non @-@ Jewish population is a result of mixed marriages . About 100 families are affiliated with the Pittsburg Hasidic group , established here in 1969 by Grand Rabbi Avraham Abba Leifer and continued today by his son , Grand Rabbi Mordechai Yissachar Ber Leifer . Ashdod has many synagogues serving different streams of Judaism . The city is also home to the world 's largest Karaite community , about five thousand strong . There is also a Scandinavian Seamen Protestant church , established by Norwegian Righteous Among the Nations pastor Per Faye @-@ Hansen .
= = Local government = =
Ashdod was declared a city in 1968 . The Ashdod City Council has twenty @-@ five elected members , one of whom is the mayor . The mayor serves a five @-@ year term and appoints six deputies . The current mayor of Ashdod , Yehiel Lasri , was last elected in 2008 after Zvi Zilker has been in office continuously since 1989 . Within the city council there are various factions representing different population groups . The headquarters of the Ashdod Municipality and the mayor 's office are at city hall . This new municipal building is located in the main culture and business area .
= = = Mayors = = =
= = Culture and art = =
= = = Music and performing arts = = =
Ashdod is home to the Israeli Andalusian Orchestra , which performs Andalusian classical music . It is an Arabic music style that originates from Moorish Iberia or Al @-@ Andalus , has been jealously preserved in its original form by Arab and Jewish musicians of the Maghreb over the centuries , and has left its mark on the cante flamenco , the flamenco singing style , perhaps better known in the West . The orchestra was awarded the Israel Prize in 2006 .
Ashdod also has one of the biggest open theaters in Israel - Amphi Ashdod that can hosts more than 6 @,@ 400 guests . The Amphi hosts Ashdod 's international art festival " Méditerranée " .
The MonArt Centre for the Arts , which includes a ballet school , a music center and the Ashdod Museum of Art , is a performing arts center which comprises different galleries , art schools , studios and events . The ambitious architectural complex has been inaugurated in 2003 . Theatre and concerts are hosted in several cultural venues ; the most important are performed at the Ashdod Performing Arts Center , a new 938 @-@ seat concert hall of distinct elegance and originality designed by Israeli architect Haim Dotan and inaugurated in 2012 in the city 's cultural center . Ashdod plays host to many national and international music festivals , including the annual Super Jazz Ashdod Festival managed by Leonid Ptashka .
The ACADMA conservatory is a professional educational institute for music and performance studies based in Ashdod . Operated under the supervision of the Ministry of Education , the institute was established in 1966 , and serves as a home for 600 young musicians in different fields .
= = = Museums = = =
The Corinne Mamane Museum of Philistine Culture is worldwide the only museum dedicated to this topic . It reopened in 2014 with a new interactive exhibition .
The Ashdod Museum of Art , located in the MonArt center ( see above at " Music and performing arts " ) , has 12 galleries and two exhibition halls . In an architectural echo of the Louvre , the entrance to the museum is through a glass pyramid . In 2003 the internal spaces of the museum were redesigned by the architects Eyal Weizman , Rafi Segal and Manuel Herz .
= = Sports = =
Ashdod 's football team , F.C. Ashdod represents the city in Ligat ha 'Al , Israel 's Premier League . The club is known for its successful soccer school . The city 's top basketball team is Maccabi Ashdod . The men squad plays in First League , Israel 's First tier league , and the women squad Maccabi Bnot Ashdod plays in top division .
Ashdod plays host to many national and international sporting tournaments , including the annual Ashdod International Chess Festival . The city has a cricket team , a rarity in Israel . It is run and organized by citizens of Indian descent . Ashdod 's beaches are a venue for water sports , like as windsurfing and Scuba diving . The Ashdod Marina offers yachting services .
Notable athletes from Ashdod include :
Vered Borochovsky – 2000 Sydney Olympics and 2004 Summer Olympics swimmer .
Alon Hazan – international soccer player
Haim Revivo – international soccer player
Gocha Tzitziashvili – 2003 Greco @-@ Roman Wrestling World champion & 2004 Summer Olympics wrestler
= = Twin towns – Sister cities = =
Ashdod is twinned with
= = Notable residents = =
Valery Panov
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= Héctor López =
Héctor Headley López Swainson ( born July 9 , 1929 ( possibly April 8 , 1932 ) ) is a former left fielder and third baseman in Major League Baseball who played for the Kansas City Athletics and New York Yankees from 1955 to 1966 . He is notable as the first black manager at the AAA baseball level , as the third outfielder on the Maris / Mantle Yankees , and as the Kansas City Athletics franchise hitting streak record holder . López was on World Series Championship teams for the Yankees in 1961 and 1962 . In various seasons , he finished among the top 10 American League hitters in hits , runs batted in , runs scored , doubles , triples , slugging percentage , sacrifice flies , sacrifice hits , games played , times hit by pitch and at bats . He was also known for his hustle , his clutch hitting and poor fielding .
López was the second Panamanian @-@ born major league baseball player and continues to be one of the country 's most revered world champion athletes . Although Humberto Robinson ( 102 games played / 5 seasons ) debuted in the major leagues 22 days earlier than López , López ( 1 @,@ 450 games played / 12 seasons ) was the first of the 49 major leaguers born in Panama to have an extensive career . He was the first Panamanian @-@ born major leaguer to finish in the top 10 in any official statistical category ( sacrifice hits , 1956 ) ; first to lead his league in any official statistic ( sacrifice flies , 1958 ) ; first to play in the World Series ( with the 1960 Yankees ) ; and the first to win a World Championship ( with the 1961 Yankees ) .
He was an infielder for the Athletics , and later was often the third outfielder on the Maris / Mantle Yankees of the early and mid @-@ 1960s . López had his most successful season in 1959 , but continued to contribute effectively during the early 1960s during their pennant successes . The utility player divided his career almost equally between infield and outfield positions . After retiring from baseball , he went on to become a groundbreaking manager in minor league baseball as the first to break the baseball color line as a black manager at the AAA level for the Buffalo Bisons and then served in various international managerial and coaching positions .
= = Early life = =
Born in Colón , Panama , López grew up in Colón and the neighboring Panama Canal Zone . He held a part @-@ time job at an American military base bowling alley . He was a high school track star whose father had been a pitcher for the Panama national baseball team . As a high school athlete , he played semipro baseball for US $ 100 per month in Colón . After he graduated from high school he signed to play with St. Hyacinthe of the Canadian Provincial League who also employed Clifford " Connie " Johnson .
= = Kansas City Athletics ( 1955 – 59 ) = =
Prior to the 1952 season , López was acquired by the Philadelphia Athletics from the Drummondville Cubs of the Class @-@ C Provincial League for $ 1 @,@ 500 ( $ 13 @,@ 367 today ) . In 1954 , López won baseball 's Triple Crown in the Winter League . Throughout his professional career , he played in the Panama winter league where he won three batting titles and regularly led the league in home runs . López developed in the A 's farm system , and when the team relocated to Kansas City in 1955 he was recalled to the major league club . López made his major league debut in 1955 . That season he finished second to Carlos Paula among rookies in batting average and was overshadowed by American League strikeout @-@ leading pitcher Herb Score for the Rookie of the Year . He usually played second or third base during his time with the Athletics . During his rookie season , he finished third on the team in home runs , trailing only Gus Zernial ( 30 ) and Vic Power ( 19 ) . He tied Jim Finigan for third on the team in RBIs with 68 , trailing only Zernial and Power , who had 84 and 76 , respectively . López was the team 's regular third baseman , and was the youngest regular starter on the team . In 1956 , the team finished with a 52 – 102 record , but López had a career @-@ high 153 hits . He also set then @-@ career highs in home runs ( 18 ) and runs batted in ( 69 ) . In his early years , black and white players did not room together on the road , so he roomed with Vic Power even though Power 's closest friend on the team was Clete Boyer . In 1957 , he had a 22 @-@ game hitting streak , that is the All @-@ time Kansas City Athletics team record for the thirteen seasons the franchise played there .
He earned a position in the top @-@ 10 in the American League in both games played and at bats in 1956 and 1958 , as well as leading the AL in sacrifice flies and times grounded into double plays in 1958 . López also was in the top 10 in doubles and runs scored in 1958 and in sacrifice hits in 1956 . On June 26 , 1958 , López hit three home runs in a game against the Washington Senators . During his career with the Athletics , he hit .278 with 67 home runs and 269 RBIs , and scored 298 runs . However , his talents were wasted on a team that never finished above 6th place . On May 26 , 1959 , he was traded with Ralph Terry to the New York Yankees for Johnny Kucks , Tom Sturdivant , and Jerry Lumpe . For all his offensive skills , López led American League third basemen in errors in each of his four full seasons in Kansas City .
Baseball writer and Kansas City Athletics fan Bill James wrote that López was as bad a defensive player as you would ever want to see . The Authors of The Great American Baseball Card Flipping , Trading and Bubble Gum Book wrote of López 's defense " I would like to go on record right here and now as declaring Hector López the all @-@ time worst fielding major league ballplayer . "
= = New York Yankees ( 1959 – 66 ) = =
In his first season with the Yankees after being traded , he played 35 games in the outfield , the first time in his career he played more than 20 outfield games . He still played 76 games at third base for the team . In his 33 games with Kansas City at the start of the 1959 Major League Baseball season , he had played exclusively at second base . In his next five seasons with the Yankees from 1960 to 1964 , he mostly played in the outfield as he was part of five consecutive pennant winners . During his time with the Yankees , he was often the third outfielder of the Maris / Mantle Yankees that won two of the five consecutive World Series they played in from 1960 to 1964 . He logged the most games in left field during the back @-@ to @-@ back World Series Championship seasons of 1961 & 1962 ( 129 vs. Berra @-@ 109 , Tresh @-@ 43 ) . During the five pennant years , with Roger Maris playing right field and Mickey Mantle playing center field , López logged 406 games in left field . This was the most by any Yankee during this period ( Tom Tresh @-@ 195 , Yogi Berra @-@ 129 ) . López is one of eleven Yankees to have been on these five consecutive pennant winners and along with Whitey Ford , Elston Howard , Bobby Richardson , & Clete Boyer is one of seven Yankees to have been part of the entire Maris / Mantle Yankee era . In 1965 and 1966 , he made the majority of his outfield appearances in right field . However , in 1965 Mantle did not play center field . Mantle did return to center field for the majority of his appearances in 1966 ( the final year of the Maris / Mantle Yankees and the final year of López ' career ) .
In 1959 , he finished in the top 10 in slugging percentage , hits , doubles and RBI . In 1960 he was among the top 10 in triples and sacrifice hits . During the 1961 World Series , López replaced Mantle ( who only had six Series at bats ) in Game 4 and recorded a 2 @-@ run single on the way to a 7 – 0 victory . In Game 5 , which was the Series @-@ clinching game , he homered and tripled , driving in five runs , and caught Vada Pinson 's fly ball for the final out of the Series . His three for seven , 7 run batted in performance continues to be remembered by New Yorkers as a highlight of the series .
= = Managing = =
López was the manager of the Buffalo Bisons in 1969 . This made him the first black manager at the AAA level . This was six years before Frank Robinson became the first black manager in the major leagues . López was one of three black men ( along with Sam Bankhead and Gene Baker ) to manage in the minor leagues in the twenty @-@ five years after Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in 1947 . In 1990 , he coached Malverne High School of Malverne , New York in Nassau County on Long Island in addition to working in the parks department in the Town of Hempstead . López has also managed in Venezuela and been a player @-@ manager in Panama . He was the manager of the Panama national baseball team in the 2009 World Baseball Classic .
= = Panamanian history = =
He paved the way as a role model for the first three Panamanian Major League All @-@ Stars , Ben Oglivie and Manny Sanguillén also from Colón , and Rod Carew a Colonense born in neighboring Gatun . López recorded many firsts among Panamanian baseball players ; he was the first regular major leaguer , since 1955 was his rookie season , whereas Robinson did not qualify as a rookie until 1958 ( the season in which he recorded his 50th career inning pitched ) and Webbo Clarke , who also debuted in 1955 , never qualified as a rookie . López ' 1955 rookie season , when he batted .290 , was also the first by a Panamanian to qualify for baseball 's statistical leadership by recording the minimum number of plate appearances or innings pitched . Thus , although he was not the first to appear in the major leagues , he was in a sense the first Panamanian everyday player .
None of the other major leaguers born in Panama who played in the 1950s ( Robinson , Clarke , Pat Scantlebury , Tom Hughes ) played in the major league postseason , which then only included the World Series , before López did so with the 1960 Yankees . No other Panamanian was part of a World Series champion before López with the 1961 Yankees . He was the first Panamanian to record many statistical accomplishments , such as a stolen base , home run , double , triple , walk or strikeout . His 1956 season was the first by a Panamanian with more than 150 hits , more than 25 doubles , 90 runs scored , or more than 60 walks . His 1959 season was the first with more than 20 home runs or 90 runs batted in . López twice had .350 on @-@ base percentages , but in each season he recorded over 400 plate appearances without recording the qualifying number for unofficial league leadership . Thus , his career high on @-@ base percentage in a season in which he qualified for statistical leadership was .347 in 1956 . He was the first to finish among the top 10 in his league in each of the aforementioned statistical categories , and the first to lead his league in any official statistical batting category ( sacrifice flies in 1958 ) . López was the first Panamanian to accumulate a sufficient number of career appearances to qualify for career statistical leadership ( which depending upon the source is based on 3000 , 4000 or 5000 at bats ) , although his career .269 batting average , .330 on @-@ base percentage and .415 slugging percentage are not historically significant .
He also represented Panama in the 1960 Caribbean Series and tied with Félix Torres and Herman Davis for the tournament home run leadership . He continues to be considered a legendary world champion who represented the country . In 2006 , he was cited by professional basketball coach , Joseph Clarke , as ranking alongside such noted Panamanian sports personalities as Ismael Laguna , Roberto Durán , and Mariano Rivera as Panamanian World Champions . López has two sons . Ever since López ' performances with the Yankees , the team has had a huge following in Panama .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
Lopez retired following the 1966 season at the age of 36 . That year , he also participated in his first Old @-@ Timers ' Day . He has returned to the annual event every year ( totaling 49 years as of 2015 ) .
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= Maria Goeppert @-@ Mayer =
Maria Goeppert Mayer ( June 28 , 1906 – February 20 , 1972 ) was a German @-@ born American theoretical physicist , and Nobel laureate in Physics for proposing the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus . She was the second female Nobel laureate in physics , after Marie Curie .
A graduate of the University of Göttingen , Goeppert Mayer wrote her doctorate on the theory of possible two @-@ photon absorption by atoms . At the time , the chances of experimentally verifying her thesis seemed remote , but the development of the laser permitted this . Today , the unit for the two @-@ photon absorption cross section is named the Goeppert Mayer ( GM ) unit .
Maria Goeppert married Joseph Edward Mayer and moved to the United States , where he was an associate professor at Johns Hopkins University . Strict rules against nepotism prevented Johns Hopkins University from taking her on as a faculty member , but she was given a job as an assistant and published a landmark paper on double beta decay in 1935 . In 1937 , she moved to Columbia University , where she took an unpaid position . During World War II , she worked for the Manhattan Project at Columbia on isotope separation , and with Edward Teller at the Los Alamos Laboratory on the development of the Teller 's " Super " bomb .
After the war , Goeppert Mayer became a voluntary associate professor of Physics at the University of Chicago ( where Teller and her husband worked ) and a senior physicist at the nearby Argonne National Laboratory . She developed a mathematical model for the structure of nuclear shells , for which she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 , which she shared with J. Hans D. Jensen and Eugene Wigner . In 1960 , she was appointed full professor of physics at the University of California at San Diego .
= = Early life = =
Maria Göppert was born on June 28 , 1906 , in Kattowitz ( now Katowice , Poland ) , a city in Prussia , the only child of Friedrich Göppert and his wife Maria née Wolff . In 1910 , she moved with her family to Göttingen when her father , a sixth @-@ generation university professor , was appointed as the professor of pediatrics at the University of Göttingen . Goeppert was closer to her father than her mother . " Well , my father was more interesting , " she later explained . " He was after all a scientist . "
Göppert was educated at the Höhere Technische in Göttingen , a school for middle @-@ class girls who aspired to higher education . In 1921 , she entered the Frauenstudium , a private high school run by suffragettes that aimed to prepare girls for university . She took the abitur , the university entrance examination , at age 17 , a year early , with three or four girls from her school and thirty boys . All the girls passed , but only one of the boys did .
In the Spring of 1924 , Göppert entered the University of Göttingen , where she studied mathematics . A purported shortage of women mathematics teachers for schools for girls led to an upsurge of women studying mathematics at a time of high unemployment , and there was even a female professor of mathematics at Göttingen , Emmy Noether , but most were only interested in qualifying for their teaching certificate .
Instead , Goeppert became interested in physics , and chose to pursue a Ph.D. In her 1930 doctoral thesis she worked out the theory of possible two @-@ photon absorption by atoms . Eugene Wigner later described the thesis as " a masterpiece of clarity and concreteness " . At the time , the chances of experimentally verifying her thesis seemed remote , but the development of the laser permitted the first experimental verification in 1961 when two @-@ photon @-@ excited fluorescence was detected in a europium @-@ doped crystal . To honor her fundamental contribution to this area , the unit for the two @-@ photon absorption cross section is named the Goeppert @-@ Mayer ( GM ) unit . One GM is 10 − 50 cm4 s photon − 1 . Her examiners were three future Nobel prize winners : Max Born , James Franck and Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus .
On January 19 , 1930 , Goeppert married Joseph Edward Mayer , an American Rockefeller fellow who was one of James Franck 's assistants . The two had met when Mayer had boarded with the Goeppert family . The couple moved to Mayer 's home country of the United States , where he had been offered a position as associate professor of chemistry at Johns Hopkins University . They had two children , Maria Ann and Peter Conrad .
= = United States = =
Strict rules against nepotism ostensibly prevented Johns Hopkins University from hiring Goeppert Mayer as a faculty member , but she was given a job as an assistant in the Physics Department working with German correspondence . She received a very small salary , a place to work and access to the facilities . She taught some courses , published an important paper on double beta decay in 1935 .
There was little interest in quantum mechanics at Johns Hopkins , but Goeppert Mayer worked with Karl Herzfeld , collaborating on a number of papers . She also returned to Göttingen in the summers of 1931 , 1932 and 1933 to work with her former examiner Born , writing an article with him for the Handbuch der Physik . This ended when the NSDAP came to power in 1933 , and many academics , including Born and Franck , lost their jobs . Goeppert Mayer and Herzfeld became involved in refugee relief efforts .
Joe Mayer was fired in 1937 . He attributed this to the hatred of women on the part of the dean of physical sciences , which he thought was provoked by Goeppert Mayer 's presence in the laboratory . Herzfeld agreed and added that , with Goeppert Mayer , Franck and Herzfeld all at Johns Hopkins , some thought that there were too many German scientists there . There were also complaints from some students that Mayer 's chemistry lectures contained too much modern physics . Mayer took up a position at Columbia University , where the chairman of the Physics Department , George B. Pegram , arranged for Goeppert Mayer to have an office , but she received no salary . She soon made good friends with Harold Urey and Enrico Fermi , who arrived at Columbia in 1939 . Fermi asked her to investigate the valence shell of the undiscovered transuranic elements . Using the Thomas – Fermi model , she predicted that they would form a new series similar to the rare earth elements . This proved to be correct .
= = Manhattan Project = =
In December 1941 , Goeppert Mayer took up her first paid professional position , teaching science part @-@ time at Sarah Lawrence College . In the spring of 1942 , with the United States embroiled in World War II , she joined the Manhattan Project . She accepted a part @-@ time research post from Urey with Columbia University 's Substitute Alloy Materials ( SAM ) Laboratories . The objective of this project was to find a means of separating the fissile uranium @-@ 235 isotope in natural uranium ; she researched the chemical and thermodynamic properties of uranium hexafluoride and investigated the possibility of separating isotopes by photochemical reactions . This method proved impractical at the time , but the development of lasers would later open the possibility of separation of isotopes by laser excitation .
Through her friend Edward Teller , Goeppert Mayer was given a position at Columbia with the Opacity Project , which researched the properties of matter and radiation at extremely high temperatures with an eye to the development of the Teller 's " Super " bomb , the wartime program for the development of thermonuclear weapons . In February 1945 , Joe was sent to the Pacific War , and Goeppert Mayer decided to leave her children in New York and join Teller 's group at the Los Alamos Laboratory . Joe came back from the Pacific earlier than expected , and they returned to New York together in July 1945 .
In February 1946 , Joe became a professor in the Chemistry Department and the new Institute for Nuclear Studies at the University of Chicago , and Goeppert Mayer was able to become a voluntary associate professor of Physics at the school . When Teller also accepted a position there , she was able to continue her Opacity work with him . When the nearby Argonne National Laboratory was founded on July 1 , 1946 , Goeppert Mayer was also offered a part @-@ time job there as a senior physicist in the Theoretical Physics Division . She responded " I don 't know anything about nuclear physics . " She programmed the Aberdeen Proving Ground 's ENIAC to solve criticality problems for a liquid metal cooled reactor using the Monte Carlo method .
= = Nuclear shell model = =
During her time at Chicago and Argonne in the late 1940s , Goeppert Mayer developed a mathematical model for the structure of nuclear shells , which she published in 1950 . Her model explained why certain numbers of nucleons in an atomic nucleus result in particularly stable configurations . These numbers are what Eugene Wigner called magic numbers : 2 , 8 , 20 , 28 , 50 , 82 , and 126 . Enrico Fermi provided a critical insight by asking her : " Is there any indication of spin orbit coupling ? " She realised that this was indeed the case , and postulated that the nucleus is a series of closed shells and pairs of neutrons and protons tend to couple together . She described the idea as follows :
Think of a room full of waltzers . Suppose they go round the room in circles , each circle enclosed within another . Then imagine that in each circle , you can fit twice as many dancers by having one pair go clockwise and another pair go counterclockwise . Then add one more variation ; all the dancers are spinning twirling round and round like tops as they circle the room , each pair both twirling and circling . But only some of those that go counterclockwise are twirling counterclockwise . The others are twirling clockwise while circling counterclockwise . The same is true of those that are dancing around clockwise : some twirl clockwise , others twirl counterclockwise .
Three German scientists , Otto Haxel , J. Hans D. Jensen , and Hans Suess , were also working on solving the same problem , and arrived at the same conclusion independently . Their results were announced in the issue of the Physical Review before Goeppert Mayer ' s announcement in June 1949 . Afterwards , she collaborated with them . Hans Jensen co @-@ authored a book with Goeppert Mayer in 1950 titled Elementary Theory of Nuclear Shell Structure . In 1963 , Goeppert Mayer , Jensen , and Wigner shared the Nobel Prize for Physics " for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure . " She was the second and most recent female Nobel laureate in physics , after Marie Curie .
= = Death and legacy = =
In 1960 , Goeppert Mayer was appointed full professor of physics at the University of California at San Diego . Although she suffered from a stroke shortly after arriving there , she continued to teach and conduct research for a number of years . She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1965 . Goeppert Mayer died in San Diego , California , on February 20 , 1972 , after a heart attack that had struck her the previous year left her comatose . She was buried at El Camino Memorial Park in San Diego .
After her death , the Maria Goeppert Mayer Award was created by the American Physical Society to honor young female physicists at the beginning of their careers . Open to all female physicists who hold Ph.D.s , the winner receives money and the opportunity to give guest lectures about her research at four major institutions . Two of her former universities also honor her . The Argonne National Laboratory presents an award each year to an outstanding young woman scientist or engineer , while the University of California at San Diego hosts an annual Maria Goeppert Mayer symposium , bringing together female researchers to discuss current science . Crater Goeppert Mayer on Venus with a diameter of about 35 km is also named after Goeppert @-@ Mayer . In 2011 , she was included in the third issuance of the American Scientists collection of US postage stamps , along with Melvin Calvin , Asa Gray , and Severo Ochoa . Her papers are in the Geisel Library at the University of California , San Diego , and the university 's physics department is housed in Mayer Hall , which is named after her and her husband .
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= Powhatan Beaty =
Powhatan Beaty ( October 8 , 1837 – December 6 , 1916 ) was an African American soldier and actor . During the American Civil War , he served in the Union Army 's 5th United States Colored Infantry Regiment throughout the Richmond – Petersburg Campaign . He received America 's highest military decoration , the Medal of Honor , for taking command of his company at the Battle of Chaffin 's Farm after all officers had been killed and / or wounded .
Following the war , he became an orator and actor , appearing in amateur theater productions in his home of Cincinnati , Ohio . His most well @-@ known stage performance was an 1884 appearance at Ford 's Opera House on 9th Street in Washington , D.C. , opposite Henrietta Vinton Davis .
= = Early life = =
Beaty was born into slavery on October 8 , 1837 , in Richmond , Virginia . He moved to Cincinnati , Ohio , in 1849 , where he received an education . He gained his freedom sometime on or before April 19 , 1861 ; the exact date is unknown and may have been before his move to Ohio . While in school , he developed an interest in theater and made his public acting debut at a school concert . After leaving school , he was apprenticed to a black cabinet maker and eventually worked as a turner . He continued to study acting privately and received training in the field from several coaches , including James E. Murdock , a retired professional stage actor from Philadelphia .
A year after the outbreak of the Civil War , with the Confederate victory at the Battle of Richmond , Kentucky , on August 30 , 1862 , rumors of an impending Confederate attack on Cincinnati began to circulate . Richmond was one hundred miles to the south of Cincinnati , and no organized Union troops lay between the two cities . An attack by Confederate Colonel John Hunt Morgan , who had led his cavalry on a raid behind Union lines in Kentucky the previous month , was also feared . On September 2 , the men of Cincinnati were organized into work units to build fortifications around the city .
Although Cincinnati 's African Americans were initially pressed into service at bayonet point , after the appointment of William Dickson as commander of the black troops their treatment improved significantly . Dickson promised that they would be treated fairly and kept together as a distinct unit , to be called the Black Brigade . He then allowed them to return home to prepare for military service , with orders to report the next morning for duty . About four hundred men were released that day , September 4 , and the next morning about seven hundred reported for duty . Among those men was Beaty , who served in Company Number 1 of the Brigade 's 3rd Regiment . Despite the danger of Confederate attack , the unarmed unit was assigned to build defenses near the Licking River in Kentucky , far in advance of the Union lines . For the next fifteen days , they cleared forests , constructed forts , magazines and roads , and dug trenches and rifle pits . The brigade was disbanded on September 20 , the threat of attack having receded .
= = United States Colored Troops service = =
By June 1863 , Ohio had not yet fielded an African American combat unit , but Ohio blacks were being recruited for service in the regiments of other states . Beaty enlisted from Cincinnati on June 7 , 1863 for a three @-@ year term of service in the Union Army ; he was among a group of men recruited for a Massachusetts regiment . He joined as a private but was promoted to sergeant only two days later . He was placed in charge of a squad of forty @-@ seven other recruits and ordered to report to Columbus , Ohio , from where they would be sent to Boston . Upon arriving in Columbus on June 15 , however , they learned that the Massachusetts regiments were full and unable to accept their service . The Governor of Ohio , David Tod , immediately requested permission from the Department of War to form an Ohio regiment of African Americans . Permission was granted , and on June 17 , Beaty and his squad became the first members of the 127th Ohio Volunteer Infantry , later re @-@ designated the 5th United States Colored Troops . After three months of recruitment and organization in Camp Delaware , on the Olentangy River outside of Delaware , Ohio , the unit set out for Virginia .
By the Battle of Chaffin 's Farm on September 29 , 1864 , Beaty had risen to the rank of first sergeant in Company G. His regiment was among a division of black troops assigned to attack the center of the Confederate defenses at New Market Heights . The defenses consisted of two lines of abatis and one line of palisades manned by Brigadier General John Gregg 's Texas Brigade . The attack was met with intense Confederate fire and was turned back after reaching a line of abatis . During the retreat , Company G 's color bearer was killed ; Beaty returned through about 600 yards of enemy fire to retrieve the flag and return it to the company lines . The regiment had suffered severe casualties in the failed charge . Of Company G 's eight officers and eighty @-@ three enlisted men who entered the battle , only sixteen enlisted men , including Beaty , survived the attack unwounded . With no officers remaining , Beaty took command of the company and led it through a second charge at the Confederate lines . The second attack successfully drove the Confederates from their fortified positions , at the cost of three more men from Company G. By the end of the battle , over fifty percent of the black division had been killed , captured , or wounded . For his actions , Beaty was commended on the battlefield by General Benjamin Butler and seven months later , on April 6 , 1865 , awarded the Medal of Honor .
Beaty continued to distinguish himself in the 5th Regiment 's further engagements . His actions during the Battle of Fair Oaks & Darbytown Road in October 1864 earned him a mention in the general orders to the Army of the Potomac . The regimental commander , Colonel Giles Shurtleff , twice recommended him for a promotion to commissioned officer . Nothing came of Colonel Shurtleff 's requests , however Beaty did receive a brevet promotion to lieutenant . By the time he was mustered out of the Army he had participated in thirteen battles and numerous skirmishes .
= = Post @-@ war life = =
After the war , Beaty returned to Cincinnati and raised his family . His son , A. Lee Beaty , became an Ohio state legislator and an assistant U.S. District Attorney for southern Ohio . He resumed his career as a turner and pursued amateur acting and public speaking engagements . He gave public readings for charitable causes and became a well @-@ known elocutionist among the African American community of Cincinnati . Through the 1870s he acted in local theaters and directed music and drama exhibitions in the city . He wrote a play about a rich southern planter entitled Delmar , or Scenes in Southland , which was performed in January 1881 with himself in the lead role . Set in Kentucky , Mississippi , and Massachusetts , the work covered the end of slavery and transition to freedom for blacks from 1860 to 1875 . The privately run play was well received , but Beaty did not engage in self @-@ promotion and it never moved into public theaters .
In January 1884 , Beaty was working as an assistant engineer at the Cincinnati water works when Henrietta Vinton Davis , a prominent African American actress , came to perform in the city . Together , he and Davis put on a large musical and dramatic festival in Melodeon Hall which proved to be very successful . Included in the show were productions of Ingomar , the Barbarian and Robert Montgomery Bird 's The Gladiator , in which Beaty took the role of Spartacus . The culmination of the festival was a performance of selected scenes from Macbeth , with Beaty playing the title role and Davis as Lady Macbeth . Newspapers in both the black and white communities of Cincinnati praised the performances of the two actors , with the Commercial stating that Beaty " threw himself into his part with masterly energy and power " .
The successful festival led to Beaty being invited to play as a principal actor in a Washington , D.C. , Shakespearean production organized by Davis . A company including Davis , Beaty , and amateur actors from the D.C. area performed Richard III almost in entirety , three scenes from Macbeth , and one scene from Ingomar , the Barbarian . Davis , the premier black Shakespearean actress of the time , was the star of the show and Beaty played opposite her as Macbeth , King Henry VI , and Ingomar . The May 7 , 1884 , production was played in Ford 's Opera House to a full house of more than 1 @,@ 100 people ; among them was Frederick Douglass . There was some heckling during the play , primarily from some of the white attendees , however a reviewer from The Washington Post reported that " the earnestness and intelligence of several of the leading performers were such as to command the respect of those most disposed to find cause for laughter in everything that was said or done " . Washington newspapers praised the principal actors , but noted that the inexperience of some of the supporting cast was evident . Reviewers for African American newspapers were especially pleased to see such a production in an important venue like Ford 's Theater . The New York Globe wrote of the performance " [ t ] hus leap by leap the colored man and woman encroach upon the ground so long held sacred by their white brother and sister " .
Beaty continued to tour with Davis and performed a show in Philadelphia before returning to Cincinnati . He helped form his city 's Literary and Dramatic Club and , in 1888 , became the organization 's drama director . He lived out the rest of his life in Cincinnati and died at age seventy @-@ nine on December 6 , 1916 ; he was buried at Union Baptist Cemetery .
= = Medal of Honor citation = =
Citation :
Took command of his company , all the officers having been killed or wounded , and gallantly led it .
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= Ra.One =
Ra.One is a 2011 Indian science fiction superhero film directed by Anubhav Sinha , and starring Shah Rukh Khan , Arjun Rampal , Kareena Kapoor , Armaan Verma , Shahana Goswami and Tom Wu in pivotal roles . The script , written by Anubhav Sinha and Kanika Dhillon , originated as an idea that Anubhav Sinha got when he saw a television commercial , and which he subsequently expanded . The film follows Shekhar Subramanium ( Shah Rukh Khan ) , a game designer who creates a motion sensor @-@ based game in which the antagonist ( Ra.One ) is more powerful than the protagonist ( G.One ) . The former escapes from the game 's virtual world and enters the real world ; his aim is to kill Lucifer , the game ID of Shekhar 's son and the only player to have challenged Ra.One 's power . Relentlessly pursued , the family is forced to bring out G.One from the virtual world to defeat Ra.One and protect them .
Principal photography began in March 2010 and took place in India and the United Kingdom , and was overseen by an international crew . The post @-@ production involved 3 @-@ D conversion and the application of visual effects , the latter being recognised as a technological breakthrough among Indian films . With a budget of ₹ 150 crore ( US $ 22 million ) , inclusive of publicity costs , Ra.One was one of the most expensive Indian films at the time of release . The producers spent ₹ 150 crore ( US $ 22 million ) out of a ₹ 52 crore ( US $ 7 @.@ 7 million ) marketing budget , which involved a nine @-@ month publicity campaign , brand tie @-@ ups , merchandise , video games and viral marketing .
Ra.One was initially scheduled to release on 3 June 2011 , but delays due to a lengthy post @-@ production process and escalating costs pushed back the release date . The film also faced controversies involving plagiarism , content leaks and copyright challenges . Consequently , Ra.One was theatrically released on 26 October 2011 , the beginning of the five @-@ day Diwali weekend , in 2D , 3D and dubbed versions , with three international premieres being held between October 24 & 26 , 2011 . The film witnessed the largest international theatrical release for an Indian film as of 2011 , and was preceded by high audience and commercial expectations .
Upon release , Ra.One received mixed reviews , with critics praising the visuals and music , but criticising the script and direction . Commercially , the film became the third highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of 2011 domestically , the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of 2011 worldwide , and broke a number of opening box office records , though it failed to sustain at the box office after its extended opening weekend . Although the film earned more than Rs 170 crores it was still not considered as a hit film as the distributors failed to recover their investment . The film subsequently won a number of awards for its technical aspects , notably one National Film Award , one Filmfare Award and four International Indian Film Academy Awards .
= = Plot = =
Shekhar Subramanium ( Shah Rukh Khan ) , a game designer who works for the London @-@ based Barron Industries , has delivered a number of commercial failures ; an irate Barron ( Dalip Tahil ) gives him his last chance to develop a successful game . To impress his sceptical son Prateek ( Armaan Verma ) , and upon the request of his wife Sonia ( Kareena Kapoor ) , Shekhar uses his son 's idea that the antagonist should be more powerful than the protagonist . His colleague , computer programmer Jenny ( Shahana Goswami ) , uses Shekhar 's face as a model for that of the game 's protagonist G.One ( Shah Rukh Khan ) ( Technically Good One and in Hindi Jeevan , which means life ) , while the shape @-@ shifting antagonist Ra.One ( Technically Random Access Version One and in Hindi Ravan , a mythical demon ) is made faceless . Another colleague , Akashi ( Tom Wu ) , implements the characters ' movements . The game , named Ra.One , contains three levels , the final level being the only one in which either character can be killed . Each character possesses a special device – the H.A.R.T ( Hertz Amplifying Resonance Transmitter ) which gives them their powers . Upon reaching the last level , the characters gain a gun with one bullet ; the other character can be killed by this bullet but only if his H.A.R.T is attached .
When Ra.One undergoes final tests , Akashi notices unusual glitches but chooses to ignore them . When the game is officially launched , it receives a standing ovation from the audience ; an enamored Prateek insists on playing it immediately . He logs in under the ID Lucifer and proceeds to the second level , but is interrupted by Akashi . Ra.One , unable to end his turn with Lucifer and angry that a player has proceeded so far , becomes determined that Lucifer will die . He uses a wireless technology ( which Jenny had introduced in a conference ) to enter the real world , a process which causes the mainframe to malfunction . Akashi informs Shekhar , who partially understands the situation and rushes home , fearing for his son 's life . Meanwhile , Ra.One murders Akashi and assumes his appearance ; he goes to find Lucifer , and meets Shekhar in the process . In an attempt to save his son , Shekhar claims that he is Lucifer , but his lie is exposed when Ra.One scans his identity card . Consequently , Ra.One kills Shekhar and makes it look like a car accident .
Sonia , devastated after Shekhar 's death , tells Prateek that the family will return to India after Shekhar 's funeral . A suspicious Prateek notices digital patterns on the fateful road and realises that Ra.One has come to life . He convinces Jenny of the same when they see the destroyed game laboratory , and the latter tries to bring G.One into the real world . Meanwhile , Ra.One , having taken the form of Akashi , chases the family on their way to the airport , but G.One enters the real world and causes a gas explosion which temporarily destroys Ra.One. G.One takes Ra.One 's H.A.R.T. and accompanies the family to Mumbai after Sonia realises that she needs him .
Subsequently , Ra.One returns to life , takes the form of a billboard model ( Arjun Rampal ) , and tracks down G.One to Prateek 's birthday party . Hypnotising Sonia , he assumes her form to kidnap Prateek . Ra.One then instructs G.One to give him his H.A.R.T. back , and sends the real Sonia in a malfunctioning local train . The train crashes into the Chatrapati Shivaji Terminus , but G.One saves Sonia in time . To save Prateek , he returns to the virtual world and fights Ra.One ; both reach the third level , the former left with little power . G.One tricks Ra.One into shooting him without his H.A.R.T. attached , leaving Ra.One helpless ; furious , the latter creates ten copies of himself . Prateek , unable to identify the real Ra.One , asks G.One to quote Shekhar : " If you join the forces of evil , its shadows shall always follow you " . The duo realise that only one of the ten Ra.Ones has a shadow : the original one . G.One shoots and destroys him , absorbs Ra.One 's remains and disappears .
Six months later , Prateek and Sonia return to London , where the former manages to restore G.One to the real world .
= = Cast = =
The major characters of Ra.One were played by protagonists Shahrukh Khan and Kareena Kapoor , and primary antagonist Arjun Rampal . Supporting roles were played by Tom Wu , Shahana Goswami and child artist Armaan Verma . The film featured cameo appearances by Rajinikanth playing the Enthiran character Chitti , Sanjay Dutt and Priyanka Chopra , the latter two being characters in a dream sequence . Additional minor roles were played by Dalip Tahil and Satish Shah , and an important voice @-@ over was provided by Amitabh Bachchan . Khan performed both as Shekhar and G.One. The titular character Ra.One was enacted by three actors – Rampal , Wu and Kapoor , signifying the character 's shape @-@ shifting ability .
Khan was the first actor to be cast in the film . Three actors had initially been considered for the lead female role ; Kapoor was ultimately chosen because she insisted on playing the part . Rampal accepted the role of Ra.One after Sinha expressed a strong desire to cast him in the film . Wu was contracted to the film in July 2010 , and Goswami was cast one month later . Bachchan agreed to be a part of the film after being requested by Khan and Sinha . Several cast members prepared extensively for their roles ; Rampal and Kapoor followed special diets to lose weight , and Verma learnt capoeira . Khan and Verma performed their own stunts , and Kapoor subsequently did so as well despite initial reluctance .
However , the cast did encounter problems during production . Khan faced difficulties with his superhero suit and prosthetic makeup , and injured his left knee . The decision to cast Rampal was met with scepticism due to " questionable acting abilities , " a statement Sinha criticised . In addition , Rampal encountered back problems ( which were treated by the time production began ) , prompting speculation of a possible replacement by Vivek Oberoi . Jackie Chan had initially been approached for the role of Akashi , but he declined the offer . Rajnikanth suffered from health problems which caused a delay in the filming of his cameo appearance . Dutt faced a scheduling conflict with Agneepath ( 2012 ) , which was later resolved .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
According to director Anubhav Sinha , the idea of Ra.One originated when he saw an advertisement on television which showed children remotely controlling a human . He was attracted to the concept and wrote a script based on it . Sinha then approached Khan , who liked the story and decided to produce the film under his production company Red Chillies Entertainment . Sinha was apprehensive of retaining Khan 's support after the former 's previous film Cash ( 2007 ) became a commercial failure , but Khan reportedly " remained unchanged " .
Shahrukh Khan felt that the film possessed significant commercial potential , in addition to being a fulfilment of his " childhood dream " to be a superhero and to fly . He stated that he wanted to " make a film that gives me the right to deserve the iconic status that I 've got for 20 years . " He also said that he wanted to make a film dedicated to father @-@ son relationships , which were , in his opinion , " neglected " in Bollywood . Khan 's idea was to make a simple family drama which expanded into an action film . He declined to make the film in English to increase its appeal for Western audiences , feeling that " cracking Hollywood on their terms " was unnecessary . Both Khan and Sinha credited their children for providing encouragement , and regularly " approving " the film 's execution .
Red Chillies Entertainment continued to work on other projects before finalising the production aspects of Ra.One. After providing the visual effects for My Name Is Khan ( 2010 ) , the studio focused solely on Ra.One and did not take up any other films . Khan initially approached a number of directors to helm the film , including Aditya Chopra and Karan Johar , but they declined ; eventually , Sinha was made the film 's director . To prepare the film 's premises and characterisation , Sinha spent several months viewing video clips , digital art portals and comic books . Sinha and Khan also watched around 200 superhero films from all over the world . The storyboards were designed by Atul Chouthmal , who was contracted after he met Khan at Yash Raj Studios . While the former began work on the storyboards , the producers hired a storyboard artist from Hollywood . Chouthmal revealed that Khan and the other artist differed on their visions of the film , and so he was brought back . Before filming , Khan reportedly took tips from actor Kamal Hassan regarding the production of large @-@ scale films , having been impressed by Hassan 's Dasavathaaram ( 2008 ) .
The title of the film received significant media attention due to it being the name of the antagonist rather than the protagonist . The move was considered innovative , and noted as a sign of the " rising importance of the villain in Bollywood . " According to Sinha , the title had not been planned as such , and was ultimately chosen because Ra.One " sounded cooler " than G.One. Khan was advised to name the film after his own character ; he declined to do so , citing the inter @-@ dependence between good and evil . He also called Alfred Hitchcock as his inspiration , and pointed out that the antagonists in films like Sholay , Mr. India and Sadak were better remembered than the protagonists .
= = = Principal photography = = =
The crew of Ra.One featured both Indian and overseas personnel . Nicola Pecorini served as the director of photography , with V. Manikandan providing assistance . Andy Gill and Spiro Razatos were hired as the stunt supervisors , and Nino Pansini was hired as the stunt cinematographer . Sabu Cyril and Marcus Wookey were responsible for the production design . The film 's producer was Bobby Chawla , but Gauri Khan later stepped in after the former suffered a brain haemorrhage . Filming took place at a number of studios , notably Filmistan Studios , Film City and Yash Raj Studios in India and the Black Hangar Studios in the UK .
Principal photography was initially set to begin in Miami , but the idea was abandoned due to budget constraints . The first phase of filming began in Goa on 21 March 2010 and continued until May . The second and third phases took place in London with the entire cast , beginning in July 2010 and ending in August . The next phase was split into two schedules ; the first schedule commenced at Filmistan Studios in the first week of September 2010 , while the second schedule began in December 2010 and took place over a seven @-@ day period . The remaining portions were filmed in July 2011 at Film City . A cameo appearance and a music video were filmed in the weeks leading up to the release , the former at the Whistling Woods Studios in Mumbai .
Ra.One featured three major action sequences , which were filmed in sets and real locations across Mumbai and London . The cinematography borrowed ideas from video games , such as rapid transitions between first @-@ person and third @-@ person perspectives . Procedures such as bullet time were also incorporated into the film . The production design was closely associated with the lighting and cinematography to facilitate smooth filming . However , filming faced a number of difficulties including increasing costs , delays and safety constraints . In addition , differences between Khan and Sinha caused tensions on the sets .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
As with the filming crew , the post @-@ production crew of the film included both Indian and overseas personnel . Prime Focus carried out the film 's 3 @-@ D conversion , with London @-@ based colorist Richard Fearon performing the color grading . Red Chillies VFX partnered with a number of visual effects studios around the world , and undertook the incorporation of the visual effects under the supervision of Jeffrey Kleiser . Nvidia provided the information technology – based software utilised for the effects , while Edwark Quirk supervised over the computer @-@ generated imagery used in the film . Resul Pookutty was responsible for the film 's sound design .
The idea for converting the film to 3 @-@ D was put forth during filming , and was implemented in July 2011 due to a revived interest in 3 @-@ D films . The process required 2 @,@ 600 artists to convert 4 @,@ 400 shots of the film . The sound design involved bridging the real and the virtual world , and the required sound enhancements were achieved by using the Dolby Surround 7 @.@ 1 system . Incorporating the visual effects began in April 2010 , and was preceded by extensive research . 1 @,@ 200 artists worked for 2 ½ years to complete the visual effects work . A number of complex procedures were executed , including cubical transformations and the design of the faceless form of Ra.One.
Despite precautions , the post @-@ production faced significant delays owing to the digital inter @-@ mediation , increased work @-@ load due to the 3 @-@ D and dubbed versions of the film , and delays in the completion of the visual effects . The post @-@ production also faced budget constraints and witnessed an overuse of CGI according to the cinematographer . The delays left only two days for printing the film and sending it to theatres , generating significant anxiety over a possible delay in the release . Khan subsequently kept strict tabs on the progress of work , and postponed his knee surgery to complete the film on time .
= = = Costumes = = =
The body suits worn by Khan and Rampal were designed by Robert Kurtzman and Tim Flattery , and made by a team of specialists based in Los Angeles . Sinha spent around three months conceptualising the costumes , watching various superhero films to design a costume not created already . He then wrote a 23 @-@ page document with his sketches and details of what he wanted , and gave it to the designers to work upon . To create the suit , Khan was required to enter a small chamber where a warm latex @-@ like liquid was released up to his neck and allowed to solidify , forming the mould which was then peeled off his body . The suit was joined by a concealed zipper and subsequently modified . Computer @-@ generated embellishments such as light beams and electricity were added to the suits after Khan expressed dissatisfaction with the initial rushes of the film . A total of 21 costumes were made for the film , with each suit reportedly costing ₹ 10 million ( US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) .
Khan 's suit was made of reinforced latex , coloured steel @-@ blue and fitted with micro @-@ computer circuitry . Rampal 's suit was made of three @-@ inch thick solid rubber , and was red in color . Both actors were required to wear additional suits inside their body suits to prevent skin contact . Wearing the suits created a number of difficulties for the actors . It took 20 minutes to put on the suits and 40 minutes to remove them . In addition , the non @-@ porous nature of the suits created intense heat inside , causing excessive perspiration despite the presence of special air conditioning ducts . Khan later felt that the suits ' conception had been a mistake since filming occurred during the day ; digital adjustments to the suits brought " all the efforts to naught . "
Manish Malhotra designed the look and the costume of Kareena Kapoor for the song " Chammak Challo " , which received widespread media coverage . Kapoor wore a red sari draped in the style of a dhoti . Since the release of the song , the costume was termed a " fashion rage , " becoming popular in India and some overseas countries . Fashion experts applauded the costume and Kapoor 's ability to carry it off " stunningly , " though certain experts dismissed the naming of the sari color .
= = Music = =
The soundtrack of Ra.One was composed by Vishal @-@ Shekhar , with the lyrics being written by Atahar Panchi , Vishal Dadlani and Kumaar . A. R. Rahman provided the background score for a single sequence . Sinha announced that R & B singer Akon and the Prague Philharmonic Orchestra would be a part of the soundtrack ; the former lent his vocals for " Chammak Challo " and " Criminal " , while the latter performed in " Bhare Naina " . The composers obtained the official license to use Ben E. King 's " Stand By Me , " on which they based the song " Dildaara . " The soundtrack contains fifteen tracks , including seven original songs , four remixes , three instrumentals and an international version of " Chammak Challo " . The music rights were bought by T @-@ Series for ₹ 150 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) . The Hindi version of the soundtrack was released on 12 September 2011 ; the Tamil and Telugu versions were released on 10 October 2011 , featuring six tracks each .
= = Release = =
= = = Statistics = = =
In India , the Hindi version of Ra.One was released across more than 4 @,@ 000 plus screens worldwide- 3 @,@ 100 screens in 2 @,@ 100 theatres , breaking the record for the widest Bollywood release previously held by Bodyguard ( 2011 ) . The Tamil and Telugu versions were released on 275 prints and 125 prints respectively . A week before the release , multiplex owners throughout India decided to allot 95 % of the total available screen space to the film . Overseas , Ra.One was released in 904 prints . This including 600 prints in Germany , 344 prints in the USA , 200 – 300 prints in South Korea , 202 prints in the UK , 79 prints in the Middle East , 75 prints in Russia , 51 prints in Australia , 49 prints in Canada and 25 prints in New Zealand and Taiwan . In early October 2011 , a partnership deal was being finalised by the distributors to allow the film to be released in China across 1 @,@ 000 prints . In addition , the film was released in Pakistan and non @-@ traditional territories like Brazil , Spain , Italy , Greece and Hong Kong . The 3D version was released in 550 screens across the world . Ra.One was noted for the extensive use of digital prints , reportedly making up 50 – 60 % of the total release ; in India , the film was exhibited in over 1 @,@ 300 digital theatres , breaking the record previously held by Bodyguard . The wide digital release was implemented to lower distribution costs , make the film accessible to a wider audience and reduce piracy . However , despite the measures taken , pirated versions of Ra.One were available on the Internet within hours of the film 's release .
= = = Marketing = = =
The producers of Ra.One spent ₹ 100 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) out of a ₹ 520 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 7 million ) marketing budget , ₹ 150 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) of this was utilised for internet promotions alone . The film 's first theatrical poster was released in December 2010 , and was followed by the release of two teaser trailers during the 2011 ICC Cricket World Cup . The first theatrical trailer premiered three months later . Khan and Sinha undertook a multi @-@ city tour during which they unveiled a 3 @,@ 600 feet @-@ long piece of fan mail to collect audience messages . The official website of Ra.One was launched on 31 May 2011 , and an official YouTube channel for the film was subsequently unveiled . On 20 October 2011 , Khan held a live chat with fans on Google Plus , the first time an Indian film personality had done so . Rampal 's look in the film , which had been kept secret , was revealed in late October 2011 .
The film 's marketing utilised merchandise and games to facilitate the creation of a franchise . Khan marketed merchandise related to the film , which included toys , tablets and apparel . On 14 October 2011 , a gaming tournament featuring games like Call of Duty was conducted in Mumbai and telecast live on YouTube . Red Chillies Entertainment partnered with Sony Computer Entertainment Europe to create " Ra.One – The Game , " a game for PlayStations which was released on 5 October 2011 . The producers further collaborated with UTV Indiagames to design a social game titled Ra.One Genesis , with an independent plot based on G.One , in addition to designing digital comics based on the film 's characters .
= = = Screenings = = =
In May 2011 , the first rushes of Ra.One were shown to the cast of Khan 's other home production Always Kabhi Kabhi ( 2011 ) . Subsequently , the film was screened for test audiences to study and gauge the film 's appeal across different age groups . A few days prior to the theatrical release , Khan arranged a special screening of the film 's final cut in Yash Raj Studios , where he invited close friends , his family and the film 's crew . Between 24 and 26 October 2011 , Ra.One had international premieres in Dubai , London and Toronto , all of which were chosen due to their international significance and large South Asian populations . The premiere in Dubai was held on 24 October 2011 at the Grand Cinemas , Wafi . A high @-@ profile dinner and charity auction followed , where Khan raised AED30,000 ( approximately US $ 8 @,@ 200 ) to build a workshop for children with special needs . The premiere included three simultaneous screenings of the film , for which tickets were placed on sale for the public . The premiere in London took place at the O2 Cineworld the following day , and the premiere in Toronto took place at the TIFF Bell Lightbox on 26 October 2011 .
Ra.One was submitted to the Central Board of Film Certification on 14 October 2011 to receive its viewership rating . The Board raised strong objections to the film 's action scenes , fearing that they would influence young children to emulate the stunts . The police and the Indian Railways security force had made similar objections to the train @-@ based stunts in the film , claiming that youngsters would " blindly imitate them " and hence put their lives at risk . The film was finally passed with a ' U ' certificate without cuts , but under the condition that prominent disclaimers were shown , stating that the stunts were computer @-@ generated and should not be imitated . The British Board of Film Classification rated the film 12A for " moderate fantasy violence " . In March 2012 , a Mid @-@ Day report alleged that Ra.One had received a favourable rating , pointing out that the producers had violated the rules by meeting the Board officials during the screening .
= = = Plagiarism allegations = = =
The film faced allegations of plagiarism with similarities to Terminator 2 : Judgment Day ( 1991 ) , the Batman series , Iron Man ( 2008 ) , The Sorcerer 's Apprentice ( 2010 ) and Tron : Legacy ( 2010 ) . Khan denied the allegations , saying , " I got inspired from a lot of superhero movies but the movie is original . In fact , Ra.One will be the first superhero @-@ based movie in the world in which the superhero lives in a family . "
A few days before the release , screenwriter Yash Patnaik claimed that Ra.One resembled a concept that he had developed several years before . Patnaik appealed to the Bombay High Court to delay the film 's release , until he was given due credit or 10 % of the film 's overall profit . The court , observing prima facie evidence that there had been copyright violations , asked the filmmakers to deposit ₹ 10 million ( US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) with the court on 21 October 2011 before releasing the film . However , Patnaik challenged the court 's decision and demanded that the producers give him credit and not cash . Sinha later claimed that he alone had developed the film 's story .
= = = Hacking = = =
Ra.One also faced cybertheft and hacking issues . On 3 June 2011 , three days after its launch , the official website of the film was hacked by suspected Pakistani cyber criminals who stated that the act was in revenge for a similar attack on a Karachi press club website . The hackers defaced the homepage and left a note threatening the Indian Press Club . Despite precautions , the song " Chammak Challo " was leaked several months before the official release of the soundtrack . Khan clarified that the leaked song was a " rough version " of the actual song , and that the person responsible for the leak was being looked for . He subsequently refuted claims that the leak had been engineered as a publicity stunt .
= = = Television and home media = = =
The television broadcasting rights for Ra.One were bought by Star India for a then @-@ record sum of ₹ 350 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) , surpassing 3 Idiots ( 2009 ) . The Indian television premiere of Ra.One took place on 21 January 2012 on STAR Gold , garnering a 28 % market sharefor the channel and a TVR of 6 @.@ 7 . Star India subsequently syndicated the television screening rights to Disney XD , where it premiered on 2 June 2012 . In May 2012 , International Media Distribution announced that Ra.One would be televised on Comcast and Cox , as a part of the celebrations of the Asian Pacific American Heritage Month . Discovery Channel tied up with Red Chillies Entertainment to produce a one @-@ hour program titled " Revealed : The Making of Ra.One , " which aired on the channel on 30 March 2012 . The program discussed the making of the film in detail , including the visual effects and the challenges faced while filming .
Eros International released the DVD of Ra.One on 13 December 2011 across all regions in one @-@ disc and two @-@ disc packs complying with the NTSC format . The DVD of the film contained alternate endings . Initially , Khan had wanted to add alternate endings to the theatrical release itself , but later deemed it risky . The DVD version was made interactive as well . VCD and Blu @-@ Ray versions of the film were also released .
= = Reception = =
Upon release , Ra.One received mixed reviews from critics in India and generally positive reviews overseas . Review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 69 % of 16 critics gave Ra.One a positive review , with an average critic rating of 5 @.@ 6 / 10 , granting the film a " Fresh " consensus . On Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean from film reviews , Ra.One holds a rating of 60 % based on eight reviews , signifying " mixed or average reviews . "
Positive reviews described the film as an ambitious initiative and a technological success , with some critics thinking that Ra.One had put Indian films on par with Hollywood . The visual effects received near @-@ universal praise , though dissenting opinions stated that they were " all over the place " . The action sequences were also widely praised . Other aspects of the film received more polarising opinions , and one very positive review was criticised for " over @-@ rating " the film . Mixed views were opined regarding the plot 's gaming concept , with some critics deeming it " far @-@ fetched " and others lauding the " gaming @-@ style aesthetics " . Similarly , some critics called the emotional scenes " fulfilling " while others felt them to be " lacking in connect with the audience " .
The story was negatively received by several critics , with a number of them deeming it to be disappointing and lacking in originality ; one critic praised the original idea but criticised its " Bollywoodization " . The direction was criticised in a number of reviews , though a few critics praised Sinha 's pacing of the film and the execution of the action sequences . Some critics pointed to the presence of scenes which were not child @-@ friendly , despite Ra.One being promoted as a children 's film . Particular reviews criticised the lack of character development and the film 's " incoherently hackneyed morality " . A few critics panned the film as a whole , describing it as a " mess " ; one review commented , " It 's convenient to say that if you have no expectations from the film , you wouldn 't be disappointed . "
After its release , Ra.One received numerous nominations and awards in India and abroad , a majority of them for its technical aspects . The film notably won the National Film Award and the Filmfare Award for Best Special Effects , and four International Indian Film Academy Awards . The film also received several business awards for its marketing and distribution . On the other hand , the film received negative ( " dishonorable " ) awards as well . Ra.One won the titles of Worst Film and Worst Director at the Golden Kela Awards , and also won the Worst Film award at the Ghanta Awards .
= = Economics = =
= = = Pre @-@ release = = =
The budget of Ra.One was the subject of significant speculation prior to its release . A number of estimates placed the budget between ₹ 1 @.@ 4 billion ( US $ 21 million ) and ₹ 2 billion ( US $ 30 million ) . It was universally accepted that the film was the most expensive Bollywood film of all time , with certain sources stating that the film was the most expensive Indian film ever . The original budget was revealed to be ₹ 1 @.@ 30 billion ( US $ 19 million ) after promotional expenses . Khan stated that he had " worked very hard " to finance the film without borrowing money , and reportedly hosted a television show just to finance the film . Ra.One earned ₹ 1 @.@ 32 billion ( US $ 20 million ) from pre @-@ release revenue sources , setting a new record for Bollywood films .
The extensive marketing campaign greatly increased audience expectations of the film . Ra.One set records for the level of pre @-@ release buzz for a Bollywood film , and also topped a number of polls gauging the most awaited Bollywood films of the year . Anticipation for the film was equally high among the trade analysts , with some commenting that the film would pass the ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) mark in one week and the ₹ 3 billion ( US $ 45 million ) mark in over three weeks . Advance bookings commenced on 20 October 2011 on a limited scale , and expanded later . While initial ticket sales were low , they picked up considerably near the release date . A few days prior to the release , the advance booking was described as " phenomenal , " with an overall advance booking rate of 20 – 25 % across the country . A number of advantages of the film 's release were pointed out , such as the festive season and higher 3D ticket prices , though there had been doubt regarding the timely release of the 3D version .
= = = Box office = = =
In India , Ra.One debuted at the beginning of the five @-@ day Diwali weekend , and subsequently broke the Diwali opening day record . The film then set the records for the biggest single @-@ day net revenue and the biggest three @-@ day opening weekend earned by a Bollywood film , breaking the previous records held by Bodyguard .
Subsequently , the film began to suffer significant drops in its collections , with its five @-@ day extended weekend and nine @-@ day extended week coming second to the records of Bodyguard . The film faced an 84 percent drop in collections in its second week and fell a further 90 percent in its third week , the latter primarily due to the release of Rockstar . The dubbed versions showed similar trends . The Tamil and Telugu versions together earned around ₹ 50 million ( US $ 740 @,@ 000 ) nett .
In overseas markets , Ra.One earned the highest three @-@ day and five @-@ day opening weekends among the Bollywood releases of 2011 ; by its second weekend , the film had become the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of 2011 in overseas markets , but the collections suffered drops throughout . In general , families and children formed the major portion of the film 's audience , and the 3D version is regarded as a success .
= = Possible sequel = =
Reports of a planned sequel of Ra.One began surfacing prior to the film 's release , though the extent of real progress on the sequel is unknown . Both Khan and Sinha admitted to formulating plans for a sequel , though the former noted that it would be " presumptuous " to start the sequel before the first film 's release . Khan later refuted the speculations , saying that a sequel was unlikely due to his other commitments . After Ra.One won a National Award , an " overjoyed " Khan said that the film 's world could be further explored . He stated that the sequel , if made , would be titled G.One and not Ra.Two , and that he would make it " faster , bigger and better " than Ra.One. Khan was reported to be looking for a script , without a fixed release date . In April 2012 , Mushtaq Sheikh said that the pre @-@ production of the sequel had begun . A number of reports stated that Kareena Kapoor would not be a part of the sequel .
Despite Khan 's enthusiasm for the idea of a sequel , the film industry expressed mixed opinions regarding it . Filmmaker Rajkumar Gupta commented , " It would be challenging to take forward a story that has not worked earlier . " Producer Ramesh Taurani responded negatively to the idea , saying , " It is important for the film to be appreciated so that a sequel can be made . " Trade analyst Atul Mohan called the sequel " a bad idea . " Conversely , others were supportive of the sequel . Producer Goldie Behl brushed aside arguments about the success of the first film , saying , " If the people think that they can earn some more , then it doesn 't matter how big or small the hit was . " Director Kunal Kohli also reacted positively , saying , " Certain ideas naturally lend themselves to sequels . So why not use that investment of your time and effort to make a sequel that will take the brand further ? "
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= Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell =
Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell is the 2004 debut novel of British writer Susanna Clarke . An alternative history set in 19th @-@ century England around the time of the Napoleonic Wars , it is based on the premise that magic once existed in England and has returned with two men : Gilbert Norrell and Jonathan Strange . Centred on the relationship between these two men , the novel investigates the nature of " Englishness " and the boundaries between reason and unreason , Anglo @-@ Saxon and Anglo @-@ Dane , and Northern and Southern English cultural tropes / stereotypes . It has been described as a fantasy novel , an alternative history , and a historical novel . It inverts the Industrial Revolution conception of the North @-@ South divide in England : in this book the North is romantic and magical , rather than rational and concrete . It can be usefully compared and contrasted with Elizabeth Gaskell 's attempts at synthesising a unitary English identity in her fiction .
The narrative draws on various Romantic literary traditions , such as the comedy of manners , the Gothic tale , and the Byronic hero . The novel 's language is a pastiche of 19th @-@ century writing styles , such as those of Jane Austen and Charles Dickens . Clarke describes the supernatural with mundane details . She supplements the text with almost 200 footnotes , outlining the backstory and an entire fictional corpus of magical scholarship .
Clarke began writing Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell in 1992 ; ten years later she submitted the manuscript for publication . It was accepted by Bloomsbury and published in September 2004 , with illustrations by Portia Rosenberg . Bloomsbury were so sure of its success that they printed 250 @,@ 000 hardcover copies . The novel was well received by critics and reached number three on the New York Times best @-@ seller list . It was longlisted for the 2004 Man Booker Prize and won the 2005 Hugo Award for Best Novel .
= = Plot summary = =
= = = Volume I : Mr Norrell = = =
The novel opens in autumn 1806 in northern England with The Learned Society of York Magicians , made up of " theoretical magicians " , who believe that magic died out several hundred years earlier . The group is stunned to learn of a " practising magician " , Mr Gilbert Norrell , who owns a large collection of " books of magic " , which he has spent years purchasing to keep them out of the hands of others . Norrell proves his skill as a practical magician by making the statues in York Cathedral speak . John Childermass , Mr Norrell 's long @-@ time servant , convinces a member of the group , John Segundus , to write about the event for the London newspapers .
Segundus 's article generates considerable interest in Mr Norrell , who moves to London to revive practical English magic . He enters society with the help of two gentlemen about town and meets a Cabinet Minister , Sir Walter Pole . To ingratiate himself , Mr Norrell attempts to recall Sir Walter 's fiancée , Emma Wintertowne , from the dead . He summons a fairy — " the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair " — who strikes a bargain with Mr Norrell to restore Emma : half of her life will be spent with the fairy . After news spreads of Emma 's resurrection and happy marriage to Sir Walter , magic becomes respectable ; and Mr Norrell performs various feats to aid the government in their ongoing war against Napoleon .
While living in London , Mr Norrell encounters Vinculus , a street @-@ magician , who relates a prophecy about a nameless slave and two magicians in England , but Norrell dismisses it . While travelling , Vinculus later meets Jonathan Strange , a young gentleman of property from Shropshire , and recites the same prophecy , prompting Strange to become a magician . Meanwhile , the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair takes a liking to Stephen Black , Sir Walter 's capable black butler , and promises to make him a king . Emma ( now Lady Pole ) lapses into lassitude . She rarely speaks , and her attempts to communicate her situation are confounded by magic . No doctor can cure her , and Mr Norrell claims that her problems cannot be solved by magic . Without the knowledge of the other characters , each evening she and Stephen are forced to attend balls held by the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair in the Faerie kingdom of Lost @-@ Hope , where they dance all night long .
= = = Volume II : Jonathan Strange = = =
Volume II opens in Summer 1809 with Strange learning of Mr Norrell and travelling to London to meet him . They immediately clash over the importance of John Uskglass ( the legendary Raven King ) to English magic . Strange argues that " without the Raven King there would be no magic and no magicians " while Norrell retorts that the Raven King made war upon England and should be forgotten . Despite their differing opinions and temperaments , Strange becomes Norrell 's pupil . Norrell , however , deliberately keeps some knowledge from Strange .
Lady Pole and Strange 's wife , Arabella , become friends ; several times Lady Pole attempts to tell Arabella about her forced nights of dancing at the fairy 's castle in Lost @-@ Hope , but each time she tells an unrelated story . Arabella also meets the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair at the Poles ' , but she assumes he is simply a resident . Without her husband 's knowledge , the fairy plots to enchant her , although Stephen Black continually attempts to dissuade him .
The Stranges become a popular couple in London . The Cabinet ministers find Strange easier to deal with than Norrell , and they send him to assist the Duke of Wellington on his Peninsular Campaign . For over a year , Strange helps the army : he creates roads , moves towns , and makes dead men speak . After he returns , he fails to cure George III 's madness , although Strange manages to save the king from becoming enchanted by the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair , who is determined to make Stephen a king . Strange then helps defeat Napoleon at the horrific Battle of Waterloo .
Frustrated with being Norrell 's pupil , Strange pens a scathing review of a book outlining Norrell 's theories on modern magic ; in particular , Strange challenges Norrell 's views of the Raven King . The English public splits into " Norrellites " and " Strangites " ; Norrell and Strange part company , although not without regret . Strange returns home and works on his own book , The History and Practice of English Magic . Arabella goes missing , then suddenly reappears , sick and weak . Three days later she dies .
= = = Volume III : John Uskglass = = =
Volume III opens in January 1816 with Childermass experiencing strong magic that is not produced by either Norrell or Strange . At the same time , Lady Pole attempts to shoot Mr Norrell as he is returning home . Childermass takes the bullet himself but is not killed . Afterwards , Lady Pole is cared for in the country by John Segundus , who has an inkling of the magic surrounding her . During travels in the north , Stephen meets Vinculus , who recites his prophecy : " the nameless slave shall be a king in a strange country ... " Stephen believes it applies to him , but the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair argues that it applies to the Raven King .
Strange settles in Venice and meets Flora Greysteel . They become fond of each other and Strange 's friends believe he may marry again . However , after experimenting with dangerous magic that threatens his sanity to gain access to Faerie , he discovers that Arabella is alive and being held captive . Immediately after he discovers this , the gentleman with the thistledown hair curses him with Eternal Night , an eerie darkness that engulfs him and follows him wherever he goes . Thereafter , Strange 's strenuous efforts to rescue her take their toll , and his letters to friends begin to appear crazed . At Strange 's request , Flora moves with her family to Padua and secludes herself inside her home , along with a mirror given to her by Strange . Drawlight is sent by Lascelles and Norrell to Venice to only enquire about Strange but is brought before him by Strange 's magic . Strange instructs Drawlight with several tasks and re @-@ invokes the old alliances within England between the forces of nature and John Uskglass . In England , this reawakening sparks a magical renaissance , but Norrell fails to grasp its significance . Strange returns and gives Childermass instructions which allow him to free Lady Pole from the fairy 's enchantment . Strange , bringing " Eternal Night " with him , asks Norrell to help him undo Arabella 's enchantment by summoning John Uskglass .
Childermass meanwhile indirectly receives the message meant for him by Strange and uses it to break the enchantment over Lady Pole . Enraged by this the gentleman with the thistledown hair first murders Vinculus forcing Stephen Black to watch . Then after begins to place a second curse upon Lady Pole that would lead to her imminent death for cheating him of his prize . In parallel , Norrell and Strange attempt a spell intended to pay homage from the forces of England to John Uskglass . Their same belief as the gentleman with the thistledown hair that the ' nameless slave ' applies to Uskglass ends up in them devoting their power to Stephen who uses his momentary control of England to destroy the man with the thistledown hair . Amongst the confusion , Stephen leaves down one of the newly opened Faerie roads , and becomes the new king of the now blossoming Lost @-@ Hope .
Between the death of Vinculus and the gentleman with the thistledown hair , Childermass notes that tattooed upon Vinculus 's body is the last works of John Uskglass . As he tries to preserve the tattoos in memory , a man appears . Between calling Childermass his servant ( leading him to believe it is Norrell in disguise ) and trivially performing other feats of great magic , the unknown man brings Vinculus back to life .
As a result of the imprecision of the fairy 's curse , which was placed on " the English magician , " Norrell is trapped along with Strange in the " Eternal Night , " and they cannot move more than a certain distance from each other . Upon the gentleman with the thistledown hair 's death , Arabella comes through the mirror in Venice , where Flora is waiting for her upon instruction of Strange . The penultimate scene is of the now infamous Childermass releasing the contract upon The Learned Society of York Magicians , telling them they can study magic again , and showing the now restored Vinculus as proof that one last book remains , tattooed upon his body . Two months later , Strange has a conversation with the now stronger Arabella still living in Venice , explaining that he and Norrell are working to undo the eternal darkness they are both trapped in , but are planning to adventure into other worlds . Neither wish to take her to Faerie again , so he instead promises to return to her when he dis @-@ spells the darkness and tells her not to be a widow till then , which she agrees to .
= = Composition and publication = =
Clarke first developed the idea for Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell during a year spent teaching English in Bilbao , Spain : " I had a kind of waking dream ... about a man in 18th @-@ century clothes in a place rather like Venice , talking to some English tourists . And I felt strongly that he had some sort of magical background – he 'd been dabbling in magic , and something had gone badly wrong . " She had also recently re @-@ read J. R. R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings and afterwards was inspired to " trying writing a novel of magic and fantasy " .
After she returned from Spain in 1993 , Clarke began to think seriously about writing her novel . She signed up for a five @-@ day fantasy and science @-@ fiction writing workshop , co @-@ taught by writers Colin Greenland and Geoff Ryman . The students were expected to prepare a short story before attending , but Clarke only had " bundles " of material for her novel . From this she extracted " The Ladies of Grace Adieu " , a story about three women secretly practising magic who are discovered by the famous Jonathan Strange . Greenland was so impressed with the story that , without Clarke 's knowledge , he sent an excerpt to his friend , the fantasy writer Neil Gaiman . Gaiman later said , " It was terrifying from my point of view to read this first short story that had so much assurance ... It was like watching someone sit down to play the piano for the first time and she plays a sonata . " Gaiman showed the story to his friend , science @-@ fiction writer and editor Patrick Nielsen Hayden . Clarke learned of these events when Nielsen Hayden called and offered to publish her story in his anthology Starlight 1 , which featured pieces by well @-@ regarded science @-@ fiction and fantasy writers . She accepted , and the book won the World Fantasy Award for best anthology in 1997 .
Clarke spent the next ten years working on the novel in her spare time , while editing cookbooks full @-@ time for Simon & Schuster in Cambridge . She also published stories in Starlight 2 and Starlight 3 ; according to the New York Times Magazine , her work was known and appreciated by a small group of fantasy fans and critics on the internet . She was never sure , however , if she would finish her novel or if it would be published . Clarke tried to write for three hours each day , beginning at 5 : 30 am , but struggled to keep this schedule . Rather than writing the novel from beginning to end , she wrote in fragments and attempted to stitch them together . Clarke , admitting that the project was for herself and not the reader , " clung to this method " " because I felt that if I went back and started at the beginning , [ the novel ] would lack depth , and I would just be skimming the surface of what I could do . But if I had known it was going to take me ten years , I would never have begun . I was buoyed up by thinking that I would finish it next year , or the year after next . " Clarke and Greenland fell in love while she was writing the novel and moved in together . Greenland did not read the novel until it was published .
Around 2001 , Clarke " had begun to despair " , and started looking for someone to help her finish and sell the book . Giles Gordon became her agent and sold the unfinished manuscript to Bloomsbury in early 2003 , after two publishers rejected it as unmarketable . Bloomsbury were so sure the novel would be a success that they offered Clarke a £ 1 million advance . They printed 250 @,@ 000 hardcover copies simultaneously in the United States , Britain , and Germany . Seventeen translations were begun before the first English publication was released . Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell was first published in the United States on 8 September 2004 , in the United Kingdom on 30 September , and in other countries on 4 October .
= = Style = =
Clarke 's style has frequently been described as a pastiche , particularly of nineteenth @-@ century British writers such as Charles Dickens , Jane Austen , and George Meredith . Specifically , the novel 's minor characters , including sycophants , rakes , and the Duke of Wellington , evoke Dickens ' caricatures . Laura Miller , in her review for Salon , suggests that the novel is " about a certain literary voice , the eminently civilized voice of early 19th century social comedy " , exemplified by the works of Austen . The novel even uses obsolete spellings — chuse for choose and shewed for showed , for example — to convey this voice as well as the free indirect speech made famous by Austen . Clarke herself notes that Austen 's influence is particularly strong in the " domestic scenes , set in living rooms and drawing rooms where people mostly chat about magic " where Dickens 's is prominent " any time there 's more action or description " . While many reviewers compare Clarke 's style to that of Austen , Gregory Feeley argues in his review for The Weekly Standard that " the points of resemblance are mostly superficial " . He writes that " Austen gets down to business briskly , while Clarke engages in a curious narrative strategy of continual deferral and delay . " For example , Clarke mentions Jonathan Strange on the first page of the novel , but only in a footnote . He reappears in other footnotes throughout the opening but does not appear as a character in the text proper until a quarter of the way through the novel .
In Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell , Clarke infuses her dry wit with prosaic quaintness . For example , the narrator notes : " It has been remarked ( by a lady infinitely cleverer than the present author ) how kindly disposed the world in general feels to young people who either die or marry . Imagine then the interest that surrounded Miss Wintertowne ! No young lady ever had such advantages before : for she died upon the Tuesday , was raised to life in the early hours of Wednesday morning , and was married upon the Thursday ; which some people thought too much excitement for one week . " As Michel Faber explains in his review for The Guardian , " here we have all the defining features of Clarke 's style simultaneously : the archly Austenesque tone , the somewhat overdone quaintness ( " upon the Tuesday " ) , the winningly matter @-@ of @-@ fact use of the supernatural , and drollness to spare . " Gregory Maguire notes in The New York Times that Clarke even gently ridicules the genre of the novel itself : " [ A gentleman ] picks up a book and begins to read ... but he is not attending to what he reads and he has got to Page 22 before he discovers it is a novel – the sort of work which above all others he most despises – and he puts it down in disgust . " Elsewhere , the narrator remarks , " Dear Emma does not waste her energies upon novels like other young women . " The narrator 's identity has been a topic of discussion , with Clarke declaring that said narrator is female and omniscient rather than a future scholar from within the real storyline as some had suggested .
Clarke 's style extends to the novel 's 185 footnotes , which document a meticulous invented history of English magic . At times , the footnotes dominate entire pages of the novel . Michael Dirda , in his review for The Washington Post , describes these notes as " dazzling feats of imaginative scholarship " , in which the anonymous narrator " provides elaborate mini @-@ essays , relating anecdotes from the lives of semi @-@ legendary magicians , describing strange books and their contents , speculating upon the early years and later fate of the Raven King " . This extensive extra @-@ textual apparatus is reminiscent of postmodernist works , such as David Foster Wallace 's Infinite Jest ( 1996 ) and Thomas Pynchon 's Mason & Dixon ( 1997 ) , particularly as Clarke 's notes humorously refer to previous notes in the novel . Clarke did not expect her publisher to accept the footnotes .
Feeley explains that Romantic poet John Keats 's " vision of enchantment and devastation following upon any dealings with faeries " informs the novel , as the passing reference to the " cold hillside " makes clear . The magic in Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell has been described as " wintry and sinister " and " a melancholy , macabre thing " . There are " flocks of black birds , a forest that grows up in the canals of Venice , a countryside of bleak moors that can only be entered through mirrors , a phantom bell that makes people think of everything they have ever lost , a midnight darkness that follows an accursed man everywhere he goes " . The setting reflects this tone , as " dark , fog , mist and wet give the book much of its creepy , northern atmosphere . " According to Nisi Shawl in her review for The Seattle Times , the illustrations reinforce this tenor : " Shadows fill the illustrations by Portia Rosenberg , as apt as Edward Gorey 's for Dickens ' ' Bleak House ' . " Author John Clute disagrees , arguing that they are " astonishingly inappropriate " to the tone of the novel . Noting that Clarke refers to important nineteenth @-@ century illustrators George Cruikshank and [ Thomas Rowlandson ] , whose works are " line @-@ dominated , intricate , scabrous , cartoon @-@ like , savage and funny " , he is disappointed with the " soft and wooden " illustrations provided by Rosenberg .
= = Genre = =
Reviewers variously describe Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell as a fantasy novel , an alternative history , a historical fiction , or as a combination of these styles . Clarke herself says , " I think the novel is viewed as something new ... blending together a few genres – such as fantasy and adventure and pastiche historical – plus there 's the whole thing about slightly knowing footnotes commenting on the story . " She explains in an interview that she was particularly influenced by the historical fiction of Rosemary Sutcliff as well as the fantasies of Ursula K. Le Guin and Alan Garner , and that she loves the works of Austen .
In his review for The Boston Globe , John Freeman observes that Clarke 's fantasy , like that of Franz Kafka and Neil Gaiman , is imbued with realism . He argues that the footnotes in particular lend an air of credibility to the narrative : for example , they describe a fictional biography of Jonathan Strange and list where particular paintings in Norrell ’ s house are located . In an interview , Clarke describes how she creates this realist fantasy : " One way of grounding the magic is by putting in lots of stuff about street lamps , carriages and how difficult it is to get good servants . " To create this effect , the novel includes many references to real early @-@ nineteenth century people and things , such as : artists Francisco Goya , Cruikshank , and Rowlandson ; writers Frances Burney , William Beckford , Monk Lewis , Lord Byron , and Ann Radcliffe ; Maria Edgeworth 's Belinda and Austen 's Emma ; publisher John Murray ; politicians Lord Castlereagh and George Canning ; The Gentleman 's Magazine and The Edinburgh Review ; Chippendale and Wedgwood furnishings ; and the madness of King George III . Clarke has said that she hopes the magic is as realistic as that in Le Guin 's Earthsea trilogy . This realism has led other reviewers , such as Polly Shulman , to argue that Clarke 's book is more of an historical fiction , akin to the works of Patrick O 'Brian . As she explains , " Both Clarke 's and O 'Brian 's stories are about a complicated relationship between two men bound together by their profession ; both are set during the Napoleonic wars ; and they share a dry , melancholy wit and unconventional narrative shape . " Shulman sees fantasy and historical fiction as similar because both must follow rigid rules or risk a breakdown of the narrative .
As well as literary styles , Clarke pastiches many Romantic literary genres : the comedy of manners , the Gothic tale , the silver @-@ fork novel , the military adventure , the Byronic hero , and the historical romance of Walter Scott . In fact , Clarke 's novel maps the literary history of the early nineteenth century : the novel begins with the style and genres of Regency England , an " Austenian world of light , bright , sparkling dialogue and well @-@ mannered gentility " , and gradually transforms into a dark , Byronic tale . Clarke combines these Romantic genres with modern ones , such as the fantasy novel , drawing on the works of J. R. R. Tolkien , Philip Pullman , T. H. White , and C. S. Lewis . As Maguire notes , Clarke includes rings of power and books of spells that originate in these authors ' works . In contrast , Sacha Zimmerman suggests in The New Republic that while Tolkien 's world is " entirely new " , Clarke 's world is more engaging because it is eerily close to the reader 's . Although many reviewers compare Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell to the Harry Potter series , Annie Linskey contends in The Baltimore Sun that " the allusion is misleading " : unlike J. K. Rowling 's novels , Clarke 's is morally ambiguous , with its complex plot and dark characters .
= = Themes = =
= = = Friendship = = =
Reviewers focus most frequently on the dynamic between Norrell and Strange , arguing that the novel is about their relationship . In her review for the Times Literary Supplement , Roz Kaveney writes that the two illustrate Harold Bloom 's notion of the " anxiety of influence " in addition to romantic friendship . The two are a " study in contrasts " , with Norrell " exceptionally learned but shy and fussy " while Strange is " charming , young , fashionable and romantic " . As one reviewer remarks , " Clarke could have called the book Sense and Sensibility if the title weren 't already taken . "
= = = Reason and madness = = =
The novel is not about the fight between good and evil but rather the differences between madness and reason — and it is the fairy world that is connected to madness ( mad people can see fairies , for example ) . Lady Pole , who is taken away into the fairyland of Lost @-@ Hope every night , appears insane to those around her . She is hidden away , like the character type examined by Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar in their seminal book The Madwoman in the Attic ( 1979 ) . Developing a " divided consciousness " , she is passive and quiet at home at the same time she is vengeful and murderous in the fairy land .
= = = Englishness = = =
Clarke 's book is identified as distinctively English not only because of its style but also because of its themes of " vigorous common sense " , " firm ethical fiber " , " serene reason and self @-@ confidence " , which are drawn from its Augustan literary roots . The " muddy , bloody , instinctual spirit of the fairies " is equally a part of its Englishness , along with " arrogance , provincialism and class prejudice " . The fairy tradition that Clarke draws on is particularly English ; she alludes to tales from children 's literature and others which date back to the medieval period . As Feeley notes , " The idea of fairies forming a hidden supernatural aristocracy certainly predates Spenser and Shakespeare , and seems to distinguish the English tales of wee folk from those of Scotland and Ireland . " In these medieval English stories , the fairies are depicted as " capricious , inconsistent in their attitude toward humankind , [ and ] finally unknowable " , characteristics which Clarke integrates into her own fairies . Clarke notes in an interview that she drew the idea of unpredictable , amoral fairies from the works of Neil Gaiman .
In an interview with Locus , Clarke explains why and how she integrated the theme of " Englishness " into Jonathan Strange : " I wanted to explore my ideas of the fantastic , as well as my ideas of England and my attachment to English landscape . ... Sometimes it feels to me as though we don 't have a fable of England , of Britain , something strong and idealized and romantic . I was picking up on things like Chesterton and Conan Doyle , and the sense ( which is also in Jane Austen ) of what it was to be an English gentleman at the time when England was a very confident place " . In particular , " it 's the sort of Englishness which is stuffy but fundamentally benevolent , and fundamentally very responsible about the rest of the world " , which connects Conan Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes to Clarke 's Jonathan Strange .
= = = Historical otherness = = =
Using techniques of the genre of alternative history , Clarke creates events and characters that would have been impossible in the early nineteenth century . She also explores the " silencing " of under @-@ represented groups : women , people of colour , and poor whites . Both Strange and Norrell suppress the voices of these groups in their rise to power . Mr Norrell , for example , attempts to buy up all the books of magic in England to keep anyone else from acquiring their knowledge . He also barters away half of Emma Wintertowne 's ( Lady Pole 's ) life for political influence , a deal about which , due to an enchantment , she cannot speak coherently .
Clarke explores the limits of " English " magic through the characters of Stephen Black and Vinculus . As Clarke explains , " If you put a fairy next to a person who is also outside English society ... suddenly the fact that there is this alien race seems more believable , because you 've got another alien and the two of them can talk about the English in this very natural way . " The gentleman with the thistle @-@ down hair sees Stephen as a noble savage and enslaves him — like Lady Pole , Stephen is silenced . Both " suffer under a silencing spell that mimics gaps in the historical record " . Furthermore , the gentleman 's desire to acquire Stephen for his dancing hall is reminiscent of the English objectification of black slaves . Stephen vows to hate all white Englishmen after he discovers that they enslaved his mother , but when the gentleman shows him the hanging of the white Vinculus , he weeps . Both Strange and Norrell see the essence of Englishness in the Raven King , a character who was raised by fairies and could not speak English . As Elizabeth Hoiem explains , " The most English of all Englishmen , then , is both king and slave , in many ways indistinguishable from Stephen Black . This paradox is what ultimately resolves the plot . When Strange and Norrell summon ' the nameless slave ' , the Raven King 's powerful alliances with nature are transferred to Stephen Black , allowing Stephen to kill the Gentleman and free himself from slavery . " In the end , it is Strange and Norrell who are trapped in everlasting darkness while the silenced women , people of colour , and poor whites defeat the antagonist .
= = Reception = =
To promote Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell , Bloomsbury — who also published the Harry Potter series — launched what The Observer called " one of the biggest marketing campaigns in publishing history " . Their campaign included plans for newspaper serialisations , book deliveries by horse and carriage , and the placement of " themed teasers " , such as period stationery and mock newspapers , in United States coffeeshops . 7 @,@ 500 advance readers ' copies were sent out , a limited number wrapped in paper and sealed with wax . These sold for more than US $ 100 each on eBay in England in the weeks leading up to publication . By 2005 , collectors were paying hundreds of pounds for signed copies of a limited edition of the novel .
The book debuted at No. 9 on the New York Times best @-@ seller list , rising to No. 3 two weeks later . It remained on the list for eleven weeks . Four weeks after the book 's initial publication , it was in Amazon 's top ten . Clarke went on a 20 @-@ city tour to promote the novel , after its near @-@ simultaneous publication in 20 countries . Endorsements from independent booksellers helped the book sell out its first printing ; by the end of September 2004 , it had gone through eight printings .
The novel met with " a crackle of favorable reviews in major papers " . The New Republic hailed it as " an exceptional work " , both " thoughtful and irrepressibly imaginative " . The Houston Chronicle described Clarke as " a superb character writer " , and the Denver Post called her a " superb storyteller " . The reviews praised Clarke 's " deft " handling of the pastiche of styles , but many criticised the novel 's pace , The Guardian complaining that " the plot creaks frightfully in many places and the pace dawdles " . In his review for Science Fiction Weekly , Clute suggested that " almost every scene in the first 300 pages should have been carefully and delicately trimmed " ( emphasis in original ) since they do little to advance the story . He argued that , at times , Clarke 's Austenesque tone gets in the way of plot development . On the other hand , The Baltimore Sun found the novel " a quick read " . Complaining that the book leaves the reader " longing for just a bit more lyricism and poetry " , The Washington Post reviewer noted , with others , that " sex plays virtually no role in the story ... [ and ] one looks in vain for the corruption of the innocent " . The New Statesman reviewer , Amanda Craig , praised the novel as " a tale of magic such as might have been written by the young Jane Austen – or , perhaps , by the young Mrs Radcliffe , whose Gothic imagination and exuberant delicacy of style set the key . " However , she also criticised the book : " As fantasy , it is deplorable , given that it fails to embrace the essentially anarchic nature of such tales . What is so wonderful about magicians , wizards and all witches other than Morgan le Fay is not just their magical powers , but that they possess these in spite of being low @-@ born . Far from caring about being gentlemen , wizards are the ultimate expression of rank 's irrelevance to talent " . However , reviewers were not in universal agreement on any of these points . Maguire wrote in the New York Times :
What keeps this densely realised confection aloft is that very quality of reverence to the writers of the past . The chief character in Jonathan Strange and Mr. Norrell isn 't , in fact , either of the magicians : it 's the library that they both adore , the books they consult and write and , in a sense , become . Clarke 's giddiness comes from finding a way at once to enter the company of her literary heroes , to pay them homage and to add to the literature .
While promoting the novel , Neil Gaiman said that it was " unquestionably the finest English novel of the fantastic written in the last 70 years " , a statement which has most often been read hyperbolically . However , as Clute explains , what Gaiman meant was that Jonathan Strange is " the finest English novel of the fantastic since Hope Mirrlees 's great Lud @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Mist ( 1926 ) , which is almost certainly the finest English fantasy about the relationship between England and the fantastic yet published " ( emphasis in original ) . Clute writes that " a more cautious claim " would be : " if Susanna Clarke finishes the story she has hardly begun in Strange ... she may well have then written the finest English novel of the fantastic about the myth of England and the myth of the fantastic and the marriage of the two ever published , bar none of the above , including Mirrlees . "
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Adaptations and sequel = =
= = = Film = = =
On 15 October 2004 , New Line Cinema announced that it had bought a three @-@ year option on the film rights to Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell . Clarke received an undisclosed " seven @-@ figure sum " , making the deal " one of the biggest acquisitions of film rights for a book in recent years " . New Line chose Christopher Hampton , whose adaptation of Dangerous Liaisons won an Academy Award , to write it ; New Line executives Mark Ordesky and Ileen Maisel were overseeing the production . On 7 November 2005 , The Daily Telegraph reported that Hampton had finished the first draft : " As you can imagine , it took a fair amount of time to work out some way to encapsulate that enormous book in a film of sensible length ... [ b ] ut it was lots of fun – and very unlike anything I have ever done before . " At that time , no director or cast had yet been chosen . As of June 2006 , Hampton was still working on the screenplay . Julian Fellowes then took over writing duties before the collapse of New Line Cinema .
= = = Television = = =
A seven @-@ part adaptation of the book by the BBC began broadcast on BBC One on Sunday 17 May 2015 . The book was adapted by Peter Harness , directed by Toby Haynes , and produced by Cuba Pictures and Feel Films . A number of co @-@ producers joined the project , including BBC America , Screen Yorkshire , Space and Far Moor , and it is to be distributed by Endemol Worldwide Distribution .
Pre @-@ production began in April 2013 , and filming later in the year , including locations in Yorkshire and Canada .
= = = Audio book = = =
The 32 @-@ hour audio book of Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell was released by Audio Renaissance in 2004 . According to a review in The Boston Globe , reader Simon Prebble " navigates this production with much assuredness and an array of accents . ... Prebble 's full voice is altered to a delicate softness for young ladies of a certain breeding , or tightened to convey the snarkiness often heard in the costive Norrell . " Prebble interrupts the main text to read the footnotes , announcing them with the word footnote . According to the AudioFile review , the " narrative flow suffers " because of these interruptions and the reviewer recommends listening " with text in hand " . Each note is on its own track , so listeners have the option of skipping them without missing text from the main narrative . When doing public readings , Clarke herself skips the notes .
= = = Sequel = = =
In 2004 , Clarke announced that she was working on a book that begins a few years after Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell ends . It is intended to centre on characters such as Childermass and Vinculus who , as Clarke says , are " a bit lower down the social scale " .
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= Union Bank of Switzerland =
Union Bank of Switzerland ( UBS ) was a large integrated financial services company located in Switzerland . The bank , which at the time was the second largest bank in Switzerland , merged with Swiss Bank Corporation in 1998 , to become UBS to form what was then the largest bank in Europe and the second largest bank in the World .
UBS was formed in 1912 through the merger of the Bank in Winterthur and Toggenburger Bank , both founded in the early 1860s . UBS then continued to grow through acquisitions , including Aargauische Kreditanstalt in 1919 , Eidgenössische Bank in 1945 , Interhandel Basel in 1967 , Phillips & Drew in 1986 , and Schröder , Münchmeyer , Hengst & Co. in 1997 among others .
The historical UBS logo features a horizontal acronym " UBS " referring to the " Union Bank of Switzerland " , " Union de Banques Suisses " or " Unione di Banche Svizzere " . The vertical acronym " SBG " refers to the name of the bank in German " Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft " . " UBS " ceased to be considered a representational abbreviation for the Union Bank of Switzerland after the bank 's 1998 merger with Swiss Bank Corporation and is today considered a standalone brand .
= = 1980 – 1998 = =
By the 1980s , the bank had undertaken a major push into the securities business internationally . The bank established a position as a leading European underwriter of Eurobonds and pulled off a major coup in 1985 by pricing a large bond offering for Nestlé , Rockwell , IBM , and Mobil at below market rates .
The bank also made two major acquisitions in 1986 , first it purchased Phillips & Drew an established British brokerage and asset management firm , founded in 1895 . However , UBS initially had issues integrating Phillips & Drew . The firm lost £ 15 million when a rush of orders overwhelmed the firm ’ s settlement system in 1987 . Then the bank lost £ 48 million as a result of Philips & Drew positions in the October 1987 stock market crash . Between April 1987 and February 1988 , UBS was required to spend as much as £ 115 million to shore up Phillips & Drew . Phillips & Drew unit returned to profitability in 1992 after years of losses . UBS also expanded into West Germany , acquiring Deutsche Länderbank in 1986 .
In 1991 , UBS made its first acquisition in the United States , purchasing Chase Investors Management Corporation , the asset management business of Chase Manhattan Bank . Chase Investors , which was established in 1972 , was subsequently folded into UBS Asset Management after the acquisition . At the time of the acquisition , which resulted in approximately US $ 100 million for Chase , the business managed in excess of US $ 30 billion in public and private pension plans , as well as various financial assets of corporations , governments , foundations and endowments .
UBS also entered the life insurance business in 1993 establishing UBS Life . UBS formed a joint venture with Swiss Life in 1995 , known as UBS Swiss Life . UBS took a 25 % ownership position in Swiss Life in exchange for a 50 % share in the joint venture .
UBS entered the 1990s clearly the largest and most conservative of the three large Swiss Banks . Unlike Swiss Bank and Credit Suisse , which had both made aggressive international acquisitions in trading and investment banking , UBS ’ s investments had been more conservative in businesses such as asset management and life insurance while 60 % of the bank 's profits came from its even more conservative Swiss banking operations . In 1993 , Credit Suisse outbid UBS for Switzerland 's Swiss Volksbank , the fifth largest bank in Switzerland which had run into financial difficulties in the early 1990s . The acquisition propelled Credit Suisse ahead of UBS as the largest bank in Switzerland for the first time . UBS instead settled on a group of less audacious acquisitions , purchasing a group of smaller banks in Switzerland in 1994 and then acquiring the Cantonal Bank of Appenzell @-@ Ausserrhoden in 1996 .
In its final acquisition , prior to the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation , the bank acquired Schröder , Münchmeyer , Hengst & Co. from Lloyds TSB in 1997 in order to further penetrate the German investment banking market as well as the market for wealthy private clients . Schröder Münchmeyer Hengst was formed through the 1969 merger of three German banks : Schroeder Brothers & Co . , Muenchmeyer & Co. and Frederick Hengst & Co . ( formerly known as Bank Siegmund Merzbach ) .
= = Merger with Swiss Bank Corporation = =
During the mid @-@ 1990s , UBS came under fire from dissident shareholders , critical of bank 's relatively conservative management and lower return on equity . Martin Ebner , through his investment trust , BK Vision became the largest shareholder in UBS and attempted to force a major restructuring of the bank ’ s operations . The battles between Ebner and UBS management proved a distraction to the bank in the mid @-@ 1990s . Looking to take advantage of the situation , Credit Suisse approached UBS about a merger that would have created the second largest bank in the world in 1996 . UBS 's management and board unanimously rebuffed the proposed merger . Ebner , who supported the idea of a merger , led a major shareholder revolt that resulted in the replacement of UBS 's chairman , Robert Studer . Studer 's successor Mathis Cabiallavetta would be one of the key architects of the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation .
On 8 December 1997 , Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation announced an all stock merger . At the time of the merger , Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation were the second and third largest banks in Switzerland , respectively both trailing Credit Suisse . Discussions between the two banks had begun several months earlier , less than a year after rebuffing Credit Suisse 's merger overtures .
The all @-@ stock merger resulted in the creation UBS AG , a huge new bank with total assets of more than US $ 590 billion . Also referred to as the " New UBS " to distinguish itself from the former Union Bank of Switzerland , the combined bank became the second largest in the world , at that time , behind only the Bank of Tokyo @-@ Mitsubishi . Additionally , the merger pulled together the banks ' various asset management businesses to create the world 's largest money manager , with approximately US $ 910 billion in assets under management .
The merger , which was billed as a merger of equals , resulted in UBS 's shareholders receiving 60 % of the combined company and Swiss Bank 's shareholders receiving the remaining 40 % of the bank 's common shares . UBS 's Mathis Cabiallavetta became chairman of the new bank while Swiss Bank 's Marcel Ospel was named chief executive officer . However , it quickly became evident that from a management perspective , it was Swiss Bank that was buying UBS as nearly 80 % of the top management positions were filled by legacy Swiss Bank professionals . Additionally , UBS professionals suffered more headcount reductions , particularly in the investment banking unit where there were heavy cuts in the corporate finance and equities businesses . The more severe cuts at UBS were an acknowledgment that prior to the merger Swiss Bank Corporation had built a global investment banking business , Warburg Dillon Read through its acquisitions of Dillon Read in New York and S.G. Warburg in London . Swiss Bank was generally considered to be further along than UBS in developing its international investment banking business , particularly in the higher margin advisory businesses where Warburg Dillon Read was considered to be the more established platform . UBS , on the other hand had a stronger retail and commercial banking business in Switzerland and both banks had notably strong asset management capabilities .
After the merger was completed , it was widely speculated that a series of losses suffered by UBS on its equity derivative positions in late 1997 was a contributing factor in pushing UBS management to consummate the merger . It would become clear that the derivatives losses prompted UBS to accept the terms proposed by Swiss Bank more readily than they otherwise would have .
= = The company = =
Prior to its merger with Swiss Bank Corporation , UBS operated as a full @-@ service bank and a provider of wholesale financial services through its retail banking , commercial banking , investment banking , asset management and wealth management businesses . In 1997 , prior to its merger with Swiss Bank Corporation , UBS operated 275 branches in Switzerland and 82 branches , subsidiaries and representative offices outside Switzerland . The company had approximately 27 @,@ 611 employees , of which 19 @,@ 355 worked in Switzerland and the remaining 8 @,@ 256 employees were outside Switzerland . The bank had total assets of nearly CHF578 billion and shareholders ' equity of nearly CHF28 billion as of the end of 1997 .
= = History = =
= = = Origins of the Union Bank of Switzerland = = =
In 1862 , The Bank in Winterthur was founded in Winterthur , Switzerland , with an initial share capital of CHF5 million . The Bank in Winterthur operated primarily as a commercial bank , providing financing for a range of companies and projects . The bank would be involved in funding the Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works , the hotel Baur au Lac in Zurich and many other companies . The bank capitalized on its location at an important Swiss railroad junction and its large warehousing facilities allowed the bank to take advantage of the dramatic rise in cotton prices caused by the American Civil War . The Bank in Winterthur saw its share capital double by the end of the war .
Meanwhile , in 1863 , the Toggenburger Bank was founded in Lichtensteig , Switzerland with an initial share capital of CHF1.5 million . The Toggenburger Bank was a savings and mortgage bank for individual customers with a branch office network in Eastern Switzerland . In 1882 , Toggenburger Bank opened a branch in St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland and began to shift its operations there through the end of the 19th century .
The Union Bank of Switzerland was formed in 1912 when the Bank in Winterthur merged with the Toggenburger Bank . The combined bank had total assets of CHF202 million and a total shareholders ' equity of CHF46 million . This combination was part of a larger trend toward concentration in the banking sector in Switzerland at the time . Through the next few years , the bank would begin to shift its operations to Zurich from its historical headquarters in the cities of Winterthur and St. Gallen , Switzerland . In 1917 , UBS completed construction of a new headquarters in Zurich on Bahnhofstrasse , considered to be the Wall Street of Switzerland .
The new bank used different names in its three core languages : German , French and English . In German , the bank was Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft and was known by the initials SBG . The original English name for the combined bank was the Swiss Banking Association , but it was later changed to Union Bank of Switzerland in 1921 to mirror the French form of the name : Union de Banques Suisses . The bank 's logo , introduced in 1966 , would later reflect both the German SBG and the English and French name UBS .
UBS acquired a number of banks in its first decade as a combined bank and expanded its branch network , establishing representation throughout Switzerland by 1923 . UBS acquired a controlling interest in Aargauische Creditanstalt in 1913 and Banque Ch . Masson & Cie. in 1916 . Although the bank suffered during World War I and the postwar economic crises in Europe , UBS continued to make acquisitions after the conclusion of World War I. The bank purchased the remaining stake in Aargauische Creditanstalt in 1919 that it had not acquired in 1913 . Also in 1919 , the bank acquired Commandit @-@ AG Weibel & Cie. in Fleurier and William Cuénod & Cie . In 1920 , UBS acquired Banca Svizzera @-@ Americana with branches in Locarno and Lugano ; Unionbank Geneva and Banque Henry Rieckel & Cie . , based in La Chaux @-@ de @-@ Fonds . Three years later , in 1923 , UBS acquired the Schweizerische Vereinsbank in Bern establishing representation in the last of the major cities in Switzerland .
Through the Great Depression , UBS pared its assets considerably shrinking from CHF993 million in 1929 to CHF441 million at the end of 1935 . The bank saw its shareholders ' capital decline from CHF100 million in 1929 to CHF80 million in 1933 and then further to CHF40 million by 1936 . However , the bank continued to acquire smaller , weaker competitors , purchasing Banca Unione di Credito in Lugano and Chiasso in 1935 followed by Berner Handelsbank in Bern in 1938 . In 1937 , UBS established Intrag AG , an asset management business responsible for investment trusts ( i.e. , mutual funds ) and set up the " America @-@ Canada Trust Fund AMCA " . Over the years , Intrag would set up a series of other funds , including the " Mutual Fund for Swiss Stocks FONSA " and the " South Africa Trust Fund SAFIT " .
The Bank in Winterthur and the Toggenburger Bank merge to form the Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft . Its French name is Union de Banques Suisses ( UBS ) and its Italian name is Unione di Banche Svizzere ( UBS ) . The English name of the bank at first is Swiss Banking Association . In 1921 that somewhat inappropriate name is changed into Union Bank of Switzerland ( UBS ) .
The merged bank shows the following figures for 1912 : Total assets : CHF202 million . Shareholders ' Equity : CHF46 million . Profit : CHF2.4 million .
Dr. Rudolf Ernst ( 1865 – 1956 )
First Chairman of the Board of Directors of the merged bank from 1912 until 1941 is Rudolf Ernst , of Winterthur , until 1921 alternating with C. Emil Grob @-@ Halter of Lichtensteig .
After the merger of the Bank in Winterthur and the Toggenburger Bank to form Union Bank of Switzerland ( UBS ) , Dr. Rudolf Ernst became the merged bank 's first chairman in 1912 . Following his resignation in 1941 , he was elected as an Honorary chairman of Union Bank of Switzerland .
Rudolf Ernst joined the Bank in Winterthur in 1895 . He was also financial director of the City of Winterthur for 16 years . At the young age of 36 , he was elected in 1901 to the Board of Directors of the Bank in Winterthur and as its chairman at the same time . During his chairmanship , the bank changed its focus from its original lending business and began to expand its issuing and asset management franchise . With the acquisition of the Bank in Baden in 1906 , the bank gained a branch in Zurich and a seat on the stock exchange , one of the cornerstones for the successful merger in 1912 with the Toggenburger Bank to form Union Bank of Switzerland . Rudolf Ernst also held directorships on the boards of various industrial and insurance companies . Between 1912 and his retirement in 1941 , he was chairman of the Board of Union Bank of Switzerland , in an alternating capacity with Carl Emil Grob @-@ Halter , who held the chairmanship in 1916 and 1918 as the representative of the merger partner Toggenburger Bank .
= = = Activities in World War II = = =
On the eve of World War II , UBS was the recipient of a large influx of foreign funds for safekeeping . During the war , the bank 's traditional business fell off and the Swiss government became their largest clients . Still , unlike many of its peers , UBS 's business lagged through much of the war .
Decades after the war , it was demonstrated that Union Bank of Switzerland likely took active roles in trading stolen gold , securities and other assets during World War II . The issue of " unclaimed property " of Holocaust victims became a major issue for UBS in the mid @-@ 1990s and a series of revelations in 1997 brought the issue to the forefront of national attention in 1996 and 1997 . UBS confirmed that a large number of accounts that had gone unclaimed as a result of the bank 's policy of requiring death certificates from family members to claim the contents of the account . UBS 's handling of these revelations were largely criticized and the bank received significant negative attention in the U.S. UBS came under significant pressure , particularly from American politicians , to compensate Holocaust survivors who were making claims against the bank .
In January 1997 , Christoph Meili , a night watchman at the Union Bank of Switzerland , found employees shredding archives compiled by a subsidiary that had extensive dealings with Nazi Germany . The shredding was in direct violation of a recent Swiss law adopted in December 1996 protecting such material . UBS acknowledged that it had " made a deplorable mistake " , but an internal historian maintained that the destroyed archives were unrelated to the Holocaust . Criminal proceedings then began against the archivist for possible violation of a recent Federal Document Destruction decree and against Meili for possible violation of bank secrecy , which is a criminal offence in Switzerland . Both proceedings were discontinued by the District Attorney in September 1997 .
Meili was suspended from his job at the security company that served UBS , following a criminal investigation . Meili and his family left Switzerland for the United States where they were granted political asylum . By contrast , in the U.S. , Meili was largely regarded as a hero and whistleblower and received a particularly warm reception from the American Jewish community .
In 1997 , the World Jewish Congress lawsuit against Swiss banks ( WJC ) was launched to retrieve deposits made by victims of Nazi persecution during and prior to World War II . Negotiations involving Union Bank of Switzerland , Credit Suisse , the WJC and Stuart Eizenstat , on behalf of the U.S. , ultimately resulted in a settlement of US $ 1 @.@ 25 billion in August 1998 . The settlement , which coincided with UBS 's merger with Swiss Bank , together with the bank 's embarrassment in the Long Term Capital Management collapse in 1998 brought a degree of closure to the issue .
= = = 1945 – 1979 = = =
Shortly after the end of World War II , UBS completed the acquisition of Eidgenössische Bank , a large Zurich @-@ based bank that became insolvent . As a result of the merger , UBS exceeded CHF1 billion of assets for the first time and completed the transition of its operations to Zurich . Although UBS opened an office in New York in 1946 , the bank remained primarily focused on its domestic business . Prior to the end of World War II , the Swiss banking landscape was dominated by Swiss Bank Corporation and Credit Suisse . UBS was among the next group of large banks that included Schweizerische Volksbank ( Swiss Volksbank or Swiss Popular Bank ) and Bank Leu . Throughout the 1950s and 1960s , the Union Bank of Switzerland , which was at best the third largest bank in Switzerland would catch up to its larger peers and by the 1970s surpass them in terms of size .
UBS opened branches and acquired a series of banks in Switzerland growing from 31 offices in 1950 to 81 offices by the beginning of the 1960s . Throughout the 1950s , UBS was the most acquisitive bank in Switzerland , acquiring Banque Palézieux & Cie . ( 1948 ) , Volksbank Interlaken ( 1952 ) , Weck , Aebi & Cie ( 1954 ) , Banque Tissières fils & Cie . ( 1956 ) , Banque de Sion ( 1956 ) , Banque de Brigue ( 1957 ) , the Crédit Gruyérien ( 1957 ) , Crédit Sierrois ( 1957 ) , Bank Cantrade AG ( 1960 ) and Volksbank in Visp ( 1960 ) .
In addition to these bank acquisitions , UBS also acquired an 80 % stake in Argor SA , a Swiss precious metal refinery founded in 1951 , through whom they started to issue UBS branded gold bars . In 1973 , the bank increased the stake to full 100 % ownership only to withdraw by 1999 with ownership of the refinery changing to Hereaus & Management . Nevertheless , UBS continues to issue gold bars via Argor @-@ Heraeus which is famous for the unique kinebar holographic technology it uses to provide enhanced protection against bank gold bar counterfeiting .
By 1962 , UBS reached CHF6.96 billion of assets , narrowly edging ahead of Swiss Bank Corporation to become the largest bank in Switzerland temporarily . Through 1979 , SBC was consistently the largest of the three major Swiss banks by assets , except for short periods in 1962 and then again in 1968 when UBS temporarily moved ahead of SBC . After 1979 , UBS would firmly establish itself as the largest Swiss bank . UBS would retain this position for the next 15 years until Credit Suisse leapfrogged into the top spot following its 1993 acquisition of Schweizerische Volksbank ( Swiss Volksbank ) and later Winterthur Group .
UBS continued its rapid growth in the 1960s punctuated by the acquisition of Interhandel ( Industrie- und Handelsbeteiligungen AG ) in 1967 . Interhandel , originally , was a large Swiss conglomerate that up until the 1960s had both financial as well as industrial holdings . Interhandel was the corporate successor of I.G. Chemie , which the U.S. government had claimed was a front for Germany 's I.G. Farben during World War II . During the war , the U.S. government seized General Aniline & Film ( later GAF Corporation ) , an Interhandel subsidiary , and it was not until 1963 that the long @-@ running dispute between Interhandel and the U.S. government was resolved . The shares in GAF Corporation were sold in a highly competitive auction in 1965 and the proceeds were split between Interhandel and the U.S. government . As a result of the sale of GAF , at the time of its merger with UBS , Interhandel held substantial amounts of cash . The addition of the Interhandel capital , which propelled UBS into the top spot among Swiss banks in 1968 , also made UBS one of the strongest banks in Europe and helped fuel the bank ’ s further expansion in the late 1960s and 1970s . UBS consolidated four affiliated mortgage lenders and assumed their domestic retail operations . The bank further expanded into consumer lending through the acquisition of a series of Swiss financial businesses in 1969 , including Banque Orca , Abri Bank Bern , Aufina Bank and AKO Bank .
UBS also began to intensify its overseas expansion . In 1967 , UBS opened a full branch office in London , its first such office outside Switzerland . Prior to this , UBS had operated through a series of correspondent banks and representative offices . Three years later , UBS opened a branch office in New York . The bank also established a UK subsidiary in 1975 and a U.S. subsidiary in 1979 to focus on building the bank ’ s presence in the underwriting of debt and equity securities . Nevertheless , UBS , which had traditionally concentrated its efforts on the domestic Swiss market , was the last of the three largest Swiss banks to establish a branch office in the U.S. and its securities operations were overshadowed by those of its two Swiss peers .
= = = 1980 – 1998 = = =
By the 1980s , the bank had undertaken a major push into the securities business internationally . The bank established a position as a leading European underwriter of Eurobonds and pulled off a major coup in 1985 by pricing a large bond offering for Nestlé , Rockwell , IBM , and Mobil at below market rates .
The bank also made two major acquisitions in 1986 , first it purchased Phillips & Drew an established British brokerage and asset management firm , founded in 1895 . However , UBS initially had issues integrating Phillips & Drew . The firm lost £ 15 million when a rush of orders overwhelmed the firm ’ s settlement system in 1987 . Then the bank lost £ 48 million as a result of Philips & Drew positions in the October 1987 stock market crash . Between April 1987 and February 1988 , UBS was required to spend as much as £ 115 million to shore up Phillips & Drew . Phillips & Drew unit returned to profitability in 1992 after years of losses . UBS also expanded into West Germany , acquiring Deutsche Länderbank in 1986 .
In 1991 , UBS made its first acquisition in the United States , purchasing Chase Investors Management Corporation , the asset management business of Chase Manhattan Bank . Chase Investors , which was established in 1972 , was subsequently folded into UBS Asset Management after the acquisition . At the time of the acquisition , which resulted in approximately US $ 100 million for Chase , the business managed in excess of US $ 30 billion in public and private pension plans , as well as various financial assets of corporations , governments , foundations and endowments .
UBS also entered the life insurance business in 1993 establishing UBS Life . UBS formed a joint venture with Swiss Life in 1995 , known as UBS Swiss Life . UBS took a 25 % ownership position in Swiss Life in exchange for a 50 % share in the joint venture .
UBS entered the 1990s clearly the largest and most conservative of the three large Swiss Banks . Unlike Swiss Bank and Credit Suisse , which had both made aggressive international acquisitions in trading and investment banking , UBS ’ s investments had been more conservative in businesses such as asset management and life insurance while 60 % of the bank 's profits came from its even more conservative Swiss banking operations . In 1993 , Credit Suisse outbid UBS for Switzerland 's Swiss Volksbank , the fifth largest bank in Switzerland which had run into financial difficulties in the early 1990s . The acquisition propelled Credit Suisse ahead of UBS as the largest bank in Switzerland for the first time . UBS instead settled on a group of less audacious acquisitions , purchasing a group of smaller banks in Switzerland in 1994 and then acquiring the Cantonal Bank of Appenzell @-@ Ausserrhoden in 1996 .
In its final acquisition , prior to the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation , the bank acquired Schröder , Münchmeyer , Hengst & Co. from Lloyds TSB in 1997 in order to further penetrate the German investment banking market as well as the market for wealthy private clients . Schröder Münchmeyer Hengst was formed through the 1969 merger of three German banks : Schroeder Brothers & Co . , Muenchmeyer & Co. and Frederick Hengst & Co . ( formerly known as Bank Siegmund Merzbach ) .
= = = Merger with Swiss Bank Corporation = = =
During the mid @-@ 1990s , UBS came under fire from dissident shareholders , critical of bank 's relatively conservative management and lower return on equity . Martin Ebner , through his investment trust , BK Vision became the largest shareholder in UBS and attempted to force a major restructuring of the bank ’ s operations . The battles between Ebner and UBS management proved a distraction to the bank in the mid @-@ 1990s . Looking to take advantage of the situation , Credit Suisse approached UBS about a merger that would have created the second largest bank in the world in 1996 . UBS 's management and board unanimously rebuffed the proposed merger . Ebner , who supported the idea of a merger , led a major shareholder revolt that resulted in the replacement of UBS 's chairman , Robert Studer . Studer 's successor Mathis Cabiallavetta would be one of the key architects of the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation .
On 8 December 1997 , Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation announced an all stock merger . At the time of the merger , Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation were the second and third largest banks in Switzerland , respectively both trailing Credit Suisse . Discussions between the two banks had begun several months earlier , less than a year after rebuffing Credit Suisse 's merger overtures .
The all @-@ stock merger resulted in the creation UBS AG , a huge new bank with total assets of more than US $ 590 billion . Also referred to as the " New UBS " to distinguish itself from the former Union Bank of Switzerland , the combined bank became the second largest in the world , at that time , behind only the Bank of Tokyo @-@ Mitsubishi . Additionally , the merger pulled together the banks ' various asset management businesses to create the world 's largest money manager , with approximately US $ 910 billion in assets under management .
The merger , which was billed as a merger of equals , resulted in UBS 's shareholders receiving 60 % of the combined company and Swiss Bank 's shareholders receiving the remaining 40 % of the bank 's common shares . UBS 's Mathis Cabiallavetta became chairman of the new bank while Swiss Bank 's Marcel Ospel was named chief executive officer . However , it quickly became evident that from a management perspective , it was Swiss Bank that was buying UBS as nearly 80 % of the top management positions were filled by legacy Swiss Bank professionals . Additionally , UBS professionals suffered more headcount reductions , particularly in the investment banking unit where there were heavy cuts in the corporate finance and equities businesses . The more severe cuts at UBS were an acknowledgment that prior to the merger Swiss Bank Corporation had built a global investment banking business , Warburg Dillon Read through its acquisitions of Dillon Read in New York and S.G. Warburg in London . Swiss Bank was generally considered to be further along than UBS in developing its international investment banking business , particularly in the higher margin advisory businesses where Warburg Dillon Read was considered to be the more established platform . UBS , on the other hand had a stronger retail and commercial banking business in Switzerland and both banks had notably strong asset management capabilities .
After the merger was completed , it was widely speculated that a series of losses suffered by UBS on its equity derivative positions in late 1997 was a contributing factor in pushing UBS management to consummate the merger . It would become clear that the derivatives losses prompted UBS to accept the terms proposed by Swiss Bank more readily than they otherwise would have .
= = = Long @-@ Term Capital Management = = =
Union Bank of Switzerland , suffering criticism of its conservative business model , was looking for ways to catch up to its key Swiss rivals and viewed LTCM as the type of client that could help accelerate the bank 's growth . In 1997 , UBS entered into a financing arrangement with LTCM and the hedge fund quickly became the bank 's largest client , generating US $ 15 million in fees for UBS . Union Bank of Switzerland sold LTCM a 7 @-@ year European call option on 1 million shares in LTCM , then valued at about US $ 800 million . It hedged this option by purchasing a US $ 800 million interest in LTCM and invested a further US $ 300 million in the hedge fund . Following the merger , Swiss Bank managers were surprised to discover the massive exposure to LTCM at UBS . Ultimately , UBS was unable to sell or hedge its interest in LTCM as its value declined in the summer of 1998 .
By November 1998 , UBS 's losses from its exposure to LTCM were estimated at approximately CHF790 million . UBS would prove to be the largest single loser in the LTCM collapse , ultimately writing off CHF950 million . The Federal Reserve Bank of New York organized a bailout of US $ 3 @.@ 625 billion by the hedge fund 's major creditors to avoid a wider collapse in the financial markets . UBS contributed US $ 300 million to the bailout effort , which would largely be recovered . In the aftermath of the LTCM collapse , Mathis Cabiallavetta resigned as chairman of UBS along with three other executives .
= = = Acquisition history = = =
Union Bank of Switzerland , prior to its merger with Swiss Bank Corporation was the result of the combination of dozens of individual firms , many of which date to the 19th century . The following is an illustration of the company 's major mergers and acquisitions and historical predecessors , although this is not necessarily a comprehensive list :
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= Ginga Legend Weed =
Ginga Legend Weed ( Japanese : 銀牙伝説ウィード , Hepburn : Ginga Densetsu Wīdo , lit . Silver Fang Legend Weed ) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Yoshihiro Takahashi . It is a sequel to Takahashi 's 1980s manga Ginga : Nagareboshi Gin , and focuses on Weed , the son of Gin , the original series ' protagonist . Weed , named after the English word for wild plant , leaves his birthplace to search for his father in the Ōu Mountains . Upon arriving , Weed immediately begins protecting Ōu and its soldiers from dangerous threats . As the series progresses , Weed and his allies journey throughout Japan , aiding those in need and preventing takeovers .
Ginga Legend Weed was originally serialized in the magazine Weekly Manga Goraku from 1999 to 2009 . Publisher Nihon Bungeisha released 60 bound volumes and later reprinted early volumes . ComicsOne licensed the series for release in Canada and the United States , but issued only three volumes before it went out of business . Ginga Legend Weed has not been relicensed and distributed in the English language .
In addition to the main series , Takahashi authored several side stories and books relating to Weed and the supporting cast . In 2005 , Studio Deen produced an anime series that aired on Animax . The show was released on several DVDs between 2006 and 2007 in Japan , and was licensed and distributed in Taiwan and several Nordic countries . Takahashi also published a prequel to Ginga Legend .
= = Plot = =
Several years after the events of Ginga : Nagareboshi Gin , Gin 's son is born in the Japanese Alps . After the puppy 's mother Sakura dies from an illness , an English Setter named GB pledges to bring him to the Ōu Mountains and reunite him with his father . GB decides to name the pup Weed , after the English word for wild plant , because he is " small but powerful " . Upon arriving at Ōu , the pair learn that a monstrous creature is wreaking havoc and Ōu has fallen into turmoil . Gin is away , on a desperate search for his mate . Weed , GB , and other Ōu soldiers meet a team of dogs led by the German shepherd Jerome . Jerome explains that the monster is a mutated dog that escaped from a laboratory after killing several scientists . Weed 's group joins them and they succeed in killing the monster , though lose several soldiers in the process , among them Gin 's old ally , Smith .
The series then introduces Hōgen and Genba , Great Dane brothers who plan to create an army and overthrow Gin . When Gin and his close friends John and Akame are found by Hōgen and his troops , Akame escapes to alert Ōu , while Gin , John , and Hiro ( a dog loyal to Gin ) are taken as hostages . John escapes , but is killed while acting as a diversion for Hiro . Akame locates Weed and explains the situation , prompting him to search for dogs to join Ōu 's army . Gin escapes and starts recruiting soldiers . Hōgen , alone after having to mercy kill Genba , launches his attack on Ōu . Weed clashes with Hōgen and is injured , but spirits of dead Ōu soldiers appear to give him strength . Weed defeats Hōgen but chooses not to kill him . Hōgen stumbles away and is found by Shōji Sudou , a policeman whose partner was killed by Genba and Hōgen . Shōji shoots and kills Hōgen .
Later , Weed encounters a dog named Yukimura , and learns that a group of monkeys have been terrorizing the area . Leading them is Shōgun , a vicious baboon that feeds on young monkeys and puppies . Shōgun had previously attacked Yukimura and his family , permanently damaging his adopted father Saheiji . Weed , his comrades , Yukimura , and several rebellious monkeys attack Shōgun and his followers . Yukimura is able to injure Shōgun enough to ensure his death , but dies in the process . Saheiji reveals that Yukimura was Weed 's brother : Sakura , too sick to care for all of her children , had given two of her puppies to Saheiji to raise as foster sons .
While Jerome is in Hokkaidō , he is captured by a Russian German shepherd named Victor , who aims to conquer the island . Jerome escapes and alerts Hakurō , a former Ōu soldier who resides in Hokkaidō . Hakurō and several of his sons are attacked and killed by Victor 's forces . Gin and Weed go to Hokkaidō , but are unable to defeat Victor 's troops . Jerome rejoins the Ōu soldiers with Lydia and Maxim , two subordinates of Victor . Angry at Maxim 's betrayal , Victor orders a friend of Maxim , Alam , to kill him . Alam feels an intense regret for following orders , but later learns that Maxim survived . Alam decides to drown Victor by dragging him underwater and entangling him in seaweed . With Victor gone , Lydia chooses to stay with Jerome while Maxim and his remaining subordinates swim back to Russia .
While traveling , Weed meets his other brother , Joe . Joe dislikes Gin for leaving Sakura unattended in the Alps . He is unaware that Sakura had left Ōu under the false impression that Gin was dead , and that Gin had been unaware of Sakura 's leaving . Joe explains that a large hybrid bear has attacked and killed his mate , Hitomi . Weed 's group joins Joe to defeat the animal . During the battle , GB dies saving Weed , and Weed vows to avenge him . Weed knocks himself and the bear into a river . The bear dies after hitting a floodgate and Weed manages to survive . He returns to Ōu and learns that his mate , Koyuki , is pregnant . Weeks later , she gives birth to four pups .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
Ginga Legend Weed was written and illustrated by Yoshihiro Takahashi . It is a sequel to his 1980s series Ginga : Nagareboshi Gin , and follows the son of Gin , the title character from the original series . It began serialization in Weekly Manga Goraku magazine in 1999 . The Japanese publisher Nihon Bungeisha released the series in collected volumes from January 2000 to September 2009 . Cumulatively , 60 volumes were published . In October 2006 , Nihon Bungeisha released the first volume of a reprinted edition of Ginga Legend Weed . The company has released 22 volumes of the reprint edition , with the latest published in December 2007 . The American company ComicsOne licensed the series for release in the United States and Canada in 2000 with the first three volumes released between March and June 2001 . Additionally , they provided an Adobe Digital Editions e @-@ book version . ComicsOne later went bankrupt . American publisher DrMaster acquired the rights to some of ComicsOne 's titles , but not Ginga Legend Weed . While the physical copies are out @-@ of @-@ print , the e @-@ book version is still available .
Under their G @-@ Comics imprint , Nihon Bungeisha released several Ginga Legend Weed omnibus editions labeled as " specials " . A series of three specials were released in April 2004 called Gajō no Kettō Hen ( 牙城の血闘編 ) . Throughout 2009 and 2010 , another set of eight " specials " were produced : Tabidachi Hen ( September 2009 ) , Senshi no Shōmei Hen ( October 2009 ) , Inuzoku no Tsutome Hen ( November 2009 ) , Otoko no Yakusoku Hen ( December 2009 ) , Taiman Shōbu Hen ( January 2010 ) , Taishō no Utsuwa Hen ( February 2010 ) , Dōshu Taiketsu Hen ( March 2010 ) , and Uketsuga Reshi Kiba Hen ( April 2010 ) .
= = = Related books = = =
Nihon Bungeisha released several books authored by Takahashi that relate to the main series . Ginga Legend Weed Gaiden ( 銀牙伝説ウィード外伝 ) , first released on August 9 , 2001 and re @-@ released in December 2007 , is a collection of four short stories , including a side @-@ story about a Golden Retriever named Mel , who is a character in the main series , and the story of Takahashi 's past dog Hanako . My Dog , My Weed ( ぼくの犬 僕のウィード ) , a collection of art , essays , and personal experiences pertaining to the attachment between people and animals , was released in November 2001 . In 2002 , Nihon Bungeisha released a magazine called Weed World , which centered around Ginga Legend Weed and related material . In total , 5 issues were published between March and May . In January 2002 , an art book entitled Ginga Legend Weed : Gengashū ( 銀牙伝説ウィード原画集 ) was released . Ginga Legend Weed : Meishōbu Retsuden ( 銀牙伝説ウィード名勝負列伝 ) , a book containing character biographies and statistics , was released in May 2003 . In November 2005 , Ginga Densetsu Weed Tokubetsu Han ( 銀牙伝説ウィード特別版 ) , an omnibus volume containing the prequel Ginga Legend Riki and Weed Gaiden , was released .
= = = Anime = = =
In 2005 , Studio Deen produced a 26 @-@ episode animated adaptation of Ginga Legend Weed , directed by Toshiyuki Kato . In Japan , the series aired from November 3 , 2005 to May 11 , 2006 on Animax with the SKY PerfecTV ! service . Dohatsuten , a Japanese band , performed both the opening and ending themes , Ginga Densetsu Weed and Tsuki Akari ( つきあかり ) , respectively . On December 7 , 2005 , Imperial Records released a single containing the themes and karaoke versions . The full soundtrack for the series , composed by Y2 DOGS , was released by Imperial Records on January 25 , 2006 . The entirety of Ginga Legend Weed was initially released on 13 DVDs published between February 17 , 2006 and March 1 , 2007 . On August 29 , 2008 , a complete box set containing all 13 discs was released . The electronics company Sankyo created a Ginga Legend Weed pachinko game that utilizes the anime character designs .
Top @-@ Insight International licensed Ginga Legend Weed for release in Taiwan . The company released seven individual DVDs , and one complete box set . The series aired in Taiwan on China Television . Future Film licensed and released the series in Finland . The company released Ginga Legend Weed on eight separate DVDs between August 2 , 2006 and December 5 , 2006 . On November 14 , 2007 , Future Film released the entire series on a collector 's edition . The release was bundled with a Weed booklet and mobile phone charm . In Sweden , AudVid distributed the series in one box set on June 15 , 2007 . The set included an extra 16 @-@ page booklet . The Finnish and Swedish releases included both Swedish and Finnish subtitles . In Denmark , Scanbox Entertainment released eight DVDs containing the series in 2007 , and in 2008 produced two box sets containing episodes 1 @-@ 13 and 14 @-@ 26 , respectively . In addition to a Danish dub , Scanbox 's release included Danish and Norwegian subtitles .
= = Reception = =
The 55th volume of Ginga Legend Weed was listed as number 30 on the Oricon sales chart in Japan for the week December 9 – 15 , 2008 . Its sales numbers for the week were 20 @,@ 059 copies , for a cumulative total of 21 @,@ 320 since its release .
Ginga Legend Weed was featured on Jason Thompson 's House of 1000 Manga segment on Anime News Network . He praised the series for its story and took note of the " flavor " of having a combination of physically realistic dogs , " shōnen tropes " , the dogs ' knowledge of the human world ( such as job occupations and dog breeds ) , and dog behavior involving honor , loyalty , honorifics , and auras . However , Thompson noted that the " noble melodrama sometimes gets to be a little much " , and felt that several characters , with the exception of Weed , began " to blur together " due to the difficulty of drawing a very large cast of dogs . Additionally , he commented that the fights weren 't visually " exciting " , as dogs are " lacking prehensile arms " . Overall , Thompson felt that the series was unique , stating that " no one else [ is ] making manga quite like this . " In a later installment of House of 1000 Manga , Thompson expressed his preference for Takahashi 's original work , Ginga : Nagareboshi Gin , stating that it felt " more exciting and natural " than its " stiffer and more pompous " sequel .
= = Legacy = =
In 2002 , Takahashi began publishing Ginga Legend Riki ( 銀牙伝説リキ , lit . Silver Fang Legend Riki ) , a prequel to Ginga Legend Weed and Ginga : Nagareboshi Gin . It was originally serialized in the Weed @-@ centric magazine Weed World , published by Nihon Bungeisha , between March 31 , 2002 and December 10 , 2002 . In March 2003 , Nihon Bungeisha released the collected chapters in a single book and in December 2005 , it was included in the omnibus Ginga Densetsu Weed Tokubetsu Han with Weed Gaiden . A reprinted edition of Ginga Legend Riki was released in March 2007 . The one @-@ shot follows Riki , father of Gin and former leader of the Ōu soldiers . Riki , though sired by the prized bear hound Shiro , is born a runt and never homed . After his mother Yamabuki is returned to her owner , Riki , stricken with sadness , decides to visit her .
During his trek , Riki is attacked by a pack of dogs and falls into a river . Riki is rescued by his father , Shiro , who advises him about the importance of strength and leaves , not knowing Riki is his son . Influenced by Shiro , Riki aims to become strong and continually visits his mother . On a later trip , Riki sees a young boy , Daisuke , hit by a truck on a mountain road and sent over the road railing . Riki howls for help , but instead attracts the dogs that had attacked him . Riki defends Daisuke until Shiro and his owner , Gohei , arrive . Shiro learns that Riki is his son . The book ends with Gohei and Shiro fighting the bear Akakabuto . A bullet becomes lodged in Akakabuto 's brain , driving him insane . Riki watches as the bear grabs Shiro and they fall off a cliff .
Takahashi began a sequel to Ginga Legend Weed , entitled Ginga Legend Weed : Orion ( 銀牙伝説ウィード オリオン , Ginga Densetsu Wīdo : Orion , lit . Silver Fang Legend Weed : Orion ) , in issue # 2173 of Manga Goraku , released on July 24 , 2009 . The first collected volume was released by Nihon Bungeisha in November 2009 . 30 volumes have been published and the series as of July 2014 . The new series follows Weed 's offspring : Bellatrix , Rigel , Sirius , and , in particular , Orion . They are all named after astronomical phenomenon : Orion after the Orion constellation , Rigel after the star Rigel , Sirius after the star Sirius , and Bellatrix after the star Bellatrix . Orion bears a close physical resemblance Riki and possesses an inborn strength , but is rude and hot @-@ headed . Rigel shares Orion 's fiery personality , while Sirius , who resembles his father , is level @-@ headed and a peace @-@ keeper . Bellatrix , Weed 's only daughter , is portrayed as immature and whiny .
An earthquake and subsequent volcanic eruption separates Orion from his parents and siblings . Joe locates Orion and brings him to safety but disappears in the process , while the other siblings are put under the charge of the Ōu soldier Sasuke . With the Ōu Mountains in complete disarray , new threats arrive to exploit its weaknesses . Three sons of the Irish Wolfhound Kamakiri , a platoon leader for Hōgen , wish to avenge their father 's death . Kurohabaki Masamune , the leader of the Kurohabaki Clan of ninja dogs , aims to take over Ōu and strengthen his army . He is the adoptive son of the former Kurohabaki leader , Terumune , and was previously denied leadership of the clan , despite his striving for approval . Instead , Terumune decided that his blood @-@ related son Yamabiko , born after Masamune 's arrival , would become leader . Thereafter , Masamune banished Terumune and took control of the clan . He holds a grudge against Yamabiko and plans to find and kill him . Meanwhile , members of the Kurohabaki clan roam Ōu , gathering recruits and killing those who resist .
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= Manuel Alberti =
Manuel Máximiliano Alberti ( 28 May 1763 – 31 January 1811 ) was a priest from Buenos Aires , when the city was part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata . He had a curacy at Maldonado , Uruguay during the British invasions of the Río de la Plata , and returned to Buenos Aires in time to take part in the May Revolution of 1810 . He was chosen as one of the seven members of the Primera Junta , which is considered the first national government of Argentina . He supported most of the proposals of Mariano Moreno and worked at the Gazeta de Buenos Ayres newspaper . The internal disputes of the Junta had a negative effect on his health , and he died of a heart attack in 1811 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Colonial times = = =
Manuel Alberti was born in Buenos Aires on 28 May 1763 to Antonio Alberti and Juana Agustina Marín . He was baptized on the following 1 June at the Concepción parish ; his godparents were Juan Javier Dogan and Isabel de Soria y Santa Cruz . He had three brothers , Isidoro , Manuel Silvestre and Félix , and three sisters , Casimira , Juana María and María Clotilde . The Alberti family became benefactor of the House of Spiritual Works of Buenos Aires by donating them a land plot so it could move its headquarters .
He made his first studies at the Real Colegio de San Carlos in February 1777 , graduating in philosophy , logic , physics and metaphysics . He studied with Hipólito Vieytes , and ended his secondary education on 17 February 1779 . He moved to Córdoba the following year , to get university studies of theology at the National University of Córdoba . Despite a brief return to Buenos Aires during his second year because of health problems , he could finish all the syllabus . He got his doctorate in theology and physics on 16 July 1785 . He got his degree at the Church of the Company from interim provost Fray Pedro Gaitán .
He received the presbyterate in the first months of 1786 , and was appointed for the Concepción parish , the same one where he was baptized . He also worked at the aforementioned House of Spiritual Works of Buenos Aires . He got the curacy of Magdalena on 12 September 1790 , but resigned a year later because of health problems . He returned in 1793 , and resigned definitively on 21 February 1794 . After this , he moved to Maldonado . There are few historical records of his activities in those curacies .
The territory fell briefly under British rule during the British invasions of the Río de la Plata . There was looting after the failed resistance , and Alberti hid all the valuable things from the half @-@ built parish . In defiance of the new British rule , Alberti gave medical aid to the Spanish soldiers and Catholic burials to the deceased , and mailed the Spanish forces with details about the British troops located in the city . As a result , he was jailed . He was released by the British Juan Jaime Backhouse in order to restore religious practices ( the invaders did not attempt to enforce Protestantism in the population ) , but under military escort . The British would be defeated by Santiago de Liniers , and driven away from the viceroyalty .
= = = Primera Junta = = =
He returned to Buenos Aires in 1808 , and got the curacy of San Benito de Palermo . This was supposed to be a new jurisdiction split from the one of San Nicolás de Bari , but such change was never enforced , so he was actually in charge of both . He became involved with politics as well , joining the groups of Miguel de Azcuénaga and Nicolás Rodríguez Peña . Those groups sought to generate great political and social changes , and would lead to the May Revolution . He was selected to take part in the open cabildo celebrated on 22 May to decide the fate of Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros , as well as other twenty @-@ seven ecclesiastics . He was among the nineteen that voted for the removal of the viceroy , supporting the proposal of Cornelio Saavedra . He also supported Juan Nepomuceno Solá and Ramón Vieytes , who proposed the calling of deputies from the other cities of the viceroyalty .
His brother Manuel Silvestre Alberti signed the popular petition formulated on 25 May that aimed to draft the composition of the Primera Junta that would replace Cisneros in power . On that day Alberti moved to Azcuénaga 's house and from it he observed the events in the plaza , along with many other patriots gathered there . He was there when he came to know that he was chosen as a member of the new Junta . The reasons of Alberti 's inclusion in the Junta are unclear , as with all its members . A common accepted theory considers it to be a balance between Carlotists and Alzaguists , and Alberti in particular may have been elected to serve as chaplain of the government .
In the Junta , Alberti was aligned with most of the reformist proposals of Mariano Moreno , as well as Juan Larrea and Juan José Castelli . He signed most of the rulings that shaped the new political system , such as those related to popular sovereignty , representative and republican principles , separation of powers , publicity of the government actions , freedom of speech and the bases of political federalism . However , he did not support the actions of the Junta that contradicted his religious formation , regardless of the context . He refused to sign the death penalty for Santiago de Liniers , captured after the defeat of his counter @-@ revolution . He signed the harsh commands given to Castelli for the first Upper Peru campaign , but noticing next to his signature that he made an exception with the articles involving capital punishment . He was also concerned by the role of the church in the new political system and headed a dispute against the Cabildo about it . He considered that the Cabildo should not have any authority over the Junta in ecclesiastic topics , to prevent the former abuses of the absolutist governments .
Manuel Alberti worked in journalism as well , at the Gazeta de Buenos Ayres newspaper created by the Junta . The ruling that created this newspaper gave Alberti the duty of selecting the news reports to publish . This duty was exclusive of Alberti and not shared with the other members of the Junta . Some historians also consider that Alberti may be the real author of the newspaper 's editorials , as they were not signed and the style is not similar to other reports by Mariano Moreno , who is usually considered the author .
The first conflict between Alberti and Moreno was caused by the arrival of Gregorio Funes , dean of Córdoba with similar ideas to those of Cornelio Saavedra , president of the Junta . Moreno was keeping an internal dispute with Saavedra , and expected Alberti to write against Funes . He did not , and Moreno made harsh comments about it . Alberti would be further distanced from Moreno when the Junta voted for the incorporation of the deputies from other cities into the Junta . At first , both of them opposed the proposal , but Alberti ultimately voted accepting it , stating that he did so just out of political convenience . The Primera Junta was thus turned into the Junta Grande . Mariano Moreno , left in a minority group , resigned .
The inclusion of new deputies increased disputes within the Junta . He opposed both Saavedra and Funes , albeit in a more moderate manner than Moreno . Those fights affected his health , and he had a mild heart attack on 28 January 1811 . Fearing for his life , he wrote his will and received the Anointing of the Sick . Three days later he had another strong disagreement with Funes , and had another heart attack when he was returning to his house . He was buried in the cemetery of San Nicolás de Bari , as requested in his will . The death certificate states that he hadn 't been given last rites because his unanticipated death did not allow for time . Alberti was the first member of the Primera Junta to die .
= = Commemoration = =
All members of the Junta Grande assisted to Alberti 's funeral , even his political enemy Gregorio Funes . Domingo Matheu was the most affected one by his death , to the point of crying for it . Alberti was replaced in the Junta by Nicolás Rodríguez Peña , a decided morenist . Saavedra and Funes did not like him , but with the social commotion generated by Alberti 's death , they avoided to offer resistance to his nomination .
Alberti requested in his will to avoid pageantry or complex funerals , and inherited his properties ( house , farm , furniture , slaves , clothing , books , etc . ) to his siblings Juana María , Matilde , Casimira and Manuel Silvestre . His personal diaries are kept , but with some parts of them being lost due to poor keeping . Still , his personal bibliography is used by historians to reconstruct his influences and ideological background . It included many works of theology , studies of the Bible , scholastic theologists and juridical studies . Alberti 's remains were lost when the chapel was demolished to make way for an expansion of 9 de Julio Avenue .
The government of Buenos Aires name a street in his honor in 1822 . In 1910 , during the Argentina Centennial , a statue of him was erected in Barrancas de Belgrano , a neighborhood at the north of Buenos Aires . The district of Manuel Alberti , in Buenos Aires Province , is also named after him .
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= Horses in the Middle Ages =
Horses in the Middle Ages differed in size , build and breed from the modern horse , and were , on average , smaller . They were also more central to society than their modern counterparts , being essential for war , agriculture , and transport .
Consequently , specific types of horse developed , many of which have no modern equivalent . While an understanding of modern horse breeds and equestrianism is vital for any analysis of the medieval horse , researchers also need to consider documentary ( both written and pictorial ) and archaeological evidence .
Horses in the Middle Ages were rarely differentiated by breed , but rather by use . This led them to be described , for example , as " chargers " ( war horses ) , " palfreys " ( riding horses ) , cart horses or packhorses . Reference is also given to their place of origin , such as " Spanish horses , " but whether this referred to one breed or several is unknown . Another difficulty arising during any study of medieval documents or literature is the flexibility of the medieval languages , where several words can be used for one thing ( or , conversely , several objects are referred to by one word ) . Words such as ' courser ' and ' charger ' are used interchangeably ( even within one document ) , and where one epic may speak disparagingly of a rouncey , another praises its skill and swiftness .
Significant technological advances in equestrian equipment , often introduced from other cultures , allowed for significant changes in both warfare and agriculture . In particular , improved designs for the solid @-@ treed saddle as well as the arrival of the stirrup , horseshoe and horse collar were significant advances in medieval society .
Consequently , the assumptions and theories developed by historians are not definitive , and debate still rages on many issues , such as the breeding or size of the horse , and a number of sources must be consulted in order to understand the breadth of the subject .
= = Breeding = =
During the decline of the Roman Empire and the Early Middle Ages , much of the quality breeding stock developed during the classical period was lost due to uncontrolled breeding and had to be built up again over the following centuries . In the west , this may have been due in part to the reliance of the British and Scandinavians on infantry @-@ based warfare , where horses were only used for riding and pursuit .
However , there were exceptions ; in the 7th century a Merovingian kingdom still retained at least one active Roman horse breeding centre . The Spanish also retained many quality horses , in part due to the historic reputation of the region as a horse @-@ breeding land , and partially due to the cultural influences related to the Islamic conquest of the Iberian peninsula between the 8th and 15th centuries .
The origins of the medieval war horse are obscure , although it is believed they had some Barb and Arabian blood through the Spanish Jennet , a forerunner to the modern Friesian and Andalusian horse . It is also possible that other sources of oriental bloodstock came from what was called the Nisaean breed ( possibly akin to the Turkoman horse ) from Iran and Anatolia , another type of oriental horse brought back from the Crusades . " Spanish " horses , whatever their breeding , were the most expensive . In fact , in Germany the word spanjol became the term for quality war horses . However , German literary sources also refer to fine horses from Scandinavia . France also produced good war horses . Some scholars attribute this to the strong Feudal society there , but an equally probable explanation is the historic influence of the Roman horse breeding traditions preserved by the Merovingians , combined with the addition of valuable Spanish and oriental bloodstock captured in the wake of the victory of Charles Martel over the Islamic Umayyad invaders at the Battle of Tours in 732 . Following this battle , the Carolingians began to increase their heavy cavalry , which resulted in the seizure of land ( for fodder production ) , and a change in tribute payment from cattle to horses .
As the importance of horse breeding to successful warfare was realized , planned breeding programs increased . Many changes were due to the influence of Islamic culture through both the Crusades and the Moorish invasions of Spain ; the Arabs kept extensive pedigrees of their Barb and Arabian horses via an oral tradition . Some of the earliest written pedigrees in recorded European history were kept by Carthusian monks , who were among those who bred the Spanish Jennet . Because they could read and write , thus kept careful records , monastics were given the responsibility for horse breeding by certain members of the nobility , particularly in Spain . In England , a common source of warhorses were the wild moorland ponies , which were rounded up annually by horse @-@ breeders , including the Cistercians , for use as campaign riding horses , or light cavalry ; one such breed was the Fell pony , which had similar ancestry to the Friesian horse .
It is also hard to trace what happened to the bloodlines of destriers when this type seems to disappear from record during the 17th century . Many modern draft breeds claim some link to the medieval " great horse , " with some historians considering breeds such as the Percheron , Belgian and Suffolk Punch likely descendants of the destrier . However , other historians discount this theory , since the historical record suggests the medieval warhorse was quite a different ' type ' to the modern draught horse Such a theory would suggest the war horses were crossed once again with " cold blooded " work horses , since war horses , and the destrier in particular , were renowned for their hot @-@ blooded nature .
= = = Types of horse = = =
Throughout the period , horses were rarely considered breeds , but instead were defined by type : by describing their purpose or their physical attributes . Many of the definitions were not precise , or were interchangeable . Prior to approximately the 13th century , few pedigrees were written down . Thus , many terms for horses in the Middle Ages did not refer to breeds as we know them today , but rather described appearance or purpose .
One of the best @-@ known of the medieval horses was the destrier , renowned and admired for its capabilities in war . It was well trained , and was required to be strong , fast and agile . A 14th @-@ century writer described them as " tall and majestic and with great strength " . In contemporary sources , the destrier was frequently referred to as the " great horse " because of its size and reputation . Being a subjective term , it gives no firm information about its actual height or weight , but since the average horse of the time was 12 to 14 hands ( 48 to 56 inches , 122 to 142 cm ) , thus a " great horse " by medieval standards might appear small to our modern eyes . The destrier was highly prized by knights and men @-@ at @-@ arms , but was actually not very common , and appears to have been most suited to the joust .
Coursers were generally preferred for hard battle as they were light , fast and strong . They were valuable , but not as costly as the destrier . They were also used frequently for hunting .
A more general @-@ purpose horse was the rouncey ( also rounsey ) , which could be kept as a riding horse or trained for war . It was commonly used by squires , men @-@ at @-@ arms or poorer knights . A wealthy knight would keep rounceys for his retinue . Sometimes the expected nature of warfare dictated the choice of horse ; when a summons to war was sent out in England , in 1327 , it expressly requested rounceys , for swift pursuit , rather than destriers . Rounceys were sometimes used as pack horses ( but never as cart horses ) .
The well @-@ bred palfrey , which could equal a destrier in price , was popular with nobles and highly ranked knights for riding , hunting and ceremonial use . Ambling was a desirable trait in a palfrey , as the smooth gait allowed the rider to cover long distances quickly in relative comfort . Other horse types included the jennet , a small horse first bred in Spain from Barb and Arabian bloodstock . Their quiet and dependable nature , as well as size , made them popular as riding horses for ladies ; however , they were also used as cavalry horses by the Spanish .
The hobby was a lightweight horse , about 13 to 14 hands ( 52 to 56 inches , 132 to 142 cm ) , developed in Ireland from Spanish or Libyan ( Barb ) bloodstock . This type of quick and agile horse was popular for skirmishing , and was often ridden by light cavalry known as Hobelars . Hobbies were used successfully by both sides during the Wars of Scottish Independence , with Edward I of England trying to gain advantage by preventing Irish exports of the horses to Scotland . Robert Bruce employed the hobby for his guerilla warfare and mounted raids , covering 60 to 70 miles ( 97 to 113 km ) a day .
= = Horses in warfare = =
.
While light cavalry had been used in warfare for many centuries , the medieval era saw the rise of heavy cavalry , particularly the European knight . Historians are uncertain when the use of heavy cavalry in the form of mounted shock troops first occurred , but the technique had become widespread by the mid @-@ 12th century . The heavy cavalry charge itself was not a common occurrence in warfare . Pitched battles were avoided if at all possible , with most offensive warfare in the early Middle Ages taking the form of sieges , or swift mounted raids called chevauchées , with the warriors lightly armed on swift horses and their heavy war horses safely in the stable . Pitched battles were sometimes unavoidable , but were rarely fought on land suitable for heavy cavalry . While mounted riders remained effective for initial attacks , by the 14th century , it was common for knights to dismount to fight . Horses were sent to the rear , and kept ready for pursuit . By the Late Middle Ages ( approx 1300 @-@ 1550 ) , large battles became more common , probably because of the success of infantry tactics and changes in weaponry . However , because such tactics left the knight unmounted , the role of the war horse also changed . By the 17th century , the medieval charger had become a thing of the past , replaced by lighter , unarmoured horses . Throughout the period , light horse , or prickers , were used for scouting and reconnaissance ; they also provided a defensive screen for marching armies . Large teams of draught horses , or oxen , were used for pulling the heavy early cannon . Other horses pulled wagons and carried supplies for the armies .
= = = Tournaments = = =
Tournaments and hastiludes began in the 11th century as both a sport and to provide training for battle . Usually taking the form of a melee , the participants used the horses , armour and weapons of war . The sport of jousting grew out of the tournament and , by the 15th century , the art of tilting became quite sophisticated . In the process , the pageantry and specialization became less war @-@ like , perhaps because of the knight 's changing role in war .
Horses were specially bred for the joust , and heavier armour developed . However , this did not necessarily lead to significantly larger horses . Interpreters at the Royal Armouries , Leeds , re @-@ created the joust , using specially bred horses and replica armour . Their horses accurately represented the medieval mount , being compactly built and not particularly tall .
= = = Types of war horses = = =
The most well @-@ known horse of the medieval era of Europe is the destrier , known for carrying knights into war . However , most knights and mounted men @-@ at @-@ arms rode smaller horses known as coursers and rounceys . ( A common generic name for medieval war horses was charger , which was interchangeable with the other terms ) . In Spain , the jennet was used as a light cavalry horse .
Stallions were often used as war horses in Europe due to their natural aggression and hot @-@ blooded tendencies . A 13th @-@ century work describes destriers " biting and kicking " on the battlefield , and , in the heat of battle , war horses were often seen fighting each other . However , the use of mares by European warriors cannot be discounted from literary references . Mares were the preferred war horse of the Moors , Islamic invaders who attacked various European nations from AD 700 through the 15th century . They also were preferred by the Mongols .
War horses were more expensive than normal riding horses , and destriers the most prized , but figures vary greatly from source to source . Destriers are given a values ranging from seven times the price of an ordinary horse to 700 times . The Bohemian king Wenzel II rode a horse " valued at one thousand marks " in 1298 . At the other extreme , a 1265 French ordinance ruled that a squire could not spend more than twenty marks on a rouncey . Knights were expected to have at least one war horse ( as well as riding horses and packhorses ) , with some records from the later Middle Ages showing knights bringing twenty @-@ four horses on campaign . Five horses was perhaps the standard .
= = = Size of war horses = = =
There is dispute in medievalist circles over the size of the war horse , with some notable historians claiming a size of 17 to 18 hands ( 68 to 72 inches , 173 to 183 cm ) , as large as a modern Shire horse . However , there are practical reasons for dispute over size . Analysis of existing horse armour located in the Royal Armouries indicates the equipment was originally worn by horses of 15 to 16 hands ( 60 to 64 inches , 152 to 163 cm ) , or about the size and build of a modern field hunter or ordinary riding horse . Research undertaken at the Museum of London , using literary , pictorial and archaeological sources , supports military horses of 14 to 15 hands ( 56 to 60 inches , 142 to 152 cm ) , distinguished from a riding horse by its strength and skill , rather than its size . This average does not seem to vary greatly across the medieval period . Horses appear to have been selectively bred for increased size from the 9th and 10th centuries , and by the 11th century the average warhorse was probably 14 @.@ 2 to 15 hands ( 58 to 60 inches , 147 to 152 cm ) , a size verified by studies of Norman horseshoes as well as the depictions of horses on the Bayeux Tapestry . Analysis of horse transports suggests 13th @-@ century destriers were a stocky build , and no more than 15 to 15 @.@ 2 hands ( 60 to 62 inches , 152 to 157 cm ) . Three centuries later , warhorses were not significantly bigger ; the Royal Armouries used a 15 @.@ 2 hands ( 62 inches , 157 cm ) Lithuanian Heavy Draught mare as a model for the statues displaying various 15th- and 16th @-@ century horse armours , as her body shape was an excellent fit .
Perhaps one reason for the pervasive belief that the medieval war horse had to be of draught horse type is the assumption , still held by many , that medieval armour was heavy . In fact , even the heaviest tournament armour ( for knights ) weighed little more than 90 pounds ( 41 kg ) , and field ( war ) armour 40 to 70 pounds ( 18 to 32 kg ) ; barding , or horse armour , more common in tournaments than war , rarely weighed more than 70 pounds ( 32 kg ) . For horses , Cuir bouilli ( a type of hardened leather ) , and padded caparisons were more common , and probably as effective . Allowing for the weight of the rider and other equipment , horses can carry approximately 30 % of their weight ; thus such loads could certainly be carried by a heavy riding horse in the 1 @,@ 200 to 1 @,@ 300 pounds ( 540 to 590 kg ) range , and a draught horse was not needed .
Although a large horse is not required to carry an armoured knight , it is held by some historians that a large horse was desirable to increase the power of a lance strike . However , practical experiments by re @-@ enactors have suggested that the rider 's weight and strength is of more relevance than the size of the mount , and that little of the horse 's weight is translated to the lance .
Further evidence for a 14 @-@ 16 hand ( 56 to 64 inches ( 140 to 160 cm ) ) war horse is that it was a matter of pride to a knight to be able to vault onto his horse in full armour , without touching the stirrup . This arose not from vanity , but necessity : if unhorsed during battle , a knight would remain vulnerable if unable to mount by himself . In reality , of course , a wounded or weary knight might find it difficult , and rely on a vigilant squire to assist him . Incidentally , a knight 's armour served in his favour in any fall . With his long hair twisted on his head to form a springy padding under his padded @-@ linen hood , and his helm placed on top , he had head protection not dissimilar to a modern bicycle or equestrian helmet .
= = Transportation = =
Throughout the Middle Ages it was customary for people of all classes and background to travel , often widely . The households of the upper classes and royal courts moved between manors and estates ; the demands of diplomacy , war and crusades took men to distant countries ; priests travelled between churches , monasteries and formed emissaries to Rome ; people of all classes went on pilgrimage , or travelled to find work ; others travelled as a pastime . Most people undertook small journeys on foot and hired horses for longer journeys . For the upper classes , travel was accompanied by a great deal of pomp and display , with fine horses , large retinues and magnificent cavalcades in order to display their wealth as well as to ensure personal comfort . For example , in 1445 , the English royal household contained 60 horses in the king 's stable and 186 kept for " chariots " ( carriages ) and carts .
During much of the Middle Ages , there was no system of interconnected roads and bridges . Though parts of Europe still had remnants of Roman roads built before the collapse of the Roman Empire , most had long fallen into disrepair . Because of the necessity to ride long distances over uncertain roads , smooth @-@ gaited horses were preferred , and most ordinary riding horses were of greater value if they could do one of the smooth but ground @-@ covering four @-@ beat gaits collectively known as an amble rather than the more jarring trot .
Mule trains , for land travel , and barges , for river and canal travel , were the most common form of long @-@ distance haulage , although wheeled horse @-@ drawn vehicles were used for shorter journeys . In areas with good roads , regular carrier services were established between major towns . However , because medieval roads were generally so poor , carriages for human passengers were rare . When roads permitted , early carriages were developed from freight wagons . Carriage travel was made more comfortable in the late 14th century with the introduction of the chariot branlant , which had strap suspension .
The speed of travel varied greatly . Large retinues could be slowed by the presence of slow @-@ paced carts and litters , or by servants and attendants on foot , and could rarely cover more than fifteen to twenty miles a day . Small mounted companies might travel 30 miles a day . However , there were exceptions : stopping only for a change of horses midway , Richard II of England once managed the 70 miles between Daventry and Westminster in a night .
For breeding , war and travel purposes , it was also necessary to be able to transport horses themselves . For this purpose , boats were adapted and built to be used as horse transports . William of Normandy 's invasion of England in 1066 required the transfer of over 2000 horses from Normandy . Similarly , when travelling to France in 1285 – 6 , Edward I of England ferried over 1000 horses across the English Channel to provide the royal party with transport .
= = = Riding horses = = =
Riding horses were used by a variety of people during the Middle Ages , and so varied greatly in quality , size and breeding . Knights and nobles kept riding horses in their war @-@ trains , saving their warhorses for the battle . The names of horses referred to a type of horse , rather than a breed . Many horses were named by the region where they or their immediate ancestors were foaled . For example , in Germany , Hungarian horses were commonly used for riding . Individual horses were often described by their gait ( ' trotters ' or ' amblers ' ) , by their colouring , or by the name of their breeder .
The best riding horses were known as palfreys ; other riding horses were often called hackneys , from which the modern term " hack " is derived . Women sometimes rode palfreys or small , quiet horses known as jennets .
= = = Harness and pack horses = = =
A variety of work horses were used throughout the Middle Ages . The pack horse ( or " sumpter horse " ) carried equipment and belongings . Common riding horses , often called " hackneys " , could be used as pack horses . Cart horses pulled wagons for trading and freight haulage , on farms , or as part of a military campaign . These draught horses were smaller than their modern counterparts ; pictorial and archaeological evidence suggests that they were stout but short , approximately 13 to 14 hands ( 52 to 56 inches , 132 to 142 cm ) , and capable of drawing a load of 500 to 600 pounds ( 230 to 270 kg ) per horse . Four @-@ wheeled wagons and two @-@ wheeled carts were more common in towns , such as London and , depending on type of vehicle and weight of the load , were usually pulled by teams of two , three , or four horses harnessed in tandem . Starting in the 12th century , in England the use of oxen to pull carts was gradually superseded by the use of horses , a process that extended through the 13th century . This change came because horse @-@ drawn transport moved goods quicker and over greater distances than ox @-@ drawn methods of transport .
= = Agriculture = =
The Romans had used a two @-@ field crop rotation agricultural system , but from the 8th century on , a three @-@ field system became more common . One field would be sown with a winter crop , the second with a spring crop , and the third left fallow . This allowed a greater amount of spring crop of oats to be grown , which provided fodder for horses . Another advance during the Middle Ages was the development of the heavy mouldboard plough , which allowed dense and heavy soils to be tilled easily ; this technology required the use of larger teams of draught animals including oxen and horses , as well as the adoption of larger fields . Particularly after the 12th century , the increased use of both the horse collar and use of iron horse shoes allowed horsepower to be directed more efficiently . Horse teams usually were four horses , or perhaps six , as compared to eight oxen , and the lesser numbers compensated for the fact that the horses needed to be fed grain on top of pasture , unlike oxen . The increased speed of horses also allowed more land to be ploughed in a day , with an eight ox plough team averaging half of an acre per day , but a horse team averaged a full acre per day .
For farm work , such as ploughing and harrowing , the draught horse utilized for this purpose was called an affrus ( or stott ) , which was usually smaller and cheaper than the cart horse . While oxen were traditionally used as work animals on farms , horses began to be used in greater numbers after the development of the horse collar . Oxen and horses were sometimes harnessed together . The transition from oxen to horses for farm work was documented in pictorial sources ( for example , the 11th @-@ century Bayeux tapestry depicts working horses ) , and also clear from the change from the Roman two @-@ field crop @-@ rotation system to a new three @-@ field system , which increased the cultivation of fodder crops ( predominantly oats , barley and beans ) . Horses were also used to process crops ; they were used to turn the wheels in mills ( such as corn mills ) , and transport crops to market . The change to horse @-@ drawn teams also meant a change in ploughs , as horses were more suited to a wheeled plough , unlike oxen .
= = Equestrian equipment and technological innovations = =
The development of equestrian technology proceeded at a similar pace as the development of horse breeding and utilisation . The changes in warfare during the Early Middle Ages to heavy cavalry both precipitated and relied on the arrival of the stirrup , solid @-@ treed saddle , and horseshoe from other cultures .
The development of the nailed horseshoe enabled longer , faster journeys on horseback , particularly in the wetter lands in northern Europe , and were useful for campaigns on varied terrains . By providing protection and support , nailed horse shoes also improved the efficiency of draught horse teams . Though the Romans had developed an iron " hipposandal " that resembled a hoof boot , there is much debate over the actual origins of the nailed horseshoe , though it does appear to be of European origin . There is little evidence of nailed @-@ on shoes prior to AD 500 or 600 , though there is speculation that the Celtic Gauls were the first to nail on metal horseshoes . The earliest clear written record of iron horseshoes is a reference to " crescent figured irons and their nails " in a list of cavalry equipment from AD 910 . Additional archaeological evidence suggests they were used in Siberia during the 9th and 10th centuries , and had spread to Byzantium soon afterward ; by the 11th century , horseshoes were commonly used in Europe . By the time the Crusades began in 1096 , horseshoes were widespread and frequently mentioned in various written sources .
= = = Riding technology = = =
The saddle with a solid tree provided a bearing surface to protect the horse from the weight of the rider . The Romans are credited with the invention of the solid @-@ treed saddle , possibly as early as the 1st century BC , and it was widespread by the 2nd century AD . Early medieval saddles resembled the Roman " four @-@ horn " saddle , and were used without stirrups . The development of the solid saddle tree was significant ; it raised the rider above the horse 's back , and distributed the rider 's weight , reducing the pounds per square inch carried on any one part of the horse 's back , thus greatly increasing the comfort of the horse and prolonging its useful life . Horses could carry more weight when distributed across a solid saddle tree . It also allowed a more built up seat to give the rider greater security in the saddle . From the 12th century on , the high war @-@ saddle became more common , providing protection as well as added security . The built up cantle of a solid @-@ treed saddle enabled horsemen to use lance more effectively .
Beneath the saddle , caparisons or saddle cloths were sometimes worn ; these could be decorated or embroidered with heraldic colours and arms . War horses could be equipped with additional covers , blankets and armour collectively referred to as barding ; this could be for decorative or protective purposes . Early forms of horse armour , usually restricted to tournaments , comprised padded leather pieces , covered by a trapper ( a decorated cloth ) , which was not particularly heavy . Mail and plate armour was also occasionally used ; there are literary references to horse armour ( an " iron blanket " ) starting in the late 12th century .
The solid tree allowed for effective use of the stirrup . The stirrup was developed in China and in widespread use there by 477 AD . By the 7th century , primarily due to invaders from Central Asia , such as the Avars , stirrups arrived in Europe , and European riders had adopted them by the 8th century . Among other advantages , stirrups provided greater balance and support to the rider , which allowed the knight to use a sword more efficiently without falling , especially against infantry .
The increased use of the stirrup from the 8th century on aided the warrior 's stability and security in the saddle when fighting . This may have led to greater use of shock tactics , although a couched lance could be used effectively without stirrups . In particular , Charles Martel recognized the military potential of the stirrup , and distributed seized lands to his retainers on condition that they serve him by fighting in the new manner .
A theory known as The Great Stirrup Controversy argues that the advantages in warfare that stemmed from use of the stirrup led to the birth of feudalism itself . Other scholars , however , dispute this assertion , suggesting that stirrups provided little advantage in shock warfare , being useful primarily for allowing a rider to lean farther to the left and right on the saddle while fighting , and simply reduce the risk of falling off . Therefore , it is argued , they are not the reason for the switch from infantry to cavalry in Medieval militaries , nor the reason for the emergence of Feudalism .
There was a variety of headgear used to control horses , predominantly bridles with assorted designs of bits . Many of the bits used during the Middle Ages resemble the bradoon , snaffle bit and curb bit that are still in common use today . However , they often were decorated to a greater degree : the bit rings or shanks were frequently covered with large , ornamental " bosses . " Some designs were also more extreme and severe than those used today.The curb bit was known during the classical period , but was not generally used during the Middle Ages until the mid @-@ 14th century . Some styles of snaffle bit used during the Middle Ages had the lower cheek extended , in the manner of the modern half @-@ cheek or full cheek snaffle . Until the late 13th century , bridles generally had a single pair of reins ; after this period it became more common for knights to use two sets of reins , similar to that of the modern double bridle , and often at least one set was decorated .
Spurs were commonly used throughout the period , especially by knights , with whom they were regularly associated . A young man was said to have " won his spurs " when he achieved knighthood . Wealthy knights and riders frequently wore decorated and filigreed spurs . Attached to the rider 's heel by straps , spurs could be used both to encourage horses to quickly move forward or to direct lateral movement . Early spurs had a short shanks or " neck " , placing the rowel relatively close to the rider 's heel ; further developments in the spur shape lengthened the neck , making it easier to touch the horse with less leg movement on the part of the rider .
= = = Harness technology = = =
A significant development which increased the importance and use of horses in harness , particularly for ploughing and other farm work , was the horse collar . The horse collar was invented in China during the 5th century , arrived in Europe during the 9th century , and became widespread throughout Europe by the 12th century . It allowed horses to pull greater weight than they could when hitched to a vehicle by means of yokes or breastcollars used in earlier times . The yoke was designed for oxen and not suited to the anatomy of horses , it required horses to pull with their shoulders rather than using the power of their hindquarters . Harnessed in such a manner , horse teams could pull no more than 500 kg . The breastplate @-@ style harness that had flat straps across the neck and chest of the animal , while useful for pulling light vehicles , was of little use for heavy work . These straps pressed against the horse 's sterno @-@ cephalicus muscle and trachea , which restricted breathing and reduced the pulling power of the horse . Two horses harnessed with a breastcollar harness were limited to pulling a combined total of about 1 @,@ 100 pounds ( 500 kg ) . In contrast , the horse collar rested on horses ' shoulders and did not impede breathing . It allowed a horse to use its full strength , by pushing forward with its hindquarters into the collar rather than to pull with its shoulders . With the horse collar , a horse could provide a work effort of 50 % more foot @-@ pounds per second than an ox , because it could move at a greater speed , as well as having generally greater endurance and the ability to work more hours in a day . A single horse with a more efficient collar harness could draw a weight of about 1 @,@ 500 pounds ( 680 kg ) .
A further improvement was managed by altering the arrangement of the teams ; by hitching horses one behind the other , rather than side by side , weight could be distributed more evenly , and pulling power increased . This increase in horse power is demonstrated in the building accounts of Troyes , which show carters hauling stone from quarries 50 miles ( 80 km ) distant ; the carts weighed , on average , 5 @,@ 500 pounds ( 2 @,@ 500 kg ) , on which 5 @,@ 500 pounds ( 2 @,@ 500 kg ) of stone was regularly loaded , sometimes increasing to 8 @,@ 600 pounds ( 3 @,@ 900 kg ) – a significant increase from Roman @-@ era loads .
= = Horse trades and professions = =
The elite horseman of the Middle Ages was the knight . Generally raised from the middle and upper classes , the knight was trained from childhood in the arts of war and management of the horse . In most languages , the term for knight reflects his status as a horseman : the French chevalier , Spanish caballero and German Ritter . The French word for horse @-@ mastery – chevalerie – gave its name to the highest concept of knighthood : chivalry .
A large number of trades and positions arose to ensure the appropriate management and care of horses . In aristrocratic households , the marshal was responsible for all aspects relating to horses : the care and management of all horses from the chargers to the pack horses , as well as all travel logistics . The position of marshal ( literally " horse servant " ) was a high one in court circles and the king 's marshal ( such as the Earl Marshal in England ) was also responsible for managing many military matters . Also present within the great households was the constable ( or " count of the stable " ) , who was responsible for protection and the maintenance of order within the household and commanding the military component and , with marshals , might organise hastiludes and other chivalrous events . Within lower social groupings , the ' marshal ' acted as a farrier . The highly skilled marshal made and fitted horseshoes , cared for the hoof , and provided general veterinary care for horses ; throughout the Middle Ages , a distinction was drawn between the marshal and the blacksmith , whose work was more limited .
A number of tradesmen dealt with the provision of horses . Horse dealers ( frequently called " horse coursers " in England ) bought and sold horses , and frequently had a reputation as dishonest figures , responsible for the brisk trade in stolen horses . Others , such as the " hackneymen " offered horses for hire , and many formed large establishments on busy roads , often branding their horses to deter theft .
= = Women and horses = =
It was not uncommon for a girl to learn her father 's trade and for a woman to share her husband 's trade , since the entire family often helped run medieval shops and farms . Many guilds also accepted the membership of widows , so they might continue their husband 's business . Under this system , some women trained in horse @-@ related trades , and there are records of women working as farriers and saddle @-@ makers . On farms , where every hand was needed , excessive emphasis on division of labour was impracticable , and women often worked alongside men ( on their own farms or as hired help ) , leading the farm horses and oxen , and managing their care .
Despite the difficulties of travel , it was customary for many people , including women , to travel long distances . Upper @-@ class wives frequently accompanied their husbands on crusade or to tournaments , and many women traveled for social or family engagements ; both nuns and laywomen would perform pilgrimages . When not on foot , women would usually travel on horseback or , if weakened or infirm , be carried in a wagon or a litter . If roads permitted , women sometimes rode in early carriages developed from freight wagons , pulled by three or four horses . After the invention of better suspension systems , travel in carriages became more comfortable . Women of the nobility also rode horses for sport , accompanying men in activities that included hunting and hawking .
Most medieval women rode astride . Although an early chair @-@ like sidesaddle with handles and a footrest was available by the 13th century and allowed women of the nobility to ride while wearing elaborate gowns , they were not universally adopted during the Middle Ages . This was largely due to the insecure seat they offered , which necessitated a smooth @-@ gaited horse being led by another handler . The sidesaddle did not become practical for everyday riding until the 16th @-@ century development of the pommel horn that allowed a woman to hook her leg around the saddle and hence use the reins to control her own horse . Even then , sidesaddle riding remained a precarious activity until the invention of the second , " leaping horn " in the 19th century .
It was not unknown for women to ride war horses , and take their part in warfare . Joan of Arc is probably the most famous female warrior of the medieval period , but there were many others , including the Empress Matilda who , armoured and mounted , led an army against her cousin Stephen of Blois , and Stephen 's wife Matilda of Boulogne in the 12th century . The 15th @-@ century writer Christine de Pizan advised aristocratic ladies that they must " know the laws of arms and all things pertaining to warfare , ever prepared to command her men if there is need of it . "
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= Billy Meredith =
William Henry " Billy " Meredith ( 30 July 1874 – 19 April 1958 ) was a Welsh professional footballer . He was considered one of the early superstars of football due to his performances , notably for Manchester City and Manchester United . He won each domestic trophy in the English football league and gained 48 caps for Wales , for whom he scored 11 goals and won two British Home Championship titles . His favoured position was outside right , and his key skills were dribbling , passing , crossing and shooting . A dedicated and extremely fit professional , his habit of chewing on a toothpick during games made him instantly recognisable .
In 27 seasons in the Football League from 1892 to 1924 ( not including the four seasons lost to the First World War and the 1905 – 06 season in which he was banned for bribing an opposition player ) , he scored 176 goals in 740 league and cup appearances . He played for Chirk , before joining Northwich Victoria in 1892 . His career took off when he signed with Manchester City in 1894 and turned professional in January 1895 . He captained the team to the club 's first major honour , a 1 – 0 victory over Bolton Wanderers in the 1904 FA Cup Final . He moved to Manchester United in May 1906 after being banned for bribing Aston Villa half @-@ back Alex Leake £ 10 to lose a match . There he won the league title in 1907 – 08 and 1910 – 11 , the FA Cup in 1909 , as well as two FA Charity Shields . He also helped to set up the Players ' Union , which was a fore @-@ runner of the Professional Footballers ' Association . He returned to Manchester City in 1921 at the age of 47 and played a further 32 games before retiring in 1924 , making him the oldest ever player for City , United and Wales . He later ran the Stretford Road Hotel and helped to coach the short @-@ lived Manchester Central .
= = Early life = =
Meredith was born in 1874 in Chirk , a small mining town in Denbighshire , North Wales , just south of Wrexham . He started work at Black Park Colliery as a pit pony driver at the age of 12 . His family were Primitive Methodists , and Meredith himself remained a lifelong teetotaller . He spent eight years working in the mines , and worked during a tough time for the industry , enduring a 25 % pay cut which led to strike action in 1893 ; this experience helped to shape his political views , which would become significant later in his life . An interest in football was kindled by his elder brothers . Elias , the eldest , was a train driver for the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway . His work allowed him to take Meredith to watch professional teams such as Everton . Football was a keen pastime for the miners , and the standard of amateur teams from towns and villages in north east Wales was high as a result ; Chirk won the Welsh Cup five times between 1887 and 1894 , with miners making up a large proportion of the team . All the Meredith brothers played football , but Sam , two years older than Billy , was the first to make an impression . He left Chirk to attempt a professional career , and went on to play for Stoke City as a full @-@ back .
Meredith made his debut for the Chirk first team in September 1892 . The club played in The Combination , a league which contained a mixture of town clubs and reserve teams of clubs from big cities . At the end of his first season Meredith played in the 1893 Welsh Cup final , which Chirk lost 2 – 1 to Wrexham . Meredith formed a solid understanding with inside @-@ right William Owen , a former Wales international . Chirk withdrew from The Combination and entered only the Welsh league in 1893 due to low attendances caused by the coal miners ' strike . In an attempt to make ends meet , Meredith not only played for Chirk , but accepted an offer to play for Football League club Northwich Victoria as well , who gave him a small fee on top of his expenses . Northwich were a struggling side , who withdrew from the Football League at the end of the 1893 – 94 season after finishing bottom of the Second Division . The club won just three league matches ; Meredith featured in each win . Back at Chirk , Meredith gained his first honour as part of the team that beat Westminster Rovers to win the 1894 Welsh Cup .
= = Club career = =
= = = First spell at Manchester City = = =
Meredith 's performances for Northwich gained the attention of several other clubs in the Football League . Bolton Wanderers full @-@ back Di Jones , a former Chirk player , spoke with him about a possible move , but Bolton secretary J.J. Bentley felt Meredith was too inexperienced and his frame too slight . Lawrence Furniss , an official at Ardwick , had first noticed him while refereeing a Northwich match . Meredith also played in both meetings between the clubs that season . Later in 1894 , Ardwick , by then known as Manchester City , vigorously pursued Meredith 's signature . Two club officials travelled to Wales to meet the player . One was secretary @-@ manager Joshua Parlby , the other either Furniss or chairman John Chapman . The pair were met with suspicion . Anecdotes by contemporary figures suggest they were initially chased away by locals , and were only allowed to speak to Meredith after they bought drinks for his mining colleagues . Meredith did not wish to abandon life in Chirk . His mother was particularly against the idea : " It is all very well for you gentlemen to leave your big cities and come to our villages to steal our boys away ... Our boys are happy and healthy , satisfied with their work and innocent amusements ... if Billy takes my advice he will stick to his work and play football for his own amusement when work is finished . " Meredith did eventually sign for Manchester City , but as an amateur . He continued to work at the pit for at least a year , commuting back and forth for matches .
Meredith made his Manchester City debut in November 1894 in a 5 – 4 loss to Newcastle United . The following week he played his first home match for the club at Hyde Road , and scored two goals against Newton Heath – who later became Manchester United – in the first Manchester derby to take place in the league . Newton Heath won the match 5 – 2 . He turned professional in January 1895 , and ended the 1894 – 95 season with 12 goals in 18 appearances , just three strikes behind top @-@ scorer Pat Finnerhan , who had played an extra 12 games .
In his first full season at Manchester City , Meredith finished as top scorer . He was appointed club captain in his second season at the club , aged just 21 . The club finished as Second Division runners @-@ up in 1895 – 96 , but were denied promotion after heavy defeats to West Bromwich Albion and Small Heath in the test matches . After the departure of strike partner Pat Finnerhan to Liverpool in March 1897 , Meredith remained as City 's star player .
His new partner for the 1897 – 98 season was William Smith ( known as " Stockport Smith " to differentiate him from another William Smith in the team ) , whilst Billie Gillespie was placed at centre @-@ forward . Meredith provided Gillespie with many crosses into the box , picking up numerous assists as Gillespie outscored Meredith by 19 goals to 12 . Meredith also acted as a mentor for the slightly younger Gillespie , steering him away from drinking sessions by taking him along on fishing trips . The final match of the season saw Meredith score his first hat @-@ trick for the club in an emphatic 9 – 0 win against Burton Swifts .
City dominated the Second Division in the 1898 – 99 season , and won promotion as champions . Helping them to keep them in winning ways in the close season was late signing Jimmy Ross , a veteran forward who Meredith considered to be his " favourite hero " . Meredith claimed 30 goals in 35 games , including hat @-@ tricks against Grimsby Town , Loughborough , Darwen and Barnsley .
Meredith scored City 's first goal in the First Division on the opening day of the 1899 – 1900 season in a 4 – 3 defeat to Blackburn Rovers at Ewood Park on 2 September . Seven days later he claimed two goals in a 4 – 0 home victory over Derby County , and " led the field that day " by dribbling the ball almost the whole length of the pitch before launching a powerful shot that settled into the corner of Jack Fryer 's net . The Athletic News reported that " for real brilliance the right @-@ wing [ Meredith and Ross ] took the biscuit " .
First Division defences managed to limit Meredith 's contribution in the 1900 – 01 campaign by singling him out for rough treatment , though Liverpool manager Tom Watson felt compelled to write a letter to Manchester City denying that a Liverpool director had stated that " all that the opposition had to do was watch Meredith – the rest are no good " . He finished the season with just seven goals in 35 appearances .
Meredith found the net eight times in 38 games in the 1901 – 02 campaign , as City were relegated back out of the First Division . The club 's secretary , Sam Ormerod , selected 29 different players as the club slumped to defeat in 13 of the opening 20 games . Ormerod was forced to step down , as new business figures took control behind the scenes and began to sign promising young Scottish players . New manager Tom Maley was more willing than his predecessor to confront Meredith over his tendency to stray out of position and attempt to dominate the City attack .
City won immediate promotion as Second Division champions in 1902 – 03 , with Meredith scoring 22 goals in 37 appearances and claiming a hat @-@ trick against Chesterfield Town . Maley managed to find him a suitable inside @-@ right partner in Jimmy Bannister , who was unselfish in his play and willing to feed the ball through to Meredith . He also played Sammy Frost at half @-@ back , who was able to win the ball and bring Meredith into the play , and signed outside @-@ left Frank Booth to balance the attack . Maley encouraged teamwork , meaning there was less pressure on Meredith from opposition defenders .
Meredith was partnered with George Livingstone for the 1903 – 04 campaign , who was able to supply him and the rest of the team with quality passes . Drawn against a strong Sunderland outfit in the First Round of the FA Cup , Meredith was the " raider @-@ in @-@ chief " as City claimed a 3 – 2 victory at Hyde Road . City then defeated Woolwich Arsenal and Middlesbrough to reach the semi @-@ finals . There they faced The Wednesday at Goodison Park , and Meredith scored one goal ( bundled in by Gillespie ) and claimed two assists as City won the game 3 – 1 . Their opponents in the final at Crystal Palace were mid @-@ table Second Division outfit Bolton Wanderers , and Meredith was cautiously optimistic before the match , stating " We ought to win ... if we play anything like our normal game the cup is ours ... but this is the cup final and , well , anything might happen . " With just over 20 minutes played , Livingstone found Meredith with a long ball , who then beat goalkeeper Dai Davies to score the only goal of the game ; Bolton supporters long maintained that Meredith had been offside . As captain , Meredith was handed the trophy by Prime Minister Arthur Balfour .
He scored nine goals in 36 games in the 1904 – 05 season , as City came within two points and two places of champions Newcastle United . The season ended in controversial circumstances at Villa Park , and with a 3 – 2 defeat to Aston Villa ending any hopes of winning the league , Sandy Turnbull and Villa captain Alex Leake exchanged blows . The Football Association launched an investigation into the violence , and the findings shocked the sporting world as Meredith was suspended for the entirety of the 1905 – 06 season for ( unsuccessfully ) attempting to bribe Alex Leake . No evidence was taken from Meredith , who denied the charge , and the evidence was not made public . The club , fearful of FA sanctions , refused to pay Meredith during the campaign . He was transfer listed in May 1906 after he claimed that he had only attempted to bribe Leake on the orders of manager Tom Maley and that illegal payments were common practice at Hyde Road . The FA acted on his information , and fined Manchester City £ 900 for illegal payments and suspended numerous players , boardroom members and staff members .
You approve of the severe punishment administered by the Commission AGAINST ME and state that the offence I committed at Aston Villa should have wiped me out of football forever . Why ME ALONE ? when I was only the spokesman of others equally guilty .
= = = Manchester United = = =
In May 1906 , while still serving his ban , Meredith moved to Manchester United . He joined on a free transfer and received a £ 500 signing @-@ on fee from United ; Manchester City reluctantly accepted the transfer as they had previously signed an undertaking promising Meredith a benefit match , and he was willing to forego on the agreement if the club instead granted his transfer . He returned from suspension on 1 January 1907 , and marked his debut at Bank Street with an assist for Sandy Turnbull to score the only goal of the game against Aston Villa . In addition to Turnbull , Meredith was joined at United by former City teammates Jimmy Bannister and Herbert Burgess . This new forward line made the team into a powerful force , as they already possessed a dominant half @-@ back line in captain Charlie Roberts , Dick Duckworth and Alex Bell . They ended the 1906 – 07 season in eighth place in the First Division .
Manager Ernest Mangnall signed Jimmy Turnbull , and the forward line of Meredith , Bannister , Jimmy Turnbull and Sandy Turnbull were dominant in the 1907 – 08 campaign . United won the title with a nine @-@ point margin over second @-@ placed Aston Villa , and secured the 1908 FA Charity Shield ( the first ever Charity Shield ) with a 4 – 0 win over Queens Park Rangers at Stamford Bridge .
United slipped to a disappointing 13th @-@ place finish in 1908 – 09 . Meredith was suspended for the month of January in punishment for kicking a Brighton & Hove Albion player in an FA Cup match . The club reached the 1909 FA Cup Final , knocking out Brighton , Everton , Blackburn Rovers , Burnley and Newcastle United . Their cup final opponents at Crystal Palace were Bristol City , captained at centre @-@ half by Billy Wedlock – England captain and staunch opponent of the Players ' Union . A Sandy Turnbull goal settled the tie , which was described as quite a boring game ; Meredith himself dismissed reports of the match , stating " it was a good game for dashing , keen , thrilling football , great goalkeeping and narrow escapes at either end " . Meredith and his teammates celebrated the victory with music hall stars such as George Robey .
United finished fifth in 1909 – 10 and exited the FA Cup at the First Round with a defeat to Burnley at Turf Moor . However the club continued to advance under the generous chairmanship of John Henry Davies , and Old Trafford was opened in February 1910 .
Harold Halse was to partner Meredith at inside @-@ right for the 1910 – 11 season , but proved too much of a " free @-@ spirit " and was replaced by Jack Picken , a " plodder [ who ] understands what Meredith requires " . A defeat at Villa Park in the penultimate game of the season left United needing to beat third @-@ place Sunderland and hope that Aston Villa failed to beat Liverpool . United were a goal down when Meredith provided Enoch West with a cross which West sent into the net for the equalising goal . Four more goals came and they won the game 5 – 1 and left the field as champions of England for the second time .
Meredith played in the 1911 FA Charity Shield , as United beat Swindon Town 8 – 4 at Stamford Bridge . However the 1911 – 12 campaign ended in a disappointing 13th @-@ place finish and Mangnall left the club to manage rivals Manchester City . Meredith 's Benefit match was played on 7 September 1912 , between Manchester United and Manchester City , and the Welsh FA also donated the proceeds of two trial matches to the fund . There were 39 @,@ 911 spectators and a total of £ 1 @,@ 400 was raised .
New manager John Bentley led United to a fourth @-@ place finish in 1912 – 13 . He dropped Meredith to blood a young Jackie Sheldon . By this time , Meredith made headlines primarily due to his squabbling with the club over them stalling payment of his benefit matches and his dissatisfaction at being dropped . The club dropped to 14th spot in 1913 – 14 , and only avoided relegation on the last day of the 1914 – 15 season after bribing Liverpool to lose 2 – 0 at Old Trafford ; Meredith this time played no part in the resulting bribery scandal . He instead claimed to be baffled as to why his teammates refused to pass to him during the game .
During the First World War he actually played a match against United , making a guest appearance for Port Vale , with Vale recording a 5 – 2 victory at the Old Recreation Ground . Frustrated with the club for delaying payments over his benefit match , he also played as a guest for Manchester City . After the war ended he demanded a free transfer , and was repulsed that the club demanded a transfer fee , stating that the transfer market was a " degrading business " for players . On 7 May 1921 , at 46 years , 281 days , he became United 's oldest ever player when he took to the field in a league game against Derby County .
= = = Return to Manchester City = = =
In 1921 he returned to Manchester City on a free transfer . He played 25 first team games in the 1921 – 22 season , helping City to record a derby victory over rivals Manchester United . He featured once in the 1922 – 23 campaign , playing the club 's final game at Hyde Road . He played four FA Cup and two First Division games in the 1923 – 24 season . Mangnall , now his manager at City , shocked Manchester when he selected Meredith for the cup game with Brighton & Hove Albion at the Goldstone Ground , but was vindicated with a 5 – 1 victory ; Meredith also scored a goal , though this was due to a poor mistake from the Brighton goalkeeper . He played both games against Cardiff City in the next round , a 0 – 0 draw at Maine Road and 1 – 0 win at Ninian Park , and claimed an assist in the goal that settled the tie . His last match was against Newcastle United in the semi @-@ finals at the age of 49 years and 245 days , making him City 's oldest ever player ; the game ended in a 2 – 1 defeat .
= = International career = =
Meredith won his first cap for Wales in a 2 – 2 draw with Ireland on 16 March 1895 in Belfast . He won 12 caps in the 1890s , but was forced to miss six games as his club would not let him play in games that clashed with league fixtures . Wales could compete with Ireland , but were regularly beaten by Scotland and England . On 26 March 1900 , Wales played for the first time in South Wales , at Cardiff Arms Park , and Meredith scored a goal to earn the Welsh a celebrated 1 – 1 draw with England . After serving his suspension , he returned to Wales for the British Home Championship title victory in 1907 , the nation 's first success in the competition . In those three games , he scored against Ireland in a 3 – 2 victory , and captained Wales to a 1 – 0 win over Scotland and a 1 – 1 draw with England . Wales were denied a late penalty against the English , and Meredith was later recorded to have said " never mind , little Wales will win some day [ against England ] . May I be there at the death . "
After draws with Ireland and Scotland , Meredith " wept unashamedly " as he helped Wales to beat England 2 – 1 at Highbury to claim the 1920 British Home Championship . It was only his second victory against the English in 20 attempts , and it marked the last of his 48 caps . Though his record number of caps was later surpassed , at 45 years and 229 days he remains the oldest player to win a Wales cap . He was actually chosen by the selectors for 71 consecutive matches , but only made 48 appearances as his clubs regularly refused to release him for international duty .
= = Style of play = =
Meredith was able to avoid injury throughout his career , despite the extremely physical nature of the game during the period . This was due in part to his extraordinary balance and agility , which allowed him to avoid clumsy challenges , and the toughness he had built up from spending his adolescence working in the mines . A model professional , he spent his spare time improving his game with extra training sessions and maintained peak physical fitness by avoiding alcohol and tobacco . His " gimmick " was to chew on a toothpick during matches , and this unusual trait was picked up on by cartoonists of the time .
Writing a 1947 critique of Stanley Matthews , Meredith criticised the lack of direct play on show in the 1940s and stated that when he was playing that " I knew what was expected of me – to beat the wing @-@ half and the full @-@ back , take the ball down to the corner flag and centre " . His ball control skills were unparalleled , leaving opposition players unable to tackle him . He also was an extremely accurate passer and crosser of the ball . His dribbling and crossing gave him a large advantage over rival wingers , who relied solely on speed to beat opposition full @-@ backs . In addition to wing @-@ play , he was also highly skilled at sending in long @-@ range shots across the face of the goal , and could be relied upon to meet crosses from his left @-@ winger with a powerful volley .
Meredith had to deal with extremely physical defences , and was often boxed into the corner of the pitch by as many as four players . As his talents became widely regarded , more well organised defences would designate him with a man @-@ marker , to try and isolate him from his teammates . This often left him reliant on an unselfish inside @-@ right partner willing to fetch and carry the ball for him without expecting much in terms of goals or glory in return . A hard @-@ working wing @-@ half would also improve Meredith 's effectiveness by winning the ball and sending him a pass down the flank . The best teams he played in also had a centre @-@ forward able to make the most of his accurate crosses .
= = Players ' Union = =
Meredith organised the first meeting of the Players ' Union ( PU ) in December 1907 . Meredith had previously been involved with the Association Footballers ' Union ( the " AFU " ) , the first attempt by football players in England to organise a trade union . The Players ' Union , like the AFU before it , sought the relaxation of restrictions on transfers and wages . Others made the argument that a free market wage structure would ruin the amateur principles the sport was founded on , but Meredith felt that these words rang hollow considering that club directors and shareholders made vast profits . At the first annual meeting in December 1908 , the PU stated their aims as to allow unlimited wages , the right to transfer from club to club , and for players to take a percentage of any transfer fee .
With the union threatening strike action , particularly at international matches , in April 1909 the Football Association insisted that all players agree to leave the union and pledge loyalty to the FA . Manchester United refused to issue the revised contracts to its players , and FA suspended the entire squad . The club then refused to pay the players in lieu of their suspension , and so the players instead took away ornaments from the club 's office before Mangnall persuaded them to return the items . The players continued to train , and captain Charlie Roberts came up with the name of Outcasts F.C. The FA organised a meeting of 200 players , excluding the Outcasts , but a rambling speech from chairman Charles Clegg failed to win them over , and an agreement was reached where the PU would be recognised by the FA .
In October 1909 , the Union balloted its members over the organisation 's membership of the General Federation of Trade Unions ( GTFU ) . The result of the vote , a decisive " no " to GFTU support , effectively supported the FA 's position that professional footballers were fundamentally different from workmen in other industries . Meredith resumed league football in November 1909 , bemoaning his view that " many players refuse to take things seriously and continue to live a kind of schoolboy life " .
= = Personal life and legacy = =
He married Ellen Negus in 1901 , and the couple had two daughters . He was a supporter of the Liberal Party . He ran businesses throughout his career , with little success , and was declared bankrupt in July 1909 after his outfitting shop was damaged by fire.Harding 1998 , p . 135 During the 1910s he ran a public house ( despite being a teetotaller ) and later pursued an interest in the film industry by buying shares in numerous Stretford cinemas in the 1930s . He also starred in 1926 picture The Ball of Fortune , playing himself as a football trainer ; the film received generally positive reviews . In 1928 , together with former colleague Charlie Roberts he became a coach for the ambitious but short @-@ lived Manchester Central . Meredith 's son @-@ in @-@ law , former City captain Charlie Pringle , was a player . He retained a passion for football , and spent much of his retirement discussing the game with former colleagues and regulars at his hotel , the Stretford Road Hotel , which he ran from 1930 to 1945 . He rarely missed the chance to attend a Wales game in the 1920s and 1930s .
Meredith died in Withington , Manchester in April 1958 at the age of 83 , two months after the Munich air disaster , which claimed the lives of eight Manchester United players . After he spent many years in an unmarked grave , the Professional Footballers ' Association , the Welsh FA , Manchester City and Manchester United all agreed to cover the cost of upkeep on a new headstone . Meredith is honoured in the hall of fame at the City of Manchester Stadium . It was announced in August 2007 that Meredith was one of the 10 new inductees for 2007 to the English Football Hall of Fame .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club statistics = = =
= = = International statistics = = =
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Chirk
Welsh Cup ( 1 ) : 1894
Manchester City
Second Division ( 1 ) : 1898 – 99
FA Cup ( 1 ) : 1903 – 04
Manchester United
First Division ( 2 ) : 1907 – 08 , 1910 – 11
FA Cup ( 1 ) : 1908 – 09
FA Charity Shield ( 2 ) : 1908 , 1911
= = = National team = = =
Wales
British Home Championship ( 2 ) : 1907 , 1920
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= Jean Abraham Grill =
Jean Abraham Grill ( 21 July 1736 – 12 March 1792 ) , sometimes called Johan Abraham Grill , was a Swedish merchant , supercargo , director of the Swedish East India Company ( SOIC ) and ironmaster at Godegård with several factories .
Grill journeyed to China twice as the representative for the SOIC . He lived in Canton ( now known as Guangzhou ) as well as Macao for a total of almost ten years , doing trade for the company during the arrival of three Swedish ships . In China he lived the life of an adventurer ; survived a shipwreck , traded with other East Asian countries together with his partner Michael Grubb and smuggled opium from India to China .
He returned to Sweden in 1768 , a wealthy man and lived the rest of his life in Swedish high society , writing minor essays about his travels as member of the Royal Swedish Academies of Sciences and Music . He married Lovisa Ulrika Lüning and bought the Godegård Manor and several ironworks , which he renovated and improved . When Grill died in 1792 , his wife took over his business and ran the ironworks and factories .
His most notable legacy is the notes , correspondence , accounts , cargo lists and books he kept during his life . They are preserved in the Godegård Archive and in the Gothenburg University Library .
= = Early life = =
One of the Grill family , Jean Abraham Grill was the eldest son of merchant Abraham Grill , the Younger ( 1707 – 68 ) and Anna Maria Petersen ( 1713 – 54 ) . He was born in Helsingør where his father was the Swedish consul at that time . In 1746 , the family moved to Gothenburg where his father had started a trading house . When Jean Abraham was 14 years old , he started working as an apprentice in his fathers office , and three years later he became a clerk at the Swedish East India Company ( SOIC ) . Through his fathers mediation he was appointed to second assistant on the ship Sophia Albertina for its journey to Canton ( now known as Guangzhou ) between 1755 and 1756 .
Being ambitious , Grill aimed for the higher positions in the SOIC , and to achieve that he had to learn more and gain more experience . So when he returned to Sweden from China , he decided to go abroad again as soon as possible . He started out at the trading office of Kristian Holm , Swedish consul to France , in Montpellier where he worked for about six months . He stayed in France for five years , and in 1758 , he was employed by the Mallet & Blancheney firm in Marseille . Grill 's letters to his family during those years indicates that he enjoyed his time in France and was interested in style and his own appearance . His initial plans had been to set up a business in Marseille , but his family , especially his uncle Claes Grill , advised against it . Claes had started out as a merchant in the European market , but he soon moved on to the more lucrative Canton trade and encouraged his nephew to do the same .
= = In Canton = =
Grill followed his uncle Claes ' advice and went to Canton as third supercargo on the Fredric Adolph in 1761 , during the second carter of the SOIC . On 3 September 1761 , the ship ran aground at the Pratas Islands in the South China Sea . The ship 's captain , Daniel Shierman , did what he could to lighten the ship and tried to get it afloat again , but to no avail . Seven hours later the ship was a wreck , resting on the rocks and everyone aboard went into the boats . Twenty men stayed behind to guard the ship , while 122 men , including Grill , immediately set off for the nearest port . Five days later they landed on the Chinese mainland , in the " province of Catsi " [ sic ] , where they eventually got permission from the Chinese authorities to proceed to Canton . In Canton they met with the men left to guard the ship , now 17 in number , who had arrived two weeks earlier . Three expeditions with divers , one of them led by Grill , went to recover the cargo from the wreck . They managed to salvage about two @-@ thirds of the silver , tin , iron , coral , lead and copper from the cargo , plus one cat and a dog .
After the shipwreck , Grill remained in Canton as resident supercargo for seven years . As such he was the company 's representative in Canton , contacting Chinese merchants as well as buying goods and cargo for the ships . He was supercargo for the arrival of three more ships of the SIOC : the Stockholms Slott ( outward journey ) in 1762 , the Stockholms Slott ( resident supercargo in Canton ) in 1765 and the Cron Prins Gustaf ( journey home ) 1768 . One of his tasks in Canton was to make sure that the Swedish factory at the Thirteen Factories was in good order and maintained . The Swedes rented factories or houses from the mandarins at other locations as well , but the one on 13 : e Faktorigatan ( the 13 : th Factory street ) operated as their main building . Grills records of the Swedish factory are detailed and provide good insight into life in Canton at that time .
He also started a successful private company in partnership with the older and more experienced Michael Grubb , one of the directors of the SOIC and founder of the first Swedish trading office in Canton . They traded in Canton and Macao , which technically was against the rules and regulations in the charter of the SOIC . Grill took advantage of the fact that his father was a director of the SOIC , and until his father 's death shipped his own goods on board SOIC ships . From Europe the ships brought objets d 'art , corals from the Mediterranean Sea , expensive clocks and other mechanical automatons known to the Chinese as sing @-@ songs . Such goods were appreciated by the Emperor and the rich mandarins .
The Grubb @-@ Grill company used Chinese junks to trade with India , Java , Indochina , Philippines and Japan . From these places they traded in Japanese silk , pigments , spices , gold and silver treads , pearls and lacquerware . The most profitable product in that trade was opium , the smuggling of which became Grill 's own private business . During his time in Canton he smuggled " considerable quantities " from India to Macao . It is documented that he in 1767 received a shipment of 150 chests of opium sent from Madras ( now known as Chennai ) by Jacob Hahr , another supercargo . Consequently , Grill became Sweden 's first major drug runner .
The resident supercargo was responsible for buying goods such as tea , porcelain , silk , arrack , sago and miscellaneous for the next ship arriving from Sweden . The SOIC traded mainly with the Chinese merchant Puankhequa , who had his factory next to the Swedish , and judging from their letters , Puankhequa and Grill became friends . Grill was entrusted with funds from the SOIC for buying tea and other goods during off @-@ season when the price was at its lowest . He bought most of the tea from Puankhequa , and several contracts are preserved . However , he did not buy the tea from the Chinese merchant on the SOIC 's behalf but instead bought it through his own company and sold it on to the SOIC at a slightly higher price . After some time the SOIC became suspicious and director David Sandberg was sent to Canton to investigate the matter in 1766 . Grill and his companions , Grubb and Hahr , had to sign an agreement not to misuse their position within the SOIC . In 1768 , Grill was ordered to return home as supercargo on the ship Cron Prins Gustaf . Even so , Hahr stayed behind in Canton , continued their business and was able to transfer Grill 's share of the profit through international bank notes .
By 1770 , Grill was a partner in the Carlos & Claes Grill Trading house , and as such he became a director in the third charter of the SOIC in 1778 .
= = Science and music = =
Grill wrote a number of essays for the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences about his observations and experiences in Canton , and in 1773 , he became a member of the academy . In 1774 , Grill became its preses or president . He was also an accomplished flute player , and on 16 June 1772 , he was elected as member no . 46 of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music .
Grill was also interested in porcelain . Part of his orders may have been just a way to get his money transferred from China to Sweden after he was ordered to return home in 1768 , but he also ordered his own armorial dinner service .
= = Ironmaster and estate owner = =
When Grill returned to Sweden in 1768 , he first lived in Stockholm where he occupied himself with trade . He owned a malmgård ( suburban manor ) at Ersta in the south part of Stockholm , where he established a crucible steel factory with the help of Bengt Andersson Qvist in 1770 .
Grill married Lovisa Ulrika Lüning ( 1744 – 1824 ) in Stockholm in 1772 . They had ten children . She was the daughter of wholesaler Johan Christian Lüning and Margaretha Sabbath . In 1775 , Grill sold the manor and the steel factory to Qvist and moved to Godegård where he had bought the manor and the ironworks from the estate of Jean de Geer . In doing so he followed the pattern of other supercargos who made their fortunes abroad during a short period of time in the East India trade and on their return invested their money in Swedish factories and farms .
Aside from renovating the factories in Godegård ( the largest ironworks in Östergötland ) he also had an English park planned and built at his manor in Godergård . The park had an orangery , canals , bridges and pavilions and was modelled after the larger park at Drottningholm Palace with its Chinese Pavilion . The Godegård estate also included Mariedamm with the Trehörnings blast furnace and the De Geersfors manufacturing house . Grill also bought the Bona estate in Västra Ny , where he built a wrought iron factory and the Medevi seat farm in 1779 , ( sold the following year ) . In 1782 , he bought the Flerohopp ironworks .
Grill established a small scale trade monopoly at Godegård in 1775 . Before he became owner of the ironworks , the farmers around Godegård had refined the wrought iron from the factory into large quantities of nails using small trip hammers . The nails were sold in Askersund . As a trader Grill would not abide this . First he decreed that the farmers had to buy all their goods at the ironworks ' general store . Second , he forbade the farmers and tenant farmers to sell nails to the merchants at Askersund , at that time a center for nail trade . In this way Grill assumed control over all nail trade himself .
Jean Abraham Grill died on 12 March 1792 , in Norrköping under " mysterious circumstances " and was interred in the Grill family grave at the Godegård Church . When Grill died , his wife Lovisa Ulrika took over and ran the ironworks and factories until their children succeeded her .
= = Archives = =
Throughout his life Grill kept meticulous notes of his business . Some of these are in the Gothenburg University library , and most of them , along with Grill 's letters and correspondence , are now in the Godegård Archive in the Nordic Museum . Most of the 7 @,@ 000 documents in the archive have been digitized following a request from the Macau Historical Archives in 2003 . They are available online , including documentation , letters , cargo lists , provisions for the ships and accounts for the Swedish factory in Canton during Grill 's time with the SOIC .
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= Metabolism =
Metabolism ( from Greek : μεταβολή metabolē , " change " ) is the set of life @-@ sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of living organisms . The three main purposes of metabolism are the conversion of food / fuel to energy to run cellular processes , the conversion of food / fuel to building blocks for proteins , lipids , nucleic acids , and some carbohydrates , and the elimination of nitrogenous wastes . These enzyme @-@ catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce , maintain their structures , and respond to their environments . The word metabolism can also refer to the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms , including digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells , in which case the set of reactions within the cells is called intermediary metabolism or intermediate metabolism .
Metabolism is usually divided into two categories : catabolism , the breaking down of organic matter , for example , by cellular respiration , and anabolism , the building up of components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids . Usually , breaking down releases energy and building up consumes energy .
The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways , in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical , by a sequence of enzymes . Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy that will not occur by themselves , by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy . Enzymes act as catalysts that allow the reactions to proceed more rapidly . Enzymes also allow the regulation of metabolic pathways in response to changes in the cell 's environment or to signals from other cells .
The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find nutritious and which poisonous . For example , some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient , yet this gas is poisonous to animals . The speed of metabolism , the metabolic rate , influences how much food an organism will require , and also affects how it is able to obtain that food .
A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways and components between even vastly different species . For example , the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms , being found in species as diverse as the unicellular bacterium Escherichia coli and huge multicellular organisms like elephants . These striking similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in evolutionary history , and their retention because of their efficacy .
= = Key biochemicals = =
Most of the structures that make up animals , plants and microbes are made from three basic classes of molecule : amino acids , carbohydrates and lipids ( often called fats ) . As these molecules are vital for life , metabolic reactions either focus on making these molecules during the construction of cells and tissues , or by breaking them down and using them as a source of energy , by their digestion . These biochemicals can be joined together to make polymers such as DNA and proteins , essential macromolecules of life .
= = = Amino acids and proteins = = =
Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain joined together by peptide bonds . Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism . Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions , such as those that form the cytoskeleton , a system of scaffolding that maintains the cell shape . Proteins are also important in cell signaling , immune responses , cell adhesion , active transport across membranes , and the cell cycle . Amino acids also contribute to cellular energy metabolism by providing a carbon source for entry into the citric acid cycle ( tricarboxylic acid cycle ) , especially when a primary source of energy , such as glucose , is scarce , or when cells undergo metabolic stress .
= = = Lipids = = =
Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals . Their main structural uses are as part of biological membranes both internal and external , such as the cell membrane , or as a source of energy . Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules but will dissolve in organic solvents such as benzene or chloroform . The fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol ; a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid esters is called a triacylglyceride . Several variations on this basic structure exist , including alternate backbones such as sphingosine in the sphingolipids , and hydrophilic groups such as phosphate as in phospholipids . Steroids such as cholesterol are another major class of lipids .
= = = Carbohydrates = = =
Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones , with many hydroxyl groups attached , that can exist as straight chains or rings . Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules , and fill numerous roles , such as the storage and transport of energy ( starch , glycogen ) and structural components ( cellulose in plants , chitin in animals ) . The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose , fructose , and most importantly glucose . Monosaccharides can be linked together to form polysaccharides in almost limitless ways .
= = = Nucleotides = = =
The two nucleic acids , DNA and RNA , are polymers of nucleotides . Each nucleotide is composed of a phosphate attached to a ribose or deoxyribose sugar group which is attached to a nitrogenous base . Nucleic acids are critical for the storage and use of genetic information , and its interpretation through the processes of transcription and protein biosynthesis . This information is protected by DNA repair mechanisms and propagated through DNA replication . Many viruses have an RNA genome , such as HIV , which uses reverse transcription to create a DNA template from its viral RNA genome . RNA in ribozymes such as spliceosomes and ribosomes is similar to enzymes as it can catalyze chemical reactions . Individual nucleosides are made by attaching a nucleobase to a ribose sugar . These bases are heterocyclic rings containing nitrogen , classified as purines or pyrimidines . Nucleotides also act as coenzymes in metabolic @-@ group @-@ transfer reactions .
= = = Coenzymes = = =
Metabolism involves a vast array of chemical reactions , but most fall under a few basic types of reactions that involve the transfer of functional groups of atoms and their bonds within molecules . This common chemistry allows cells to use a small set of metabolic intermediates to carry chemical groups between different reactions . These group @-@ transfer intermediates are called coenzymes . Each class of group @-@ transfer reactions is carried out by a particular coenzyme , which is the substrate for a set of enzymes that produce it , and a set of enzymes that consume it . These coenzymes are therefore continuously made , consumed and then recycled .
One central coenzyme is adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) , the universal energy currency of cells . This nucleotide is used to transfer chemical energy between different chemical reactions . There is only a small amount of ATP in cells , but as it is continuously regenerated , the human body can use about its own weight in ATP per day . ATP acts as a bridge between catabolism and anabolism . Catabolism breaks down molecules and anabolism puts them together . Catabolic reactions generate ATP and anabolic reactions consume it . It also serves as a carrier of phosphate groups in phosphorylation reactions .
A vitamin is an organic compound needed in small quantities that cannot be made in cells . In human nutrition , most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification ; for example , all water @-@ soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells . Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( NAD + ) , a derivative of vitamin B3 ( niacin ) , is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor . Hundreds of separate types of dehydrogenases remove electrons from their substrates and reduce NAD + into NADH . This reduced form of the coenzyme is then a substrate for any of the reductases in the cell that need to reduce their substrates . Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two related forms in the cell , NADH and NADPH . The NAD + / NADH form is more important in catabolic reactions , while NADP + / NADPH is used in anabolic reactions .
= = = Minerals and cofactors = = =
Inorganic elements play critical roles in metabolism ; some are abundant ( e.g. sodium and potassium ) while others function at minute concentrations . About 99 % of a mammal 's mass is made up of the elements carbon , nitrogen , calcium , sodium , chlorine , potassium , hydrogen , phosphorus , oxygen and sulfur . Organic compounds ( proteins , lipids and carbohydrates ) contain the majority of the carbon and nitrogen ; most of the oxygen and hydrogen is present as water .
The abundant inorganic elements act as ionic electrolytes . The most important ions are sodium , potassium , calcium , magnesium , chloride , phosphate and the organic ion bicarbonate . The maintenance of precise ion gradients across cell membranes maintains osmotic pressure and pH . Ions are also critical for nerve and muscle function , as action potentials in these tissues are produced by the exchange of electrolytes between the extracellular fluid and the cell 's fluid , the cytosol . Electrolytes enter and leave cells through proteins in the cell membrane called ion channels . For example , muscle contraction depends upon the movement of calcium , sodium and potassium through ion channels in the cell membrane and T @-@ tubules .
Transition metals are usually present as trace elements in organisms , with zinc and iron being most abundant of those . These metals are used in some proteins as cofactors and are essential for the activity of enzymes such as catalase and oxygen @-@ carrier proteins such as hemoglobin . Metal cofactors are bound tightly to specific sites in proteins ; although enzyme cofactors can be modified during catalysis , they always return to their original state by the end of the reaction catalyzed . Metal micronutrients are taken up into organisms by specific transporters and bind to storage proteins such as ferritin or metallothionein when not in use .
= = Catabolism = =
Catabolism is the set of metabolic processes that break down large molecules . These include breaking down and oxidizing food molecules . The purpose of the catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by anabolic reactions . The exact nature of these catabolic reactions differ from organism to organism and organisms can be classified based on their sources of energy and carbon ( their primary nutritional groups ) , as shown in the table below . Organic molecules are used as a source of energy by organotrophs , while lithotrophs use inorganic substrates and phototrophs capture sunlight as chemical energy . However , all these different forms of metabolism depend on redox reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from reduced donor molecules such as organic molecules , water , ammonia , hydrogen sulfide or ferrous ions to acceptor molecules such as oxygen , nitrate or sulfate . In animals these reactions involve complex organic molecules that are broken down to simpler molecules , such as carbon dioxide and water . In photosynthetic organisms such as plants and cyanobacteria , these electron @-@ transfer reactions do not release energy , but are used as a way of storing energy absorbed from sunlight .
The most common set of catabolic reactions in animals can be separated into three main stages . In the first , large organic molecules such as proteins , polysaccharides or lipids are digested into their smaller components outside cells . Next , these smaller molecules are taken up by cells and converted to yet smaller molecules , usually acetyl coenzyme A ( acetyl @-@ CoA ) , which releases some energy . Finally , the acetyl group on the CoA is oxidised to water and carbon dioxide in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain , releasing the energy that is stored by reducing the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( NAD + ) into NADH .
= = = Digestion = = =
Macromolecules such as starch , cellulose or proteins cannot be rapidly taken up by cells and must be broken into their smaller units before they can be used in cell metabolism . Several common classes of enzymes digest these polymers . These digestive enzymes include proteases that digest proteins into amino acids , as well as glycoside hydrolases that digest polysaccharides into simple sugars known as monosaccharides .
Microbes simply secrete digestive enzymes into their surroundings , while animals only secrete these enzymes from specialized cells in their guts . The amino acids or sugars released by these extracellular enzymes are then pumped into cells by active transport proteins .
= = = Energy from organic compounds = = =
Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units . Carbohydrates are usually taken into cells once they have been digested into monosaccharides . Once inside , the major route of breakdown is glycolysis , where sugars such as glucose and fructose are converted into pyruvate and some ATP is generated . Pyruvate is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways , but the majority is converted to acetyl @-@ CoA and fed into the citric acid cycle . Although some more ATP is generated in the citric acid cycle , the most important product is NADH , which is made from NAD + as the acetyl @-@ CoA is oxidized . This oxidation releases carbon dioxide as a waste product . In anaerobic conditions , glycolysis produces lactate , through the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase re @-@ oxidizing NADH to NAD + for re @-@ use in glycolysis . An alternative route for glucose breakdown is the pentose phosphate pathway , which reduces the coenzyme NADPH and produces pentose sugars such as ribose , the sugar component of nucleic acids .
Fats are catabolised by hydrolysis to free fatty acids and glycerol . The glycerol enters glycolysis and the fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation to release acetyl @-@ CoA , which then is fed into the citric acid cycle . Fatty acids release more energy upon oxidation than carbohydrates because carbohydrates contain more oxygen in their structures . Steroids are also broken down by some bacteria in a process similar to beta oxidation , and this breakdown process involves the release of significant amounts of acetyl @-@ CoA , propionyl @-@ CoA , and pyruvate , which can all be used by the cell for energy . M. tuberculosis can also grow on the lipid cholesterol as a sole source of carbon , and genes involved in the cholesterol use pathway ( s ) have been validated as important during various stages of the infection lifecycle of M. tuberculosis .
Amino acids are either used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules , or oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy . The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase . The amino group is fed into the urea cycle , leaving a deaminated carbon skeleton in the form of a keto acid . Several of these keto acids are intermediates in the citric acid cycle , for example the deamination of glutamate forms α @-@ ketoglutarate . The glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose , through gluconeogenesis ( discussed below ) .
= = Energy transformations = =
= = = Oxidative phosphorylation = = =
In oxidative phosphorylation , the electrons removed from organic molecules in areas such as the protagon acid cycle are transferred to oxygen and the energy released is used to make ATP . This is done in eukaryotes by a series of proteins in the membranes of mitochondria called the electron transport chain . In prokaryotes , these proteins are found in the cell 's inner membrane . These proteins use the energy released from passing electrons from reduced molecules like NADH onto oxygen to pump protons across a membrane .
Pumping protons out of the mitochondria creates a proton concentration difference across the membrane and generates an electrochemical gradient . This force drives protons back into the mitochondrion through the base of an enzyme called ATP synthase . The flow of protons makes the stalk subunit rotate , causing the active site of the synthase domain to change shape and phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate – turning it into ATP .
= = = Energy from inorganic compounds = = =
Chemolithotrophy is a type of metabolism found in prokaryotes where energy is obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds . These organisms can use hydrogen , reduced sulfur compounds ( such as sulfide , hydrogen sulfide and thiosulfate ) , ferrous iron ( FeII ) or ammonia as sources of reducing power and they gain energy from the oxidation of these compounds with electron acceptors such as oxygen or nitrite . These microbial processes are important in global biogeochemical cycles such as acetogenesis , nitrification and denitrification and are critical for soil fertility .
= = = Energy from light = = =
The energy in sunlight is captured by plants , cyanobacteria , purple bacteria , green sulfur bacteria and some protists . This process is often coupled to the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds , as part of photosynthesis , which is discussed below . The energy capture and carbon fixation systems can however operate separately in prokaryotes , as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria can use sunlight as a source of energy , while switching between carbon fixation and the fermentation of organic compounds .
In many organisms the capture of solar energy is similar in principle to oxidative phosphorylation , as it involves the storage of energy as a proton concentration gradient . This proton motive force then drives ATP synthesis . The electrons needed to drive this electron transport chain come from light @-@ gathering proteins called photosynthetic reaction centres or rhodopsins . Reaction centers are classed into two types depending on the type of photosynthetic pigment present , with most photosynthetic bacteria only having one type , while plants and cyanobacteria have two .
In plants , algae , and cyanobacteria , photosystem II uses light energy to remove electrons from water , releasing oxygen as a waste product . The electrons then flow to the cytochrome b6f complex , which uses their energy to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast . These protons move back through the membrane as they drive the ATP synthase , as before . The electrons then flow through photosystem I and can then either be used to reduce the coenzyme NADP + , for use in the Calvin cycle , which is discussed below , or recycled for further ATP generation .
= = Anabolism = =
Anabolism is the set of constructive metabolic processes where the energy released by catabolism is used to synthesize complex molecules . In general , the complex molecules that make up cellular structures are constructed step @-@ by @-@ step from small and simple precursors . Anabolism involves three basic stages . First , the production of precursors such as amino acids , monosaccharides , isoprenoids and nucleotides , secondly , their activation into reactive forms using energy from ATP , and thirdly , the assembly of these precursors into complex molecules such as proteins , polysaccharides , lipids and nucleic acids .
Organisms differ in how many of the molecules in their cells they can construct for themselves . Autotrophs such as plants can construct the complex organic molecules in cells such as polysaccharides and proteins from simple molecules like carbon dioxide and water . Heterotrophs , on the other hand , require a source of more complex substances , such as monosaccharides and amino acids , to produce these complex molecules . Organisms can be further classified by ultimate source of their energy : photoautotrophs and photoheterotrophs obtain energy from light , whereas chemoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs obtain energy from inorganic oxidation reactions .
= = = Carbon fixation = = =
Photosynthesis is the synthesis of carbohydrates from sunlight and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . In plants , cyanobacteria and algae , oxygenic photosynthesis splits water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . This process uses the ATP and NADPH produced by the photosynthetic reaction centres , as described above , to convert CO2 into glycerate 3 @-@ phosphate , which can then be converted into glucose . This carbon @-@ fixation reaction is carried out by the enzyme RuBisCO as part of the Calvin – Benson cycle . Three types of photosynthesis occur in plants , C3 carbon fixation , C4 carbon fixation and CAM photosynthesis . These differ by the route that carbon dioxide takes to the Calvin cycle , with C3 plants fixing CO2 directly , while C4 and CAM photosynthesis incorporate the CO2 into other compounds first , as adaptations to deal with intense sunlight and dry conditions .
In photosynthetic prokaryotes the mechanisms of carbon fixation are more diverse . Here , carbon dioxide can be fixed by the Calvin – Benson cycle , a reversed citric acid cycle , or the carboxylation of acetyl @-@ CoA . Prokaryotic chemoautotrophs also fix CO2 through the Calvin – Benson cycle , but use energy from inorganic compounds to drive the reaction .
= = = Carbohydrates and glycans = = =
In carbohydrate anabolism , simple organic acids can be converted into monosaccharides such as glucose and then used to assemble polysaccharides such as starch . The generation of glucose from compounds like pyruvate , lactate , glycerol , glycerate 3 @-@ phosphate and amino acids is called gluconeogenesis . Gluconeogenesis converts pyruvate to glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate through a series of intermediates , many of which are shared with glycolysis . However , this pathway is not simply glycolysis run in reverse , as several steps are catalyzed by non @-@ glycolytic enzymes . This is important as it allows the formation and breakdown of glucose to be regulated separately , and prevents both pathways from running simultaneously in a futile cycle .
Although fat is a common way of storing energy , in vertebrates such as humans the fatty acids in these stores cannot be converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis as these organisms cannot convert acetyl @-@ CoA into pyruvate ; plants do , but animals do not , have the necessary enzymatic machinery . As a result , after long @-@ term starvation , vertebrates need to produce ketone bodies from fatty acids to replace glucose in tissues such as the brain that cannot metabolize fatty acids . In other organisms such as plants and bacteria , this metabolic problem is solved using the glyoxylate cycle , which bypasses the decarboxylation step in the citric acid cycle and allows the transformation of acetyl @-@ CoA to oxaloacetate , where it can be used for the production of glucose .
Polysaccharides and glycans are made by the sequential addition of monosaccharides by glycosyltransferase from a reactive sugar @-@ phosphate donor such as uridine diphosphate glucose ( UDP @-@ glucose ) to an acceptor hydroxyl group on the growing polysaccharide . As any of the hydroxyl groups on the ring of the substrate can be acceptors , the polysaccharides produced can have straight or branched structures . The polysaccharides produced can have structural or metabolic functions themselves , or be transferred to lipids and proteins by enzymes called oligosaccharyltransferases .
= = = Fatty acids , isoprenoids and steroids = = =
Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl @-@ CoA units . The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acyl group , reduce it to an alcohol , dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group . The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups : in animals and fungi , all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional type I protein , while in plant plastids and bacteria separate type II enzymes perform each step in the pathway .
Terpenes and isoprenoids are a large class of lipids that include the carotenoids and form the largest class of plant natural products . These compounds are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate . These precursors can be made in different ways . In animals and archaea , the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl @-@ CoA , while in plants and bacteria the non @-@ mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3 @-@ phosphate as substrates . One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is steroid biosynthesis . Here , the isoprene units are joined together to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol . Lanosterol can then be converted into other steroids such as cholesterol and ergosterol .
= = = Proteins = = =
Organisms vary in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids . Most bacteria and plants can synthesize all twenty , but mammals can only synthesize eleven nonessential amino acids , so nine essential amino acids must be obtained from food . Some simple parasites , such as the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae , lack all amino acid synthesis and take their amino acids directly from their hosts . All amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in glycolysis , the citric acid cycle , or the pentose phosphate pathway . Nitrogen is provided by glutamate and glutamine . Amino acid synthesis depends on the formation of the appropriate alpha @-@ keto acid , which is then transaminated to form an amino acid .
Amino acids are made into proteins by being joined together in a chain of peptide bonds . Each different protein has a unique sequence of amino acid residues : this is its primary structure . Just as the letters of the alphabet can be combined to form an almost endless variety of words , amino acids can be linked in varying sequences to form a huge variety of proteins . Proteins are made from amino acids that have been activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond . This aminoacyl @-@ tRNA precursor is produced in an ATP @-@ dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase . This aminoacyl @-@ tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome , which joins the amino acid onto the elongating protein chain , using the sequence information in a messenger RNA .
= = = Nucleotide synthesis and salvage = = =
Nucleotides are made from amino acids , carbon dioxide and formic acid in pathways that require large amounts of metabolic energy . Consequently , most organisms have efficient systems to salvage preformed nucleotides . Purines are synthesized as nucleosides ( bases attached to ribose ) . Both adenine and guanine are made from the precursor nucleoside inosine monophosphate , which is synthesized using atoms from the amino acids glycine , glutamine , and aspartic acid , as well as formate transferred from the coenzyme tetrahydrofolate . Pyrimidines , on the other hand , are synthesized from the base orotate , which is formed from glutamine and aspartate .
= = Xenobiotics and redox metabolism = =
All organisms are constantly exposed to compounds that they cannot use as foods and would be harmful if they accumulated in cells , as they have no metabolic function . These potentially damaging compounds are called xenobiotics . Xenobiotics such as synthetic drugs , natural poisons and antibiotics are detoxified by a set of xenobiotic @-@ metabolizing enzymes . In humans , these include cytochrome P450 oxidases , UDP @-@ glucuronosyltransferases , and glutathione S @-@ transferases . This system of enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic ( phase I ) and then conjugate water @-@ soluble groups onto the molecule ( phase II ) . The modified water @-@ soluble xenobiotic can then be pumped out of cells and in multicellular organisms may be further metabolized before being excreted ( phase III ) . In ecology , these reactions are particularly important in microbial biodegradation of pollutants and the bioremediation of contaminated land and oil spills . Many of these microbial reactions are shared with multicellular organisms , but due to the incredible diversity of types of microbes these organisms are able to deal with a far wider range of xenobiotics than multicellular organisms , and can degrade even persistent organic pollutants such as organochloride compounds .
A related problem for aerobic organisms is oxidative stress . Here , processes including oxidative phosphorylation and the formation of disulfide bonds during protein folding produce reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide . These damaging oxidants are removed by antioxidant metabolites such as glutathione and enzymes such as catalases and peroxidases .
= = Thermodynamics of living organisms = =
Living organisms must obey the laws of thermodynamics , which describe the transfer of heat and work . The second law of thermodynamics states that in any closed system , the amount of entropy ( disorder ) cannot decrease . Although living organisms ' amazing complexity appears to contradict this law , life is possible as all organisms are open systems that exchange matter and energy with their surroundings . Thus living systems are not in equilibrium , but instead are dissipative systems that maintain their state of high complexity by causing a larger increase in the entropy of their environments . The metabolism of a cell achieves this by coupling the spontaneous processes of catabolism to the non @-@ spontaneous processes of anabolism . In thermodynamic terms , metabolism maintains order by creating disorder .
= = Regulation and control = =
As the environments of most organisms are constantly changing , the reactions of metabolism must be finely regulated to maintain a constant set of conditions within cells , a condition called homeostasis . Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments . Two closely linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled . Firstly , the regulation of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals . Secondly , the control exerted by this enzyme is the effect that these changes in its activity have on the overall rate of the pathway ( the flux through the pathway ) . For example , an enzyme may show large changes in activity ( i.e. it is highly regulated ) but if these changes have little effect on the flux of a metabolic pathway , then this enzyme is not involved in the control of the pathway .
There are multiple levels of metabolic regulation . In intrinsic regulation , the metabolic pathway self @-@ regulates to respond to changes in the levels of substrates or products ; for example , a decrease in the amount of product can increase the flux through the pathway to compensate . This type of regulation often involves allosteric regulation of the activities of multiple enzymes in the pathway . Extrinsic control involves a cell in a multicellular organism changing its metabolism in response to signals from other cells . These signals are usually in the form of soluble messengers such as hormones and growth factors and are detected by specific receptors on the cell surface . These signals are then transmitted inside the cell by second messenger systems that often involved the phosphorylation of proteins .
A very well understood example of extrinsic control is the regulation of glucose metabolism by the hormone insulin . Insulin is produced in response to rises in blood glucose levels . Binding of the hormone to insulin receptors on cells then activates a cascade of protein kinases that cause the cells to take up glucose and convert it into storage molecules such as fatty acids and glycogen . The metabolism of glycogen is controlled by activity of phosphorylase , the enzyme that breaks down glycogen , and glycogen synthase , the enzyme that makes it . These enzymes are regulated in a reciprocal fashion , with phosphorylation inhibiting glycogen synthase , but activating phosphorylase . Insulin causes glycogen synthesis by activating protein phosphatases and producing a decrease in the phosphorylation of these enzymes .
= = Evolution = =
The central pathways of metabolism described above , such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle , are present in all three domains of living things and were present in the last universal ancestor . This universal ancestral cell was prokaryotic and probably a methanogen that had extensive amino acid , nucleotide , carbohydrate and lipid metabolism . The retention of these ancient pathways during later evolution may be the result of these reactions having been an optimal solution to their particular metabolic problems , with pathways such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle producing their end products highly efficiently and in a minimal number of steps . The first pathways of enzyme @-@ based metabolism may have been parts of purine nucleotide metabolism , while previous metabolic pathways were a part of the ancient RNA world .
Many models have been proposed to describe the mechanisms by which novel metabolic pathways evolve . These include the sequential addition of novel enzymes to a short ancestral pathway , the duplication and then divergence of entire pathways as well as the recruitment of pre @-@ existing enzymes and their assembly into a novel reaction pathway . The relative importance of these mechanisms is unclear , but genomic studies have shown that enzymes in a pathway are likely to have a shared ancestry , suggesting that many pathways have evolved in a step @-@ by @-@ step fashion with novel functions created from pre @-@ existing steps in the pathway . An alternative model comes from studies that trace the evolution of proteins ' structures in metabolic networks , this has suggested that enzymes are pervasively recruited , borrowing enzymes to perform similar functions in different metabolic pathways ( evident in the MANET database ) These recruitment processes result in an evolutionary enzymatic mosaic . A third possibility is that some parts of metabolism might exist as " modules " that can be reused in different pathways and perform similar functions on different molecules .
As well as the evolution of new metabolic pathways , evolution can also cause the loss of metabolic functions . For example , in some parasites metabolic processes that are not essential for survival are lost and preformed amino acids , nucleotides and carbohydrates may instead be scavenged from the host . Similar reduced metabolic capabilities are seen in endosymbiotic organisms .
= = Investigation and manipulation = =
Classically , metabolism is studied by a reductionist approach that focuses on a single metabolic pathway . Particularly valuable is the use of radioactive tracers at the whole @-@ organism , tissue and cellular levels , which define the paths from precursors to final products by identifying radioactively labelled intermediates and products . The enzymes that catalyze these chemical reactions can then be purified and their kinetics and responses to inhibitors investigated . A parallel approach is to identify the small molecules in a cell or tissue ; the complete set of these molecules is called the metabolome . Overall , these studies give a good view of the structure and function of simple metabolic pathways , but are inadequate when applied to more complex systems such as the metabolism of a complete cell .
An idea of the complexity of the metabolic networks in cells that contain thousands of different enzymes is given by the figure showing the interactions between just 43 proteins and 40 metabolites to the right : the sequences of genomes provide lists containing anything up to 45 @,@ 000 genes . However , it is now possible to use this genomic data to reconstruct complete networks of biochemical reactions and produce more holistic mathematical models that may explain and predict their behavior . These models are especially powerful when used to integrate the pathway and metabolite data obtained through classical methods with data on gene expression from proteomic and DNA microarray studies . Using these techniques , a model of human metabolism has now been produced , which will guide future drug discovery and biochemical research . These models are now used in network analysis , to classify human diseases into groups that share common proteins or metabolites .
Bacterial metabolic networks are a striking example of bow @-@ tie organization , an architecture able to input a wide range of nutrients and produce a large variety of products and complex macromolecules using a relatively few intermediate common currencies .
A major technological application of this information is metabolic engineering . Here , organisms such as yeast , plants or bacteria are genetically modified to make them more useful in biotechnology and aid the production of drugs such as antibiotics or industrial chemicals such as 1 @,@ 3 @-@ propanediol and shikimic acid . These genetic modifications usually aim to reduce the amount of energy used to produce the product , increase yields and reduce the production of wastes .
= = History = =
The term metabolism is derived from the Greek Μεταβολισμός – " Metabolismos " for " change " , or " overthrow " . The first documented references of metabolism were made by Ibn al @-@ Nafis in his 1260 AD work titled Al @-@ Risalah al @-@ Kamiliyyah fil Siera al @-@ Nabawiyyah ( The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet 's Biography ) which included the following phrase " Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment , so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change . " The history of the scientific study of metabolism spans several centuries and has moved from examining whole animals in early studies , to examining individual metabolic reactions in modern biochemistry . The first controlled experiments in human metabolism were published by Santorio Santorio in 1614 in his book Ars de statica medicina . He described how he weighed himself before and after eating , sleep , working , sex , fasting , drinking , and excreting . He found that most of the food he took in was lost through what he called " insensible perspiration " .
In these early studies , the mechanisms of these metabolic processes had not been identified and a vital force was thought to animate living tissue . In the 19th century , when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast , Louis Pasteur concluded that fermentation was catalyzed by substances within the yeast cells he called " ferments " . He wrote that " alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells , not with the death or putrefaction of the cells . " This discovery , along with the publication by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828 of a paper on the chemical synthesis of urea , and is notable for being the first organic compound prepared from wholly inorganic precursors . This proved that the organic compounds and chemical reactions found in cells were no different in principle than any other part of chemistry .
It was the discovery of enzymes at the beginning of the 20th century by Eduard Buchner that separated the study of the chemical reactions of metabolism from the biological study of cells , and marked the beginnings of biochemistry . The mass of biochemical knowledge grew rapidly throughout the early 20th century . One of the most prolific of these modern biochemists was Hans Krebs who made huge contributions to the study of metabolism . He discovered the urea cycle and later , working with Hans Kornberg , the citric acid cycle and the glyoxylate cycle . Modern biochemical research has been greatly aided by the development of new techniques such as chromatography , X @-@ ray diffraction , NMR spectroscopy , radioisotopic labelling , electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations . These techniques have allowed the discovery and detailed analysis of the many molecules and metabolic pathways in cells .
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= Bangla Desh ( song ) =
" Bangla Desh " is a song by English musician George Harrison . It was released as a non @-@ album single in July 1971 , to raise awareness for the millions of refugees from the country formerly known as East Pakistan , following the 1970 Bhola cyclone and the outbreak of the Bangladesh Liberation War . Harrison 's inspiration for the song came from his friend Ravi Shankar , a Bengali musician , who approached Harrison for help in trying to alleviate the suffering . " Bangla Desh " has been described as " one of the most cogent social statements in music history " and helped gain international support for Bangladeshi independence by establishing the name of the fledgling nation around the world . In 2005 , United Nations Secretary @-@ General Kofi Annan identified the song 's success in personalising the Bangladesh crisis , through its emotive description of Shankar 's request for help .
" Bangla Desh " appeared at the height of Harrison 's popularity as a solo artist , following the break @-@ up of the Beatles and the acclaim afforded his 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass . It was pop music 's first charity single , and its release took place three days before the Harrison @-@ sponsored Concert for Bangladesh shows at New York 's Madison Square Garden . The single became a top ten hit in the United Kingdom and elsewhere in Europe , and peaked at number 23 on America 's Billboard Hot 100 . The recording was co @-@ produced by Phil Spector and features contributions from Leon Russell , Jim Horn , Ringo Starr and Jim Keltner . The Los Angeles session for the song marked the start of two enduring musical associations in Harrison 's solo career , with Keltner and Horn .
Backed by these musicians and others including Eric Clapton and Billy Preston , Harrison performed " Bangla Desh " at the UNICEF concerts , on 1 August 1971 , as a rousing encore . In a review of the Concert for Bangladesh live album for Rolling Stone magazine , Jon Landau identified this reading as " the concert 's single greatest performance by all concerned " . The studio recording appeared on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison , which remained its only official CD release until September 2014 , when it was included as a bonus track on the Apple Years 1968 – 75 reissue of Harrison 's Living in the Material World album . Artists who have covered the song include Stu Phillips & the Hollyridge Strings and Italian saxophonist Fausto Papetti .
= = Background = =
By the spring of 1971 , George Harrison had established himself as the most successful ex @-@ Beatle during the former band members ' first year as solo artists ; in the words of biographer Elliot Huntley , he " couldn 't have got any more popular in the eyes of the public " . Just as importantly , writes Peter Lavezzoli , author of The Dawn of Indian Music in the West , Harrison had " amassed such good will in the music community " during that time . Rather than looking to immediately follow up his All Things Must Pass triple album , he had spent the months since recording ended in October 1970 repaying favours to the friends and musicians who had helped make the album such a success . These included co @-@ producer Phil Spector , whose wife , Ronnie Spector , Harrison supplied with songs for a proposed solo album on Apple Records ; Ringo Starr , whose " It Don 't Come Easy " single he produced and prepared for release , following the original session for the song in March 1970 ; Bobby Whitlock , singer and keyboard player with the short @-@ lived Derek and the Dominos , whose eponymous debut solo album featured Harrison and Eric Clapton on guitar ; and former Spooky Tooth pianist Gary Wright , whose Footprint album ( 1971 ) Harrison also guested on , along with All Things Must Pass orchestrator John Barham .
Another project was a documentary on the life and music of Ravi Shankar , Howard Worth 's Raga ( 1971 ) , for which Harrison had stepped in at the last minute to provide funding and distribution through Apple Films . With Harrison also serving as record producer for the accompanying soundtrack album , work began with Shankar in Los Angeles during April 1971 and resumed in late June , following Harrison @-@ produced sessions in London for the band Badfinger .
A Bengali by birth , Shankar had already brought the growing humanitarian crisis in Bangladesh to Harrison 's attention , while staying at the ex @-@ Beatle 's house , Friar Park , earlier in the year . The state formerly known as East Pakistan ( and before that , East Bengal ) had suffered an estimated 300 @,@ 000 casualties when the Bhola cyclone hit its shores on 12 November 1970 , and the indifference shown by the ruling government in West Pakistan , particularly by President Yahya Khan , was just one reason the Bengali national movement sought independence on 25 March 1971 . This declaration resulted in an immediate military crackdown by Khan 's troops , and three days later the Bangladesh Liberation War began . By 13 June , details of the systematic massacre of citizens were beginning to emerge internationally via the publication in London 's Sunday Times of an article by Anthony Mascarenhas . Along with the torrential rains and intensive flooding that were threatening the passage of millions of refugees into north @-@ eastern India , this news galvanised Shankar into approaching Harrison for help in trying to alleviate the suffering . " I was in a very sad mood , having read all this news , " Shankar later told Rolling Stone magazine , " and I said , ' George , this is the situation , I know it doesn 't concern you , I know you can 't possibly identify . ' But while I talked to George he was very deeply moved ... and he said , ' Yes , I think I 'll be able to do something . ' "
As a result , Harrison committed to staging the Concert for Bangladesh at Madison Square Garden , New York , on Sunday , 1 August . Six weeks of frantic activity ensued as Harrison flew between New York , Los Angeles and London , making preparations and recruiting other musicians to join him and Shankar for the shows . While conceding that Harrison was no " natural sloganeer " in the manner of his former bandmate John Lennon , author Robert Rodriguez has written : " if any ex @-@ Fab had the cachet with his fan base to solicit good works , it was the spiritual Beatle . "
= = Composition = =
Foreign journalists had been deported from East Pakistan shortly before the Pakistani army 's Operation Searchlight , and even after Mascarenhas ' first @-@ hand observations had been published , Shankar and Harrison were concerned that the mainstream media in the West were showing a reluctance to report all the facts . That summer , it also emerged that America was supporting General Khan 's military offensive , both financially and with weaponry – despite the Blood telegram in April , in which officials at the US Consulate in Dacca advised their State Department of the " genocide " taking place and accused the US Government of " moral bankruptcy " . Realising the need to create greater awareness of the situation in Bangladesh , and particularly the refugee camps of India that had become " infectious open @-@ air graveyards " with the outbreak of cholera , Harrison quickly composed a song for the cause . " Bangla Desh " was " written in ten minutes at the piano " , he would later recall . The title translates as " Bengal nation " , and the fact that Harrison spelt it as two words is indicative of how little the new country name had been acknowledged by the Western media at this time .
As with the concerts , Harrison made a point of steering clear of the politics behind the problem , his lyrics focusing instead on the human perspective . At the suggestion of Leon Russell , who had participated in the recent Ronnie Spector and Badfinger sessions , Harrison began the song with a brief verse outlining his own introduction to the Bangladesh crisis :
My friend came to me with sadness in his eyes
Told me that he wanted help before his country dies
Although I couldn 't feel the pain , I knew I had to try
Now I 'm asking all of you to help us save some lives .
These lines refer to Shankar 's request for help , and " [ in ] deference to the Shankar context " , musical biographer Simon Leng suggests , Harrison set the opening verse as a rock version of Indian music 's traditional alap – " a slow introductory statement of the main ideas " . Lyrically , the remainder of the song concentrates on the uncompromising message " We 've got to relieve Bangla Desh " as thousands of refugees , particularly children , fell victim to the effects of famine and disease .
Bangla Desh , Bangla Desh
Where so many people are dying fast
And it sure looks like a mess
I 've never seen such distress
Now won 't you lend your hand , try to understand
Relieve the people of Bangla Desh .
The final verse @-@ chorus reflects a point that former US Fund for UNICEF president Charles Lyons has identified as a perennial obstacle when addressing global issues of poverty – that the problems appear to be too big and too distant for individuals to be able to solve :
Now , it may seem so far from where we all are
It 's something we can 't reject
That suffering , I can 't neglect ...
In this verse , the line " Now won 't you give some bread to get the starving fed " contains a " clever pun " , Harrison biographer Ian Inglis notes , whereby the word " bread " is used to refer to both money and food .
= = Recording = =
With little time to begin rehearsing for the New York shows , the " Bangla Desh " single was rush @-@ recorded in Los Angeles . Sources differ over the venue and date : the Record Plant West seems the most likely studio , with sessions taking place on 4 – 5 July and horn overdubs perhaps on 10 July . Phil Spector again co @-@ produced , but as with the recording details for the sessions , the exact line @-@ up of musicians is a matter of conjecture . According to Simon Leng , who consulted Klaus Voormann and Jim Horn for his book While My Guitar Gently Weeps , the line @-@ up comprised Harrison , Leon Russell ( piano ) , Horn ( saxophones ) , Voormann ( bass ) , Starr , Jim Keltner ( both on drums ) and Billy Preston ( organ ) . Leng and Beatles author Bruce Spizer credit a " horn section " led by Jim Horn , which could include regular partner Chuck Findley and even the rest of the six @-@ piece section , christened " the Hollywood Horns " , that would go on to perform in New York on 1 August .
The recording begins with Harrison 's emotive introduction backed by what Lavezzoli describes as a " rolling piano figure " from Russell . Following the words " help us save some lives " , the piano sets up the song 's " driving groove " , Lavezzoli continues , as the rhythm section and Harrison 's electric guitar join in , creating the same musical blend of gospel and rock that Harrison had adopted on much of All Things Must Pass . In a review for the NME in August 1971 , Derek Johnson wrote of " Bangla Desh " : " Opens almost like a sermon , then the beat come is ... as George wails fervently to a backing of a solid rhythm section and handclaps . " The track retains an " urgent ' live ' mood " , Leng notes , although it is possible that Starr 's contribution was overdubbed after the main session , due to his filming schedule for the Western movie Blindman ( 1971 ) , in Spain . The song features solos shared between Russell , Horn ( on tenor sax ) and Harrison ( slide guitar ) , and fades out with the ensemble playing in double time , similar to a fast gat section ( or drut ) used in Hindustani classical music .
" Bangla Desh " marked the first occasion that Harrison worked with Horn , who would go on to become a regular collaborator . Already a veteran of the LA music scene by 1971 , Horn recalls his " jaded " mindset before meeting Harrison , but describes the session as a " real turning point " in his career , " because we were doing something for a cause " . It was also the first time that Keltner played on a George Harrison session , the two musicians having already worked together on Lennon 's Imagine album ( 1971 ) . The " Bangla Desh " session was the beginning of a lifelong friendship , with the pair remaining " as brothers " , Keltner has said , until Harrison 's death in 2001 . Together with Clapton , Preston , Bob Dylan and the group Badfinger , all these musicians joined Harrison and Shankar on stage at Madison Square Garden .
Ravi Shankar cut a benefit disc of his own at this time , the Harrison @-@ produced Joi Bangla EP . The A @-@ side featured two vocal compositions sung in Bengali – the title track ( which translated to mean " Victory to Bangladesh " ) and " Oh Bhaugowan " – while on the reverse was a six @-@ minute recital of " Raga Mishra Jhinjoti " , featuring Shankar , sarod master Ali Akbar Khan , and Shankar 's regular tabla player , Alla Rakha .
= = Release = =
At Harrison 's urging , Capitol Records , Apple 's distributor in the United States , set all four of its manufacturing plants to producing copies of the " Bangla Desh " single ; one @-@ sided , white label promo discs were also rushed through to ensure immediate radio play for the song . For the US picture sleeve , designer Tom Wilkes chose a suitably topical image , incorporating headlines and text from New York Times articles about the Bangladesh crisis . The articles made mention of vultures being the " happiest creatures " amid the chaos in Dacca , and India 's " wait and see " policy regarding events in East Pakistan . The front of the picture sleeve was topped with the line " ( We 've Got to Relieve ) " before the words " Bangla Desh " , leading a number of publications to include the parenthetical text as part of the official song title . Boxed off at the foot of the front sleeve were details of the George Harrison – Ravi Shankar Special Emergency Relief Fund ( care of UNICEF 's New York headquarters ) , to which proceeds of the single would go and further donations were encouraged . The back cover of the US sleeve was taken from a UPI news agency photograph – an " emotional " image showing a mother comforting her starving child . This photo was also used in the aid project 's magazine advertising campaign , as well as for the front of the single 's picture sleeve in Denmark and Japan .
Backed with the well @-@ regarded " Deep Blue " , the " Bangla Desh " single was issued on 28 July 1971 in the United States ( as Apple 1836 ) , with a UK release following two days later ( R 5912 ) . It peaked at number 10 on Britain 's national singles chart and number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 in America ; the other US chart compilers , Cash Box and Record World , placed the single at number 20 and number 13 , respectively . " Bangla Desh " attracted sustained airplay in the days leading up to the concerts , and lent the relief project an authentic social and political significance . A Bangladeshi academic , Professor Farida Majid , would later write : " To the utter consternation of [ US President ] Nixon and [ Secretary of State ] Kissinger , George Harrison 's ' Bangla Desh ' hit the chart . It was a thrilling moment in the midst of all the sad news emanating from the battlefront . Even the Western journalists covering the civil war in East Pakistan were not yet using the word ' Bangladesh ' . " The studio recording was also played at the Concert for Bangladesh shows , following Shankar 's opening set , over footage of the refugees and scenes from the war .
= = = Reissue = = =
Despite the song having been a hit – and its status as the first @-@ ever pop charity single , fourteen years before Band Aid and USA for Africa – " Bangla Desh " was mostly ignored by record @-@ company repackagers following 1971 . Over a period of 43 years , the studio version received an album release only on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison , which was issued on CD in 1987 . The song has since been included as a bonus track , remixed by Paul Hicks , on the 2014 reissue of Harrison 's Living in the Material World album , part of the eight @-@ disc Apple Years 1968 – 75 box set .
= = Reception and legacy = =
On release , Billboard magazine described " Bangla Desh " as " a musical appeal to help our fellow @-@ man " that " should find immediate and heavy chart action " . In his contemporary review for the NME , Derek Johnson considered the song to be " [ n ] ot so strong melodically as ' My Sweet Lord ' , but still nagging and insistent " , and added : " one can immediately detect the despair and pity in [ Harrison 's ] voice as he sings of the appalling plight of the East Pakistanis ... his lyric is bound to cause some heart @-@ searching . " A wave of public goodwill accompanied the single 's release in 1971 , as was the case with the two benefit concerts , the subsequent live album , and the 1972 concert film . Simon Leng has identified genuine friendship as being key to the success of Harrison and Shankar 's relief project : the friendship between the two of them that saw the ex @-@ Beatle become involved , and the friendships Harrison had cultivated with Dylan , Clapton and Starr that ensured their participation . Leng notes that the opening lyrics to " Bangla Desh " ( " My friend came to me ... " ) could equally have applied to Harrison 's efforts to enlist the reluctant Dylan and heroin @-@ sidelined Clapton .
In his concert review for The Village Voice , Don Heckman described " Bangla Desh " as " a song which expresses far better than words what kind of man Harrison is " . Heckman went on to compare Harrison 's philanthropy with the activities of two of his former bandmates , saying : " I have no quarrel with John Lennon 's endless clattering around inside his psyche , or Paul McCartney 's search for sweetness and light , but at the moment I have to have stronger feelings about George Harrison 's active efforts to do something about the misery in the world around him . How surprising that the most introspective of the Beatles should be the one who , in the long run , takes the most effective actions . "
Away from its context as a song designed purely to bring attention to the Bengalis ' cause , as Harrison himself described it , " Bangla Desh " has often been viewed by commentators as a rushed and underwhelming composition . Robert Rodriguez qualifies this opinion , however : " As a single , the song was possibly not the most commercial of records , but as a call to service , it could scarcely have been improved upon . " " Bangla Desh " ' s standing as rock music 's first charity single is not overlooked , with Ian Inglis stating : " ' Bangla Desh ' serves as a model for the charity singles that would become commonplace in the decades ahead , although , in this instance , the power of Harrison 's song lies not in its assembly of famous performers but in its literal and absolute commitment . " On this point , Leng deems the song as having " as much raw energy as anything [ Lennon 's ] Plastic Ono Band ever offered " . In The Dawn of Indian Music in the West , Peter Lavezzoli writes : " Harrison 's lyric and vocal were concise and powerful , a direct call for action in a specific crisis . As such , ' Bangla Desh ' remains one of the most cogent social statements in music history . "
In his interview for the 2005 reissue of Saul Swimmer 's Concert for Bangladesh film , UN Secretary @-@ General Kofi Annan acknowledged Harrison and Shankar as " pioneers " in their efforts for the people of Bangladesh , and credited the song 's opening verse for personalising the crisis by showing " the man behind the music " . Thirty @-@ three years before this , on 5 June 1972 , UNICEF officially recognised Harrison and Shankar with its annual Child Is the Father of the Man award .
In 2004 , " Bangla Desh " was played during the final episode of the BBC television series Himalaya with Michael Palin , in which Palin travels south from Bhutan to Bay of Bengal and reflects on Bangladesh 's struggle for independence . Writing for Blender magazine in April that year , Paul Du Noyer described the song as a " fine 1971 single " . In the 2005 " Beatles Solo " edition of NME Originals , Adrian Thrills rated " Bangla Desh " second among Harrison 's " ten solo gems " ( behind " What Is Life " ) , referring to it as a " jazz @-@ blues @-@ rock shuffle " that " set the template for Band Aid " . Writing in The Cambridge Companion to the Beatles in 2009 , Michael Frontani said that with his Bangladesh relief effort , Harrison " pioneered the whole idea of the charity album and single , as well as of the rock concert fundraiser " . While bemoaning the song 's omission from the 2009 Harrison compilation Let It Roll , Jon Cummings of popdose.com described " Bangla Desh " as " no great artistic achievement " within itself , but " a key moment ... in the evolution of pop @-@ music activism " .
The song is featured in Bruce Pollock 's 2005 book The 7 @,@ 500 Most Important Songs of 1944 – 2000 . In 2010 , AOL Radio listeners placed " Bangla Desh " at number 10 in a poll to decide the ten best post @-@ Beatles Harrison songs .
= = Live version = =
Harrison played " Bangla Desh " as an encore at both of the Madison Square Garden shows on 1 August 1971 , with the evening performance being selected for inclusion on the Concert for Bangladesh triple live album . After the familiar introduction to the song , the band " threw their full weight behind Harrison " , Lavezzoli writes , " playing the darkest and heaviest music of the show " . On release that December , Jon Landau of Rolling Stone identified the song as " the concert 's single greatest performance by all concerned " , and added that by the close of the show , the lyrics to Harrison 's single were " no longer an expression of intent but of an accomplished mission – help has been given , people have been reached , an effort has been made and results will be felt " .
In his album review for Melody Maker , Richard Williams wrote that the live version of " Bangla Desh " " roars and rages to a stunning close " . Played at a faster tempo than the studio recording , it features what Spizer terms a " blistering " saxophone solo from Horn , and a vocal by Harrison that Leng describes as " astonishingly powerful " and " a pure act of zeal " . As shown in the concert film , following his brief guitar solo towards the end of the song , Harrison repeats the line " Relieve the people of Bangla Desh " before exiting the stage to great applause , as the band plays on without him . In his book on the Beatles ' first decade as solo artists , Rodriguez views this live performance as perhaps Harrison 's " high water mark of public esteem " .
Although he was reportedly eager to repeat the experience of these New York shows , Harrison never played " Bangla Desh " in concert after 1971 and he did not perform live again until his 1974 North American tour with Shankar . By that point , the Bangladesh Liberation War had long ended , with India 's defeat of the Pakistani army in December 1971 , but Bangladesh was now experiencing a devastating famine that would account for up to 1 @.@ 5 million lives . During a concert in Los Angeles on 11 November , Harrison responded to requests for the song " Bangla Desh " with a suggestion that the audience instead chant " Krishna , Krishna , Krishna " and use the positive power of mantra to help the Bangladeshi population .
= = Cover versions = =
Harrison biographer Alan Clayson has written of the " triumph " of the Bangladesh concerts leading to a host of imitators and tribute acts replicating the shows ' programme , among which was a French band 's cover version of " Bangla Desh " . Another example was the Tribe 's Bangla Desh ( 1972 ) , a full album of highlights from the concerts , including Harrison 's " Bangla Desh " , " My Sweet Lord " and " Here Comes the Sun " . The previous year , Stu Phillips & the Hollyridge Strings released an easy listening version of " Bangla Desh " on their Beatles tribute album The George , John , Paul & Ringo Songbook ( 1971 ) . Another 1971 cover version , re @-@ released in 2002 on the compilation When They Was Fab – A Tribute to the Solo Beatles , was recorded by the Top of the Poppers .
Following Jim Horn 's prominent contribution to the original Harrison recording , Italian saxophonist Fausto Papetti recorded the song for his 1972 album 14a Raccolta . Alternative band B.A.L.L. covered " Bangla Desh " on their 1988 album Bird , as part of their parody of early 1970s rock stars such as the former Beatles .
= = Personnel = =
The following musicians are believed to have played on the studio recording of " Bangla Desh " .
George Harrison – vocals , electric guitar , slide guitar , backing vocals
Leon Russell – piano
Jim Horn – tenor sax , baritone sax , horn arrangement
Billy Preston – organ
Klaus Voorman – bass
Ringo Starr – drums , handclaps *
Jim Keltner – drums
Chuck Findley – trumpet *
* denotes unconfirmed credits .
= = Chart performance = =
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= Anna Akhmatova =
Anna Andreyevna Gorenko ( 23 June [ O.S. 11 June ] 1889 – 5 March 1966 ) , better known by the pen name Anna Akhmatova ( / ɑːkˈmɑːtɔːvə / ; Russian : Анна Ахматова , IPA : [ ɐxˈmatəvə ] ) , was a Russian modernist poet , one of the most acclaimed writers in the Russian canon .
Akhmatova 's work ranges from short lyric poems to intricately structured cycles , such as Requiem ( 1935 – 40 ) , her tragic masterpiece about the Stalinist terror . Her style , characterised by its economy and emotional restraint , was strikingly original and distinctive to her contemporaries . The strong and clear leading female voice struck a new chord in Russian poetry . Her writing can be said to fall into two periods – the early work ( 1912 – 25 ) and her later work ( from around 1936 until her death ) , divided by a decade of reduced literary output . Her work was condemned and censored by Stalinist authorities and she is notable for choosing not to emigrate , and remaining in Russia , acting as witness to the events around her . Her perennial themes include meditations on time and memory , and the difficulties of living and writing in the shadow of Stalinism .
Primary sources of information about Akhmatova 's life are relatively scant , as war , revolution and the totalitarian regime caused much of the written record to be destroyed . For long periods she was in official disfavour and many of those who were close to her died in the aftermath of the revolution . Akhmatova 's first husband , Nikolai Gumilev was executed by the Soviet secret police , and her son Lev Gumilev and her common @-@ law husband Nikolay Punin spent many years in the Gulag , where Punin died .
= = Early life and family = =
Akhmatova was born at Bolshoy Fontan , near the Black Sea port of Odessa . Her father , Andrey Antonovich Gorenko , a naval engineer , and her mother , Inna Erazmovna Stogova , were both descended from the Russian nobility . She wrote :
No one in my large family wrote poetry . But the first Russian woman poet , Anna Bunina , was the aunt of my grandfather Erasm Ivanovich Stogov . The Stogovs were modest landowners in the Mozhaisk region of the Moscow Province . They were moved here after the insurrection during the time of Posadnitsa Marfa . In Novgorod they had been a wealthier and more distinguished family . Khan Akhmat , my ancestor , was killed one night in his tent by a Russian killer @-@ for @-@ hire . Karamzin tells us that this marked the end of the Mongol yoke on Russia . [ ... ] It was well known that this Akhmat was a descendant of Genghiz Khan . In the eighteenth century , one of the Akhmatov Princesses – Praskovia Yegorvna – married the rich and famous Simbirsk landowner Motovilov . Yegor Motovilov was my great @-@ grandfather ; his daughter , Anna Yegorovna , was my grandmother . She died when my mother was nine years old , and I was named in her honour . Several diamond rings and one emerald were made from her brooch . Though my fingers are thin , still her thimble didn 't fit me .
Her family moved north to Tsarskoye Selo , near St. Petersburg when she was eleven months old . The family lived in a house on the corner of Shirokaya Street and Bezymyanny Lane ; ( the building is no longer there today ) , spending summers from age 7 to 13 in a dacha near Sevastopol . She studied at the Mariinskaya High School , moving to Kiev ( 1906 – 10 ) and finished her schooling there , after her parents separated in 1905 . She went on to study law at Kiev University , leaving a year later to study literature in St Petersburg .
Akhmatova started writing poetry at the age of 11 , and was published in her late teens , inspired by the poets Nikolay Nekrasov , Jean Racine , Alexander Pushkin , Evgeny Baratynsky and the Symbolists ; however , none of her juvenilia survives . Her sister Inna also wrote poetry though she did not pursue the practice and married shortly after high school . Akhmatova 's father did not want to see any verses printed under his " respectable " name , so she chose to adopt her grandmother 's distinctly Tatar surname ' Akhmatova ' as a pen name .
She met a young poet , Nikolay Gumilev , on Christmas Eve in 1903 . Gumilev , encouraged her to write and pursued her intensely , making numerous marriage proposals starting in 1905 . At 17 years old , in his journal Sirius , she published her first poem which could be translated as " On his hand you may see many glittering rings " , ( 1907 ) signing it " Anna G. " She soon became known in St Petersburg 's artistic circles , regularly giving public readings . That year , she wrote unenthusiastically to a friend , “ He has loved me for three years now , and I believe that it is my fate to be his wife . Whether or not I love him , I do not know , but it seems to me that I do . ” She married Gumilev in Kiev in April 1910 ; however , none of Akhmatova ’ s family attended the wedding . The couple honeymooned in Paris , and there she met and befriended the Italian artist Amedeo Modigliani .
In late 1910 , she came together with poets such as Osip Mandelstam and Sergey Gorodetsky to form the Guild of Poets . It promoted the idea of craft as the key to poetry rather than inspiration or mystery , taking themes of the concrete rather than the more ephemeral world of the Symbolists . Over time , they developed the influential Acmeist anti @-@ symbolist school , concurrent with the growth of Imagism in Europe and America . From the first year of their marriage , Gumilev began to chafe against its constraints . She wrote that he had " lost his passion " for her and by the end of that year he left on a six @-@ month trip to Africa .
She had " her first taste of fame " , becoming renowned , not so much for her beauty , as her intense magnetism and allure , attracting the fascinated attention of a great many men , including the great and the good . She returned to visit Modigliani in Paris , where he created at least 20 paintings of her , including several nudes .
She later began an affair with the celebrated Acmeist poet Osip Mandelstam , whose wife , Nadezhda , declared later , in her autobiography that she came to forgive Akhmatova for it in time . Akhmatova 's son , Lev , was born in 1912 , and would become a renowned Neo @-@ Eurasianist historian .
= = Silver Age = =
In 1912 , the Guild of Poets published her book of verse Evening ( Vecher ) – the first of five in nine years . The small edition of 500 copies quickly sold out and she received around a dozen positive notices in the literary press . She exercised a strong selectivity for the pieces – including only 35 of the 200 poems she had written by the end of 1911 . ( She noted that Song of the Last Meeting , dated 29 September 1911 , was her 200th poem ) . The book secured her reputation as a new and striking young writer , the poems Grey @-@ eyed king , In the Forest , Over the Water and I don ’ t need my legs anymore making her famous . She later wrote " These naïve poems by a frivolous girl for some reason were reprinted thirteen times [ ... ] And they came out in several translations . The girl herself ( as far as I recall ) did not foresee such a fate for them and used to hide the issues of the journals in which they were first published under the sofa cushions " .
Her second collection , The Rosary ( or Beads – Chetki ) appeared in March 1914 and firmly established her as one of the most popular and sought after poets of the day . Thousands of women composed poems " in honour of Akhmatova " , mimicking her style and prompting Akhmatova to exclaim : " I taught our women how to speak , but don 't know how to make them silent " . Her aristocratic manners and artistic integrity won her the titles " Queen of the Neva " and " Soul of the Silver Age , " as the period came to be known in the history of Russian poetry . In Poem Without a Hero , the longest and one of the best known of her works , written many decades later , she would recall this as a blessed time of her life . She became close friends with Boris Pasternak ( who , though married , proposed to her many times ) and rumours began to circulate that she was having an affair with influential lyrical poet Alexander Blok . In July 1914 , Akhmatova wrote “ Frightening times are approaching / Soon fresh graves will cover the land " ; on August 1 , Germany declared war on Russia , marking the start of " the dark storm " of world war , civil war , revolution and totalitarian repression for Russia . The Silver Age came to a close .
Akhmatova had a relationship with the mosaic artist and poet Boris Anrep ; many of her poems in the period are about him and he in turn created mosaics in which she is featured . She selected poems for her third collection , Belaya Staya ( White Flock ) , in 1917 , a volume which poet and critic Joseph Brodsky later described as writing of personal lyricism tinged with the “ note of controlled terror ” . She later came to be memorialised by his description of her as " the keening muse " . Essayist John Bayley describes her writing at this time as " grim , spare and laconic " .
In February 1917 , the revolution started in Petersburg ( then named Petrograd ) ; soldiers fired on marching protestors , and others mutinied . They looked to a past in which the future was " rotting " . In a city without electricity or sewage service , with little water or food , they faced starvation and sickness . Her friends died around her and others left in droves for safer havens in Europe and America , including Anrep , who escaped to England . She had the option to leave , and considered it for a time , but chose to stay and was proud of her decision to remain . :
She wrote of her own temptation to leave :
At the height of Akhmatova 's fame , in 1918 , she divorced her husband and that same year , though many of her friends considered it a mistake , Akhmatova married prominent Assyriologist and poet Vladimir Shilejko . She later said “ I felt so filthy . I thought it would be like a cleansing , like going to a convent , knowing you are going to lose your freedom . ” She began affairs with theatre director Mikhail Zimmerman and composer Arthur Lourié , who set many of her poems to music .
= = 1920s and 1930s = =
In 1921 , Akhmatova 's former husband Nikolay Gumilev was prosecuted for his alleged role in a monarchist anti @-@ Bolshevik conspiracy and on 25 August was shot along with 61 others . According to the historian Rayfield , the murder of Gumilev was part of the state response to the Kronstadt Rebellion . The Cheka ( secret police ) blamed the rebellion on Petrograd 's intellectuals , prompting the senior Cheka officer Yakov Agranov to forcibly extract the names of ' conspirators ' , from an imprisoned professor , guaranteeing them amnesty from execution . Agranov 's guarantee proved to be meaningless . He sentenced dozens of the named persons to death , including Gumilev . Maxim Gorky and others appealed for leniency , but by the time Lenin agreed to several pardons , the condemned had been shot . Within a few days of his death , Akhmatova wrote :
The murders had a powerful effect on the Russian intelligentsia , destroying the Acmeist poetry group , and placing a stigma on Akhmatova and her son Lev ( by Gumilev ) . Lev 's later arrest during the purges and terrors of the 1930s was based on being his father 's son . From a new Marxist perspective , Akhmatova 's poetry was deemed to represent an introspective " bourgeois aesthetic " , reflecting only trivial " female " preoccupations , not in keeping with these new revolutionary politics of the time . She was roundly attacked by the state , by former supporters and friends , and seen to be an anachronism . During what she termed " The Vegetarian Years " , Akhmatova 's work was unofficially banned by a party resolution of 1925 and she found it hard to publish , though she didn 't stop writing poetry . She made acclaimed translations of works by Victor Hugo , Rabindranath Tagore , Giacomo Leopardi and pursued academic work on Pushkin and Dostoyevsky . She worked as a critic and essayist , though many USSR and foreign critics and readers concluded she had died .
She had little food and almost no money ; her son was denied access to study at academic institutions by dint of his parents ' alleged anti @-@ state activities . The impact of the nationwide repression and purges had a decimating effect on her St Petersburg circle of friends , artists and intellectuals . Her close friend and fellow poet Mandelstam was deported and then sentenced to a Gulag labour camp , where he would die . Akhmatova narrowly escaped arrest , though her son Lev was imprisoned on numerous occasions by the Stalinist regime , accused of counter @-@ revolutionary activity . She would often queue for hours to deliver him food packages and plead on his behalf . She describes standing outside a stone prison :
One day somebody in the crowd identified me . Standing behind me was a woman , with lips blue from cold , who had , of course , never heard me called by name before . Now she started out of the torpor common to us all and asked me in a whisper ( everyone whispered there ) : ' Can you describe this ? '
And I said : ' I can.'
Then something like a smile passed fleetingly over what had once been her face .
Akhmatova wrote that by 1935 every time she went to see someone off at the train station as they went into exile , she 'd find herself greeting friends at every step as so many of St Petersburg 's intellectual and cultural figures would be leaving on the same train . In her poetry circles Mayakovsky and Esenin committed suicide and Marina Tsvetaeva would follow them in 1941 , after returning from exile .
Akhmatova was a common @-@ law wife to Nikolai Punin , an art scholar and lifelong friend , whom she stayed with until 1935 . He also was repeatedly taken into custody , dying in the Gulag in 1953 . Her tragic cycle Requiem documents her personal experience of this time ; as she writes , " one hundred million voices shout " through her " tortured mouth " .
= = 1939 – 1960 = =
In 1939 , Stalin approved the publication of one volume of poetry , From Six Books ; however , the collection was withdrawn and pulped after only a few months . In 1993 , it was revealed that the authorities had bugged her flat and kept her under constant surveillance , keeping detailed files on her from this time , accruing some 900 pages of " denunciations , reports of phone taps , quotations from writings , confessions of those close to her " . Although officially stifled , Akhmatova 's work continued to circulate in secret . Akhmatova 's close friend , chronicler Lydia Chukovskaya described how writers working to keep poetic messages alive used various strategies . A small trusted circle would , for example , memorise each other 's works and circulate them only by oral means . She tells how Akhmatova would write out her poem for a visitor on a scrap of paper to be read in a moment , then burnt in her stove . The poems were carefully disseminated in this way , however it is likely that many complied in this manner were lost . " It was like a ritual , " Chukovskaya wrote . " Hands , matches , an ashtray . A ritual beautiful and bitter . "
During World War II , Akhmatova witnessed the 900 day Siege of Leningrad ( now St Petersburg ) . In 1940 , Akhmatova started her Poem without a Hero , finishing a first draft in Tashkent , but working on " The Poem " for twenty years and considering it to be the major work of her life , dedicating it to " the memory of its first audience – my friends and fellow citizens who perished in Leningrad during the siege " . She was evacuated to Chistopol in spring of 1942 and then to greener , safer Tashkent in Uzbekistan , along with other artists , such as Shostakovitch . During her time away she became seriously ill with typhus ( she had suffered from severe bronchitis and tuberculosis as a young woman ) . On returning to Leningrad in May 1944 , she writes of how disturbed she was to find " a terrible ghost that pretended to be my city " .
She regularly read to soldiers in the military hospitals and on the front line ; her later pieces seem to be the voice of those who had struggled and the many she has outlived . She moved away from romantic themes towards a more diverse , complex and philosophical body of work and some of her more patriotic poems found their way to the front pages of Pravda . She was condemned for a visit by the liberal , western , Jewish philosopher Isaiah Berlin in 1945 , and Official Andrei Zhdanov publicly labelled her " half harlot , half nun " , her work " the poetry of an overwrought , upper @-@ class lady " , her work the product of " eroticism , mysticism , and political indifference " . He banned her poems from publication in the journals Zvezda and Leningrad , accusing her of poisoning the minds of Soviet youth . Her surveillance was increased and she was expelled from the Union of Soviet Writers .
Berlin described his visit to her flat : It was very barely furnished — virtually everything in it had , I gathered , been taken away — looted or sold — during the siege .... A stately , grey @-@ haired lady , a white shawl draped about her shoulders , slowly rose to greet us . Anna Akhmatova was immensely dignified , with unhurried gestures , a noble head , beautiful , somewhat severe features , and an expression of immense sadness .
Akhmatova 's son Lev was arrested again at the end of 1949 and sentenced to 10 years in a Siberian prison camp . She spent much of the next years trying to ensure his release , to this end , and for the first time , she published overtly propagandist poetry , “ In Praise of Peace , ” in the magazine Ogoniok , openly supporting Stalin and his regime . Lev remained in the camps until 1956 , well after Stalin 's death , his final release potentially aided by his mother 's concerted efforts . Bayley suggests that her period of pro @-@ Stalinist work may also have saved her own life ; notably however , Akhmatova never acknowledged these pieces in her official corpus . Akhmatova 's stature among Soviet poets was slowly conceded by party officials , her name no longer cited in only scathing contexts and she was readmitted to Union of Writers in 1951 , being fully recognised again following Stalin 's death in 1953 . With the press still heavily controlled and censored under Nikita Khrushchev , a translation by Akhmatova was praised in a public review in 1955 , and her own poems began to re @-@ appear in 1956 . That same year Lev was released from the camps , embittered , believing that his mother cared more about her poetry than for him and that she had not worked hard for his release . Akhmatova 's status was confirmed by 1958 , with the publication of Stikhotvoreniya ( Poems ) and then Stikhotvoreniya 1909 – 1960 ( Poems : 1909 – 1960 ) in 1961 . Beg vremeni ( The flight of time ) , collected works 1909 – 1965 , published 1965 , was the most complete volume of her works in her lifetime , though the long damning poem Requiem , condemning the Stalinist purges , was conspicuously absent . Isaiah Berlin predicted at the time that it could never be published in the Soviet Union .
= = Last years = =
During the last years of her life she continued to live with the Punin family in Leningrad , still translating , researching Pushkin and writing her own poetry . Though still censored , she was concerned to re @-@ construct work that had been destroyed or suppressed during the purges or which had posed a threat to the life of her son in the camps , such as the lost , semi @-@ autobiographical play Enûma Elish . She worked on her official memoirs , planned novels and worked on her epic Poem without a hero , 20 years in the writing .
Akhmatova was widely honoured in the USSR and the West . In 1962 she was visited by Robert Frost ; Isaiah Berlin tried to visit her again , but she refused him , worried that her son might be re @-@ arrested due to family association with the ideologically suspect western philosopher . She inspired and advised a large circle of key young Soviet writers . Her dacha in Komarovo was frequented by such poets as Yevgeny Rein and Joseph Brodsky , whom she mentored . Brodsky , arrested in 1963 and interned for social parasitism , would go on to win the Nobel Prize in Literature ( 1987 ) and become Poet Laureate ( 1991 ) as an exile in the U.S.
As one of the last remaining major poets of the Silver Age , she was newly acclaimed by the Soviet authorities as a fine and loyal representative of their country and permitted to travel . At the same time , by virtue of works such as Requiem , Akhmatova was being hailed at home and abroad as an unofficial leader of the dissident movement , and reinforcing this image herself . She was becoming representative of both the Soviet Union and Tsarist Russia , more popular in the 1960s than she had ever been before the revolution , this reputation only continuing to grow after her death . For her 75th birthday in 1964 , new collections of her verse were published .
Akhmatova was able to meet some of her pre @-@ revolutionary acquaintances in 1965 , when she was allowed to travel to Sicily and England , in order to receive the Taormina prize and an honorary doctoral degree from Oxford University , accompanied by her lifelong friend and secretary Lydia Chukovskaya . Akhmatova 's Requiem in Russian finally appeared in book form in Munich in 1963 , the whole work not published within USSR until 1987 . Her long poem The Way of All the Earth or Woman of Kitezh ( Kitezhanka ) was published in complete form in 1965 .
In November 1965 , soon after her Oxford visit , Akhmatova suffered a heart attack and was hospitalised . She was moved to a sanatorium in Moscow in the spring of 1966 and died of heart failure on March 5 , at the age of 76 . Thousands attended the two memorial ceremonies which were held in Moscow and in Leningrad . After being displayed in an open coffin , she was interred at Komarovo Cemetery in St Petersburg .
Isaiah Berlin described the impact of her life , as he saw it :
The widespread worship of her memory in Soviet Union today , both as an artist and as an unsurrendering human being , has , so far as I know , no parallel . The legend of her life and unyielding passive resistance to what she regarded as unworthy of her country and herself , transformed her into a figure [ ... ] not merely in Russian literature , but in Russian history in [ the Twentieth ] century .
In 1988 , to celebrate what would have been Akhmatova 's 100th birthday , the University of Harvard held an international conference on her life and work . Today her work may be explored at the Anna Akhmatova Literary and Memorial Museum in St. Petersburg .
= = Work and themes = =
Akhmatova joined the Acmeist group of poets in 1910 with poets such as Osip Mandelstam and Sergey Gorodetsky , working in response to the Symbolist school , concurrent with the growth of Imagism in Europe and America . It promoted the use of craft and rigorous poetic form over mysticism or spiritual in @-@ roads to composition , favouring the concrete over the ephemeral . Akhmatova modeled its principles of writing with clarity , simplicity , and disciplined form . Her first collections Evening ( 1912 ) and Rosary ( 1914 ) received wide critical acclaim and made her famous from the start of her career . They contained brief , psychologically taut pieces , acclaimed for their classical diction , telling details , and the skilful use of colour . Evening and her next four books were mostly lyric miniatures on the theme of love , shot through with sadness .
Her early poems usually picture a man and a woman involved in the most poignant , ambiguous moment of their relationship , much imitated and later parodied by Nabokov and others . Critic Roberta Reeder notes that the early poems always attracted large numbers of admirers : " For Akhmatova was able to capture and convey the vast range of evolving emotions experienced in a love affair , from the first thrill of meeting , to a deepening love contending with hatred , and eventually to violent destructive passion or total indifference . But [ ... ] her poetry marks a radical break with the erudite , ornate style and the mystical representation of love so typical of poets like Alexander Blok and Andrey Bely . Her lyrics are composed of short fragments of simple speech that do not form a logical coherent pattern . Instead , they reflect the way we actually think , the links between the images are emotional , and simple everyday objects are charged with psychological associations . Like Alexander Pushkin , who was her model in many ways , Akhmatova was intent on conveying worlds of meaning through precise details . "
Akhmatova often complained that the critics " walled her in " to their perception of her work in the early years of romantic passion , despite major changes of theme in the later years of The Terror . This was mainly due to the secret nature of her work after the public and critical effusion over her first volumes . The risks during the purges were very great . Many of her close friends and family were exiled , imprisoned or shot ; her son was under constant threat of arrest , she was often under close surveillance . Following artistic repression and public condemnation by the state in the 1920s , many within literary and public circles , at home and abroad , thought she had died . Her readership generally did not know her later opus , the railing passion of Requiem or Poem without a Hero and her other scathing works , which were shared only with a very trusted few or circulated in secret by word of mouth ( samizdat ) .
Between 1935 and 1940 Akhmatova composed , worked and reworked the long poem Requiem in secret , a lyrical cycle of lamentation and witness , depicting the suffering of the common people under Soviet terror . She carried it with her as she worked and lived in towns and cities across the Soviet Union . It was conspicuously absent from her collected works , given its explicit condemnation of the purges . The work in Russian finally appeared in book form in Munich in 1963 , the whole work not published within USSR until 1987 . It consists of ten numbered poems that examine a series of emotional states , exploring suffering , despair , devotion , rather than a clear narrative . Biblical themes such as Christ 's crucifixion and the devastation of Mary , Mother of Jesus and Mary Magdelene , reflect the ravaging of Russia , particularly witnessing the harrowing of women in the 1930s . It represented , to some degree , a rejection of her own earlier romantic work as she took on the public role as chronicler of the Terror . This is a role she holds to this day .
Her essays on Pushkin and Poem Without a Hero , her longest work , were only published after her death . This long poem , composed between 1940 and 1965 , is often critically regarded as her best work and also one of the finest poems of the twentieth century . It gives a deep and detailed analysis of her epoch and her approach to it , including her important encounter with Isaiah Berlin ( 1909 – 97 ) in 1945 . Her talent in composition and translation is evidenced in her fine translations of the works of poets writing in French , English , Italian , Armenian , and Korean .
= = = Cultural influence = = =
Translations of some of her poems by Babette Deutsch and Lyn Coffin are set to music on the album The Trackless Woods by Iris DeMent .
= = Honours = =
1964 Etna @-@ Taormina prize
1965 honorary doctorate from Oxford University in 1965 .
= = Selected poetry collections = =
= = = Published by Akhmatova = = =
1912 Vecher / Вечер ( Evening ) .
1914 Chetki ( Rosary or literally Beads )
1917 Belaya Staya ( White flock )
1921 Podorozhnik ( Wayside grass / Plantain ) . 60 pages , 1000 copies published .
1921 Anno Domini MCMXXI
Reed – 2 Volume Selected Poems ( 1924 – 1926 ) was compiled but never published .
Uneven – compiled but never published .
1940 From Six Books ( Publication suspended shortly after release , copies pulped ) .
1943 Izbrannoe Stikhi ( Selections of poetry ) Tashkent , government edited .
Iva not separately published
Sed 'maya kniga ( Seventh book ) – not separately published ;
1958 Stikhotvoreniya ( Poems ) ( 25 @,@ 000 copies )
1961 Stikhotvoreniya 1909 – 1960 ( Poems : 1909 – 1960 )
1965 Beg vremeni ( The flight of time Collected works 1909 – 1965 )
= = = Later editions = = =
1967 Poems of Akhmatova . Ed. and Trans . Stanley Kunitz , Boston
1976 Anna Akhmatova Selected Poems . D.M. Thomas Penguin Books
1985 Twenty Poems of Anna Akhmatova ( trans Jane Kenyon ) ; Eighties Press and Ally Press ; ISBN 0 @-@ 915408 @-@ 30 @-@ 9
1988 Selected Poems Trans . Richard McKane ; Bloodaxe Books Ltd ; ISBN 1 @-@ 85224 @-@ 063 @-@ 6
2000 The Complete Poems of Anna Akhmatova ( trans . Judith Hemschemeyer ; ed . Roberta Reeder ) ; Zephyr Press ; ISBN 0 @-@ 939010 @-@ 27 @-@ 5
2004 The Word That Causes Death 's Defeat : Poems of Memory ( Annals of Communism ) ( trans . Nancy Anderson ) . Yale University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 10377 @-@ 8
2006 Selected Poems ( trans D. M. Thomas ) ; Penguin Classics ; ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 042464 @-@ 4
2009 Selected Poems ( trans . Walter Arndt ) ; Overlook TP ; ISBN 0 @-@ 88233 @-@ 180 @-@ 9
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= Isaac =
Isaac ( / ˈaɪzək / ; Hebrew : יִצְחָק , Modern Yitshak , Tiberian Yiṣḥāq , ISO 259 @-@ 3 Yiçḥaq , " [ he ] will laugh " ; Ancient Greek : Ἰσαάκ Isaak Arabic : إسحاق or إسحٰق ʼIsḥāq ) as described in the Hebrew Bible and the Qur 'an , was the second son of Abraham , the only son Abraham had with his wife Sarah , and the father of Jacob and Esau . According to the Book of Genesis , Abraham was 100 years old when Isaac was born , and Sarah was past 90 .
According to Genesis , Abraham brought Isaac to Mount Moriah , where , at God 's command , Abraham built a sacrificial altar to sacrifice Isaac . This event served as a test of Abraham 's faith . At the last moment , Abraham was stopped by the angel of the Lord .
Isaac was one of the three patriarchs of the Israelites . Isaac was the only biblical patriarch whose name was not changed , and the only one who did not move out of Canaan . Compared to Abraham and Jacob , the Bible relates fewer incidents of Isaac 's life . He died when he was 180 years old , making him the longest @-@ lived of the three .
= = Etymology = =
The anglicized name Isaac is a transliteration of the Hebrew term Yiṣḥāq which literally means " He laughs / will laugh . " Ugaritic texts dating from the 13th century BCE refer to the benevolent smile of the Canaanite deity El . Genesis , however , ascribes the laughter to Isaac 's parents , Abraham and Sarah , rather than El . According to the biblical narrative , Abraham fell on his face and laughed when Elohim imparted the news of their son 's eventual birth . He laughed because Sarah was past the age of childbearing ; both she and Abraham were advanced in age . Later , when Sarah overheard three messengers of the Lord renew the promise , she laughed inwardly for the same reason . Sarah denied laughing when Elohim questioned Abraham about it .
= = Genesis narrative = =
= = = Birth = = =
It was prophesied to the patriarch Abraham that he would have a son and that his name should be Isaac . When Abraham became one hundred years old , this son was born to him by his first wife Sarah . Though this was Abraham 's second son it was Sarah ’ s first and only child .
On the eighth day from his birth , Isaac was circumcised , as was necessary for all males of Abraham 's household , in order to be in compliance with Yahweh 's covenant .
After Isaac had been weaned , Sarah saw Ishmael mocking , and urged her husband to cast out Hagar the bondservant and her son , so that Isaac would be Abraham 's sole heir . Abraham was hesitant , but at God 's order he listened to his wife 's request .
= = = Binding = = =
At some point in Isaac 's youth , his father Abraham brought him to Mount Moriah . At God 's command , Abraham was to build a sacrificial altar and sacrifice his son Isaac upon it . After he had bound his son to the altar and drawn his knife to kill him , at the very last moment an angel of God prevented Abraham from proceeding . Rather , he was directed to sacrifice instead a nearby ram that was stuck in thickets . This event served as a test of Abraham 's faith in God , not as an actual human sacrifice .
= = = Family life = = =
When Isaac was 40 , Abraham sent Eliezer , his steward , into Mesopotamia to find a wife for Isaac , from his nephew Bethuel 's family . Eliezer chose the Aramean Rebekah for Isaac . After many years of marriage to Isaac , Rebekah had still not given birth to a child and was believed to be barren . Isaac prayed for her and she conceived . Rebekah gave birth to twin boys , Esau and Jacob . Isaac was 60 years old when his two sons were born . Isaac favored Esau , and Rebekah favored Jacob .
Isaac is unique among the patriarchs for remaining faithful to his wife , and for not having concubines .
= = = Migration = = =
At the age of 75 , Isaac moved to Beer @-@ lahai @-@ roi after his father died . When the land experienced famine , he removed to the Philistine land of Gerar where his father once lived . This land was still under the control of King Abimelech as it was in the days of Abraham . Like his father , Isaac also deceived Abimelech about his wife and also got into the well business . He had gone back to all of the wells that his father dug and saw that they were all stopped up with earth . The Philistines did this after Abraham died . So , Isaac unearthed them and began to dig for more wells all the way to Beersheba , where he made a pact with Abimelech , just like in the day of his father .
= = = Birthright = = =
Isaac grew old and became blind . He called his son Esau and directed him to procure some venison for him , in order to receive Isaac 's blessing . While Esau was hunting , Jacob , after listening to his mother 's advice , deceived his blind father by misrepresenting himself as Esau and thereby obtained his father 's blessing , such that Jacob became Isaac 's primary heir and Esau was left in an inferior position . According to Genesis 25 : 29 @-@ 34 , Esau had previously sold his birthright to Jacob for " bread and stew of lentils " . Thereafter , Isaac sent Jacob into Mesopotamia to take a wife of his mother 's brother 's house . After 20 years working for his uncle Laban , Jacob returned home . He reconciled with his twin brother Esau , then he and Esau buried their father , Isaac , in Hebron after he died at the age of 180 .
= = = Family tree = = =
= = Burial site = =
According to local tradition , the graves of Isaac and Rebekah , along with the graves of Abraham and Sarah and Jacob and Leah , are in the Cave of the Patriarchs .
= = Jewish views = =
In rabbinical tradition , the age of Isaac at the time of binding is taken to be 37 which contrasts with common portrayals of Isaac as a child . The rabbis also thought that the reason for the death of Sarah was the news of the intended sacrifice of Isaac . The sacrifice of Isaac is cited in appeals for the mercy of God in later Jewish traditions . The post @-@ biblical Jewish interpretations often elaborate the role of Isaac beyond the biblical description and primarily focus on Abraham 's intended sacrifice of Isaac , called the aqedah ( " binding " ) . According to a version of these interpretations , Isaac died in the sacrifice and was revived . According to many accounts of Aggadah , unlike the Bible , it is Satan who is testing Isaac as an agent of God . Isaac 's willingness to follow God 's command at the cost of his death has been a model for many Jews who preferred martyrdom to violation of the Jewish law .
According to the Jewish tradition , Isaac instituted the afternoon prayer . This tradition is based on Genesis chapter 24 , verse 63 ( " Isaac went out to meditate in the field at the eventide " ) .
Isaac was the only patriarch who stayed in Canaan during his whole life and though once he tried to leave , God told him not to do so . Rabbinic tradition gave the explanation that Isaac was almost sacrificed and anything dedicated as a sacrifice may not leave the Land of Israel . Isaac was the oldest of the biblical patriarchs at the time of his death , and the only patriarch whose name was not changed .
Rabbinic literature also linked Isaac 's blindness in old age , as stated in the Bible , to the sacrificial binding : Isaac 's eyes went blind because the tears of angels present at the time of his sacrifice fell on Isaac 's eyes .
= = Christian views = =
The early Christian church continued and developed the New Testament theme of Isaac as a type of Christ and the Church being both " the son of the promise " and the " father of the faithful " . Tertullian draws a parallel between Isaac 's bearing the wood for the sacrificial fire with Christ 's carrying his cross. and there was a general agreement that , while all the sacrifices of the Old Law were anticipations of that on Calvary , the sacrifice of Isaac was so " in a pre @-@ eminent way " .
The Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church consider Isaac as a Saint along with other biblical patriarchs . Along with those of other patriarchs and the Old Testament Righteous , his feast day is celebrated in the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Byzantine rite of the Catholic Church on the Second Sunday before Christmas ( December 11 – 17 ) , under the title the Sunday of the Forefathers .
= = = New Testament = = =
The New Testament states Isaac was " offered up " by Abraham his father , and that Isaac blessed his sons . Paul contrasted Isaac , symbolizing Christian liberty , with the rejected older son Ishmael , symbolizing slavery ; Hagar is associated with the Sinai covenant , while Sarah is associated with the covenant of grace , into which her son Isaac enters . The Epistle of James chapter 2 , verses 21 @-@ 24 , states that the sacrifice of Isaac shows that justification ( in the Johannine sense ) requires both faith and works .
In the Epistle to the Hebrews , Abraham 's willingness to follow God 's command to sacrifice Isaac is used as an example of faith as is Isaac 's action in blessing Jacob and Esau with reference to the future promised by God to Abraham In verse 19 , the author views the release of Isaac from sacrifice as analogous to the resurrection of Jesus , the idea of the sacrifice of Isaac being a prefigure of the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross .
= = Islamic views = =
Isaac ( Arabic : إسحاق [ note A ] ʾIsḥāq ) is revered by Muslims to be a prophet of Islam . Islam considers Isaac as a prophet of Islam , and describes him as the father of the Israelites and a righteous servant of God .
Isaac , along with Ishmael , is highly important for Muslims for continuing to preach the message of monotheism after his father Abraham . Among Isaac 's children was the follow @-@ up Israelite patriarch Jacob , who too is venerated an Islamic prophet .
Isaac is mentioned fifteen times by name in the Qur 'an , often with his father and his son , Jacob . The Qur 'an states that Abraham received " good tidings of Isaac , a prophet , of the righteous " , and that God blessed them both ( 37 : 12 ) . In a fuller description , when angels came to Abraham to tell him of the future punishment to be imposed on Sodom and Gomorrah , his wife , Sarah , " laughed , and We gave her good tidings of Isaac , and after Isaac of ( a grandson ) Jacob " ( 11 : 71 @-@ 74 ) ; and it is further explained that this event will take place despite Abraham and Sarah 's old age . Several verses speak of Isaac as a " gift " to Abraham ( 6 : 84 ; 14 : 49 @-@ 50 ) , and 24 : 26 @-@ 27 adds that God made " prophethood and the Book to be among his offspring " , which has been interpreted to refer to Abraham 's two prophetic sons , his prophetic grandson Jacob , and his prophetic great @-@ grandson Joseph . In the Qur 'an , it later narrates that Abraham also praised God for giving him Ishmael and Isaac in his old age ( 14 : 39 @-@ 41 ) .
Elsewhere in the Qur 'an , Isaac is mentioned in lists : Joseph follows the religion of his forefathers Abraham , Isaac and Jacob ( 12 : 38 ) and speaks of God 's favor to them ( 12 : 6 ) ; Jacob 's sons all testify their faith and promise to worship the God that their forefathers , " Abraham , Ishmael and Isaac " , worshiped ( 2 : 127 ) ; and the Qur 'an commands Muslims to believe in the revelations that were given to " Abraham , Ishmael , Isaac , Jacob and the Patriarchs " ( 2 : 136 ; 3 : 84 ) . In the Qur 'an 's narrative of Abraham 's near @-@ sacrifice of his son ( 37 : 102 ) , the name of the son is not mentioned and debate has continued over the son 's identity , though many feel that the identity is the least important element in a story which is given to show the courage that one develops through faith .
= = = Qur 'an = = =
The Qur 'an mentions Isaac as a prophet and a righteous man of God . Isaac and Jacob are mentioned as being bestowed upon Abraham as gifts of God , who then worshipped God only and were righteous leaders in the way of God :
And We bestowed on him Isaac and , as an additional gift , ( a grandson ) , Jacob , and We made righteous men of every one ( of them ) .
And We made them leaders , guiding ( men ) by Our Command , and We sent them inspiration to do good deeds , to establish regular prayers , and to practise regular charity ; and they constantly served Us ( and Us only ) .
And WE gave him the glad tidings of Isaac , a Prophet , and one of the righteous .
= = Academic = =
Some scholars have described Isaac as " a legendary figure " while others view him " as a figure representing tribal history , or " as a seminomadic leader . " The stories of Isaac , like other patriarchal stories of Genesis , are generally believed to have " their origin in folk memories and oral traditions of the early Hebrew pastoralist experience . " The Cambridge Companion to the Bible makes the following comment on the biblical stories of the patriarchs :
Yet for all that these stories maintain a distance between their world and that of their time of literary growth and composition , they reflect the political realities of the later periods . Many of the narratives deal with the relationship between the ancestors and peoples who were part of Israel ’ s political world at the time the stories began to be written down ( eighth century B.C.E. ) . Lot is the ancestor of the Transjordanian peoples of Ammon and Moab , and Ishmael personifies the nomadic peoples known to have inhabited north Arabia , although located in the Old Testament in the Negev . Esau personifies Edom ( 36 : 1 ) , and Laban represents the Aramean states to Israel ’ s north . A persistent theme is that of difference between the ancestors and the indigenous Canaanites … In fact , the theme of the differences between Judah and Israel , as personified by the ancestors , and the neighboring peoples of the time of the monarchy is pressed effectively into theological service to articulate the choosing by God of Judah and Israel to bring blessing to all peoples . ”
According to Martin Noth , a scholar of the Hebrew Bible , the narratives of Isaac date back to an older cultural stage than that of the West @-@ Jordanian Jacob . At that era , the Israelite tribes were not yet sedentary . In the course of looking for grazing areas , they had come in contact in southern Philistia with the inhabitants of the settled countryside . The biblical historian , A. Jopsen , believes in the connection between the Isaac traditions and the north , and in support of this theory adduces Amos 7 : 9 ( " the high places of Isaac " ) .
Albrecht Alt and Martin Noth hold that , " The figure of Isaac was enhanced when the theme of promise , previously bound to the cults of the ' God the Fathers ' was incorporated into the Israelite creed during the southern @-@ Palestinian stage of the growth of the Pentateuch tradition . " According to Martin Noth , at the Southern Palestinian stage of the growth of the Pentateuch tradition , Isaac became established as one of the biblical patriarchs , but his traditions were receded in the favor of Abraham .
= = = Documentary hypothesis = = =
Form critics variously assign passages like Genesis chapter 26 , verses 6 @-@ 11 , to the Jahwist source , and Genesis chapter 20 verses 1 @-@ 7 , chapter 21 , verse 1 to chapter 22 , verse 14 and chapter 22 , verse 19 to the Elohist . According to the compilation hypothesis , the formulaic use of the word toledoth ( generations ) indicates that Genesis chapter 11 , verse 27 to chapter 25 , verse 19 is Isaac 's record through Abraham 's death ( with Ishmael 's record appended ) , and Genesis chapter 25 , verse 19 to chapter 37 , verse 2 is Jacob 's record through Isaac 's death ( with Esau 's records appended ) .
= = In art = =
The earliest Christian portrayal of Isaac is found in the Roman catacomb frescoes . Excluding the fragments , Alison Moore Smith classifies these artistic works in three categories :
" Abraham leads Isaac towards the altar ; or Isaac approaches with the bundle of sticks , Abraham having preceded him to the place of offering .... Abraham is upon a pedestal and Isaac stands near at hand , both figures in orant attitude .... Abraham is shown about to sacrifice Isaac while the latter stands or kneels on the ground beside the altar . Sometimes Abraham grasps Isaac by the hair . Occasionally the ram is added to the scene and in the later paintings the Hand of God emerges from above . "
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= Yugoslav destroyer Dubrovnik =
Dubrovnik was a flotilla leader built for the Royal Yugoslav Navy by Yarrow Shipbuilders in Glasgow between 1930 and 1931 . She was one of the largest destroyers of her time . Resembling contemporary British designs , Dubrovnik was a fast ship with a main armament of four Czechoslovak @-@ built Škoda 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) guns in single mounts . Intended to be the first of three flotilla leaders built for Yugoslavia , she was the only one completed . During her service with the Royal Yugoslav Navy , Dubrovnik undertook several peacetime cruises through the Mediterranean , the Turkish Straits and the Black Sea . In October 1934 , she conveyed King Alexander to France for a state visit , and carried his body back to Yugoslavia following his assassination in Marseille .
During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , Dubrovnik was captured by the Italians . After a refit , which included the replacement of some of her weapons and the shortening of her mainmast and funnels , she was commissioned into the Royal Italian Navy as Premuda . In Italian service she was mainly used as an escort and troop transport . In June 1942 , she was part of the Italian force that attacked the Allied Operation Harpoon convoy attempting to relieve the island of Malta . In July 1943 , she broke down and put in to Genoa for repair and a refit . Premuda was the most important and effective Italian war prize ship of World War II .
At the time of the Italian surrender to the Allies in September 1943 , Premuda was still docked in Genoa , and was seized by Germany . Plans to convert her into a radar picket for night fighters were abandoned . In August 1944 , following the replacement of her armament , she was commissioned into the German Navy as a Torpedoboot Ausland ( foreign torpedo boat ) with the designation TA32 . The ship saw action shelling Allied positions on the Italian coast and laying naval mines . In March 1945 , she took part in the Battle of the Ligurian Sea against two Royal Navy destroyers , during which she was lightly damaged . She was scuttled the following month as the Germans retreated from Genoa .
= = Development = =
Following the demise of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire and the creation of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( KSCS ) , Austria @-@ Hungary transferred the vessels of the former Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to the new nation . The Kingdom of Italy was unhappy with this , and convinced the Allies to share the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships among the victorious powers . As a result , the only modern sea @-@ going vessels left to the KSCS were 12 torpedo boats , and they had to build their naval forces from scratch . During the 1920s , many navies were pursuing the flotilla leader concept , building large destroyers similar to the World War I Royal Navy V and W @-@ class destroyers . In the interwar French Navy , these ships were known as contre @-@ torpilleurs , and were intended to operate with smaller destroyers , or as half @-@ flotillas of three ships . The idea was that such a half @-@ flotilla could defeat an Italian light cruiser of the Condottieri @-@ class . The Navy of the KSCS decided to build three such flotilla leaders , ships that would have the ability to reach high speeds and with a long endurance . The long endurance requirement reflected Yugoslav plans to deploy the ships into the central Mediterranean , where they would be able to operate alongside French and British warships .
At the time the decision was made , French shipyards were heavily committed to producing vessels for the French Navy . So , despite its intention to develop a French concept , the KSCS engaged Yarrow Shipbuilders in Glasgow , Scotland to build the ships . Unlike the French , who preferred to install guns of their own manufacture , Yarrow was happy to order the guns from the Czechoslovak firm Škoda . The initial Yarrow design was based on an expanded version of the British Shakespeare @-@ class , with five Skoda 14 cm / 56 naval guns . Excessive top weight resulted in the deletion of one of the guns , to be replaced with a seaplane mounting . The final version replaced the seaplane mounting with improved anti @-@ aircraft armament . The intention to build three flotilla leaders was demonstrated by the fact that Yarrow ordered a total of 12 Škoda 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) guns , four per ship . In the late summer of 1929 , the KSCS ( the Kingdom of Yugoslavia from 3 October 1929 ) signed a contract with Yarrow for a destroyer named Dubrovnik . Soon after she was ordered , the onset of the Great Depression meant that only one ship of the planned half @-@ flotilla was ever built .
= = Description and construction = =
Dubrovnik was similar in many respects to the British destroyers being manufactured at the same time , having a square box @-@ like bridge , a long forecastle , and a sharp raked stem similar to the later Tribal @-@ class . Her rounded stern was adapted for minelaying . She had an overall length of 113 @.@ 2 metres ( 371 ft 5 in ) , with a 10 @.@ 67 m ( 35 ft ) beam and a mean draught of 3 @.@ 58 m ( 11 ft 9 in ) ( maximum draught of 4 @.@ 1 m ( 13 ft 5 in ) ) . Her standard displacement was 1 @,@ 880 long tons ( 1 @,@ 910 t ) , ( 2 @,@ 400 long tons ( 2 @,@ 439 t ) at full load ) . Dubrovnik had two Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving a single propeller shaft . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers , located in separate boiler rooms , and the turbines were rated at 48 @,@ 000 shp ( 36 @,@ 000 kW ) . As designed , the ship had a maximum speed of 37 knots ( 69 km / h ; 43 mph ) . In 1934 , under ideal conditions , she achieved a maximum speed of 40 @.@ 3 knots ( 74 @.@ 6 km / h ; 46 @.@ 4 mph ) . A separate Curtis turbine , rated at 900 shp ( 670 kW ) , was installed for cruising , with which she could achieve a range of 7 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 000 km ; 8 @,@ 100 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . She carried 470 tonnes ( 460 long tons ) of fuel oil .
Her main armament consisted of four Škoda 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) L / 56 superfiring guns in single mounts , two forward of the superstructure and two aft . For air defence , Dubrovnik had twin @-@ mounted Škoda 83 @.@ 5 mm ( 3 @.@ 29 in ) L / 55 guns , and six Škoda 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) / L67 anti @-@ aircraft guns , arranged in two twin mounts and two single mounts . She was also equipped with two triple 533 mm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes , two depth charge throwers and two depth charge rails , two Škoda 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) machine guns and 40 mines . Her crew comprised 20 officers and 220 ratings . She was laid down on 10 June 1930 , and was launched on 11 October 1931 .
= = Service history = =
= = = Dubrovnik = = =
Dubrovnik was completed at the Yarrow shipyards in Glasgow in 1932 , at which time her main guns and light anti @-@ aircraft guns had been installed . After sailing to the Bay of Kotor in the southern Adriatic , she was fitted with her heavy anti @-@ aircraft guns . She was commissioned with the Royal Yugoslav Navy in 1932 , and her captain was Armin Pavić . In late September 1933 , the ship left the Bay of Kotor and sailed through the Turkish Straits to Constanța on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria , where she embarked King Alexander and Queen Maria of Yugoslavia . She then visited Balcic in Romania and Varna in Bulgaria , before returning via Istanbul and the Greek island of Corfu in the Ionian Sea , arriving back at the Bay of Kotor on 8 October . On 6 October 1934 , King Alexander left the Bay of Kotor on board Dubrovnik for a state visit to France , arriving in Marseille on 9 October . He was killed that same day by a Bulgarian assassin , and Dubrovnik conveyed his body back to Yugoslavia , escorted by French , Italian and British ships . Soon after , Vladimir Šaškijević replaced Pavić as captain . In August 1935 , Dubrovnik visited Corfu and Bizerte in the French protectorate of Tunisia . In August 1937 , Dubrovnik visited Istanbul and the Greek ports of Mudros in the northern Aegean Sea and Piraeus near Athens .
In April 1941 , Yugoslavia entered World War II when it was invaded by the German @-@ led Axis powers . At the time , Dubrovnik was still under the command of Šaškijević and was assigned as flagship of the 1st Torpedo Division , along with the three smaller Beograd @-@ class destroyers , Beograd , Ljubljana and Zagreb .
= = = Premuda = = =
The Italians captured Dubrovnik in the Bay of Kotor on 17 April 1941 ; she had been damaged by Yugoslav civilians prior to her seizure . Dubrovnik was sailed to Taranto in southern Italy on 21 May , where she underwent repairs and a refit . She was renamed Premuda , after the Dalmatian island near which an Italian motor torpedo boat had sunk the Austro @-@ Hungarian dreadnought Szent István in June 1918 . Her aft deckhouse and emergency bridge was removed and replaced with an anti @-@ aircraft platform , and her mainmast and funnels were shortened . Her twin Škoda 83 @.@ 5 mm ( 3 @.@ 29 in ) L / 55 anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced by a 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / L15 howitzer firing star shells for illumination , while the six Škoda 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) / L67 anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced by four Breda Model 35 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) / L65 machine guns in single mounts . Later in her Italian service , the 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) howitzer was replaced by a twin Breda 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / L54 anti @-@ aircraft gun mount . In Italian service , her crew consisted of 13 officers and 191 enlisted ranks .
Premuda was commissioned in the Italian Navy ( Italian : Regia Marina ) in February 1942 . Later that month she rescued British prisoners of war who survived the sinking of the SS Ariosto , an Italian ship ferrying them from Tripoli to Sicily . In early June , the Italian submarine Alagi fired on Premuda , mistaking her for a British destroyer due to her similarities with a British H @-@ class destroyer . The attack missed Premuda and struck the Navigatori @-@ class destroyer Antoniotto Usodimare , sinking her . From 12 – 16 June 1942 , Premuda took part in operations against the Allied Operation Harpoon convoy attempting to reach the beleaguered island of Malta from Gibraltar . As part of the 10th Destroyer Flotilla , Premuda supported the Italian 7th Cruiser Squadron , comprising the light cruisers Eugenio di Savoia and Raimondo Montecuccoli . The force that attacked the Operation Harpoon convoy included most of the fighting power of the Italian Navy , including two battleships and two heavy cruisers . The Allied naval escort lost one cruiser , three destroyers and several merchant ships to a combination of air attacks , submarines and naval mines . One Italian battleship was damaged , and the Trento @-@ class cruiser Trento was sunk . One of the other damaged Italian ships was the Navigatori @-@ class destroyer Ugolino Vivaldi , and Premuda was tasked to tow her to safety in the harbour of Pantelleria , an island in the Strait of Sicily , under escort from the destroyer Lanzerotto Malocello .
On 6 – 7 January 1943 , Premuda and 13 other Italian destroyers transported troops to the Axis @-@ held port of Tunis in North Africa , completing two more such missions over the next two months . On 17 July , she developed serious engine problems in the Ligurian Sea near La Spezia , and was brought to Genoa for a major boiler and engine overhaul . It was decided to rebuild her along the lines of the Navigatori @-@ class , including a wider beam to improve her stability . As shells for her Škoda @-@ built main guns were in short supply , the decision was made to replace them with Italian @-@ made 135 mm ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) / L45 guns in single mounts . The rebuild had not been completed when Italy surrendered to the Allies , and Premuda was seized by Germany at Genoa on 9 September 1943 . Premuda was the most important and effective Italian war prize ship of World War II .
= = = TA32 = = =
When she was captured by the Germans , Premuda 's new guns had not been completed . Their initial plans called for the ship to serve as a radar picket for night fighters , with three 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) / L45 anti @-@ aircraft guns in single mounts , Freya early @-@ warning radar , Würzburg gun @-@ laying radar and a FuMO 21 surface fire @-@ control system . These plans were soon abandoned due to the German lack of destroyers and torpedo boats in the Mediterranean , and the decision was made to commission her as a Torpedoboot Ausland ( foreign torpedo boat ) with a DeTe radar instead of the Freya and Würzburg radar sets . Her armament was replaced with four 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) / L45 naval guns , eight 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns and between thirty @-@ two and thirty @-@ six 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns in quadruple and twin mounts . The number of torpedo tubes was reduced from six to three . The number of 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns was later increased to ten , in four twin and two single mounts . In German service , she had a total crew of 220 officers and men .
She was commissioned in the German Navy ( German : Kriegsmarine ) on 18 August 1944 , as TA32 , under the command of Kapitänleutnant Emil Kopka . She served in the Ligurian Sea with the 10th Torpedo Boat Flotilla , and was immediately committed to shelling Allied positions on the Italian coast , then scouting and minelaying tasks in the western Gulf of Genoa . On 2 October 1944 , TA32 , along with TA24 and TA29 , sailed towards Sanremo to lay mines , where they encountered the destroyer USS Gleaves . After exchanging fire , the three ships returned to Genoa without being hit . By mid @-@ March 1945 , TA32 , TA24 and TA29 were the only ships of the 10th Torpedo Boat Flotilla that remained operational . On the night of 17 – 18 March 1945 , TA32 placed 76 naval mines off Cap Corse , the northern tip of Corsica , in an offensive minelaying operation , along with TA24 and TA29 . After being detected by a shore based radar , the ships were engaged by the destroyers HMS Lookout and HMS Meteor , in what would become known as the Battle of the Ligurian Sea . Outgunned , TA24 and TA29 were sunk , while TA32 managed to escape with light damage to her rudder , after firing a few rounds and making an unsuccessful torpedo attack . TA32 was finally scuttled at Genoa on 24 April 1945 , as the Germans retreated . Her wreck was raised and broken up in 1950 .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Periodicals = = =
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= Sozin 's Comet : The Final Battle =
" Sozin 's Comet : The Final Battle " is the series finale for the Nickelodeon television series Avatar : The Last Airbender . It was directed by Ethan Spaulding , Giancarlo Volpe , and Joaquim Dos Santos , and written by Michael Dante DiMartino , Bryan Konietzko , and Aaron Ehasz . Although the finale is split into four episodes , it aired as a two @-@ hour four @-@ part movie on July 19 , 2008 . Before the week of July 14 – 19 , no episodes had been shown since November 30 , 2007 . The Saturday airing of Sozin 's Comet acted as a climax to a week of ten new episodes that concluded Avatar 's third season .
The finale focuses on series protagonist Aang 's non @-@ violent personality and his reluctance to kill Fire Lord Ozai . The finale also follows the exploits of many of Aang 's friends and allies , including Sokka , Toph and Suki 's struggle to destroy a Fire Nation airship armada , Zuko and Katara 's battle against Zuko 's sister Azula , and Iroh , King Bumi , and the Order of the White Lotus ' attempt to liberate Ba Sing Se .
Sozin 's Comet received positive reception from critics and fans alike . The initial showing averaged 5 @.@ 6 million viewers , a 195 % increase in ratings compared with ratings from mid @-@ July 2007 . The premiere of episodes 52 – 61 throughout the week of Sozin 's Comet 's release received over 19 million views , of which 5 @.@ 6 million were from the premiere of Sozin 's Comet . At the 2008 Annie Awards , the director of the third part of Sozin 's Comet won an award for " Best Directing in an Animated Television Production " .
Although " Sozin 's Comet " is the series finale , Avatar : The Last Airbender has continued as an ongoing graphic novel series , taking place after the finale and before the sequel series The Legend of Korra , which has been published by Dark Horse Comics since January 2012 , with each annual story arc split into three parts .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part 1 : " The Phoenix King " = = =
Aang suddenly abandons his Firebending lesson with Zuko to have a beach party , causing Zuko to attack him in his frustration . Aang explains he plans to challenge Fire Lord Ozai only after Sozin 's Comet and its enhancement of Firebending have come and gone , due to his own self @-@ perceived lack of Firebending skills at the moment . When Zuko tells the group Ozai plans to use the comet 's power to burn down the Earth Kingdom , Aang resolves to face him before the comet arrives . Sokka decides to have a simulation fight against a scarecrow , but Aang refuses to kill it due to his pacifistic nature and non @-@ violent upbringing , and even berates his friends as they tell him that he may eventually have no choice but to kill Ozai .
That night , Aang sleepwalks to an island not to be found in the morning . After the group fails to locate him , Zuko takes them to June , a tracker who might be able to locate Aang . Meanwhile , Fire Lord Ozai proclaims himself to be ruler of the world , under the title " Phoenix King " , and declares Azula to be the new Fire Lord , setting off to burn the world and rebuild it under his new order .
= = = Part 2 : " The Old Masters " = = =
Zuko 's tracker , June , is unable to locate Aang , but he is reunited with his uncle , Iroh , who reconcile with each other after Zuko 's betrayal in Ba Sing Se . He and several other characters ( Katara 's Waterbending master Pakku , Aang 's first Firebending instructor Jeong Jeong , Aang 's Earthbender friend King Bumi , and Sokka 's swordmaster Piandao ) are part of an otherwise non @-@ aligned group known as the " Order of the White Lotus " , which plans to liberate the Earth Kingdom capital , Ba Sing Se , from Fire Nation rule . Zuko and Katara decide to fight Azula in the Fire Nation capital while Sokka , Toph , and Suki attempt to destroy the airship fleet .
Meanwhile , Aang awakens on a floating island . Frustrated with his inability to find a way to defeat Ozai without killing him , he asks four of his past lives for advice . Unsatisfied with their answers , he asks the island for help . The island , which is actually a giant " lion @-@ turtle " , provides Aang with the power of energybending and leaves him on the Earth Kingdom shores while Ozai readies his airship fleet for takeoff .
= = = Part 3 : " Into the Inferno " = = =
The Comet appears in the sky , and Azula 's coronation takes place . Azula banishes nearly all of her subjects ( including her Dai Li agents ) in fear of betrayal , haunted by the actions of former friends Mai and Ty Lee in " The Boiling Rock , Part 2 " . Her paranoia and loneliness begin to drive her insane . Before she is crowned , Zuko and Katara arrive . Zuko accepts Azula 's challenge of an Agni Kai , or " fire duel " , because he feels that something is wrong with Azula and he does not want Katara injured . Just as Zuko is on the verge of defeating Azula , she shoots a bolt of lightning at Katara instead of Zuko . Zuko throws himself in front of her and intercepts the lightning , preventing Katara from getting hurt , but he gravely injures himself after he fails to correctly redirect the lightning .
Meanwhile , Sokka , Toph , and Suki hijack a Fire Nation airship , and use it to destroy many others , effectively stopping Ozai 's plan of incinerating the Earth Kingdom . In Ba Sing Se , the Order of the White Lotus , led by Iroh , lays siege to the Fire Nation forces within the city , with the sole intention of re @-@ conquering it in the name of the Earth Kingdom . Aang reappears and begins to duel the Fire Lord . However , when Aang successfully redirects lightning he intentionally aims it into the sky to avoid killing Ozai . Because of Aang 's pacifism , Ozai begins to gain the advantage .
= = = Part 4 : " Avatar Aang " = = =
Zuko lies on the ground twitching as Katara and Azula fight . After several minutes of running and being unable to gain the advantage at first , Katara freezes Azula and chains her to the ground defeating her . Katara then uses her waterbending to revive and heal Zuko . As a result of her defeat by two people she considers less than worthless , Azula 's mind finally snaps and she screams and sobs in fury , breathing blue fire out of her mouth , yet unable to escape her chains .
After a fierce battle , Ozai slams Aang into a rock , hitting the scar on his back from Azula 's lightning in the previous season and inadvertently releasing his locked seventh chakra , allowing Aang to enter the Avatar State . With the combined power of his past lives , Aang quickly overwhelms Ozai . Once Ozai is subdued , Aang refuses to kill him , instead locking him down with earth ; understanding the lion @-@ turtle 's meaning , he uses Energybending to strip Ozai of his Firebending powers , removing his ability to wage war . Then Aang raises and lowers the nearby ocean to undo the damage from the Fire Nation ; Sozin 's Comet vanishes beyond the horizon afterward .
The Order of the White Lotus liberates Ba Sing Se in the name of the Earth King . During his coronation , Zuko promises to aid the world in the postwar reconstruction . Sometime after the ceremony , Zuko visits Ozai 's prison and demands he tell him the location of the banished Ursa , Zuko 's mother . Zuko and Mai finally reconcile . Ty Lee joins the Kyoshi warriors , having bonded with them in prison and shared some chi @-@ blocking techniques . A final scene depicts the main cast gathered in Iroh 's new tea shop , the Jasmine Dragon , and with Aang and Katara officially confirming their genuinely strong and close romantic relationship with a loving hug and passionate kiss .
= = Production = =
Co @-@ creators Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko wrote the majority of the finale ; DiMartino wrote parts one , three , and four , and Konietzko assisted with parts three and four . Aaron Ehasz , co @-@ executive producer and head writer of the show , wrote part two . Ethan Spaulding directed part one , Giancarlo Volpe directed part two , and Joaquim Dos Santos directed parts three and four . Dos Santos was nominated for an Annie Award for his directing of part three , " Into the Inferno " . Although Sozin 's Comet was originally written as a three @-@ part story , the creators noticed that the length had grown beyond what they had predicted from the initial script . To avoid pacing issues , they split the final part in two , adding several scenes to fill the remaining time .
Although Avatar is not considered anime because of its American origin , Tasha Robinson of the SciFi Channel observed that " Avatar blurs the line between anime and [ US ] domestic cartoons until it becomes irrelevant . " An IGN reviewer commented that Sozin 's Comet " had that classic anime @-@ look that I 've always loved to see when watching old anime movies . The story through the animation was perfectly done . " The special 's music was written and composed by " The Track Team " , led by Jeremy Zuckerman . However , unlike past episodes , a music track produced by a live orchestra was used , rather than one in MIDI format .
During the San Diego Comic @-@ con , it was announced that a reunion between Zuko and his mother , Ursa , had been arranged and made into a storyboard . However , it was dropped just before the finale was finished , as requested by show co @-@ creator Michael Dante DiMartino , who felt that it resolved Ursa 's disappearance in an unsatisfactory way and that wasn 't the way the story should be told .
The cast of Sozin 's Comet includes all of the key characters from season three . Protagonists Aang , Katara , Sokka , and Toph are voiced by Zach Tyler Eisen , Mae Whitman , Jack DeSena , and Jessie Flower respectively . Iroh is voiced by Greg Baldwin and Zuko is voiced by Dante Basco . Grey DeLisle and Mark Hamill voice the two antagonists , Azula and Fire Lord Ozai , respectively . The co @-@ creators also lend their voices to two minor characters in the third part , " Into the Inferno " .
Avatar : The Last Airbender borrows extensively from East Asian art to create its fictional universe . Four " bending " arts exist in the universe ; they are based on different styles and variations of Chinese martial arts : Baguazhang for Airbending , Hung Gar and Southern Praying Mantis for Earthbending , Northern Shaolin for Firebending , and T 'ai chi for Waterbending . Additionally , series borrows heavily from the Taoist concept of balance and order . The Avatar , an incarnation of a divine being , is supposed to maintain the world 's order .
Nickelodeon originally broadcast Sozin 's Comet from 8 : 00 pm to 10 : 00 pm EST on July 19 , 2008 . Just ten days later , on July 29 , the " Book 3 : Fire – Volume 4 " DVD was released , which contained the four episodes as well as episodes 56 and 57 , audio commentary from the series ' co @-@ creators , cast , and crew , and a comic book .
= = Reception = =
Sozin 's Comet received many positive critical reviews ; Ed Liu of Toon Zone stated that it made Avatar " one of the finest animated television series ever made " , and IGN stating that this " film " deserved an Academy Award . Toon Zone praised the skill of the animation directors in designing the sweeping movements of the battle scenes , as well as the slower scenes , " including one moving reconciliation and the quiet coda that ties off many of the remaining loose ends of the series " . IGN reviewer Tory Ireland Mell wrote that she would " put it in the top ten films of all time " . She also praised the artistic skill of the designers , stating that the " whole dark tone was gorgeous to look at " , especially the " art of the Lion Turtle " . She thought that Sozin 's Comet lacked plot holes , as well as unnecessary plot devices , stating that the " story moved and kept us moving right along with it from beginning to end " . She gave Sozin 's Comet a 10 out of 10 " Masterful " rating .
Sozin 's Comet has received its share of criticism as well . Reviewers commented about the difficulty in understanding the voice of a new character : the Lion Turtle . The Lion Turtle was designed by Bryan Konietzko and character designer Jae Woo Kim . Bryan Konietzko disliked how the Lion Turtle turned out ; he felt that the art was not up to standards of the original design he had received . CraveOnline felt that because " the series was for children , the writers were at a loss of ideas to work around the murder angle , " and the decision not to kill the Fire Lord introduced " so many convenient plot twists [ that ] set us up for a humongous deus ex machina that allows the Fire Lord to be thwarted without dying " .
The premiere of Sozin 's Comet averaged 5 @.@ 6 million viewers , 195 % more viewers than Nickelodeon had received in mid @-@ July 2007 . During the week of July 14 , 2008 , it ranked as the most @-@ viewed program for the under @-@ 14 demographic . The premiere of episodes 52 – 61 throughout the week of Sozin 's Comet ' s release received a total of 19 million views , and Avatar reached Neilsen 's list of Top 20 Cable Results for the week ending June 20 , 2008 four times . It also appeared on iTunes ' top ten list of best @-@ selling television episodes during that same week . Sozin 's Comet ' s popularity affected online media as well ; " Rise of the Phoenix King " , a Nick.com online game based on Sozin 's Comet , generated almost 815 @,@ 000 game plays within three days . A video game loosely based on the third season , Avatar : The Last Airbender – Into the Inferno , was released on October 13 , 2008 .
Joaquim Dos Santos won the " Best Directing in an Animated Television Production " caption in the 2008 Annie Awards for his directing in " Into the Inferno " . Additionally , music editor and composer Jeremy Zuckerman and the sound editing team were nominated a Golden Reel award for " Best Sound Editing in a Television Animation " for their work in " Avatar Aang " .
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= Magnus Carlsen =
Sven Magnus Øen Carlsen ( Norwegian : [ sʋɛn ˈmɑŋnʉs øːn ˈkɑːɭsn ̩ ] ; born 30 November 1990 ) is a Norwegian chess grandmaster , and the current World Chess Champion .
Carlsen is a former chess prodigy . He became a Grandmaster in 2004 , at the age of 13 years , 148 days . This made him the third youngest grandmaster in history .
In November 2013 Carlsen became World Champion by defeating Viswanathan Anand in the World Chess Championship 2013 . On the May 2014 FIDE rating list , Carlsen reached his peak rating of 2882 , which is the highest in history . He successfully defended his title in November 2014 , once again defeating Anand . The same year , he also won the World Rapid Championship and the World Blitz Championship , thus holding all three world championship titles . In 2015 Carlsen won the inaugural Grand Chess Tour , a series of three supertournaments featuring the 10 best chess grandmasters in the world .
Carlsen was known for his attacking style as a teenager , but he has since developed into a more universal player . He does not rely on opening preparation as much as other top players , and plays a variety of openings in order to make it more difficult for opponents to prepare against him . Carlsen 's positional mastery and endgame prowess have drawn comparisons to those of former world champions Bobby Fischer , José Raúl Capablanca , Vasily Smyslov , and Anatoly Karpov .
= = Childhood = =
Carlsen was born in Tønsberg , Norway , on 30 November 1990 , to Sigrun Øen and Henrik Albert Carlsen , both engineers ( sivilingeniør ) by profession . The family spent one year in Espoo , Finland , and then in Brussels , Belgium , and in 1998 returned to Norway and settled in Lommedalen , Bærum . They later moved to Haslum . Carlsen showed an aptitude for intellectual challenges at a young age : at two years , he could solve 50 @-@ piece jigsaw puzzles ; at four , he enjoyed assembling Lego sets with instructions intended for children aged 10 – 14 . His father taught him to play chess at the age of 5 , although he initially showed little interest in the game .
The first chess book Carlsen read was Find the Plan by Bent Larsen , and his first book on openings was Eduard Gufeld 's The Complete Dragon . Carlsen developed his early chess skills by playing by himself for hours at a time — moving the pieces around the chessboard , searching for combinations , and replaying games and positions shown to him by his father . Simen Agdestein emphasises Carlsen 's extreme memory , claiming that he was able to recall the areas , population numbers , flags and capitals of all the countries in the world by the age of five . Later , Carlsen had memorised the areas , population numbers , coat @-@ of @-@ arms and administrative centres of " virtually all " Norwegian municipalities . Carlsen participated in his first tournament — the youngest division of the 1999 Norwegian Chess Championship — at the age of 8 years and 7 months , scoring 6 ½ / 11 .
Carlsen was later coached at the Norwegian College of Elite Sport by the country 's top player , Grandmaster ( GM ) Simen Agdestein , who in turn cites Norwegian football manager Egil " Drillo " Olsen as a key inspiration for his coaching strategy . In 2000 , Agdestein introduced Carlsen to Torbjørn Ringdal Hansen , an International Master ( IM ) and former Norwegian junior champion , as Ringdal served a one @-@ year siviltjeneste ( an alternative civilian service programme ) at the college . Over the course of this year , Carlsen 's rating rose from 904 in June 2000 , to 1907 . Carlsen 's breakthrough occurred in the Norwegian junior teams championship in September 2000 , where Carlsen scored 3 ½ / 5 against the top junior players of the country , and a performance rating ( PR ) of about 2000 . Apart from chess , which Carlsen studied about three to four hours a day , his favourite pastimes included football , skiing , and reading Donald Duck comics . Carlsen also practiced ski jumping until the age of ten . His personal best is 21 metres .
From autumn 2000 to the end of 2002 , Carlsen played almost 300 rated tournament games , as well as several blitz tournaments , and participated in other minor events . In October 2002 , he placed sixth in the European Under @-@ 12 Championship in Peñiscola . In the following month , he tied for first place in the World Under @-@ 12 Championship in Heraklio , placing second to Ian Nepomniachtchi on tiebreak . After this , he obtained three IM norms in relatively quick succession ; his first was at the January 2003 Gausdal Troll Masters ( score 7 / 10 , 2345 PR ) , the second was at the June 2003 Salongernas IM @-@ tournament in Stockholm ( 6 / 9 , 2470 PR ) , and the third and final IM norm was obtained at the July 2003 Politiken Cup in Copenhagen ( 8 / 11 , 2503 PR ) . He was officially awarded the IM title on 20 August 2003 . After finishing primary school , Carlsen took a year off to participate in international chess tournaments held in Europe during the fall season of 2003 , returning to complete secondary education at a sports school . During the year away from school , he finished in a tie for third in the European Under @-@ 14 Championship and placed ninth in the World Under @-@ 14 Championship . Both events were won by Sergei Zhigalko .
= = Chess career = =
= = = 2004 = = =
Carlsen made headlines after his victory in the C group at the Corus chess tournament in Wijk aan Zee . Carlsen obtained a score of 10 ½ / 13 , losing just one game ( against the highest @-@ rated player of the C group , Duško Pavasovič ) . As a result of the victory , he earned his first GM norm , and achieved a PR of 2702 . Particularly notable was his win over Sipke Ernst in the penultimate round , when Carlsen sacrificed material to give mate in just 29 moves . The first 23 moves in that game had already been played in another game — Almagro Llanas – Gustafsson , Madrid 2003 ( which ended in a draw ) — but Carlsen 's over @-@ the @-@ board novelty immediately led to a winning position . Carlsen 's victory in the C group qualified him to play in the B group in 2005 , and it led Lubomir Kavalek , writing for the Washington Post , to give him the title " Mozart of chess " . Agdestein said that Carlsen had an excellent memory and played an unusually wide range of openings . Carlsen 's prowess caught the attention of Microsoft , which became his sponsor .
Carlsen obtained his second GM norm at the Moscow Aeroflot Open in February . On 17 March , in a blitz chess tournament in Reykjavík , Iceland , Carlsen defeated former World Champion Anatoly Karpov . The blitz tournament was a preliminary event leading up to a rapid knockout tournament beginning the next day . In that event , Carlsen was paired with Garry Kasparov , then the top @-@ rated player in the world . Carlsen achieved a draw in their first game and lost the second one , and was thus knocked out of the tournament .
In the sixth Dubai Open Chess Championship , held 18 – 28 April , Carlsen obtained his third and final GM norm . This caused him to become the world 's youngest GM at the time , as well as the third @-@ youngest GM in history ( after Sergey Karjakin , who earned the title at the age of 12 years and 7 months and Parimarjan Negi ) . Carlsen played in the FIDE World Chess Championship , thus becoming the youngest player ever to participate in one , but was knocked out in the first round by Levon Aronian .
In July , Carlsen and Berge Østenstad ( then the reigning Norwegian champion ) tied for first in the Norwegian Chess Championship , each scoring 7 / 9 . A two @-@ game match between them was arranged to decide the title . Both games were drawn , which left Østenstad the champion because he had superior tiebreaks in the tournament .
= = = 2005 = = =
In the Smartfish Chess Masters event at the Drammen International Chess Festival 2004 – 05 , Carlsen defeated Alexei Shirov , then ranked No. 10 in the world , as well as the co @-@ winner of the tournament . In the semifinals of the Ciudad de León rapid chess tournament in June , Carlsen played a four @-@ game match against Viswanathan Anand , who was ranked No. 2 in the world at the time and had won the 2003 World Rapid Chess Championship . Anand won 3 – 1 .
In the Norwegian Chess Championship , Carlsen again finished in shared first place , this time with his mentor Simen Agdestein . A playoff between them was played between 7 and 10 November . This time , Carlsen had the better tiebreaks , but the rule giving the title to the player with better tiebreak scores in the event of a 1 – 1 draw had been revoked previously . The match was closely fought — Agdestein won the first game , Carlsen the second — so the match went into a series of two @-@ game rapid matches until there was a winner . Carlsen won the first rapid game , Agdestein the second . Then followed three draws until Agdestein won the championship title with a victory in the sixth rapid game .
At the end of 2005 , Carlsen participated at the Chess World Cup in Khanty @-@ Mansiysk , Russia . In the knockout tournament , he upset the 44th @-@ ranked Zurab Azmaiparashvili in round one , and proceeded to defeat Farrukh Amonatov and Ivan Cheparinov to reach the round of 16 . There , Carlsen lost to Evgeny Bareev , but then won against Joël Lautier and Vladimir Malakhov before losing again to Gata Kamsky . Thus , Carlsen finished in tenth place and became the youngest player to be an official World Championship Candidate . In October , he took first place at the Arnold Eikrem Memorial in Gausdal with a score 8 / 9 and a PR of 2792 .
= = = 2006 = = =
Carlsen qualified for a place in the Corus B group due to his first @-@ place finish in Corus group C in 2004 . His shared first place with Alexander Motylev with 9 / 13 ( + 6 − 1 = 6 ) qualified him to play in the Corus group A in 2007 .
At the traditional international ' Bosna ' tournament in Sarajevo 2006 , Carlsen shared first place with Liviu @-@ Dieter Nisipeanu ( who won on tiebreak evaluation ) and Vladimir Malakhov ; this could be regarded as Carlsen 's first “ A ” elite tournament win , although it was not a clear first .
Carlsen was close to winning the 2006 Norwegian Chess Championship outright , but a last @-@ round loss to Berge Østenstad dropped him into another tie for first place with Agdestein . It also prevented Carlsen from beating Agdestein 's record as the youngest Norwegian champion ever . Nonetheless , in the playoff held from 19 – 21 September , Carlsen won 3 – 1 . After two draws at standard time controls , Carlsen won both rapid games in round two , securing his first Norwegian championship win .
Carlsen won the Glitnir Blitz Tournament in Iceland . He achieved a 2 – 0 win over Viswanathan Anand in the semifinals and achieved the same score in the finals . He scored 6 / 8 in the 37th Chess Olympiad and achieved a PR of 2820 .
In the Midnight Sun Chess Tournament in Tromsø , Carlsen finished second behind Sergei Shipov . In the Biel Grandmaster Tournament , he placed second , beating the tournament winner Alexander Morozevich twice .
In the NH Chess Tournament held in Amsterdam in August , Carlsen participated in an " Experience " vs. " Rising Stars " Scheveningen team match . The " Rising Stars " won the match 28 – 22 , with Carlsen achieving the best individual score for the Rising Stars team ( 6 ½ / 10 ) and a 2700 PR , thus winning the right to participate in the 2007 Melody Amber tournament .
With a score of 7 ½ / 15 , Carlsen placed 8th out of 16 participants at the World Blitz Championship in Rishon LeZion , Israel . In the rapid chess tournament Rencontres nationales et internationales d 'échecs in Cap d 'Agde , France , he reached the semifinal , losing there to Sergey Karjakin . In November , Carlsen achieved a shared 8th place of 10 participants in the Mikhail Tal Memorial in Moscow with two losses and seven draws . He finished ninth in a group of 18 participants in the associated blitz tournament , which was won by Anand .
= = = 2007 = = =
Playing in the top group of the Corus chess tournament for the first time , Carlsen placed last with nine draws and four losses , scoring 4 ½ / 13 . In the prestigious Linares chess tournament , Carlsen played against the following top @-@ rated players : Veselin Topalov , Viswanathan Anand , Peter Svidler , Alexander Morozevich , Levon Aronian , Peter Leko , and Vassily Ivanchuk . Despite being rated significantly lower than any of them , he finished in second place on tiebreaks with 7 ½ / 14 , having scored four wins , seven draws and three losses , and achieving a PR of 2778 .
Carlsen played for the first time in the Melody Amber blind and rapid chess tournament in Monte Carlo in March . In the 11 rounds , he achieved eight draws and three losses in the blindfold games , as well as three wins , seven draws and one loss in the rapid games . This resulted in a shared ninth place in the blindfold , shared second place in the rapid ( behind Anand ) , and a shared eighth place in the overall tournament .
In May and June , he participated in the Candidates Tournament for the FIDE World Chess Championship 2007 , facing Levon Aronian in a six @-@ game match at standard time controls , which Carlsen drew ( + 2 − 2 = 2 ) by coming from behind twice . The four @-@ game rapid playoff was drawn as well ( + 1 − 1 = 2 ) , with Carlsen winning the last game to stay in the match . Eventually , Aronian eliminated Carlsen from the tournament after winning both tiebreak blitz games .
In July and August , Carlsen won the Biel Grandmaster Tournament with a 6 / 10 record and a PR of 2753 . His score was matched by Alexander Onischuk and they played a match to break the tie . After drawing two rapid and two blitz games , Carlsen won the armageddon game . Immediately after the Biel tournament , Carlsen entered the open Arctic Chess Challenge in Tromsø , but his fourth @-@ place result with + 5 = 4 was a slight underperformance in terms of rating . In the first round , Carlsen , surprisingly , conceded a draw to his classmate Brede Hagen ( rated 2034 ) after having a lost position at one point . A game which attracted some attention was his sixth @-@ round win over his father , Henrik Carlsen .
Carlsen reached the semifinal round of the World Chess Cup in December , after defeating Michael Adams in the round of 16 and Ivan Cheparinov in the quarterfinals . In the semifinal , he was eliminated by the eventual winner , Gata Kamsky , scoring ½ – 1 ½ .
= = = 2008 = = =
In the top group A of the Corus chess tournament , Carlsen scored 8 / 13 , achieving a PR of 2830 . Carlsen won five games , lost two and drew six , sharing first place with Levon Aronian . At the Linares chess tournament , Carlsen had another 2800 + PR , scoring 8 / 14 . He finished in sole second place , ½ point behind the winner World Champion Viswanathan Anand .
In March , Carlsen played for the second time in the Melody Amber blind and rapid chess tournament , held in Nice for the first time . In the 11 rounds he achieved four wins , four draws and two losses in the blindfold , and three wins , two losses , and six draws in the rapid . This resulted in a shared fifth place in the blindfold , shared third place in the rapid and a shared second place in the overall tournament .
Carlsen was one of 21 players in the six @-@ tournament FIDE Grand Prix 2008 – 2009 , a qualifier for the World Chess Championship 2012 . In the first tournament , in Baku , Azerbaijan , he finished in a three @-@ way tie for first place , with another 2800 PR . Carlsen later withdrew from the Grand Prix cycle despite his initial success , criticizing how FIDE was " changing the rules dramatically in the middle of a [ World Championship ] cycle " .
Carlsen won a rapid match against Peter Leko held in Miskolc , Hungary , scoring 5 – 3 . In June , Carlsen won the annual Aerosvit chess tournament , finishing undefeated with 8 / 11 in a category 19 field and achieving a PR of 2877 , his best PR at that point in his career . Playing in the category 18 Biel Grandmaster Tournament , Carlsen finished third with 6 / 10 , with a PR of 2740 .
In the Mainz World Rapid Chess Championship , Carlsen finished in second place after losing the final to defending champion Anand 3 – 1 . In the qualification round Carlsen scoring 1 ½ – ½ against Judit Polgár , 1 – 1 against Anand and 1 – 1 against Alexander Morozevich . In the category 22 Bilbao Masters , Carlsen tied for second with a 2768 PR .
= = = 2009 = = =
Playing in Group A of the Corus chess tournament , Carlsen tied for fifth with a 2739 PR . In the Linares chess tournament , Carlsen finished third with a 2777 PR . Carlsen tied for second place with Veselin Topalov at the M @-@ Tel Masters ( category 21 ) tournament in Sofia , Bulgaria . He lost to eventual winner Alexei Shirov in their final game , dropping him from first .
Carlsen won the category 21 Nanjing Pearl Spring tournament , 2 ½ points ahead of second @-@ place finisher Topalov , the world 's highest @-@ rated player at the time . He scored an undefeated 8 / 10 , winning every game as white ( against Topalov , Wang Yue , Leko , Teimour Radjabov , and Dmitry Jakovenko ) , and also winning as black against Jakovenko . By rating performance , this was one of the greatest results in history , with a PR of 3002 . Chess statistician Jeff Sonas has declared it one of the 20 best tournament performances of all time , and the best chess performance of all time by a teenager .
In the Tal Memorial , played from 5 to 14 November , Carlsen started with seven straight draws , but finished with wins over former FIDE World Champion Ruslan Ponomariov and Peter Leko . This result put Carlsen in shared second place behind former World Champion Vladimir Kramnik and equal with Ivanchuk . After the Tal Memorial , Carlsen won the World Blitz Championship , played from 16 to 18 November in Moscow , Russia . His score of 28 wins , 6 draws and 8 losses left him three points ahead of Anand , who finished in second place .
Carlsen entered the London Chess Classic as the top seed in a field including Kramnik , Hikaru Nakamura , Michael Adams , Nigel Short , Ni Hua , Luke McShane and David Howell . He defeated Kramnik in round one and went on to win the tournament with 13 / 21 ( three points were awarded for a win , and one for a draw ; using classical scoring he finished with 5 / 7 ) and a PR of 2844 , one point ahead of Kramnik . This victory propelled him to the top of the FIDE rating list , surpassing Veselin Topalov .
Based on his average ranking from the July 2009 and January 2010 FIDE lists , Carlsen qualified for the Candidates Tournament that would determine the challenger to World Champion Viswanathan Anand in the World Chess Championship 2012 . In November 2010 , however , Carlsen announced he was withdrawing from the Candidates Tournament . Carlsen described the 2008 – 12 cycle as " [ not ] sufficiently modern and fair " , and wrote that " Reigning champion privileges , the long ( five year ) span of the cycle , changes made during the cycle resulting in a new format ( Candidates ) that no World Champion has had to go through since Kasparov , puzzling ranking criteria as well as the shallow ceaseless match @-@ after @-@ match concept are all less than satisfactory in my opinion . "
In early 2009 Carlsen engaged former World Champion Garry Kasparov as a personal trainer . In September their partnership was revealed to the public by Norwegian newspapers .
Responding to a question in an interview with Time magazine in December 2009 as to whether he used computers when studying chess , Carlsen explained that he does not use a chess set when studying on his own .
= = = 2010 = = =
Carlsen won the Corus chess tournament played 16 – 31 January with 8 ½ points . His ninth @-@ round loss to Kramnik ended a streak of 36 rated games undefeated . Carlsen appeared to struggle in the last round against Fabiano Caruana , but saved a draw , leaving him half a point ahead of Kramnik and Shirov .
In March it was announced that Carlsen had split from Kasparov and would no longer use him as a trainer , although this was put into different context by Carlsen himself in an interview with the German magazine Der Spiegel , in which he stated that they would remain in contact and he would continue to attend training sessions with Kasparov . In 2011 , Carlsen said : " Thanks to [ Kasparov ] I began to understand a whole class of positions better . ... Kasparov gave me a great deal of practical help . " In 2012 , when asked what he learnt from working with Kasparov , Carlsen answered : " Complex positions . That was the most important thing . "
Carlsen shared first place alongside Ivanchuk in the Amber blindfold and rapid tournament . Scoring 6 ½ / 11 in the blindfold and 8 / 11 in the rapid , Carlsen accumulated 14 ½ from a possible 22 points . In May it was revealed that Carlsen had helped Anand prepare for the World Chess Championship 2010 against challenger Veselin Topalov , which Anand won 6 ½ – 5 ½ to retain the title . Carlsen had also helped Anand prepare for the World Chess Championships in 2007 and 2008 .
Carlsen played in the Bazna Kings Tournament in Romania on 14 – 25 June . The tournament was a double round robin involving Wang Yue , Boris Gelfand , Ruslan Ponomariov , Teimour Radjabov , and Liviu @-@ Dieter Nisipeanu . He finished with 7 ½ / 10 and a 2918 PR , winning the tournament by two points ahead of Radjabov and Gelfand . Carlsen then played in a rapid tournament 28 – 30 August at the Arctic Securities Chess Stars tournament in Kristiansund , Norway . The field featured World Champion Viswanathan Anand , female world No. 1 Judit Polgár , and Jon Ludvig Hammer . In the preliminary round robin , Carlsen scored 3 ½ / 6 to qualify for the final , second behind Anand . In the final , Carlsen defeated Anand 1 ½ – ½ to win the championship . Following this event , Carlsen suffered setbacks in his next two tournaments . In the 39th Chess Olympiad from 19 September to 4 October , he scored 4 ½ / 8 , losing three games , to Baadur Jobava , Michael Adams , and Sanan Sjugirov ; these were his first losses with the black pieces in more than a year . His team , Norway , finished 51st out of 149 teams .
Carlsen 's next tournament was the Grand Slam Masters Final on 9 – 15 October , which he had qualified for automatically by winning three of the previous year 's four Grand Slam chess events ( 2009 Nanjing Pearl Spring , 2010 Corus , 2010 Bazna Kings ) . Along with Carlsen , the finals consisted of World Champion Anand and the highest two scorers from the preliminary stage held in Shanghai in September : Kramnik and Shirov . The average Elo of the participants at the time was 2789 , making the Grand Slam Final the strongest chess tournament in history . In the first round , Carlsen lost with black to Kramnik ; this was Carlsen 's second consecutive loss to Kramnik , and placed his hold on the world No. 1 ranking in serious jeopardy . In his second round , Carlsen lost with the white pieces to Anand ; this was his first loss as White since January 2010 . Carlsen recovered somewhat in the latter part of the tournament , achieving a win over Shirov , and finishing with 2 ½ / 6 . The tournament was won by Kramnik with 4 / 6 . Carlsen finished this tournament with a rating of 2802 , two points behind Anand at 2804 who temporarily ended Carlsen 's reign at world No. 1 . These setbacks called into question from some whether Carlsen 's activities outside chess , such as modelling for G @-@ Star Raw , were distracting him from performing well at the chessboard . Carlsen said he did not believe there was a direct connection .
Carlsen 's next tournament was the Pearl Spring chess tournament on 19 – 30 October in Nanjing , China , against Anand , Topalov , Vugar Gashimov , Wang Yue , and Étienne Bacrot . This was the only tournament in 2010 to feature Anand , Carlsen and Topalov , at the time the top three players in the world , and was the first tournament in history to feature three players rated at least 2800 . With early wins over Bacrot , Wang Yue , and Topalov with white , Carlsen took the early lead , extending his winning streak with white in Nanjing to eight . This streak was halted by a draw to Anand in round seven , but in the penultimate round Carlsen secured first place by defeating Topalov with black . This was his second victory in the tournament over the former world No. 1 ; his final score of 7 / 10 ( with a PR of 2903 ) was a full point ahead of runner @-@ up Anand .
In the World Blitz Championship , held in Moscow on 16 – 18 November , Carlsen attempted to defend his 2009 title . With a score of 23 ½ / 38 , he finished in third place behind Radjabov and winner Levon Aronian . After the tournament , Carlsen played a private 40 @-@ game blitz match against Hikaru Nakamura , winning with a score of 23 ½ – 16 ½ .
Carlsen won the London Chess Classic on 8 – 15 December in a field comprising World Champion Anand , Vladimir Kramnik , Nakamura , and British players Adams , Nigel Short , David Howell , and Luke McShane . Carlsen had a rocky start , losing his games to McShane and Anand in rounds 1 and 3 , but winning with white against Adams and Nakamura in rounds 2 and 4 . He joined the lead with a win over Howell in round 5 , and managed to stay in the lead following a harrowing draw against Kramnik in round 6 , before defeating Short in the last round . Since the tournament was played with three points for a win , Carlsen 's + 4 − 2 = 1 score put him ahead of Anand and McShane who scored + 2 = 5 ( a more traditional two @-@ points @-@ for @-@ a @-@ win system would have yielded a three @-@ way tie , with Carlsen still on top , having the better tiebreaker due to four games with black — Anand and McShane played only three times with black ) .
= = = 2011 = = =
Carlsen competed in the GM @-@ A group of the Tata Steel Chess Tournament ( formerly called Corus Chess Tournament ) on 14 – 30 January in Wijk aan Zee in an attempt to defend his title ; the field included World Champion Viswanathan Anand , Levon Aronian , former World Champion Vladimir Kramnik , Alexander Grischuk , Hikaru Nakamura , Ruslan Ponomariov , among others . Despite losing games with white against Anish Giri and reigning Russian champion Ian Nepomniachtchi , Carlsen finished with 8 / 13 , including victories over Kramnik and tournament winner Nakamura . Although Carlsen 's performance raised his rating from 2814 to 2815 , Anand 's 8 ½ / 13 score elevated his rating to 2817 , making him the world No. 1 for the March 2011 FIDE rating list .
The first tournament victory of the year came in the Bazna Kings tournament , a double round robin played in Mediaș , Romania on 11 – 21 June . Carlsen finished with 6 ½ / 10 , equal with Sergey Karjakin but with a better tiebreak score . Carlsen won his White games against Nakamura , Nisipeanu , and Ivanchuk and drew the rest of the games .
The Grand Slam Chess Final was held as a double round robin with six players , in São Paulo ( 25 September – 1 October ) and Bilbao ( 5 – 11 October ) . Although Carlsen had a slow start , including a loss against bottom @-@ ranked Francisco Vallejo Pons , he finished + 3 − 1 = 6 , equal with Ivanchuk ( whose + 4 − 3 = 3 finish was equal due to three points for a win ) . Carlsen then won the blitz tiebreak against Ivanchuk . The other players were Anand , Aronian , Nakamura , and Vallejo Pons .
Another tournament victory was achieved in the Tal Memorial in Moscow 16 – 25 November as a round robin with ten players . Carlsen won two games , against Gelfand and Nakamura , and drew the rest . Although he finished equal on points with Aronian , he placed ahead since the tiebreak was determined by the number of black games ; Carlsen had five black games , while Aronian only had four .
In the London Chess Classic , played 3 – 12 December , Carlsen 's streak of tournament victories ended when he finished third , behind Kramnik and Nakamura . Carlsen won three games and drew five . Although he did not win the tournament , Carlsen gained rating points , rising to a new personal record of 2835 .
= = = 2012 = = =
At the Tata Steel Chess Tournament held on 14 – 29 January in Wijk aan Zee , Carlsen finished in a shared second place with 8 / 13 , behind Aronian , and equal with Radjabov and Caruana . Carlsen defeated Gashimov , Aronian , Gelfand , and Topalov , but lost against Karjakin . At the blitz chess tournament at Tal Memorial , held in Moscow on 7 June , Carlsen shared first place with Morozevich . In the main event ( a category 22 ten @-@ player round robin ) , he won two games and drew seven . He finished in first place , ahead of Radjabov and Caruana .
Carlsen then went on to finish second in the Biel Grandmaster Tournament , with 18 points , just one point behind Wang Hao using the 3 – 1 – 0 scoring system . As in the Tal Memorial earlier in 2012 , Carlsen managed to finish the tournament without any losses ( + 4 − 0 = 6 ) . He also defeated the winner Wang in both of their individual games . In the exhibition blitz tournament at Biel before the GM tournament , Carlsen was eliminated ( + 1 − 2 = 0 ) in the first round by Étienne Bacrot . Bacrot deprived Carlsen of a win in the classical tournament by holding him to a draw in the final round . Carlsen would have won the classical tournament on the traditional 1 – ½ – 0 scoring system , with 7 / 10 .
The Grand Slam Chess Final was again held as a double round robin with six players , in São Paulo and Bilbao . Carlsen started with a loss against Caruana , but after three wins in the second ( Bilbao ) round , finished + 4 − 1 = 5 , equal first with Caruana , and ahead of Aronian , Karjakin and Anand . Carlsen won the tournament by winning both tiebreak games against Caruana .
From 24 to 25 November , Carlsen took part in the chess festival " Segunda Gran Fiesta Internacional de Ajedrez " in Mexico City . As part of it , Carlsen took on an online audience ( dubbed as " The World " ) with the white pieces and won . He then took part in the knockout exhibition event " Cuadrangular UNAM " . Carlsen first beat Lázaro Bruzón 1 ½ – ½ , thus qualifying for a final against Judit Polgár ( who had in turn beat Manuel León Hoyos 1 ½ – ½ ) . Carlsen lost the first game , but won the second one , and in the tiebreak defeated Polgár 2 – 0 .
Carlsen won the London Chess Classic in December with five wins ( over McShane , Aronian , Gawain Jones , Adams and Judit Polgár ) and three draws ( against Kramnik , Nakamura and Anand ) . This win , the third time Carlsen had won the tournament in the past four years , increased his rating from 2848 to a new record of 2861 , breaking Kasparov 's 13 @-@ year record of 2851 . By rating performance , this was one of the best results in history , with a PR of 2994 .
= = = 2013 = = =
Carlsen played in the 75th Tata Steel Chess Tournament from 11 to 27 January in Wijk aan Zee . In the 13 @-@ round tournament , he scored 10 points ( + 7 − 0 = 6 ) , winning clear first 1 ½ points ahead of second @-@ place finisher Aronian . On 1 February , Danish GM Peter Heine Nielsen joined the team of assistants who helped Carlsen prepare for the Candidates Tournament in March . Before this , Nielsen was on Viswanathan Anand 's team .
Carlsen played in the 2013 Candidates Tournament , which took place in London , from 15 March to 1 April . He finished with + 5 − 2 = 7 , and won the tournament on tiebreak over Vladimir Kramnik . As a result , he earned the right to challenge Anand for the World Champion title .
In May , Carlsen played in the first edition of Norway Chess tournament . He finished second , scoring 5 ½ / 9 ( + 3 − 1 = 5 ) , half a point behind Sergey Karjakin .
Carlsen played in the Tal Memorial from June 12 to June 23 . He finished second , with 5 ½ / 9 , half a point behind Boris Gelfand . Carlsen ended the tournament with + 3 − 1 = 5 , losing to Caruana but beating Anand , Kramnik and Nakamura . Later that month , Carlsen played a four @-@ game friendly rapid match against Borki Predojević , which he won 2 ½ – 1 ½ .
In the Sinquefield Cup , held in September , Carlsen finished first , scoring + 3 − 0 = 3 , a point ahead of Nakamura .
= = = = World Chess Championship 2013 = = = =
Carlsen faced Anand in the World Chess Championship 2013 in Chennai , India , from 9 to 22 November . Carlsen won the match 6 ½ – 3 ½ by winning games five , six and nine and drawing the remainder . Thus , Carlsen became the new world chess champion .
= = = 2014 = = =
From 29 January to 4 February , Carlsen played in the Zurich Chess Challenge , winning the preliminary blitz event ( + 2 − 1 = 2 ) and the classical event ( + 3 − 0 = 2 ) . He performed less well in the rapid event ( + 1 − 2 = 2 ) , which counted towards the overall standings , but retained enough of a lead to win the tournament . The other players in the event were Aronian , Nakamura , Caruana , Gelfand and Anand .
Carlsen played a game for his club Stavanger in the final team match for promotion to the Norwegian Premier League on 22 March . His win over Vladimir Georgiev helped his team to a 3 ½ – 2 ½ win over Nordstrand .
Carlsen won the Vugar Gashimov Memorial in Şəmkir , Azerbaijan , played from 20 – 30 April . He played in the A group along with Caruana , Nakamura , Karjakin , Shakhriyar Mamedyarov and Radjabov . Carlsen started the tournament with 2 / 2 , beating Mamedyarov and Nakamura . He then drew Karjakin , only to lose two games in a row for the first time in four years , losing to Caruana with black and then with white to Radjabov . In the second half of the tournament , Carlsen scored 4 / 5 , beating Mamedyarov and Nakamura again , and securing the tournament victory by beating Caruana in the final round , finishing with + 5 − 2 = 3 .
On 8 May Carlsen played an exhibition game at Oslo City against the people of Norway , assisted by a grandmaster panel consisting of Simen Agdestein , Leif Erlend Johannessen , and Jon Ludvig Hammer . Each of the panel members proposed a move and the public could then vote over the proposed moves . Each panel member was allowed three chances to let chess engine Houdini propose a move during the game . Norway 's moves were executed by Oddvar Brå who was disguised in a red spandex suit for the occasion . The game was drawn when Carlsen forced a perpetual check .
Carlsen placed second ( to Sergey Karjakin ) in the second edition of Norway Chess , a ten @-@ player round robin , from 2 June to 13 June . Other players in the event were Aronian , Caruana , Topalov , Svidler , Kramnik , Grischuk , Giri and Agdestein .
Carlsen won FIDE World Rapid Championships held in Dubai from 16 June to 19 June . He went on to claim the World Blitz Championships two days later , becoming the first player to simultaneously hold the title in all three FIDE rated time controls .
Carlsen played nine games for Norway in the 41st Chess Olympiad , scoring five wins , two draws , and two losses ( against Arkadij Naiditsch and Ivan Šarić ) .
Carlsen placed second to Fabiano Caruana in the Sinquefield Cup , a six @-@ player double round robin in Saint Louis , Missouri from 27 August to 7 September . Billed as the strongest chess tournament ever held , the remaining 4 players in the event were Levon Aronian , Hikaru Nakamura , Veselin Topalov , and Maxime Vachier @-@ Lagrave . He lost to Fabiano Caruana in Round 3 and defeated Levon Aronian and Hikaru Nakamura in Rounds 5 and 7 , respectively . He finished the tournament in second place , with 5 @.@ 5 / 10 ( + 2 @-@ 1 = 7 ) , behind Caruana .
= = = = World Chess Championship 2014 = = = =
Carlsen faced Anand in a match for the title of World Chess Champion in November 2014 , as Anand qualified by winning the 2014 Candidates Tournament . The rematch was held from November 7 to 23 in Sochi , Russia . After 11 of 12 games , Carlsen led 6 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 , thereby defending his World Champion title .
= = = 2015 = = =
In January , Carlsen won the Tata Steel Chess Tournament , which was played mainly in Wijk aan Zee on 9 – 25 January . Carlsen had a poor start to the tournament with two draws and a loss in the third round to Radosław Wojtaszek , which left him in tenth place among the fourteen players . However , a string of six wins in a row thrust Carlsen into clear first place . Drawing the final four games was sufficient to win the tournament with 9 points out of 13 , half a point ahead of Anish Giri , Maxime Vachier @-@ Lagrave , Wesley So and Ding Liren . In February , Carlsen won the 3rd Grenke Chess Classic in Baden @-@ Baden after a five @-@ game tiebreak with Arkadij Naiditsch . Carlsen finished equal first with Naiditsch on 4 @.@ 5 / 7 , beating Michael Adams , Anand , and David Baramidze , and losing to Naiditsch in their classical encounter . This tournament victory meant that Carlsen began 2015 by winning two out of two tournaments . Carlsen continued his streak in April , winning Shamkir Chess with a score of 7 / 9 , beating Mamedyarov , Caruana , Vachier @-@ Lagrave , Kramnik , and Rauf Mamedov , going + 5 @-@ 0 = 4 . With a performance rating of 2981 , this was Carlsen 's third best tournament result ever . His performance was only bested in Nanjing 2009 ( 3002 TPR ) and London 2012 ( 2993 TPR ) . Carlsen had a poor result in the Norway Chess event of 15 – 26 June . In the first round he obtained a winning position against Topalov after pressing in a long endgame , only to lose on time when he mistakenly thought that he would receive 15 minutes of extra time at move 60 . He was then outplayed by Caruana in the second round , missed a win against Anish Giri in round 3 , and lost to Anand in round 4 . He won against Grischuk in round 5 , drew against Nakamura and Vachier @-@ Lagrave in rounds 6 and 7 , and defeated Aronian in round 8 , but he lost the last round against Jon Ludvig Hammer , leaving him tied for seventh and eighth place . Carlsen finished 2nd place at the 2015 Sinquefield Cup with 5 points , one point below tournament winner Levon Aronian . He defeated the 2014 Sinquefield Cup 's winner Fabiano Caruana , French # 1 Maxime Vachier @-@ Lagrave , and wild @-@ card Wesley So , but lost to Veselin Topalov and Alexander Grischuk .
In October , Carlsen successfully defended his title in the FIDE World Rapid Championships held in Berlin , as the first world rapid champion to do so in history , going + 8 @-@ 0 = 7 . He reached the highest live rapid rating in history after the tournament , and was at that point ranked # 1 in all three disciplines simultaneously . However , Carlsen quickly lost his # 1 blitz spot after he had a weak second day in the World Blitz Championship , causing him to lose his title to Alexander Grischuk . In November 2015 , Carlsen participated in the European Team Chess Championship , playing for the Norwegian team . He started off poorly , scoring 0 @.@ 5 points out of 3 games - losing to Levon Aronian , drawing against Sune Berg Hansen , and losing again to Yannick Pelletier due to a blunder . He finished the tournament strongly , scoring victories against Peter Leko and Radoslaw Wojtaszek , the latter of whom he had lost to earlier in the year . However , his performance was not enough to earn his team a medal , and he lost 16 rating points during the event . In December 2015 , Carlsen participated in the final leg of the Grand Chess Tour , the London Chess Classic . He scored + 2 @-@ 0 = 7 in the event , defeating Hikaru Nakamura ( and inflicting Nakamura 's 12th classical loss to Carlsen ) and Alexander Grischuk . In the 3 @-@ way tiebreak between Anish Giri and Maxime Vachier @-@ Lagrave , he was the top seed , meaning he faced the winner of the two @-@ game match between Giri and Vachier @-@ Lagrave . He eventually won against the match , the Classic , and the overall inaugural Grand Chess Tour , earning him $ 75 @,@ 000 for the London Chess Classic and the Grand Chess Tour bonus prizes . In late @-@ December 2015 , Carlsen won first place at the 2nd edition of the Qatar Masters Open , defeating Grandmaster Yu Yangyi in a tie @-@ break after both players had finished on a + 5 score . This concluded his final tournament for the 2015 year .
= = = 2016 = = =
From January 15 to 31 , 2016 , Carlsen participated in the 78th Tata Steel Chess Tournament , held in Wijk Aan Zee , The Netherlands . Carlsen won the tournament by scoring 9 points out of 13 ( + 5 @-@ 0 = 8 ) , earning him his 5th Wijk Aan Zee title .
In the 2016 World Chess Championship in New York City , Carlsen will face Sergey Karjakin for the World Chess Championship . The match will take place from 11 – 30 November .
On April 29th , 2016 , Magnus Carlsen won the 4th edition of the Norway Chess Tournament , after scoring a final round victory against Pavel Eljanov .
In July 2016 , Carlsen won the 9th edition of the Bilbao Masters Final , scoring 17 points out of 10 games ( + 4 @-@ 1 = 5 ) . Wins were awarded with 3 points , a draw with 1 point and losses with 0 points .
= = Honours = =
Carlsen won the Chess Oscars for 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 and 2013 . The Chess Oscar , conducted by the Russian chess magazine 64 , is awarded to the year 's best player according to a worldwide poll of leading chess critics , writers , and journalists . The Norwegian tabloid Verdens Gang ( VG ) has awarded him " Name of the Year " ( Årets navn ) twice , in 2009 and 2013 . VG also named him " Sportsman of the year " in 2009 and in the same year he won the Folkets Idrettspris , a people 's choice award from the newspaper Dagbladet . In 2011 , he was given the Peer Gynt Prize , a Norwegian honour prize awarded annually to " a person or institution that has achieved distinction in society " ; the following year , he repeated as winner of Folkets Idrettspris . In 2013 , Time magazine named Carlsen one of the 100 most influential people in the world .
= = Playing style = =
Carlsen had an aggressive style of play as a youth , and , according to Agdestein , his play was characterised by " a fearless readiness to offer material for activity " . Carlsen found as he matured that this risky playing style was not as well suited against the world elite . When he started playing in top tournaments he was struggling against top players , and had trouble getting much out of the opening . To progress , Carlsen 's style became more universal , capable of handling all sorts of positions well . Carlsen opens with both 1.d4 and 1.e4 , as well as 1.c4 , and , on occasion , 1.Nf3 , thus making it harder for opponents to prepare against him . Evgeny Sveshnikov has criticised Carlsen 's opening play , claiming in a 2013 interview that without a more " scientific " approach to preparation , his " future doesn 't look so promising " .
Garry Kasparov , who coached Carlsen from 2009 to 2010 , said that Carlsen has a positional style similar to that of past world champions such as Anatoly Karpov , José Raúl Capablanca , and Vasily Smyslov , rather than the tactical style of Alexander Alekhine , Mikhail Tal , and Kasparov himself . According to Carlsen , however , he does not have any preferences in playing style . Kasparov said in 2013 that " Carlsen is a combination of Karpov [ and ] Fischer . He gets his positions [ and ] then never lets go of that bulldog bite . Exhausting for opponents . " Carlsen has also stated that he follows in the traditions of Karpov and Fischer , but also mentions Reuben Fine as a player who " was doing in chess similar to what I am doing . " Anand has said of Carlsen : " The majority of ideas occur to him absolutely naturally . He 's also very flexible , he knows all the structures and he can play almost any position . ... Magnus can literally do almost everything . " Kasparov expressed similar sentiments : " [ Carlsen ] has the ability to correctly evaluate any position , which only Karpov could boast of before him . " In a 2012 interview , Vladimir Kramnik attributed much of Carlsen 's success against other top players to his " excellent physical shape " and his ability to avoid " psychological lapses " , which enables him to maintain a high standard of play over long games and at the end of tournaments , when the energy levels of others have dropped . Tyler Cowen gave a point of view on Carlsen 's playing style : " Carlsen is demonstrating one of his most feared qualities , namely his ' nettlesomeness , ' to use a term coined for this purpose by Ken Regan . Using computer analysis , you can measure which players do the most to cause their opponents to make mistakes . Carlsen has the highest nettlesomeness score by this metric , because his creative moves pressure the other player and open up a lot of room for mistakes . In contrast , a player such as Kramnik plays a high percentage of very accurate moves , and of course he is very strong , but those moves are in some way calmer and they are less likely to induce mistakes in response . "
Carlsen 's endgame prowess has been described as among the greatest in history . Jon Speelman , analysing several of Carlsen 's endgames from the 2012 London Classic ( in particular , his wins against McShane , Aronian , and Adams ) , described what he calls the " Carlsen effect " :
... through the combined force of his skill and no less important his reputation , he drives his opponents into errors . ... He plays on for ever , calmly , methodically and , perhaps most importantly of all , without fear : calculating superbly , with very few outright mistakes and a good proportion of the " very best " moves . This makes him a monster and makes many opponents wilt .
= = Rating = =
= = = Rating achievements = = =
In the January 2006 FIDE list , at the age of 15 years , 32 days , he attained a 2625 Elo rating , which made Carlsen the youngest person to surpass 2600 Elo ( the record has since been broken by Wesley So , Wei Yi and John M. Burke ) . In the July 2007 FIDE list , at the age of 16 years , 213 days , Carlsen attained a 2710 Elo rating , which made him the youngest person to surpass 2700 Elo ( the record has since been broken by Wei Yi at the age of 15 years , 9 months ) . On 5 September 2008 , after winning round 4 in the Bilbao Grand Slam chess championship , Carlsen , just 17 years , 280 days old , briefly became No. 1 on the unofficial live ratings list . Carlsen 's September – October 2009 victory in the Nanjing Pearl tournament raised his FIDE rating to 2801 , making him at age 18 years , 336 days , the youngest player ever to break 2800 . The youngest before him was Vladimir Kramnik at age 25 . Before Carlsen , only Kasparov , Topalov , Kramnik , and Anand had achieved a 2800 + rating . After the Tal Memorial ( November 2009 ) he became No. 1 on the unofficial live chess rating list with his new peak rating of 2805 @.@ 7 , 0 @.@ 6 point over the No. 2 ranked player , Veselin Topalov .
The FIDE rankings from January 2010 , which took into account the 16 games played at the Tal Memorial and the London Chess Classic , were enough to raise Carlsen 's rating to 2810 . This meant that Carlsen started 2010 by being , at the age of 19 years , 32 days , the youngest ever world No. 1 , and also the first player from a Western nation to reach the top of the FIDE rating list since Bobby Fischer in 1971 . The press coverage of this feat included an interview and article in Time magazine .
The March 2010 FIDE rating list showed Carlsen with a new peak rating of 2813 , a figure that only Kasparov had bettered at that time . On the January 2013 FIDE rating list , Carlsen reached 2861 , thus surpassing Garry Kasparov 's 2851 record from July 1999 . On list from May 2014 , Carlsen achieved an all @-@ time high record of 2882 .
= = Head @-@ to @-@ head record versus selected grandmasters = =
( Rapid , blitz and blindfold games not included ; listed as + wins − losses = draws as of 23 Jul 2016 . ) Players who have been undisputed World Champion in boldface
= = Notable games = =
All links in this section lead to an external site .
Carlsen – Garry Kasparov , Reykjavík Rapid ( 2004 ) , Queen 's Gambit Declined : Cambridge Springs Variation ( D52 ) , ½ – ½ At the age of just 13 years , Carlsen had serious winning chances in a rapid game against Garry Kasparov , ranked No. 1 in the world at that time , and considered by many to be the greatest chess player of all time .
Carlsen – Veselin Topalov , M @-@ Tel Masters ( 2009 ) , Semi @-@ Slav Defense : General ( D43 ) , 1 – 0 This was Carlsen 's first win against a 2800 + player .
Carlsen – Boris Gelfand , Tal Memorial ( 2011 ) , Slav Defense : Quiet Variation . Schallopp Defense ( D12 ) , 1 – 0 The No. 1 Israeli player and future World Championship challenger creates a seemingly decisive rook invasion into White 's back rank , but Carlsen vanquishes his threats . Carlsen called it " one of the most interesting games I have played in recent times " .
Carlsen – Hikaru Nakamura , London Chess Classic ( 2011 ) , Italian Game : Classical Variation . Giuoco Pianissimo ( C53 ) , 1 – 0 Facing the No. 1 American player , Carlsen demolishes Black 's pawn structure .
Carlsen – Viswanathan Anand , Bilbao Masters ( 2012 ) , Sicilian Defense : Canal Attack . Main Line ( B52 ) , 1 – 0 Playing against the then World Champion in a game he considers one of the best in his career , Carlsen sacrifices a pawn to leave Black with a cramped position , leading to his resignation at move 30 .
Carlsen 's complete PGN chess game collection can be downloaded from [ 1 ]
= = Beyond chess = =
Carlsen modelled for G @-@ Star Raw 's Autumn / Winter 2010 advertising campaign with actress Liv Tyler . The campaign was shot by Dutch film director and photographer Anton Corbijn . The campaign was coordinated with the RAW World Chess Challenge in New York , an event where Carlsen played an online team of global chess players who voted on moves suggested by three GMs : Maxime Vachier @-@ Lagrave , Hikaru Nakamura , and Judit Polgár . Carlsen , playing White , won in 43 moves . Film director J. J. Abrams offered Carlsen a role in the movie Star Trek Into Darkness as " a chess player from the future " , but he had to decline , unable to get a US work permit in time for shooting . In 2012 , Carlsen was featured in a 60 Minutes segment , and appeared as a guest on The Colbert Report . He was also interviewed by Rainn Wilson for SoulPancake . Carlsen was selected as one of the " sexiest men of 2013 " by Cosmopolitan . In August 2013 , Carlsen became an ambassador for Nordic Semiconductor .
As of 2012 , Carlsen is the only active chess professional with a full @-@ time manager . Espen Agdestein , brother of Carlsen 's former trainer Simen , and a FIDE Master and twice member of the Norwegian team at the Chess Olympiads , began working as an agent for Carlsen in late 2008 . His work consisted initially of finding sponsors and negotiating media contacts , but since 2011 , he has taken over management tasks formerly performed by Carlsen 's father Henrik . Carlsen reportedly earned roughly US $ 1 @.@ 2 million in 2012 , the bulk of which was from sponsorships .
In October 2013 , Carlsen started his majority @-@ owned company , Play Magnus AS . Based in Oslo , Norway , Play Magnus ' first product is an iOS app that allows a user to play a Magnus Carlsen @-@ tuned chess engine at 21 different ages ( from ages 5 to 25 ) . The chess engine was created using a database of thousands of Carlsen 's recorded games from the age of 10 . Carlsen 's goal is to use Play Magnus as a platform to encourage more people to play chess .
In 2008 during a Q & A session with Nettavisen , when Carlsen was asked whether he had a form of autism spectrum disorder , he replied " well , isn 't that obvious ? " In December 2013 , in an interview with Norwegian tabloid Verdens Gang , he clarified that he had meant " obviously not " , and said that he considers himself to have " normal social skills and to be functioning normally . "
In February 2014 , Carlsen appeared in G @-@ Star Raw 's Spring / Summer 2014 campaign along with actress and model Lily Cole .
= = Books and films = =
Valaker , O ; Carlsen , M. ( 2004 ) . Lær sjakk med Magnus [ Learn Chess with Magnus ] . Gyldendal Norsk Forlag . ISBN 978 @-@ 82 @-@ 05 @-@ 33963 @-@ 7 .
The Prince of Chess , a film about Magnus Carlsen ( 2005 ) . Directed by Øyvind Asbjørnsen .
Opedal , Hallgeir ( 2011 ) . Smarte trekk . Magnus Carlsen : Verdens beste sjakkspiller [ Smart Moves . Magnus Carlsen : The World 's Best Chess Player ] . Kagge . ISBN 978 @-@ 82 @-@ 489 @-@ 1050 @-@ 3
Mikhalchishin , Adrian ; Stetsko , Oleg . ( 2012 ) . Fighting Chess with Magnus Carlsen ( Progress in Chess ) . Edition Olms . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 283 @-@ 01020 @-@ 1 .
Crouch , Colin ( 2013 ) . Magnus Force : How Carlsen Beat Kasparov 's Record . Everyman Chess . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 78194 @-@ 133 @-@ 1 .
Kotronias , Vassilios & Logothetis , Sotiris ( 2013 ) . Carlsen 's assault on the throne . Quality Chess . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 906552 @-@ 22 @-@ 0 .
Magnus ( 2016 ) . Directed by Benjamin Ree .
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= Louis Antoine de Saint @-@ Just =
Louis Antoine Léon de Saint @-@ Just ( French pronunciation : [ sɛ ̃ ʒyst ] ; 25 August 1767 – 28 July 1794 ) was a military and political leader during the French Revolution . The youngest of the deputies elected to the National Convention in 1792 , Saint @-@ Just rose quickly in their ranks and became a major leader of the government of the French First Republic . He spearheaded the movement to execute King Louis XVI and later drafted the radical French Constitution of 1793 .
He became a close friend of Maximilien Robespierre , and served with him as one of the commissioners of the powerful Committee of Public Safety . Dispatched as a commissar to the army during its rocky start in the French Revolutionary Wars , Saint @-@ Just imposed severe discipline , and he was credited by many for the army 's subsequent revival at the front . Back in Paris , he supervised the consolidation of Robespierre 's power through a ruthless and bloody program of intimidation . In his relatively brief time on the historical stage , he became the enduring public face of the Reign of Terror and was dubbed the " Angel of Death " by later writers . Saint @-@ Just organized the arrests and prosecutions of many of the most famous figures of the Revolution .
Saint @-@ Just was arrested in the violent episode of 9 Thermidor and executed the next day with Robespierre and their allies . In many histories of the Revolution , their deaths at the guillotine mark the end of the Reign of Terror .
= = Early life = =
Louis Antoine de Saint @-@ Just was born at Decize in the former Nivernais province of central France . He was the eldest child of Louis Jean de Saint @-@ Just de Richebourg ( 1716 – 1777 ) , a retired French cavalry officer , knight of the Order of Saint Louis , and of the 20 @-@ years younger Marie @-@ Anne Robinot ( 1736 – 1811 ) , the daughter of a notary . He had two younger sisters , born in 1768 and 1769 . The family later moved north and in 1776 settled in the village of Blérancourt in the former Picardy province , establishing themselves as a countryside noble family living out of the rents from their land . A year after the move , Louis Antoine 's father died leaving his mother with the three children . She saved diligently for her only son 's education , and in 1779 he was sent to the Oratorian school at Soissons . After a promising start , Saint @-@ Just acquired a reputation as a troublemaker , augmented by infamous stories ( almost certainly apocryphal ) of how he led a students ' rebellion and tried to burn down the school . Nonetheless , he earned his graduation in 1786 .
His restive nature , however , did not diminish . As a young man , Saint @-@ Just was " wild , handsome , [ and ] transgressive " . Well @-@ connected and popular , he showed a special affection toward a young woman of Blérancourt , Thérèse Gellé . She was the daughter of another wealthy notary , a powerful and autocratic figure in the town ; he was still an undistinguished adolescent . He is said to have proposed marriage to her ; she is said to have desired it . Though no hard evidence exists regarding their relationship , official records show that on 25 July 1786 , Thérèse was married to Emmanuel Thorin , the scion of a prominent local family . Saint @-@ Just was out of town and unaware of the event , and tradition portrays him as brokenhearted . Whatever his true state , it is known that a few weeks after the marriage he abruptly left home for Paris – without an announcement , but not without gathering up a pair of pistols and a good quantity of his mother 's silver . His venture turned short when his mother had him seized by police and sent to a reformatory ( maison de correction ) where he stayed from September 1786 to March 1787 . Chastened , Saint @-@ Just attempted to begin anew : he enrolled as a student at the School of Law , Reims University . After a year , however , he drifted away from law school and returned to his mother 's home in Blérancourt penniless , without any occupational prospects .
= = = Organt = = =
At a young age Saint @-@ Just had shown a fascination with literature , and during his stay at the reformatory he used his time to begin writing a lengthy poem . He published it anonymously more than two years later , in May 1789 , at the very outbreak of the Revolution . The 21 @-@ year @-@ old Saint @-@ Just thereby added his own touch to the social tumult of the times with Organt , poem in twenty cantos . The poem , a medieval epic fantasy , relates the quest of young Antoine Organt . It extols the virtues of primitive man , praising his libertinism and independence while blaming all present @-@ day troubles on modern inequalities of wealth and power . Written in a style mimicking Ariosto , it gave a juvenile foreshadowing of his own political extremism . Spiked with brutal satire and scandalous pornographic episodes , it also made unmistakable attacks upon the monarchy , the nobility , and the Church .
Contemporaries regarded Organt as something of a salacious novelty and it was quickly banned , but censors who tried to confiscate it discovered that few copies were available anywhere . It did not sell well and resulted in a financial loss for its author . The public 's taste for literature had changed in the prelude to the Revolution , and Saint @-@ Just 's taste changed with it : aside from a few pages of an unfinished novel found amidst his papers at the end of his life , Saint @-@ Just devoted his future writing entirely to undecorated essays of social and political theory . With his previous ambitions of literary and lawyerly fame unfulfilled , Saint @-@ Just directed his focus on the single goal of revolutionary command .
= = Early revolutionary career = =
Blérancourt 's traditional power structure was reshaped by the events of 1789 . The notary Gellé , previously an undisputed town leader , was challenged by a group of reformists who were led by several of Saint @-@ Just 's friends , including the husband of his sister Louise . Their attempts were not successful until 1790 when Blérancourt held its first open municipal elections . Mandated by the National Constituent Assembly , the new electoral structure allowed Saint @-@ Just 's friends to assume authority in the village as mayor , secretary , and , in the case of his brother @-@ in @-@ law , head of the local National Guard . The jobless Saint @-@ Just , despite not meeting the legal age and tax qualifications , was allowed to join the Guard .
Saint @-@ Just immediately exhibited the ruthless disciplinarianism for which he would be famous . Within a few months he was the commanding officer , at the rank of lieutenant @-@ colonel . At local meetings he moved attendees with his patriotic zeal and flair : in one much @-@ repeated story , Saint @-@ Just brought the town council to tears by thrusting his hand into the flame of a burning anti @-@ revolutionary pamphlet , swearing his devotion to the Republic . He had powerful allies when he sought to become a member of his district ’ s electoral assembly , and he initiated correspondence with well @-@ known leaders of the Revolution like Camille Desmoulins . In late 1790 , he wrote to Robespierre for the first time , asking him to consider a local petition . The letter was filled with the highest of praise , beginning : “ You , who uphold our tottering country against the torrent of despotism and intrigue ; you whom I know , as I know God , only through his miracles ... ” Through their correspondence , the two developed " a deep and mysterious friendship that would last until the day [ they ] died . "
= = = L 'Esprit de la Revolution = = =
While Saint @-@ Just waited for the next election , he composed an extensive work , L 'Esprit de la Revolution et de la constitution de France , published in the spring of 1791 . His writing style had shed all satire and now adopted the stern and moralizing tone of classical Romans so adored by French revolutionaries . It revealed an unexpectedly moderate set of principles deeply influenced by Montesquieu , and remained fully confined to a paradigm of constitutional monarchy . He expressed abhorrence at the violence in the Revolution thus far , and he disdained the character of those who partook in it as little more than " riotous slaves " . Instead , he heaped his praise upon the people 's representatives in the Legislative Assembly , whose sober virtue would guide the Revolution best . Spread out over five books , L 'Esprit de la Revolution is inconsistent in many of its assertions but still shows clearly that Saint @-@ Just no longer saw government as oppressive to man 's nature but necessary to its success : its ultimate object was to " edge society in the direction of the distant ideal . "
The new work , like its predecessor , attracted minimal readership . On 21 June 1791 , just days after it was published , all attention became focused on King Louis XVI 's ill @-@ fated flight to Varennes , and Saint @-@ Just 's theories about constitutional monarchy were made suddenly irrelevant . Yet the episode had another effect – it fostered a public anger toward the king which simmered all year until finally a Parisian mob attacked the Tuileries Palace on 10 August 1792 . In response , the Assembly declared itself ready to step down ahead of schedule and called for a new election , this one under universal male suffrage . The timing was excellent for Saint @-@ Just , who turned the legal age of twenty @-@ five before the end of the month . The fear inspired by the invasion of the Tuileries made most of his opponents retire from the scene , and Saint @-@ Just was elected as one of the deputies for the département of Aisne . He left for Paris to join the National Convention as its youngest member .
= = = Deputy to the Convention = = =
Among the deputies , Saint @-@ Just was watchful but interacted little at first . He joined the Parisian Jacobin Club but he remained aloof from Girondins and Montagnards alike . He waited until 13 November 1792 to give his first speech to the Convention , but when he did the effect was spectacular . What brought him to the lectern was the discussion over how to treat the king after Varennes . In dramatic contrast to the earlier speakers , Saint @-@ Just delivered a blazing condemnation of the king . He demanded that " Louis Capet " should be judged not as a king or even a citizen , but as a traitor , an enemy who deserves death . " As for me , " he declared , " I see no middle ground : this man must reign or die ! He oppressed a free nation ; he declared himself its enemy ; he abused the laws : he must die to assure the repose of the people , since it was in his mind to crush the people to assure his own . ”
The young deputy 's speech electrified the Convention . Saint @-@ Just was interrupted frequently by bursts of applause and towards the end of his speech he uttered his eerily universal observation , " No one can reign innocently . " Robespierre was particularly impressed – he spoke from the lectern the next day in terms almost identical to those of Saint @-@ Just , and their views became the official position of the Jacobins . By December , that position had become law : the king was taken to a trial before the Convention , sentenced to death , and executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793 .
= = Constitution of 1793 = =
Because the first French Constitution had included a role for the king , it was long since invalid and needed to be updated for the Republic . A large number of drafts had been circulating within the Convention since the king 's execution , and Saint @-@ Just submitted his own lengthy proposal on 24 April 1793 . His draft incorporated the most common assertions of the others : the right to vote , the right to petition , and equal eligibility for employment were among the basic principles that made his draft tenable . Where he stood apart from the rest was on the issue of elections . Saint @-@ Just dismissed all complex systems of voting and eligibility and supported only the classical style of a simple majority of citizens in a nationwide vote . Amid a flurry of proposals by other deputies , Saint @-@ Just held inflexibly to his " one man one vote " plan , and this conspicuous homage to Greco @-@ Roman traditions ( which were particularly prized and idealized in French culture during the Revolution ) enhanced his political cachet . When no plan gained enough votes to pass , a compromise was made which tasked a small body of deputies as official constitutional draftsmen , and Saint @-@ Just was among the five elected members . In recognition of the importance of their mission , the draftsmen were all added to the powerful new Committee of Public Safety .
The Convention had given the Committee extraordinary authority to provide for state security ever since the outbreak of the French Revolutionary War in early 1793 . Committee members were originally intended to serve for periods of only thirty days before replacements were elected , so they needed to work quickly . Saint @-@ Just took charge of the issue and led the development of the French Constitution of 1793 . Before the end of his first term , the new document was completed , submitted to the Convention , and ratified as law on 24 June 1793 .
The new constitution remained a showpiece for Saint @-@ Just but little more . However much he may have wanted to see it implemented , emergency measures for wartime were in effect . The war had called for ( or provided cover for ) a moratorium on constitutional democracy . It gave supreme power to the sitting Convention , with the Committee of Public Safety at the top of its administrative pyramid . Robespierre , with Saint @-@ Just 's assistance , fought vigorously to ensure that the government would remain under emergency measures – " revolutionary " – until victory .
= = Committee of Public Safety = =
= = = Proscription of the Girondins = = =
During the time that Saint @-@ Just was working on the constitution , dramatic political warfare was taking place . The sans @-@ culottes – deemed " the people " by many radicals , and represented by the Paris Commune – had grown antipathetic to the moderate Girondins and on 2 June 1793 , in a mass action supported by National Guardsmen , they surrounded the Convention and exacted the arrest of the Girondin deputies . The deputies – even the Montagnards , who had long enjoyed an informal alliance with the sans @-@ culottes – resented the intimidation but they were compelled to make some obeisance . The Girondin leader Jacques Pierre Brissot was indicted for treason and scheduled for trial , but the other Brissotins were imprisoned ( or pursued ) without formal charges . The Convention debated their fate and the political disorder lasted for weeks . Saint @-@ Just had previously remained silent about the Girondins , but now clearly stood with Robespierre who had been thoroughly opposed to most of them for a long time . When the initial indictment by the Committee was served , it was Saint @-@ Just who delivered the report to the Convention .
In its secret negotiations , the Committee of Public Safety was initially unable to form a consensus concerning the jailed deputies , but as some Girondins fled to the provinces and attempted to incite an insurrection , its opinion hardened . By early July , Saint @-@ Just was able to address the Convention with a lengthy report in the name of the Committee , and his damning attack left no room for any further conciliation . The Girondins ' trials must proceed , he said , and any verdicts must be severe . The proceedings dragged on for months , but Brissot and twenty of his allies were eventually condemned and sent to the guillotine on 31 October 1793 . Saint @-@ Just used their situation to gain approval for intimidating new laws , culminating in the Law of Suspects ( 17 September 1793 ) which gave the Committee vast new powers of arrest and punishment .
= = Military commissar = =
Saint @-@ Just made the proposal that deputies from the Convention should directly oversee all military efforts , which was approved on 10 October 1793 . Amid worsening conditions at the front in the fall of that year , several deputies were sent to the critical area of Alsace to shore up the disintegrating Army of the Rhine . Results were not sufficiently forthcoming , so at the end of the month Saint @-@ Just himself was sent there along with an ally from the Convention , Philippe @-@ François @-@ Joseph Le Bas . The two men were charged with " extraordinary powers " to impose discipline and reorganize the troops .
From the start , Saint @-@ Just dominated the mission . He was relentless in demanding results from the commanders as well as sympathetic to the complaints of common soldiers . On his first day at the front , he issued a proclamation promising " examples of justice and severity as the Army has not yet witnessed . " Within a short time , many officers were dismissed and many more were executed by firing squad , including at least one general . The entire army was placed immediately under the harshest discipline .
Among soldiers and civilians alike , Saint @-@ Just repressed opponents of the Revolution but he did not agree to the mass executions ordered by some of the other deputies on the mission . He vetoed much of the deputies ' work and had many of them recalled to Paris . Local politicians were even more vulnerable to him : even the powerful Eulogius Schneider , the revolutionary leader of Alsace 's largest city and called the " Marat of Strasbourg " , was arrested by Saint @-@ Just 's orders and rapidly dispatched to the guillotine . Saint @-@ Just worked closely only with General Charles Pichegru , a reliable Jacobin whom he respected . Under Saint @-@ Just 's unblinking surveillance , Pichegru and General Lazare Hoche ably secured the frontier and began an invasion of the German Rhineland .
With the army revitalized , Saint @-@ Just returned briefly to Paris where his success was applauded . However , there was little time to celebrate . He was quickly sent back to the frontlines , this time in Belgium where the Army of the North was experiencing the same problems of discipline and organization . Again he delivered results ruthlessly and effectively , but after less than a month the mission was cut short . As Paris convulsed in political violence , his assistance was required by Robespierre .
= = President of the Convention = =
With the republican army advancing and the Girondins destroyed , the left @-@ wing Montagnards , led by the Jacobins and Robespierre , controlled the Convention . In these circumstances , on the first day of Ventôse in Year II of the Revolution ( 19 February 1794 ) , Saint @-@ Just was elected president of the National Convention .
With this new power he persuaded the chamber to pass the radical Ventôse Decrees , under which the régime would confiscate aristocratic émigré property and distribute it to needy sans @-@ culottes . But these acts of wealth redistribution , arguably the most revolutionary acts of the French Revolution , never went into operation . The Committee faltered in creating procedures for their enforcement , and the frantic pace of unfolding political events left them behind .
Opponents of the Jacobins saw the Ventôse Decrees as a cynical ploy to appeal to the militant extreme left . Sincere or not , Saint @-@ Just made impassioned arguments for them . One week after their adoption , Saint @-@ Just urged that the Decrees be exercised vigorously , and hailed them for ushering in a new era : " Eliminate the poverty that dishonors a free state ; the property of patriots is sacred but the goods of conspirators are there for the wretched . The wretched are the powerful of the earth ; they have the right to speak as masters to the governments who neglect them . "
= = = Germinal = = =
As the spring of 1794 approached , the Committee of Public Safety , led by Robespierre , Couthon , Lebas and Saint @-@ Just , exercised near complete control over the government . Despite the vast reach of their powers , however , rivals and enemies remained . One of the thorniest problems , at least to Robespierre , came in the shape of the populist agitator Jacques Hébert , who discharged torrents of criticism against bourgeois Jacobinism in his newspaper , Le Père Duchesne . Ultra @-@ radical Hébertists in the Cordeliers Club undermined Jacobin efforts to court and manage the sans @-@ culottes , and the most extreme Hébertists even called openly for insurrection .
Saint @-@ Just , in his role as president of the Convention , announced unequivocally that " whoever vilified or attacked the dignity of the revolutionary government should be condemned to death " , and the Convention agreed in a vote on 13 Ventôse . Hébert and his closest associates were arrested the following day . Saint @-@ Just vowed , " No more pity , no weakness towards the guilty ... Henceforth the government will pardon no more crimes , " and on 4 Germinal ( 24 March 1794 ) , the Revolutionary Tribunal sent Hébert , Ronsin , Vincent and most other prominent Hébertists to the guillotine .
The ongoing political combat – bloody enough since at least the time of the arrest of the Girondins to be known as the Reign of Terror – spread more and more widely . When the Hébertists fell , Robespierre felt compelled to eliminate his other rivals in the Cordeliers , starting with Fabre d 'Églantine and his close friend Georges Danton . These powerful deputies were difficult prey , but a financial scandal involving the French East India Company provided a " convenient pretext " . Robespierre again sent Saint @-@ Just to the Convention to deliver a Committee " report " ( 31 March 1794 ) in which he announced the arrest of Danton and " the last partisans of royalism " . After a tumultuous show @-@ trial , Fabre , Desmoulins , and other top supporters of Danton went to the scaffold with their leader on 16 Germinal ( 5 April 1794 ) . In his report , Saint @-@ Just had promised that this would be a " final cleansing " of the Republic 's enemies .
The violent removal of the Hébertists and Dantonists provided only a mirage of stability for Saint @-@ Just and Robespierre . The deaths caused deep resentment and their absence only made it more difficult for the Jacobins to influence the dangerously unpredictable masses of sans @-@ culottes . This lack of support in the street would prove fatal during the events of Thermidor .
As the deliverer of Committee reports , Saint @-@ Just served as the public face of the Terror , and he became known widely as the " Angel of Death " . After the events of Germinal , Saint @-@ Just intensified his control over the state @-@ security apparatus . He created a new bureau of " general police " for the Committee of Public Safety which matched – and usurped – the powers that had been given officially to the Committee of General Security . Shortly after its establishment , however , administration of the new bureau passed to Robespierre when Saint @-@ Just left Paris once more for the front lines .
= = Last days = =
= = = Battle of Fleurus = = =
Sent back on mission to the army in Belgium , Saint @-@ Just again took supreme oversight of the Army of the North and contributed to the victory at Fleurus . This hotly contested battle on 26 June 1794 sent the Austrian army into retreat and marked the turning point in the War of the First Coalition . France would remain on the offensive until its eventual victory in 1797 . After his return from the battle , Saint @-@ Just was treated as a hero and " cheered from all sides . "
Back in Paris , Saint @-@ Just discovered that Robespierre 's political position had degraded significantly . As the Terror reached its apogee – the so @-@ called " Great Terror " – the danger of a counterstrike by his enemies became almost inevitable . Saint @-@ Just , however , remained unshakable in his alliance with Robespierre . The French victory at Fleurus , and others which followed , reduced the need for national security during the war which had been predicated as a justification for the Terror . " The excuse for the Terror was at an end . " Opponents of the Terror used Saint @-@ Just 's own words against him by demanding a full implementation of the constitution of 1793 .
With political combat reaching a fever pitch , the Committee introduced a bill to establish a newer version of the " Law of Suspects " – the Law of 22 Prairial . With it , a new category of " enemies of the people " was established in terms so vague that virtually anyone could be accused . Defendants were not permitted legal counsel and the Revolutionary Tribunal was instructed to impose no sentence other than death . The bill was swiftly shepherded into law by Robespierre , and although Saint @-@ Just was not directly involved in its composition , he was certainly supportive . The new statutes defined the Great Terror : in their first month , the average of executions in Paris rose from five per day to seventeen , soaring in the following month to twenty @-@ six .
The Law of Prairial was the breaking point for opponents of Robespierre . Resistance to the Terror spread throughout the Convention , and Saint @-@ Just was compelled to address the division . Barère and other Thermidorians have claimed that he proposed a dictatorship for Robespierre , but nonetheless some of them considered him to be redeemable , or at least useful – until he delivered his uncompromising public defence of Robespierre on 9 Thermidor ( 27 July 1794 ) .
= = = Thermidor = = =
On the dais , Saint @-@ Just declared the absolute necessity of current law , and conspiring deputies buzzed angrily as he spoke . Finally several of them physically shoved him away from the lectern , and each started his own address in which they called for the removal of Robespierre and all his supporters . Amid the uproar , recalled Barras , Saint @-@ Just " did not leave the platform , in spite of the interruptions which would have driven any one else away . He only came down a few steps , then mounted again , to continue his discourse proudly ... Motionless , unmoved , he seemed to defy everyone with his calm . "
Saint @-@ Just saved his dignity at the lectern but not his life . Rising in his support , Robespierre sputtered and lost his voice ; his brother Augustin , Philippe Lebas , and other key allies all tried to sway the deputies , but failed . The meeting ended with an order for their arrest . Saint @-@ Just , still on the platform , remained unmoved and " looked on contemptuously " at the scene . His confidence seemed validated when troops from the Paris Commune under Hanriot arrived to liberate them , but within hours the entire group was confined to the Hôtel de Ville . When soldiers finally broke inside , a number of the defeated Jacobins tried to commit suicide ; Saint @-@ Just stood beside Lebas who shot himself in the head . Any contemplation of his own suicide is unclear , but he alone emerged unruffled from the wild , violent final arrest – among the captured , " only St. Just , his hands bound but his head held high , was able to walk . " Robespierre , Saint @-@ Just and twenty of their allies were guillotined the next day , and Saint @-@ Just reputedly accepted his death with coolness and pride . At a last formality of identification , he gestured to a copy of the Constitution of 1793 and said , " I am the one who made that . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Other writings = = =
Throughout his lifetime , Saint @-@ Just continued to work on books and essays about the meaning of the Revolution , but he did not survive to see any of them published . They have been collected and edited in various Œuvres complètes . These include Organt , L 'Esprit de la Revolution , published speeches and legislative proposals , as well as military orders , notes , drafts , and private correspondence .
Many of Saint @-@ Just 's legislative proposals were compiled after his death to form an outline for a communal and egalitarian society – they were published as a single volume , Fragments sur les institutions républicaines . The proposals were far more radical than the constitution of 1793 , and identify closely with the legendarily fearsome traditions of ancient Sparta . Many of them are interpreted as proto @-@ socialist precepts : the overarching theme is equality , which Saint @-@ Just at one point summarizes as " Man must be independent ... There should be neither rich nor poor . "
= = = = De la Nature = = = =
Saint @-@ Just also composed a lengthy draft of his own philosophical views , De la Nature , which remained hidden in obscurity until its transcription by Albert Soboul in 1951 . Soboul first published this work in 1951 under the title " Un manuscrit oublié de Saint @-@ Just " in the Annales historiques de la révolution française , No. 124 . An expanded version is included in Alain Liénard 's Saint @-@ Just , théorie politique and later versions of Œuvres complètes . De la Nature outlines Saint @-@ Just 's ideas on the nature of society ; the actual date it was written is disputed , but the most agreed upon range is between 1791 and 1792 .
Based on the assumption that man is a social animal , Saint @-@ Just argues that in nature there is no need for contracts , legislation , or acts of force . These constructs only become necessary when a society is in need of moral regeneration and serve merely as unsatisfactory substitutes for the natural bonds of free people . Such constructs permit small groups to assume unwarranted powers which , according to Saint @-@ Just , leads to corruption within society . Because a return to the natural state is impossible , Saint @-@ Just argues for a government composed of the most educated members of society , who could be expected to share an understanding of the larger social good . Outside the government itself , Saint @-@ Just asserts there must be full equality between all men , including equal security in material possessions and personal independence . Property must be protected by the state but , in order to secure universal independence , all citizens ( including women ) must own property .
= = = = Posthumous publications = = = =
Saint @-@ Just , Fragments sur les institutions républicaines ( French )
Saint @-@ Just , Théorie politique , edited by Alain Liénard , Seuil , Paris , 1976 . ( French )
= = = = Complete collections = = = =
Œuvres de Saint @-@ Just , précédés d 'une notice historique sur sa vie edited by Adolphe Havard , Paris , 1834 . ( French )
Œuvres complètes de Saint @-@ Just in two volumes edited by Charles Vellay , Paris , 1908 . ( French )
Œuvres choisies , with introduction by Jean Gratien , Paris , 1946 . ( French )
Œuvres complètes , edited by Michèle Duval , Paris , 1984 . ( French )
Œuvres complètes , edited by Anne Kupiec and Miguel Abensour , Paris , 2004 . ( French )
= = = Character = = =
Ambitious and active @-@ minded , Saint @-@ Just worked urgently and tirelessly towards his goals : " For Revolutionists there is no rest but in the tomb . " He was repeatedly described by contemporaries as arrogant , believing himself to be a skilled leader and orator as well as having proper revolutionary character . This self @-@ assurance manifested itself in a superiority complex , and he always “ made it clear … that he considered himself to be in charge and that his will was law . ” Camille Desmoulins once wrote of Saint @-@ Just , " He carries his head like a sacred host . "
Saint @-@ Just 's rise to power wrought a remarkable change in his personality . Freewheeling and passionate in his youth , Saint @-@ Just quickly became focused , " tyrannical and pitilessly thorough . " He became " the ice @-@ cold ideologist of republican purity , " " as inaccessible as stone to all the warm passions . " A measure of his change can be inferred from the experience of Thérèse Gellé , who is known to have left her husband and taken up residence in a Parisian neighborhood near Saint @-@ Just in late 1793 . Saint @-@ Just – who had already developed something of a relationship , tepid but potentially expedient , with the sister of his colleague Lebas – refused to see her . Gelle stayed there for over a year , returning to Blérancourt only after Saint @-@ Just was dead . No record exists of any exchanges they might have had , but Saint @-@ Just is known to have written to a friend complaining impatiently about the rumors connecting him to " citizen Thorin " .
In his public speaking , Saint @-@ Just was even more daring and outspoken than his mentor Robespierre . Regarding France 's internal strife , he spared few : “ You have to punish not only the traitors , but even those who are indifferent ; you have to punish whoever is passive in the republic , and who does nothing for it . ” He thought the only way to create a true republic was to rid it of enemies , to enforce the “ complete destruction of its opposite . ” Regarding the war , he declared without regret to the Convention , “ The vessel of the Revolution can arrive in port only on a sea reddened with torrents of blood . ” He urged the deputies to embrace the notion that “ a nation generates itself only upon heaps of corpses . ”
Despite his flaws , Saint @-@ Just is often accorded respect for the strength of his convictions . Although his words and actions may be viewed as reprehensible , his commitment to them is rarely questioned : he was " implacable but sincere " . Like Robespierre , he was incorruptible in the sense that he exhibited no attraction to material benefits but devoted himself entirely to the advancement of a political agenda .
= = = = Camus and Saint @-@ Just = = = =
In Albert Camus 's The Rebel ( 1951 ) , Saint @-@ Just is discussed extensively in the context of an analysis of rebellion and man 's progression towards enlightenment and freedom . Camus identifies Saint @-@ Just 's successful argument for the execution of Louis XVI as the moment of death for monarchical divine right , a Nietzschean Twilight of the Idols . Saint @-@ Just 's dedication to " the sovereignty of the people and the sacred power of laws " is described as " a source of absolutism " and indeed " the new God " . His kind of " deification of the political " is examined as the source of the creeping totalitarianism which grew so powerfully in Camus ' own lifetime .
= = = = In popular culture = = = =
Representations of Saint @-@ Just include those found in the novel Stello ( 1832 ) by Alfred de Vigny , and in the plays Danton 's Death ( 1835 , by Georg Büchner ) and Poor Bitos ( Pauvre Bitos , ou Le dîner de têtes , 1956 , by Jean Anouilh ) . In film , Saint @-@ Just has been portrayed by Abel Gance in Napoléon ( 1927 ) ; Jess Barker in Reign of Terror ( 1949 ) ; Bogusław Linda in Danton ( 1983 ) ; and Christopher Thompson in La Révolution française ( 1989 ) . Jean @-@ Pierre Léaud plays a surreal caricature of Saint @-@ Just in Jean @-@ Luc Godard 's Week End ( 1967 ) . Saint @-@ Just is the main character in the fantasy novel Light from Aphelion : Rising from Dust ( 2016 , by Martine Carlsson ) .
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= Feeling This =
" Feeling This " is a song recorded by American rock band Blink @-@ 182 for their eponymously titled fifth studio album ( 2003 ) . The song was released as the lead single from Blink @-@ 182 on October 2 , 2003 through Geffen Records . It was written by guitarist Tom DeLonge , bassist Mark Hoppus , and drummer Travis Barker , and was produced and mixed by Jerry Finn . The song originated on the first day of producing the album . Its lyrics are purely sexual in nature ; the band attempted to juxtapose lust and passion between verses and choruses , thematically connected with a wistful , regretful tone .
The song 's composition contains elements of spoken word in the verses and a Latin @-@ inspired backbeat in the chorus , and the song ends in a melodic , harmonized duet split between DeLonge and Hoppus . Elements of the song were inspired by rock groups Led Zeppelin and the Beach Boys . The song 's music video , photographed by David LaChapelle , depicts a dystopian correctional facility that is overtaken by its inmates . An early version of the song , erroneously titled " Action " , was released on the soundtrack for the video game Madden NFL 2004 .
" Feeling This " received critical acclaim and the song peaked to number two on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks chart in late 2003 . It was also a top 20 hit in the United Kingdom and Australia . The digital single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 2005 . Blink @-@ 182 has performed " Feeling This " in a number of live appearances , including on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! .
= = Background = =
" Feeling This " was the first track that was recorded for Blink @-@ 182 in early 2003 . On the first day of pre @-@ production on the album , bassist Mark Hoppus asked an engineer to explain Pro Tools to him , as it was the first time the band would record their music digitally . He began recording guitar and bass parts and experimenting with the software . When guitarist Tom DeLonge and drummer Travis Barker arrived , they too began adding new tracks to the project . The song was written in one day . " I think if I sit there and try to analyze everything , what would be cool here or there , I just feel like I get so far away from what I would do , and I think your gut instinct is usually the best thing , " said Barker at the time .
The lyrics were written with Hoppus and DeLonge going into separate rooms — Hoppus writing the choruses and DeLonge writing the verses . The two had not spoken to each other about the lyrics ahead of time , and it turned out that the two had both written about sex . When put together , the song represents the lustful side of sex during the verses , the passionate side in the bridge and the romantic side in the chorus , creating a juxtaposition between both voices . It has been interpreted as a description for failed romance , one that " illustrates a scenario of lust , ambivalence and regret . " For Barker , the song 's drum track was " super in respect to John Bonham . [ ... ] We were kind of messing around with the verse . It ’ s like , ' Well , I want to do a four @-@ bar drum intro and just see how it works for the song . ' And we never second @-@ guessed it . We were like , ' That sounds rad . ' "
According to engineer Ryan Hewitt , the track contains " four distinct drum sounds created by old school tape editing . " The song was recorded " part @-@ by @-@ part , committing to different sounds by changing relative levels , EQ , and compression throughout , " and the engineers would slightly move microphones used to record Barker 's drum kit to tailor the natural ambience of the home it was recorded in . Upon playback of a rough mix of the song , the engineer automated the music to fade at the song 's conclusion , but mistakenly forgot to do the same for the vocal tracks . Hoppus , who had been listening to the Beach Boys at the time , liked the a cappella interplay of their voices . All agreed to keep it in the final version of the song .
= = Composition = =
The song is composed in the key of E major and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 173 beats per minute . The vocal range spans from E3 to B4 .
" Feeling This " opens with flanged drums . Although computer technology offered it during the album ’ s production , according to Hoppus , the band opted to produce the effect " the old school way " , opting for two tape machines . Originally taking root as a faster @-@ paced drum ' n ' bass @-@ inspired track , Barker imitated that genre 's groove on open hi @-@ hats . The influence of John Bonham is most explicit in the song 's first few seconds , in which Barker performs eighth @-@ note triplets on his bass drum , much like the Led Zeppelin song " Good Times Bad Times " ( 1969 ) . Following a sample from Captain America ( 1990 ) — " Get ready for action ! — the song moves into a " stabbing guitar rhythm " over the verses , which are " half @-@ barked " and contain delivery reminiscent of hip @-@ hop . The " harmony @-@ rich " chorus of the song , which contains the refrain " Fate fell short this time , smile fades in the summer / Place your hand in mine , I 'll leave when I wanna " , is replete with a " syncopated Latin @-@ flavored backbeat . " In the chorus , Barker plays a cowbell , which he initially included as a joke , believing Hoppus and DeLonge would " hate it . "
The song is particularly memorable for a section of the chorus of the song ( right before the bridge begins ) , in which guitarist Tom DeLonge sings the vocals loudly and off @-@ key . According to the liner notes for Blink @-@ 182 , DeLonge stated that the recording was done in a 30 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) living room at the home previously mentioned , with microphones 10 to 15 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) away . The end of the song is a melodic duet between the band 's two vocalists , both singing conflicting but harmonizing parts .
= = Release = =
Blink @-@ 182 first performed " Feeling This " alongside other new songs from Blink @-@ 182 during their performances at the 2003 Reading and Leeds festivals . The band picked " Feeling This " as the first single because they felt it representative of the transition they had undergone since their fourth studio album , Take Off Your Pants and Jacket ( 2001 ) . A slightly different version of the song had been released previously as part of the soundtrack for the video game Madden NFL 2004 under the erroneous title " Action " . Barker explained in an interview that " ' Action ' just sounded kind of dorky to us . Like we would always call it ' Feeling This ' and then someone at our label , I think , like wrote it as ' Action ' one time and sent out singles to people . And it was always supposed to be ' Feeling This ' . "
To promote Blink @-@ 182 , the group performed " Feeling This " , as well as their past hit " Dammit " on Total Request Live on November 11 , 2003 , and on the late @-@ night talk show Jimmy Kimmel Live ! in November 26 , 2003 . Richard Cheese covered the song on their 2004 album I 'd Like a Virgin .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Feeling This " debuted at number 40 on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks chart on October 18 , 2003 , jumping to number 13 in its second week , which was at that time the fourth @-@ biggest move in the history of that chart . The song moved upwards on the chart over the following weeks , eventually achieving a peak of number two on November 29 , 2003 . It remained at number two for two more weeks before dropping to number three , after which it continued dropping before exiting the top 20 on February 21 , 2004 . In total , it spent nine weeks on the chart . It spent eight weeks on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles , which acts as an extension to the Billboard Hot 100 chart ; it peaked at number two on December 20 , 2003 .
In the United Kingdom , " Feeling This " debuted at number 15 on the UK Singles Chart for the week ending date November 30 , 2003 . It dropped to number 35 the following week before exiting the chart on December 28 ; in all , it spent ten weeks on the chart .
= = Critical reception = =
" Feeling This " received favorable reviews from music critics . Kelefa Sanneh , writing for The New York Times felt the song was an " appealing hybrid , " while noting the growing popularity of emo could have influenced the " more anguished " tone . Greg Kot of Entertainment Weekly praised the vocal harmonies , calling them reminiscent of Queen . Joshua Klein of The Washington Post similarly complimented the interplay between DeLonge and Hoppus and its " multiple @-@ perspective portrait of first love . " Andy Doerschuk of Drum ! praised Barker 's " fat , syncopated beat " and noted elements of Bonham as well as James Brown 's drummers . Rolling Stone 's Jenny Eliscu made note of its " catchy hooks " , while Stephen Thompson , writing for The A.V. Club , considered it among many songs on the album that were " straightforwardly conventional . "
= = Music video = =
The video follows students at a dystopian @-@ based correctional facility who rebel and take over the establishment , intertwined with shots of the band performing outside the prison in a cage , providing a " soundtrack to the chaos . " Hoppus described their idea for the facility : " It 's kind of a combination of prep school and reform school , and it 's very repressed and kids are being held down . There is a lot of authority and a lot of strict regiment , and the kids lash out and take over the school and destroy the place . " The band 's main goal for the video was for it to resemble an art piece , much in the same way they viewed the production of the album , to keep in line with tone . To this end , they enlisted director David LaChapelle . LaChapelle 's input — which " ranges from an evil prison warden cracking a whip at marching school kids to escapees ripping their uniforms and doing acrobatic moves down the hallways " — was regarded by the band as " completely wacked out and twisted , which is exactly what we love . "
In the narrative , the boys and girls are separated at the school and sexually repressed , and release their energies when they meet between a glass window . The clip was shot at the abandoned Lincoln Heights Jail north of downtown Los Angeles .
= = Formats and track listings = =
All songs written and composed by Tom DeLonge , Mark Hoppus and Travis Barker , except where noted .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Blink @-@ 182 , Geffen Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Scipione Piattoli =
Scipione Piattoli ( Italian pronunciation : [ ʃiˈpjoːne ˈpjattoli ] ; November 10 , 1749 – April 12 , 1809 ) was an Italian Catholic priest — a Piarist — an educator , writer and political activist , and a major figure of the Enlightenment in Poland . After ten years as a professor at the University of Modena in Italy , he migrated to the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , where he became associated with several magnate families — the Potockis , Lubomirskis and Czartoryskis . He was a member of the Duchess Dorothea von Medem 's court in Courland ( Lithuania ) and of King Stanisław August Poniatowski 's court in the Commonwealth .
Piattoli was politically active in Warsaw during and after the Four @-@ Year Sejm ( 1788 – 92 ) . He served as intermediary between the reformist Patriotic Party and King Stanisław August Poniatowski , and as an aide to the King ( 1789 – 93 ) . He is best remembered for his participation in drafting the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 , a milestone act in the history of Polish political legislation . He was one of the organizers of the Kościuszko Insurrection against Russian influence in 1794 , which was the last armed struggle to be held under the banners of the Commonwealth . After the Third Partition of Poland in 1795 , Piattoli was interned by the Austrians for several years , together with another Polish activist of the Constitution movement , Hugo Kołłątaj . Freed in 1800 , he worked several years with Polish and Russian statesman Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski in the service of Russia , before retiring to Courland .
Piattoli was an inspiration to Leo Tolstoy , who based the figure of the Abbé Morio in War and Peace ( 1869 ) on him . He is also one of the figures immortalized in Jan Matejko 's 1891 painting , Constitution of May 3 , 1791 . In his 1980 ten @-@ page entry on Piattoli in the Polish Biographical Dictionary , historian Emanuel Rostworowski notes that , “ despite two Italian monographs ( by A.D. Ancon and G. Bozzolato ) ” , Piattoli still awaits a definitive biography .
= = Early life = =
Scipione Piattoli was born in Florence on November 10 , 1749 , to a family of painters ( father , Gaetano Piattoli ; mother , Maria Anna Bacherini ; brother , Giuseppe Piattoli ) .
In 1763 he joined the Piarist order , taking the name Urban . Some historians have questioned whether he ever took Holy Orders ; in any case he was known for a rather secular lifestyle . He taught rhetoric in Piarist schools in Messa and Corregio , and got his doctorate from the University of Florence . From 1772 to 1782 he was a professor at the University of Modena , teaching religious history and Greek . Soon he became involved in political activism , and in 1774 he published ( anonymously ) a brochure titled Saggio intorno al luogo del seppellire , which focused on the issue of hygiene and burials near churches . Also in 1774 he received permission to leave the Piarists , and resumed using the name Scipione . He would , however , keep and use the title of " the priest " ( l 'abbé ) for most of his life . By the turn of the decade , Piattoli found himself in a faction that was losing in the politics of Modena , and decided to move , giving up his professorship in 1782 .
Piattoli arrived in the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth that year , as a tutor for the sons of Piotr Potocki , a member of the magnate Potocki family . It was said in a contemporary account that his entire material wealth at that time was composed of a “ sizable library ” . Piattoli ended his service with the Potocki family around 1784 due to personal disagreements with Pelagia Potocka and Maria Radziwiłł . In the meantime , he became associated with the Lubomirski family — Izabela Lubomirska in particular — and through them befriended Stanisław Kostka Potocki and Grzegorz Piramowicz . Through Potocki and Piramowicz he became a member of the Society for Elementary Books in 1784 . In the Society he was tasked with writing a textbook on the history of science . Around that time he was also active in Warsaw freemasonry .
Piattoli traveled through Europe in the retinue of the Lubomirski family , including Izabela , and as a tutor of young Henryk Lubomirski . During that time he developed extensive contacts at various European courts in Courland , Austria ( Vienna ) , Italy ( Turin ) and France ( Paris ) . During his three @-@ year stay in the Lubomirskis ' Parisian residence , he was in touch with many important men of the Age of Enlightenment . He met — often through another Florentinian , Filippo Mazzei — Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , Thomas Jefferson , the Marquis de Lafayette , Luigi Landriani , Girolamo Lucchesini , and the Marquis de Condorcet . He also corresponded with J. G. Herder . In Poland , he developed close contacts with Ignacy Potocki and Julian Ursyn Niemcewicza . From 1787 he also tutored Adam Jerzy Czartoryski , later an important politician in the Russian Empire , on whom Piattoli would retain significant influence .
= = Reformer and constitution drafter = =
Piattoli developed contacts with notable figures on the Polish political scene , initially from the group opposed to the royal faction . By the end of his stay in Paris , he likely became a supporter of reforms in France and Poland , and begun taking his first serious steps in political activism , through the involvement in the Quattuowirat , a group of magnates planning a ( never realized ) confederacy . He became a foreign member of the Société des Amis des Noirs .
Through his freemason contacts with Pierre Maurice Glayre , Piattoli won the confidence of Poland 's King Stanisław August Poniatowski , becoming his agent in Paris and , by the end of 1789 , his private secretary and librarian , although without any official title . Acting as a sort of cultural aide , Piattoli , who had strong ties to the reformist and often anti @-@ royal opposition , became an important link between the reformers — Ignacy Potocki in particular — and the king . In the words of a Swedish diplomat , L. Engstrom , he was “ like a tireless spring ” , constantly mediating between the two factions .
Due to his association with the reformers , in conservative Rome he became infamous as a staunch supporter of revolutionary ideals and was accused of " democratism " . Vatican diplomats criticized the king for hiring such a " revolutionary " , but the king defended Piattoli quite vividly . In any case , many such claims were exaggerations or rumours spread by his political enemies : according to one such rumour , Piattoli was alleged to incite crowds in France to kill the king . In reality , Piattoli supported the Monarchiens of the French Revolution 's early stages , but more in the direction of peaceful transformation into a constitutional republic than the regicidal excesses .
Between 1790 and 1792 , Piattoli was sent on several sensitive diplomatic missions for the king to Berlin and other places . He was involved in the negotiations of the Polish @-@ Prussian alliance . He collaborated with Ignacy Potocki , helping draft many texts connected with Potocki 's work in the Sejm , the legislature of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . He was also an active supporter of Poniatowski 's plan for a hereditary succession . Piattoli , as Poniatowski 's secretary and a resident of the Royal Castle in Warsaw , has been credited with winning the King over to the idea of social reforms and with playing a part in the drafting of the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 . The exact nature of Piattoli 's role in regard to the Constitution remains uncertain ; modern historians disagree to what degree he was an executor , a mediator , or an initiator . He played a role in convincing the King to collaborate with the leaders of the Patriotic Party on drafting a constitution . He might have prepared or expanded drafts of the document , based on discussions among the principal authors , including the King , Hugo Kołłątaj ( another politically active Roman Catholic priest ) and Ignacy Potocki . At a minimum , he seems to have helped catalyze the process . Historian Emanuel Rostworowski describes him as a vital secretary @-@ editor , who certainly participated in related discussions and influenced both Potocki and the king , and calls Piattoli 's quarters in the Royal Palace a “ creche ” of the constitution . Piattoli was , finally , involved in the final preparations for the vote that took place during the Sejm session on May 3 .
Later that month he became a founder of the Friends of the Constitution . He was active in various political causes and worked closely with other key figures in Poland such as Hugo Kołłątaj . He became a trusted adviser to Dorothea von Medem , Duchess of Courland . He supported reforms to improve the status of the burghers and Jews .
= = Final years = =
During the War in Defence of the Constitution in 1792 , Piattoli found himself on another diplomatic mission to Dresden , where he stayed after the Commonwealth 's defeat at the hands of Imperial Russia resulted in the Second Partition of Poland . In Dresden and nearby Leipzig , Piattoli was active in the circles of Polish patriotic emigres , who included Potocki and Kolłątaj . In 1793 he officially parted ways with Poniatowski , receiving a letter in which he was discharged from his service . In 1794 he was involved in the preparations for the Kościuszko Insurrection against Russian influence , and in negotiations with the newly republican France , in which Polish reformists proposed an alliance with France , promising to turn Poland into a second republic in Europe . At the same time , he was involved in much more conservative negotiations with Russians .
In July 1794 he and several other activists were exiled from Leipzig , and Piattoli was soon arrested by the Austrian authorities . After the failure of the Kościuszko Insurrection later in 1794 , many prisoners were set free , but Piattoli was kept imprisoned , together with Kołłątaj , as the Russian authorities insisted that the two were “ extremely dangerous ” . Hence , even after the final Partitions of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795 , Piattoli was kept interned in Prague by the Austrian Empire authorities until 1800 , despite requests for his release from Poniatowski and even Napoleon Bonaparte . His release in 1800 seems to have been the result of efforts of the Czartoryski family and Duchess Dorothea .
After his release he returned to Dorothea 's Courland court , where he served as a tutor for her daughter . Around 1803 he began cooperating with Adam Jerzy Czartoryski , who was now working for the Russian authorities . Around that time , he and Czartoryski authored a plan for a European federal organization of states intended to prevent armed conflicts and to maintain perpetual peace . Piattoli , through Czartoryski , briefly worked in the diplomatic service and administration of the Russians , too . Like Czartoryski , Piattoli tried to push for a more lenient and friendly attitude towards Poland at the Russian court , but with little success .
In 1807 Scipione Piattoli returned to Courland . There he finally settled , abandoned the priesthood , and married one of the ladies of the court . In his final years in Courland he was involved with Courland 's educational system , and hoped to pursue some scientific studies , a lifelong dream for which he never found enough time . He died of a lung infection in Altenburg on April 12 , 1809 . He was buried in a park in Löbichau .
= = Remembrance = =
Piattoli was an inspiration to Leo Tolstoy , who based the figure of the Abbé Morio in War and Peace ( 1869 ) on him . He is also one of the figures immortalized in Jan Matejko 's 1891 painting , Constitution of May 3 , 1791 . In his 1980 ten @-@ page entry on Piattoli in the Polish Biographical Dictionary , historian Emanuel Rostworowski notes that , “ despite two Italian monographs ( by A.D. Ancon and G. Bozzolato ) ” , Piattoli still awaits a definitive biography .
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= Sudirman =
General of the Army Raden Soedirman ( Perfected Spelling : Sudirman ; 24 January 1916 – 29 January 1950 ) was a high @-@ ranking Indonesian military officer during the Indonesian National Revolution . The first commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Indonesian Armed Forces , he continues to be widely respected in the country .
Born in Purbalingga , Dutch East Indies , Sudirman moved to Cilacap in 1916 and was raised by his uncle . A diligent student at a Muhammadiyah @-@ run school , he became respected within the community for his devotion to Islam . After dropping out of teacher 's college , in 1936 he began working as a teacher , and later headmaster , at a Muhammadiyah @-@ run elementary school . After the Japanese occupied the Indies in 1942 , Sudirman continued to teach , before joining the Japanese @-@ sponsored Defenders of the Homeland as a battalion commander in Banyumas in 1944 . In this position he put down a rebellion by his fellow soldiers , but was later interned in Bogor . After Indonesia proclaimed its independence on 17 August 1945 , Sudirman led a break @-@ out then went to Jakarta to meet President Sukarno . Tasked with overseeing the surrender of Japanese soldiers in Banyumas , he established a division of the People 's Safety Body there . On 12 November 1945 , at an election to decide the military 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief in Yogyakarta , Sudirman was chosen over Oerip Soemohardjo in a close vote . While waiting to be confirmed , Sudirman ordered an assault on British and Dutch forces in Ambarawa . The ensuing battle and British withdrawal strengthened Sudirman 's popular support , and he was ultimately confirmed on 18 December .
During the following three years Sudirman saw negotiations with the returning Dutch colonial forces fail , first after the Linggadjati Agreement – which Sudirman participated in drafting – and then the Renville Agreement ; he was also faced with internal dissent , including a 1948 coup d 'état attempt . He later blamed these issues for his tuberculosis , which led to his right lung being collapsed in November 1948 . On 19 December 1948 , several days after Sudirman 's release from the hospital , the Dutch launched an assault on the capital . Sudirman and a small contingent escaped Dutch forces and left the city , making their headquarters at Sobo , near Mount Lawu . There Sudirman commanded military activities throughout Java , including a show of force in Yogyakarta on 1 March 1949 . When the Dutch began withdrawing , in July 1949 Sudirman was recalled to Yogyakarta and forbidden to fight further . In late 1949 Sudirman 's tuberculosis relapsed , and he retired to Magelang , where he died slightly more than a month after the Dutch recognised Indonesia 's independence . He is buried at Semaki Heroes ' Cemetery in Yogyakarta .
Sudirman 's death was grieved throughout Indonesia , with flags flown at half @-@ mast and thousands gathering to see his funeral convoy and procession . He continues to be highly respected in Indonesia . His guerrilla campaign has been credited with developing the army 's esprit de corps , and the 100 @-@ kilometre ( 62 mi ) long route he took must be followed by Indonesian cadets before graduation . Sudirman featured prominently on the 1968 series of rupiah banknotes , and has numerous streets , museums , and monuments named after him . On 10 December 1964 he was declared a National Hero of Indonesia .
= = Early life = =
Sudirman was born to Karsid Kartawiraji ( father ) and Siyem while they lived with Siyem 's sister Tarsem , one of three women married to the sub @-@ district head Raden Cokrosunaryo , in Rembang , Bodas Karangjati , Purbalingga , Dutch East Indies . According to the family 's records , Sudirman – named by his uncle – was born on a pon Sunday in the month of Maulud in the Javanese calendar ; the Indonesian government later established 24 January 1916 as Sudirman 's birthday . As Cokrosunaryo was in a better financial situation , he adopted Sudirman and gave him the title Raden , reserved for Javanese nobility ; however , Sudirman was not told that Cokrosunaryo was not his birth father until he was eighteen . When Cokrosunaryo retired from his position as chief in late 1916 , Sudirman went with the family to Manggisan , Cilacap , where he was raised . In Cilacap Karsid and Siyem had another son , Muhammad Samingan . Karsid died when Sudirman was six , at which time Siyem left the boys with her brother @-@ in @-@ law and went back to her village at Parakan Onje , Ajibarang .
Sudirman was raised with stories of heroic deeds and taught the etiquette and ways of the priyayi , or noble caste , as well as the work ethic and simplicity of the wong cilik , or commoners . For his religious education , he studied Islam under Kyai Hajji Qahar with his brother ; Sudirman was a religious child , and always prayed on time . He was soon entrusted with performing both the adhan and iqama , or calls to prayer . When he was seven years old , Sudirman was enrolled at a school for natives ( hollandsch inlandsche school ) , where he was an average student . The family , although it had enough to live by , was not rich . During his tenure as sub @-@ district head , Cokrosunaryo had not accumulated much wealth , and in Cilacap he became a distributor of Singer sewing machines .
In his fifth year of school , Sudirman asked to leave his studies , concerned with the ridicule he faced at the government @-@ run school ; this request was at first refused , but Sudirman was transferred to a junior high school run by Taman Siswa in his seventh year of school . In his eighth year , Sudirman transferred to Wirotomo Junior High School after the Taman Siswa School was found to be unregistered and closed under the Wild School Ordinance . Many of Sudirman 's teachers at Wirotomo were Indonesian nationalists , which influenced his views of the Dutch colonists . Sudirman studied diligently at school ; his teacher Suwarjo Tirtosupono later recalled that Sudirman would already be studying second @-@ term lessons while the class was still in term one . Although he performed poorly in Javanese calligraphy , Sudirman was strong in mathematics , science , and writing in both Dutch and Indonesian . Sudirman also became more religious under the guidance of his teacher Raden Mohamad Kholil ; his classmates named him " hajji " because of his devotion to his prayers , and Sudirman took up preaching to other students . Aside from his studies and religious activities , Sudirman also served in the school 's musical troupe and on the football team , on which he was a defender . Although Cokrosunaryo 's death in 1934 left the family poor , Sudirman was allowed to continue his studies without paying until he graduated later that year ; after his step @-@ father 's death , Sudirman also devoted more time to studying the Sunnah and prayer . By age 19 , Sudirman had become a pupil teacher at Wirotomo .
While at Wirotomo Sudirman was a member of the Wirotomo Student Union , drama club , and band . He helped establish a branch of the Hizboel Wathan , an organisation similar to the Boy Scouts , which was run by the Islamic establishment Muhammadiyah . Sudirman became the leader of the Cilacap division after graduating from Wirotomo ; he was tasked with deciding and planning his groups ' activities . He emphasised the need for religious studies , insisting that the contingents from Cilacap attend Muhammadiyah conferences throughout Java . He taught the younger members about the history of Islam and the importance of morality , while with older members he enforced near @-@ military discipline .
= = Teaching = =
After graduating from Wirotomo , Sudirman spent a year at a Muhammadiyah @-@ run teacher 's college in Surakarta , but later dropped out owing to a lack of funds . In 1936 he returned to Cilacap to teach at a Muhammadiyah @-@ run elementary school , having been trained by his teachers at Wirotomo ; that year he married Alfiah , a former schoolmate and the daughter of the rich batik merchant Raden Sastroatmojo . After the marriage Sudirman lived at his father @-@ in @-@ law 's house in Cilacap so he could save money for his own home . The couple went on to have three sons , Ahmad Tidarwono , Muhammad Teguh Bambang Tjahjadi , and Taufik Effendi , and four daughters , Didi Praptiastuti , Didi Sutjiati , Didi Pudjiati , and Titi Wahjuti Satyaningrum .
As a teacher , Sudirman taught his students lessons on morality using examples from the lives of the prophets and traditional wayang stories . One of his students later recalled that Sudirman was an even @-@ handed and patient teacher who would mix humour and nationalism in his lessons ; this made him popular with the students . A hard @-@ working teacher despite poor pay , within several years Sudirman had become headmaster despite not having a teacher 's certificate . As a result , his monthly wages quadrupled from three gulden to twelve and a half . As headmaster , Sudirman worked on numerous administrative duties , including finding middle ground between feuding teachers . A coworker later recalled that Sudirman was a moderate , democratic leader . He was also active in fundraising , both for the needs of his school and the construction of others .
During this time Sudirman also continued to serve as a member of the Muhammadiyah Youth Group . Within the group he was known as a keen negotiator and mediator , working to resolve issues between members ; he also preached at the local mosque . He was elected as Chair of the Banyumas District of the Muhammadiyah Youth Group at the end of 1937 . In this role he enacted policies facilitating members ' studies and activities , both religious and secular . He was later put in charge of Youth Group activities throughout Central Java and spent much of his free time travelling and preaching Islam , putting an emphasis on self @-@ awareness . Alfiah was also active in Muhammadiyah @-@ sponsored activities through the group 's branch for women , Nasyiatul Aisyiyah .
= = Japanese occupation = =
When World War II broke out in Europe , it was expected that the Japanese , who had already made aggressive moves against mainland China , would try to invade the Indies . In response , the Dutch colonial government – which had previously limited military training for native Indonesians – began teaching the populace how to deal with air raids . To co @-@ ordinate the preparations , the Dutch formed Air Raid Preparation teams . Sudirman , respected in the community , was asked to lead the Cilacap chapter . Aside from teaching local citizens the safety procedures for dealing with an air raid , Sudirman established watchposts throughout the area . He and the Dutch would also have passing aircraft drop materials to simulate a bombing run ; this was intended to improve response time .
After the Japanese began occupying the Indies in early 1942 , winning several battles against Dutch and Dutch @-@ trained forces of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army ( Koninklijk Nederlands Indisch Leger , or KNIL ) , on 9 March 1942 Governor @-@ General Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer and head of the KNIL General Hein ter Poorten capitulated . This brought drastic changes in the governance of the archipelago and reduced the quality of life for non @-@ Japanese in the Indies , many of whom suffered from widespread human rights violations at the hands of the Japanese . In Cilacap , Sudirman 's school had been closed and turned into a military outpost ; this was part of a widespread effort to close private schools . After Sudirman convinced the Japanese to reopen the school , he and the other teachers were forced to use substandard supplies . Sudirman was also involved in several social and humanitarian organisations during this period , including as chair of the Indonesian People 's Cooperation . This brought him greater recognition among the people of Cilacap .
In early 1944 , after a year as a representative at the Japanese @-@ run regency council board ( Syu Sangikai ) , Sudirman was asked to join the Defenders of the Homeland ( Pembela Tanah Air , or PETA ) ; the Japanese occupation government had established PETA in October 1943 to help repel any Allied invasion , and were focused on recruiting younger men , those who had " not yet been ' contaminated ' " by Dutch rule . After a few days of hesitance , caused in part by a knee injury he had occurred as a youth , Sudirman agreed to begin training in Bogor . Owing to his standing in the community , Sudirman was made a commander ( daidanco ) and trained with other persons of that rank . Trained by Japanese officers and soldiers , the cadets were armed with confiscated Dutch equipment . After four months of training Sudirman was put in charge of the battalion stationed at Kroya , Banyumas , Central Java , not far from Cilacap .
Sudirman 's time as a PETA commander passed uneventfully until 21 April 1945 , when PETA troops under the command of Kusaeri began to rebel against the Japanese . Ordered to stop the rebellion , Sudirman agreed to do so only if the PETA rebels would not be harmed , and places harbouring them not razed ; this condition was accepted by the Japanese commander , and Sudirman and his troops began searching for the rebels . Although Kusaeri 's men initially shot at the commander , after Sudirman used a loudspeaker to tell them they would not be harmed , they backed down . Kusaeri surrendered on 25 April . This garnered support for Sudirman within the occupation forces , although several high @-@ ranking Japanese officers expressed concern over Sudirman 's support for Indonesian independence . Sudirman and his men were soon sent to a camp in Bogor , ostensibly for training ; however , they were tasked with hard labour as a way to prevent a further uprising , and rumours circulated that the PETA officers would be killed .
= = National revolution = =
= = = Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief = = =
After news of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki reached the Indies in early August 1945 , followed by the proclamation of Indonesian independence on 17 August , it was evident that Japanese control was weakening . Sudirman led a break out from the camp in Bogor . Although his fellow internees wanted to attack the Japanese soldiers , Sudirman convinced them against it . After ordering the others to their hometowns , Sudirman made his way to Jakarta and met with President Sukarno , who asked him to lead resistance against Japanese forces in the city . Unfamiliar with Jakarta , Sudirman refused , instead offering to lead forces in Kroya . He left for his former command on 19 August 1945 . At the same time , Allied forces were in the process of retaking the Indonesian archipelago for the Netherlands . The first British forces arrived on 8 September 1945 .
In late August , Sukarno established the People 's Safety Body ( Badan Keamanan Rakjat , or BKR ) , which united troops from the former PETA , Heihō , and KNIL . The BKR served mostly as a police organisation , partly because the political leadership were intent on using diplomacy to garner international recognition of the new country and partly to avoid appearing overly aggressive to the Japanese forces still in the archipelago . Sudirman and several of his fellow PETA soldiers formed a BKR branch in Banyumas in late August , after stopping at Kroya and discovering that his battalion had been disbanded . In a meeting with the Japanese commander for the region , Saburo Tamura , and the resident of Banyumas , Iwashige , Sudirman and Iskak Cokroadisuryo forced the Japanese to surrender and hand over their weapons while a crowd of armed Indonesians encircled the Japanese camp . Many of these weapons were later used by Sudirman 's BKR unit , making it one of the best equipped in the country ; surplus weapons were distributed to other battalions .
As the newly independent nation did not yet have a professional military , on 5 October 1945 Sukarno passed a decree establishing the People 's Security Army ( Tentara Keamaanan Rakjat or TKR , now known as the Tentara Nasional Indonesia ) . Most officers were former KNIL officers , while rank @-@ and @-@ file soldiers were mostly PETA and Heihō . As the decreed Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Armed Forces , Soeprijadi , failed to come forward , chief of staff Lieutenant General Oerip Soemohardjo served as an interim leader . That October British @-@ led forces , tasked with disarming Japanese troops and repatriating Dutch prisoners of war , arrived in Semarang , then made their way south to Magelang . When the British began rearming repatriated Dutch prisoners and seemed to be preparing a military base in Magelang , Sudirman – now a colonel – sent some of his troops under Lieutenant Colonel Isdiman to drive them away ; the mission was successful , and the European soldiers withdrew to Ambarawa , midway between Magelang and Semarang . On 20 October Sudirman was put in command of the Fifth Division , after Oerip began dividing Java into different military commands .
On 12 November 1945 , at the first general meeting of Army leadership , Sudirman was elected leader of the Army following two deadlocked votes . In the third round , Oerip had 21 votes to Sudirman 's 22 ; the division commanders from Sumatra voted unanimously for Sudirman and swayed the ballot in his favour . Sudirman , aged 29 at the time , was surprised at his selection and offered to relinquish the leadership position to Oerip , but the meeting did not allow it . Oerip himself , who had lost control of the meeting prior to the vote , was glad to no longer be in charge of the entire Army . Sudirman kept Oerip to serve as chief of staff under him . In accordance with his new role , Sudirman was promoted to general . After the meeting , Sudirman returned to Banyumas to await confirmation as leader of the TKR and began developing strategies on how repel Allied advances . The Indonesians feared that the Dutch , through the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration ( Nederlandsch Indië Civil Administratie , or NICA ) , would attempt to retake the archipelago ; soldiers of the Dutch @-@ British alliance had landed in Java in September , and a large battle had occurred in Surabaya during late October and early November . This instability , as well as Sukarno 's uncertainty about Sudirman 's qualifications , led to a delay in Sudirman 's confirmation .
While waiting for his appointment to be confirmed , in late November Sudirman ordered the Fifth Division to attack Allied forces stationed in Ambarawa , once again with Isdiman in charge ; the city was considered strategically important owing to its military barracks and training facilities dating from the colonial period . This assault was countered by an air strike and the use of tanks , which forced the division to retreat ; Isdiman died in the battle , killed by a strafing P @-@ 51 Mustang Sudirman then led the Division in another assault against Allied forces ; the Indonesian troops were armed with a variety of weapons , ranging from bamboo spears and confiscated katanas to rifles , while the British were armed with modern equipment . Sudirman led from the front , wielding a katana . The Allies , whose air support had been cut off when guerrilla soldiers attacked Kalibanteng Airfield in Semarang , were forced onto the defensive and holed up in Willem Fortress . On 12 December Sudirman led a four @-@ day siege , which resulted in the Allied force withdrawing to Semarang .
The Battle of Ambarawa brought Sudirman greater attention at a national level , and generally silenced whispers that he was unfit for military command because of his lack of military experience and previous employment as a schoolteacher . Ultimately , Sudirman was chosen as his loyalty was undoubted , while Oerip 's former pledge of loyalty to the Dutch led to him being viewed with suspicion . Sudirman was confirmed as commander @-@ in @-@ chief on 18 December 1945 . He was replaced as head of the Fifth Division by Colonel Sutiro , and began to focus on strategic problems . This was done partly by establishing a board of advisors , which gave the general advice on both political and military issues . Oerip handled many of the military matters .
Together , Sudirman and Oerip were able to reduce the differences and mistrust between former KNIL and PETA troops , although some troops were reluctant to be subordinated to a central command , instead choosing to follow their popularly @-@ selected battalion commanders . The government renamed the Army twice in January 1946 , first to the Peoples ' Salvation Army ( Tentara Keselamatan Rakjat ) , then to the Army of the Republic of Indonesia ( Tentara Repoeblik Indonesia , or TRI ) . This was followed by the formal establishment of a navy and air force in early 1946 . In the meantime , the Indonesian government had moved from Jakarta – now under Dutch control – to Yogyakarta in January ; delegates led by Prime Minister Sutan Sjahrir spent much of April and May unsuccessfully negotiating for Dutch recognition of Indonesian sovereignty . On 25 May Sudirman was reconfirmed as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the expanded military , after its reorganisation . At the ceremony , Sudirman swore to protect the republic " until he shed his last drop of blood . "
The leftist Minister of Defence Amir Sjarifuddin , who had received greater power in the reorganisation , began collecting socialist and communist troops under his direct control , as well as leftist paramilitary units ( laskar ) that were funded by and loyal to the various political parties . The minister instituted political education programmes in the army , which were meant to spread leftist ideology . This use of the military for political manoeverings disappointed both Sudirman and Oerip , who were at the time busy ensuring equal treatment for soldiers from different military backgrounds . However , rumours among the populace had spread that Sudirman was preparing for a coup d 'état ; although an attempt did occur in early July 1946 , Sudirman 's role , if any , is not certain . In July Sudirman addressed these rumours through a speech broadcast on Radio Republik Indonesia ( RRI ) , stating that he , like all Indonesians , was a servant of the State , and that , if he were offered the presidency , he would refuse it . In his later career he stated that the military had no place in politics , and vice versa .
= = = Negotiations with the Dutch = = =
Meanwhile , Sjahrir continued to work on negotiations with the Allied forces . On 7 October 1946 , Sjahrir and the former Dutch Prime Minister , Wim Schermerhorn , agreed to work towards a ceasefire . The discussions were to be moderated by the British diplomat Lord Killearn and involved Sudirman . He took a specially commissioned train to Jakarta , departing on 20 October . However , he ordered it to return to Yogyakarta when Dutch troops refused to allow him and his men to enter the city with their weapons , feeling that such an order violated his sense of honour ; the Dutch apologised , construing the events as a misunderstanding . Sudirman took another train in late October , arriving at Gambir Station in Jakarta on 1 November , where he was greeted by large crowds . The discussions in Jakarta resulted in the drafting of the Linggadjati Agreement on 15 November ; the agreement was ratified on 25 March 1947 , despite heavy opposition from Indonesian nationalists . Sudirman was vocally against the agreement , which he found to be detrimental to Indonesian interests , but considered himself obliged to follow his orders .
In early 1947 , with the Linggadjati Agreement granting relative peace , Sudirman began work on consolidating the TKR with various laskar . As part of a committee , Sudirman began reorganising the military ; they reached an agreement in May 1947 , and on 3 June 1947 the Indonesian National Armed Forces ( Tentara Nasional Indonesia , or TNI ) was formalised ; it consisted of TKR forces and various laskar groups , which Sudirman had included only after realising the extent of their manipulation by the political parties . However , the ceasefire obtained through the Linggadjati Agreement was not long lasting . On 21 July 1947 the Dutch forces – which had occupied areas left by the British during their withdrawal – launched Operation Product , and quickly gained control of large swaths of Java and Sumatra ; the national government in Yogyakarta remained untouched . Sudirman called the army to fight , using the code " Ibu Pertiwi is calling ! Ibu Pertiwi is calling ! " , and later delivered several speeches over RRI in an unsuccessful attempt to encourage soldiers to fight against the Dutch . However , the Indonesian soldiers were unprepared and their lines crumbled quickly .
Pressured by the United Nations , which had looked at the situation in the former East Indies with disdain , on 29 August 1947 the Dutch established the Van Mook Line , which divided Dutch and Indonesian @-@ controlled areas . Along this line a ceasefire was called . Sudirman recalled the Indonesian guerrillas hiding in Dutch @-@ held lands , ordering them to return to Indonesian @-@ held areas . To keep their spirits up , he referred to the withdrawal as a hijrah , reminiscent of Muhammad 's migration to Medina in 622 AD , implying that they would return . Over 35 @,@ 000 troops left western Java at this order , travelling to Yogyakarta by train and ship . This boundary was formalised by the Renville Agreement on 17 January 1948 ; among the signatories was Amir Sjarifuddin , by then also serving as prime minister . Meanwhile , Sjarifuddin began rationalising the army , cutting back on the number of troops . At the time the regular army consisted of 350 @,@ 000 men , with a further 470 @,@ 000 in the laskar .
In this programme , by presidential decree Sudirman was no longer commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the military starting on 2 January 1948 . He was demoted to lieutenant general , while Chief of the Air Force Soerjadi Soerjadarma was intended to be commander @-@ in @-@ chief . Shortly afterwards , Sjarifuddin was ousted in a vote of no confidence for his involvement in the Renville Agreement , and the new prime minister , Mohammad Hatta , worked to implement the rationalisation programme . This led to a several months @-@ long debate between pro- and anti @-@ rationalisation groups . Sudirman served as a rallying point and driving force for soldiers , including numerous older commanders , who were against the programme . Sudirman was formally reinstated on 1 June 1946 , upon which he effectively rescinded the command to rationalise . He chose Colonel Abdul Haris Nasution as his deputy , but remained a lieutenant general .
As the rationalisation programme was winding down , Sjarifuddin began gathering soldiers from the Socialist Party , Communist Party , and members of the All Indonesia Centre of Labour Organizations for a would @-@ be proletarian revolution in Madiun , East Java , which occurred on 18 September 1948 . Sudirman , ill at the time , sent Nasution to deal with the revolution ; Sudirman also sent two other officers as peace feelers before the attacks . Although the revolutionary leader Muso was amenable to peace , Nasution and his soldiers had quashed the uprising by 30 September . Sudirman visited Madiun not long after the battle , later telling his wife that he had been unable to sleep there for all the bloodshed .
This rebellion , and ongoing political instability , sapped Sudirman of much of his remaining strength . On 5 October 1948 , after celebrations of the military 's third anniversary , Sudirman collapsed . After being examined by numerous doctors , he was diagnosed with tuberculosis . At the end of the month he was brought to Panti Rapih Hospital and had his right lung collapsed , in hope that it would stop the spread of the disease . During his time at the hospital , he delegated most of his duties to Nasution . However , the two continued to discuss plans for the war against the Dutch , and Sudirman continued to receive status reports . They agreed that guerrilla warfare , which had been applied on raids into Dutch @-@ held territory since May , would be best suited for their needs ; towards this goal , Sudirman issued a general order on 11 November , with Nasution handling most of the preparations . Sudirman was released from the hospital on 28 November 1948 .
Although he continued to issue orders , Sudirman only returned to active duty on 17 December ; in light of the growing tension between the Dutch and Indonesian forces , he ordered the TNI soldiers to maintain an increased level of awareness ; he also ordered large @-@ scale military exercises as a in an unsuccessful attempt to convince the Dutch that the TNI was too strong to attack . Two days later , after a nighttime announcement that they were no longer bound by the Renville Agreement , on 19 December the Dutch launched Operation Kraai , an attempt to capture the capital at Yogyakarta . By 07 : 10 local time ( UTC + 7 ) , the airfield at Maguwo had been taken by paratroopers under the command of Captain Eekhout . Sudirman , upon becoming aware of the attack , had an order read over RRI which stated that soldiers should fight as they had been trained – as guerrillas .
He then went to the Presidential Palace in central Yogyakarta , where the government leaders were discussing an ultimatum which stated that the city would be stormed unless the leadership accepted colonial rule . Sudirman urged that the president and vice @-@ president leave the city and fight as guerrillas , actions they had previously promised , but this suggestion was rejected . Although his doctors forbade it , Sudirman received permission from Sukarno to join his men . The central government evacuated to the Kraton Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat at the urging of Sultan Hamengkubuwana IX , but were captured and exiled .
= = = Guerrilla warfare = = =
Sudirman first went to his official home and gathered sensitive documents , which he burned to prevent them falling into Dutch hands . His convoy , consisting of Sudirman , a small group of soldiers , and his personal doctor , then made their way south , towards Kretek , Parangtritis , Bantul . There they were received by the district head at 18 : 00 . After several days in Kretek , during which time Sudirman sent undercover troops into the Dutch @-@ occupied city for reconnaissance and to ask his wife for jewellery to sell and help fund the guerrilla movement , he and his group travelled east along the south coast to Wonogiri . Before the Dutch attack it had already been decided that Sudirman would be able to better control the guerrillas from eastern Java , where there were still several bases . Meanwhile , Alfiah and the children were ordered to stay in the Kraton . Aware that he was being pursued by the Dutch , on 23 December Sudirman ordered his troops to continue to Ponorogo , where they stopped at the home of Mahfuz , a kyai and Islamic religious leader ; Mahfuz gave the general a cane to help him walk , although Sudirman was , and continued to be , carried on a litter . They then continued east .
Outside of Trenggalek , Sudirman and his group were stopped by TNI soldiers belonging to 102 Battalion . These soldiers , who were told that Sudirman – who was in civilian clothes and unrecognised by the troops holding them – was a prisoner , refused to allow the group to pass ; they were suspicious as Sudirman 's convoy carried maps and notes on Indonesian military movements , things which may have belonged to spies . When the group 's commander , Major Zainal Fanani , came to check the situation , he realised that Sudirman was with them and apologised . Told that his men were right to guard their areas diligently , Fanani called a post in Kediri and ordered that a car be sent to pick up the general and his troops . After a time in Kediri , they continued further east ; as they left the city on 24 December , Dutch planes attacked Kediri .
The constant Dutch attacks led Sudirman , perhaps at the suggestion of one of his men , to change his clothes and give his old outfit to one of his soldiers , Second Lieutenant Heru Kesser – who bore a resemblance to Sudirman . Kesser was ordered to head south with a large company of soldiers , remove the clothes , and furtively return north , while Sudirman waited in Karangnongko . The diversion was successful , and on 27 December Sudirman and his men made their way to Jambu Village . Arriving on 9 January 1949 , Sudirman met with several government ministers who had not been present during the Dutch attack on Yogyakarta : Supeno , Susanto Tirtoprojo , and Susilowati . With the politicians , Sudirman made his way to Banyutuwo , ordering some of his soldiers to linger back and hold off Dutch ground troops . In Banyutuwo , they held for over a week . However , on 21 January , when Dutch forces approached the village , Sudirman and his entourage were forced to leave , fighting their way out in heavy rain .
Sudirman and his troops continued to make their way through the jungles and forests , eventually arriving at Sobo , near Mount Lawu , on 18 February . During the journey , Sudirman used a radio set to convey orders to local TNI troops if he believed that the region was secure . Feeling weaker because of the physical hardships he had faced , including travelling through the forests and a lack of food , and believing the area to be safe , Sudirman decided that Sobo would serve as his guerrilla headquarters . The local commander , Lieutenant Colonel Wiliater Hutagalung , served as his go @-@ between with the other TNI leaders . Aware that international opinion , which was beginning to condemn Dutch actions in Indonesia , could bring Indonesia greater recognition , Sudirman and Hutagalung discussed possible terms of action , before agreeing on a large @-@ scale assault . Meanwhile , the Dutch began to spread propaganda claiming that they had captured Sudirman ; this claim was intended to break the morale of the guerrillas .
Sudirman ordered Hutagalung to begin planning a full @-@ scale assault , in which TNI soldiers – in uniform – would attack the Dutch and show their strength in front of foreign reporters and United Nations investigative teams . Hutagalung , together with officers under his commander Colonel Bambang Sugeng and government officials under Governor Wongsonegoro , spent several days discussing ways to ensure the attack could be successful . The discussion may have resulted in the General Offensive of 1 March 1949 , which saw TNI soldiers attack Dutch outposts throughout central Java . Troops under Lieutenant Colonel Suharto retook Yogyakarta for six hours before withdrawing , a successful show of force which caused the Dutch to lose face internationally ; they had previously declared the TNI eradicated . However , who truly ordered the offensive remains uncertain : Suharto and Hamengkubuwana IX claimed responsibility , while Bambang Sugeng 's brother reportedly overheard him ordering the assault .
Under increased pressure from the United Nations , on 7 May 1949 Dutch – Indonesian negotiations resulted in the Roem @-@ Royen Agreement , a controversial measure which guaranteed Dutch withdrawal from Yogyakarta , among other points ; The Dutch withdrawal commenced in late June , and the Indonesian leadership began returning to Yogyakarta from exile in early July . Sukarno ordered Sudirman to return to Yogyakarta as well , but Sudirman refused to let the Dutch withdraw without a fight ; he considered the TNI to now be strong enough to defeat the dispirited Dutch . Although he was promised medicine and support in Yogyakarta , Sudirman refused to return to the political leadership , whom he considered acquiescent to the Dutch . He only agreed to return after receiving a letter , although sources disagree on its sender . On 10 July , Sudirman and his group returned to Yogyakarta , where they were greeted by thousands of civilians and warmly received by the political elite there . The reporter Rosihan Anwar , who was present when the letter was delivered , wrote in 1973 that " Sudirman had to return to Yogyakarta to avoid any perceptions of a rift among the republic 's top leaders " .
= = Post @-@ war and death = =
In early August Sudirman approached Sukarno and asked him to continue the guerrilla war ; Sudirman did not expect the Dutch to abide by the Roem @-@ Royen Agreement , based on the failings of the previous agreements . Sukarno disagreed , which was a blow to Sudirman . When Sudirman threatened to resign his post , blaming the government 's inconsistency for his tuberculosis and Oerip 's death in November 1948 , Sukarno threatened to do so as well . As he thought that such a resignation would have a destabilising effect , Sudirman stayed his hand , and a Java @-@ wide cease fire came into effect on 11 August 1949 .
Continuing to suffer from tuberculosis , Sudirman was checked into Panti Rapih hospital , where he stayed until October , when he was transferred to a sanatorium in nearby Pakem . As a result of his illness , Sudirman made few public appearances . Sudirman was transferred to a home in Magelang in December . In the meantime , the Indonesian and Dutch governments held a several @-@ month @-@ long conference which resulted in Dutch recognition of Indonesian sovereignty on 27 December 1949 . Sudirman , despite his illness , was reconfirmed that day as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the TNI , now serving the newly established Republic of the United States of Indonesia . On 28 December , Jakarta once again became the nation 's capital .
Sudirman died in Magelang at 18 : 30 on 29 January 1950 ; this was reported in a special broadcast over RRI . Upon receiving news of his death , the Sudirman family home received numerous visitors , including the entirety of the 9th Brigade , which was stationed nearby . The following morning Sudirman 's body was brought to Yogyakarta . As the funeral convoy passed , led by four tanks and consisting of eighty motor vehicles , thousands of mourners stood at the sides of the streets . The convoy was organised by members of the 9th Brigade .
The viewing , held at the Great Mosque of Yogyakarta in the afternoon , was attended by numerous political and military elite from both Indonesia and foreign countries ; this included Prime Minister Abdul Halim , Minister of Defence Hamengkubuwana IX , Minister of Health Johannes Leimena , Minister of Justice Abdoel Gaffar Pringgodigdo , Minister of Information Arnold Mononutu , Chief of the Air Force Soerjadi Soerjadarma , Colonel Paku Alam VIII , and Suharto . The viewing was closed with a 24 @-@ gun salute . Sudirman 's body was brought to Semaki Heroes ' Cemetery on foot , with a crowd of mourners 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) long trailing behind . He was interred next to Oerip , after another gun salute . His wife filled in the first scoop of dirt , followed by the government ministers . The national government ordered flags to be flown at half @-@ mast throughout the country , and Sudirman was promoted to full general . Major @-@ General Tahi Bonar Simatupang was selected as the new leader of the armed forces . Sudirman 's memoirs were published later that year ; a series of his speeches were also published in 1970 .
= = Legacy = =
An obituary in the Yogyakarta @-@ based daily Kedaulatan Rakjat wrote that Indonesia had lost a " brave and true hero " . Colonel Paku Alam VIII , in charge of the Yogyakarta area , told the national news agency Antara that all Indonesians , especially the armed forces , had " lost a father figure who did uncountable deeds for his country " . The Indonesian Muslim leader Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah , writing soon after Sudirman 's death , described the general as a " symbol of the strength of spirit shown by Indonesian heroes , " while the Muslim politician Muhammad Isa Anshary described Sudirman as a " son of the revolution , as he was born in the revolution , and raised by the revolution . " In a radio speech , Hatta described Sudirman as impossible to control and hard @-@ headed , but ultimately intent on doing what was right for the country ; Hatta noted that , although Sudirman often did not like the government 's position , he would generally obey his orders . However , Hamengkubuwana IX noted that KNIL trained soldiers such as Abdul Haris Nasution and Tahi Bonar Simatupang were disappointed in Sudirman because of his background and poor knowledge of military techniques .
Modern opinions in Indonesia tend to be laudatory . Sardiman , a professor of history at Yogyakarta State University , writes that Sudirman was as lively a speaker as Sukarno , who was known for his fiery speeches , and a devoted , incorruptible leader . The Indonesian historian and former Minister of Education and Culture Nugroho Notosusanto described Sudirman as " his only idol " , citing the general 's guerrilla period as the origin of the army 's esprit de corps . The general 's guerrilla campaign is emphasised in biographies of him because , during that period , the army had a greater role than the exiled political leadership ; beginning in the 1970s , all military cadets had to retrace the 100 @-@ kilometre ( 62 mi ) long route prior to graduation , a " pilgrimage " meant to instill a sense of struggle . Sudirman 's grave is also a pilgrimage destination , both for the military and general public . According to Katharine McGregor of the University of Melbourne , the Indonesian military has elevated Sudirman to a saint @-@ like status .
Sudirman received numerous awards from the national government posthumously , including the Bintang Sakti , Bintang Gerilya , Bintang Mahaputera Adipurna , Bintang Mahaputera Pratama , Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipurna , and Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipradana . On 10 December 1964 Sudirman was declared a National Hero of Indonesia by Presidential Decree 314 of 1964 . Oerip was declared a National Hero by the same decree . He was promoted to General of the Army in 1997 .
According to McGregor , the military increasingly used Sudirman 's image as a symbol of leadership as it gained more political power . An image of Sudirman was featured on every denomination of the 1968 series of rupiah . He featured as a major character in several war films , including Janur Kuning ( Yellow Coconut Leaf ; 1979 ) and Serangan Fajar ( Dawn Attack ; 1982 ) .
Numerous museums have been dedicated to Sudirman . His childhood home in Purbalingga is now the Sudirman Museum , while his official home in Yogyakarta is now the Sasmitaloka Museum to General Sudirman . The house in Magelang where he died is also now the Sudirman Museum , established on 18 May 1967 and containing artefacts belonging to the general . Other museums , including the Monument Yogya Kembali in Yogyakarta and the Satriamandala Museum in Jakarta have rooms dedicated to him . Numerous streets are named after Sudirman , including a major street in Jakarta ; McGregor states that nearly every city in the country has a General Sudirman Street . Statues and monuments to him are spread throughout the archipelago , most of which were built after 1970 . Jenderal Soedirman University in Banyumas , established in 1963 , is named after him .
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