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= U @-@ Drop Inn =
The U @-@ Drop Inn , also known as Tower Station and U @-@ Drop Inn and Tower Café , was built in 1936 in Shamrock , Texas along the historic Route 66 highway . Inspired by the image of a nail stuck in soil , the building was designed by J. C. Berry . An unusual example of art deco architecture applied to a gas station and restaurant , the building features two flared towers with geometric detailing , curvilinear massing , glazed ceramic tile walls , and neon light accents . It has traditionally held two separate business : " Tower Station " , a gas station on the western side , and the " U @-@ Drop Inn " , a café on the eastern side . Though it has passed hands several times in its history , the building has consistently housed the same types of businesses it was originally constructed for .
Once considered a beautiful and impressive example of Route 66 architecture in Texas , the U @-@ Drop Inn fell into disrepair with the decommissioning of Route 66 . It closed for business in the late 1990s . After it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in September 1997 , the building was purchased by the First National Bank of Shamrock , which then gave it to the city . Primarily funded by a US $ 1 @.@ 7 million federal grant , the city hired a firm specializing in historical renovation to restore the building to its original glory and adapt it into a museum , visitors ' center , gift shop , and the city 's chamber of commerce . In 2006 animated film Cars , the cartoon village of Radiator Springs was based on multiple real U.S. Route 66 landmarks from Peach Springs to Baxter Springs ; the U @-@ Drop Inn 's distinctive architecture appears as Ramone 's automotive body and paint shop .
On St. Patrick 's Day 2014 , a Tesla high power electric vehicle charging station , known commonly as a supercharger , was opened on site .
= = History = =
= = = Early days = = =
Opened on April 1 , 1936 , the U @-@ Drop Inn was built by J.M. Tindall using a design created by his friend , John Nunn , who scratched the design on a patch of dirt in the driveway of a nearby motel . Tindall had Pampa architect J.C. Berry draw up the blueprints for the art deco structure , and construction began at the busy intersection of Route 66 and U.S. Route 83 . Nunn , whose family owned and ran the business , sponsored a contest to decide the name of the new building . An eight @-@ year @-@ old boy won a week 's worth of waitressing pay ( approximately $ 50 @.@ 00 at the time ) with his entry of " U @-@ Drop Inn " . In addition to a café , the building housed a gas station that sold Conoco brand fuel and a store . The store was never actually opened as a store , and became a ballroom and overflow dining area for the café .
When the business opened , the local newspaper called it " the most up @-@ to @-@ date edifice of its kind on U.S. Highway 66 between Oklahoma City and Amarillo " , with the café considered " the swankiest of the swank eating places " . At the time of opening , the U @-@ Drop was the only café within 100 miles ( 160 km ) of Shamrock , enjoying brisk business and becoming a successful establishment . Nunn sold the Inn after several years , but purchased it back in 1950 and renamed it Nunn 's Café . In 1957 , John Nunn died and his wife Bebe sold the café to Grace Brunner who again renamed it , this time to Tower Café , and added a Greyhound bus station .
= = = Decline = = =
After Nunn 's death , the building passed through the hands of a few more owners and the station sold gasoline from various other companies . In the 1970s , Fina took over the building , painting it red , white , and blue . In the early 1980s , James R. Tindall , Sr. purchased the building , the construction of which his father had originally financed , repainted it to its original colors , and changed the name back to the original name of U @-@ Drop Inn . In the mid @-@ 1990s , the building was repossessed by the bank and closed completely in 1997 . Up through its closing , the café at the U @-@ Drop was praised for its low @-@ priced and tasty " home cooking " .
With signing of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 , Route 66 fell into decline , with segments being bypassed via turnpikes and newer highways . With the opening of Interstate 40 , Shamrock became one of the bypassed towns and the U @-@ Drop Inn , which once served thousands of travelers fell into disrepair due to neglect . In 1984 , Route 66 was decommissioned by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials , seeming to seal the fate of the town and the U @-@ Drop Inn . In 1990 , several state and local historical associations began efforts to preserve the architectural landmarks along the old route , particularly the many derelict or abandoned motels .
= = = Restoration = = =
Called " one of the most impressive examples " of Route 66 architecture by the Texas Historical Commission , the U @-@ Drop Inn was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 18 , 1997 . In May 1999 , the First National Bank of Shamrock purchased the U @-@ Drop Inn , then gave it to the city of Shamrock .
The city of Shamrock began taking measures to revive the neglected structure as a tourist attraction . In 2000 , the city hired Phillips Swager Associates of Dallas and Architexas , a firm specializing in historical preservation , to begin implementing a phased restoration plan .
The company adapted the old gas station and café to act as the community 's chamber of commerce and visitor center while preserving the building 's architectural features and historical authenticity . Old photographs and interviews with residents were used to aid the company in uncovering the buildings original details . They peeled away decades of paint layers and fabric to find the original interior and exterior colors . One of the more difficult aspects was in restoring the neon accents . While historical photographs showed where neon existed , they had all been taken during the daytime when the neon lights were off , making it difficult to determine what color the lights originally were .
The restoration also included turning the building into a museum of its own history , giving it the authentic appearance of a working 1940 gas station . With $ 1 @.@ 7 million in funding by the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century , the restoration was completed in July 2003 .
In May 2013 , the neon lighting of the restored U @-@ Drop Inn was damaged by a hailstorm ; the damaged elements were replaced by LEDs in February 2014 . The café will serve fountain drinks , coffee and floats in 2014 after many years with no food or beverage service .
= = Architecture = =
With its glazed brick , " zigzag " motif , strong vertical elements , and the decorative structure , particularly the metal " tulip " , the building is considered to be an excellent example of the Art Deco style . Art Deco was most commonly seen in large commercial and public buildings , so its use in a gas station and roadside restaurant was a rare sight . The U @-@ Drop is one of the few Art Deco cafés built in the 1930s , and it stands out architecturally from its peers , as most depression @-@ era cafés had simpler and similar wood @-@ frame and clapboard designs or followed the Streamline Moderne offshoot of Art Deco .
The original building was designed by John Nunn and architect J. C. Berry . The 1 @-@ story concrete and brick building has a modified rectangular layout with a flat roof . It features a flared tower over the gas station , and two canopies , one facing Route 66 and one facing Highway 83 over the front of the gas station office . In the rear , a second , shorter tower contained the restaurant . The main buildings were built of structural clay tile with terra @-@ cotta glazed brick . The two towers are clad in stucco with decorative green and gold glazed terra @-@ cotta tiles and cast concrete stepped forms . Designed to attract the attention of the passing motorists , the towers also feature geometric detailing , curvilinear massing , and are outlined with neon lighting added additional character and uniqueness to the building 's design .
Historically , the U @-@ Drop Inn held two separate businesses that shared a single interior wall . The west side , commonly called " Tower Station " " is dominated by a large four @-@ sided obelisk rising from the flat roof and topped by a metal " tulip " . " The tower displayed the station name , Conoco , in all capital letters on each side , with neon lighting on the corners . Vertical @-@ rubbed detailing goes along the base of both towers , as well as two canopies that extend south and west from the western tower . The posts of the canopies were originally encased in decorative glazed tile and vintage metal signs . Between the canopy posts are fuel islands designed to hold three fuel pumps each . 1960s @-@ vintage pumps are situated on the islands , with three on the western canopy and two on the southern . A chamfered corner separates the two canopies . Multiple @-@ pane windows surround the glass doors of the office station , as well as dominating much of the southern side of the building . Situated between the office and the café are two service station bays with roll @-@ up style overhead doors .
The east side of the building , commonly called the " U @-@ Drop Inn café " has a similarly designed , three @-@ sided , shorter version of the main tower . Mirroring the " Conoco " wording , it has " Café " written in the same green paint with drop shadowed lettering , and a small ornamental metal sphere perched at its top . Just below the tower , an outstretched metal and wooden sign , added in 1950 , displays the name of the building and points towards the recessed entrance . This side mirrors the tiled detail found in the station side , and once had a neon " starburst " around the sign and entryway . Inside the café , the eastern and southern interior walls are lined with booths . The northern wall holds two small restrooms , with the kitchen once located in the northeastern corner . On the southern wall , a recessed doorway flanked by large single @-@ paned windows led into the café 's main dining room . The building 's exterior is pained beige with dark green accents . On the northern facade , the original brick remains unpainted .
= = In popular culture = =
The 2006 Pixar computer @-@ animated film Cars is set in the cartoon village of Radiator Springs , which was created as a composite of real landmarks and personalities encountered by Pixar artists on multiple research trips on 1 @,@ 200 miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) of the former U.S. Route 66 . Among the buildings and structures based on Route 66 landmarks is a version of Tower Station . U @-@ Drop Inn 's unique design and architecture is portrayed as an automotive body shop owned by the character Ramone , a Chevrolet Impala lowrider .
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= They Don 't Care About Us =
" They Don 't Care About Us " is the fourth single from Michael Jackson 's album HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , released on March 31 , 1996 . The song remains one of the most controversial pieces Jackson ever composed . In the US , media scrutiny surrounding allegations of antisemitic lyrics were the catalyst for Jackson issuing multiple apologies and re @-@ recording the song with altered lyrics . The singer countered allegations of antisemitism , arguing that reviews had misinterpreted the context of the song , either unintentionally or deliberately . The song was also covered by Christian alternative metal band P.O.D. in 1998 as a bonus track on the special edition version of their album , The Fundamental Elements of Southtown . The album contains an uncensored version of the song . Christian stores removed the album when the special edition came out because of the controversial lyrics including " Jew me " and " Kike me . "
The song was accompanied by two music videos directed by Spike Lee . The first was shot in two locations in Brazil , in Pelourinho , the historic city centre of Salvador , and in a favela of Rio de Janeiro called Dona Marta , where the state authorities had tried to ban all production over fears the video would damage their image , the area and prospects of Rio de Janeiro staging the 2004 Olympics . Still , the residents of the area were happy to see the singer , hoping their problems would be made visible to a wider audience . The second video was shot in a prison and contained video footage of multiple references to human rights abuses .
Commercially , the song became a top ten hit in all European countries and number one in Germany for three weeks . In the US , radio stations were reluctant to play the controversial composition ; it , however , managed to peak at number 30 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
The song was remixed with parts of songs such as " Privacy " ( from the album Invincible ) and " Tabloid Junkie " , and released on the Immortal album , in November , 2011 .
The song was performed during Jackson 's third and final concert series , the HIStory World Tour which ran from 1996 to 1997 as part of a medley with " Scream " and " In the Closet " . The song was set to be performed on Jackson 's This Is It comeback concert series at The O2 Arena in London from July 2009 to March 2010 but the shows were ultimately cancelled due to his sudden death on June 25 , 2009 .
= = Music and other commentary = =
The song begins with a child chanting , " Enough is enough of this garbage ! " and someone else helps sing the chorus — " All I wanna say is that they don 't really care about us " . According to the sheet music published on Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing " They Don 't Care About Us " is played in the key of D minor and the track 's time signature is common time . The song , which is cited as being a pop song , has a moderately slow tempo of 88 beats per minute . Instruments used include a piano and guitar . Jon Pareles stated that Jackson was calling himself " a victim of police brutality " and a " victim of hate " . He continued , " A listener might wonder just who ' Us ' is supposed to be ... To make the songs lodge in the ear , Jackson uses elementary singsong melodies – a ' nyah , nyah ' two @-@ note motif in ' They Don 't Care About Us ' ... and he comes up with all kinds of surprises in the arrangements " .
James Hunter of Rolling Stone magazine noted that musically , Jackson was no longer trying to hide any eccentricities he had , he expressed the opinion that in " They Don 't Care About Us " , the pop musician sounded more embattled than ever . Jim Farber of New York Daily News said that Jackson " snarled " while singing , that the song " clicked " and has an " original clattering rhythm " . The review of HIStory in The Washington Times noted of " They Don 't Care About Us " : " [ it ] follows fast , inviting more pathos – and more controversy . With haunting clapping and a police scanner in the background " . The Sacramento Bee described it as a " looped reggae @-@ lite dance beat " .
The song gained renewed attention and relevance due to its use during Black Lives Matter protests in 2014 and 2015 .
= = Chart performance = =
In the UK , it peaked at number four and stayed on the chart for three months . The song found particular success in Europe , peaking within the top ten in all countries . European highlights came in Austria , Switzerland , France , Belgium and Sweden , in these countries the song became a top five hit and stayed in their respective charts for a minimum of 21 weeks . The song reached the top of the charts for three weeks in Germany and stayed a full 30 weeks in the survey . It is the longest consecutive chart run of a Michael Jackson song in the German charts . The lyrical controversy surrounding " They Don 't Care About Us " brought partial commercial disappointment in the US ; radio stations were reluctant to play the song . It peaked at number 30 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , falling short of the record breaking success of the two previous singles " Scream / Childhood " and " You Are Not Alone " , yet the song peaked at number 10 on the US Billboard Hot R & B Singles chart .
= = Music videos = =
Producing the first video proved to be a difficult task for Jackson . State authorities unsuccessfully tried to ban the singer filming in Salvador ( Pelourinho ) and in Rio de Janeiro . Officials in the state of Rio feared images of poverty might affect tourism and accused Jackson of exploiting the poor . Ronaldo Cezar Coelho , the state secretary for Industry , Commerce and Tourism demanded editing rights over the finished product , stating , " I don 't see why we should have to facilitate films that will contribute nothing to all our efforts to rehabilitate Rio 's image " . Some were concerned that scenes of poverty and human rights abuses would affect their chances of hosting the Olympics in 2004 . Others supported Jackson 's wish to highlight the problems of the region , arguing that the government were embarrassed by their own failings .
A judge banned all filming but this ruling was overturned by an injunction . Although officials were angry , the residents were not and Jackson was surrounded by crowds of enthusiastic onlookers during filming . One woman managed to push through security to hug Jackson who continued dancing while hugging her . Another woman appeared and hugged him from behind . He then fell to the ground as police pulled the two women off him and escorted them away . After the director helped Jackson get up off the street , he continued to sing and dance . This incident made it into the music video . 1 @,@ 500 policemen and 50 residents acting as security guards effectively sealed off the Dona Marta favela . Some residents and officials found it offensive that Jackson 's production team had negotiated with drug dealers in order to gain permission to film in one of the city 's shantytowns .
The music video was directed by Spike Lee . Asked why he chose Lee to direct the video , Jackson responded , " ' They Don 't Care About Us ' has an edge , and Spike Lee had approached me . It 's a public awareness song and that 's what he is all about . It 's a protest kind of song ... and I think he was perfect for it " .
Jackson also collaborated with 200 members of the cultural group Olodum , who " swayed to the heavy beat of Salvador 's ' samba @-@ reggae ' music " . The media interest surrounding the music video exposed Olodum to 140 countries around the world . It brought them worldwide fame and increased their credibility in Brazil . At the beginning of the video , a Brazilian woman says " Michael , eles não ligam pra gente " which means " Michael , they don 't care about us " .
Speaking of the music video , in The New Brazilian Cinema , Lúcia Nagib observed :
When Michael Jackson decided to shoot his new music video in a favela of Rio de Janeiro ... he used the favela people as extras in a visual super @-@ spectacle ... All the while there is a vaguely political appeal in there ... The interesting aspect of Michael Jackson 's strategy is the efficiency with which it gives visibility to poverty and social problems in countries like Brazil without resorting to traditional political discourse . The problematic aspect is that it does not entail a real intervention in that poverty .
In 2009 , Billboard described the area as " now a model for social development " and claimed that Jackson 's influence was partially responsible for this improvement .
For the first time in his career , Jackson made a second music video for a single . This second version was filmed in a prison with cell mates ; in the video Jackson is seen handcuffed . It also contains real footage of police attacking African Americans , the military crackdown of the protest in the Tiananmen Square , the Ku Klux Klan , war crimes , genocide , execution , martial law , and other human rights abuses .
The first music video of the song appears on the box set Visionary : The Video Singles , and the video albums HIStory on Film , Volume II and Vision ; the latter additionally includes the prison version .
The voice intro , " Michael , Michael , eles não ligam pra gente " ( portuguese for " they don 't care about us " ) , was recorded by Angélica Vieira , producer of Manhattan Connection .
= = Cover versions = =
In 2009 , Northern Kings covered the song as bonus track for on their 2008 album Rethroned .
In 2012 , Italian jazz trumpeter Enrico Rava released a version on his tribute album Rava on the Dance Floor .
In 2014 , 2Cellos released a cover of the song on their album Celloverse .
In 2014 , a Nigerian , King A @-@ Maz , used the song to protest the Nigerian government 's nonchalance concerning the Boko Haram carnage going on at that time . The single was uploaded to YouTube , along with amateur footage , which caused a lot of controversy due to the newspaper clippings used in the footage .
The Tupac Shakur album entitled Better Dayz ( 2002 ) features a song named " They Don 't Give a Fuck About Us " . With different lyrics , the song contained a similar theme and musical composition style . Tupac discusses the trials and tribulations of the black and working class communities , referring to " they " as the middle class , media , U.S. that did not understand him .
= = 2009 rehearsal footage = =
A short video clip released after Jackson 's death of the June 23 , 2009 rehearsal for the This Is It concert series shows Jackson performing the song as the main song in a medley with parts of " HIStory " song as well as " Why You Wanna Trip On Me " and " She Drives Me Wild " from Dangerous .
= = Dispute regarding lyrics and context = =
The New York Times reported the song contained racist and anti @-@ Semitic content on June 15 , 1995 , just a day before the album 's release . The publication highlighted the lyrics , " Jew me , sue me , everybody do me / Kick me , kike me , don 't you black or white me . " Jackson responded directly to the publication , stating :
When questioned further about the lyrics on the ABC News program Prime Time Live , Jackson stated , " It 's not anti @-@ Semitic because I 'm not a racist person ... I could never be a racist . I love all races . " The singer also claimed that some of his closest employees and friends were Jewish . That same day , Jackson received support from his manager and record label , who described the lyrics as " brilliant " , that they were about opposition to prejudice and taken out of context . The following day , two leading members of the Jewish community stated that Jackson 's attempt to make a song critical of discrimination had backfired . They expressed the opinion that the lyrics used were unsuitable for a teenage audience that might not understand the song 's context , adding that the song was too ambiguous for some listeners to understand . They accepted that Jackson meant well and suggested that the entertainer write an explanation in the album booklet .
On June 17 , Jackson issued another public apology for his choice of words . He promised that future copies of the album would include an apology . By this point , however , two million copies of the record had already been shipped . The singer concluded , " I just want you all to know how strongly I am committed to tolerance , peace and love , and I apologize to anyone who might have been hurt . " The next day , in his review of HIStory , Jon Pareles of The New York Times alleged , " In ... ' They Don 't Care About Us ' , he gives the lie to his entire catalogue of brotherhood anthems with a burst of anti @-@ Semitism . "
On June 21 , Patrick Macdonald of The Seattle Times criticized Jackson , stating , " He may have lived a sheltered life , but there really is no excuse for using terms like ' Jew me ' and ' kike ' in a pop song , unless you make it clear you are denouncing such terms , and do so in an artful way . " Two days later , Jackson decided , despite the cost incurred , he would return to the studio and alter the offending wording on future copies of the album ; " Jew me " and " Kike me " would be substituted with " do me " and " strike me " . The music video and some copies of the album still carry the original words , but with loud , abstract noises partially drowning them out . He reiterated his acceptance that the song was offensive to some . Spike Lee claimed there was some kind of double standard in the music industry . " While the New York Times asserted the use of racial slurs in " They Don 't Care About Us " , they were silent on other racial slurs in the album . The Notorious B.I.G. says " nigga " on " This Time Around , " another song on the HIStory album , but it did not attract media attention , as well as , many years before , use in lyrics of word " nigger " by John Lennon .
= = Charts = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
= = Track listing = =
= = = U.S. and Japan maxi single = = =
= = = U.S. CD Single = = =
= = = UK single = = =
= = = Visionary single = = =
CD side
" They Don 't Care About Us " ( LP Edit ) – 4 : 10
" They Don 't Care About Us " ( Love to Infinity 's Walk in the Park Mix ) – 7 : 19
DVD side
" They Don 't Care About Us " ( LP Edit ) – 4 : 10
" They Don 't Care About Us " ( Love to Infinity 's Walk in the Park Mix ) – 7 : 19
" They Don 't Care About Us " ( Music Video # 1 – in Brazil with Olodum music group ) ( Video ) – 7 : 09
= = = US 7 " Inch Single : Epic – 34 78264 = = =
" They Don 't Care About Us " - 4 : 43
" Rock With You " ( Frankie Knuckles Radio Mix ) - 3 : 47
= = Personnel = =
Michael Jackson : written by , solo vocals , percussion
Trevor Rabin : guitar ( background )
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= Benzodiazepine =
Benzodiazepines ( BZD , BZs ) , sometimes called " benzos " , are a class of psychoactive drugs whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring . The first such drug , chlordiazepoxide ( Librium ) , was discovered accidentally by Leo Sternbach in 1955 , and made available in 1960 by Hoffmann – La Roche , which , since 1963 , has also marketed the benzodiazepine diazepam ( Valium ) . In 1977 benzodiazepines were globally the most prescribed medications .
Benzodiazepines enhance the effect of the neurotransmitter gamma @-@ aminobutyric acid ( GABA ) at the GABAA receptor , resulting in sedative , hypnotic ( sleep @-@ inducing ) , anxiolytic ( anti @-@ anxiety ) , anticonvulsant , and muscle relaxant properties . High doses of many shorter @-@ acting benzodiazepines may also cause anterograde amnesia and dissociation . These properties make benzodiazepines useful in treating anxiety , insomnia , agitation , seizures , muscle spasms , alcohol withdrawal and as a premedication for medical or dental procedures . Benzodiazepines are categorized as either short- , intermediate- , or long @-@ acting . Short- and intermediate @-@ acting benzodiazepines are preferred for the treatment of insomnia ; longer @-@ acting benzodiazepines are recommended for the treatment of anxiety .
Benzodiazepines are generally viewed as safe and effective for short @-@ term use , although cognitive impairment and paradoxical effects such as aggression or behavioral disinhibition occasionally occur . A minority of people can have paradoxical reactions such as worsened agitation or panic . Long @-@ term use is controversial because of concerns about adverse psychological and physical effects , decreasing effectiveness , and physical dependence and withdrawal . As a result of adverse effects associated with the long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines , withdrawal from benzodiazepines , in general , leads to improved physical and mental health . The elderly are at an increased risk of suffering from both short- and long @-@ term adverse effects , and as a result , all benzodiazepines are listed in the Beers List of inappropriate medications for older adults .
There is controversy concerning the safety of benzodiazepines in pregnancy . While they are not major teratogens , uncertainty remains as to whether they cause cleft palate in a small number of babies and whether neurobehavioural effects occur as a result of prenatal exposure ; they are known to cause withdrawal symptoms in the newborn . Benzodiazepines can be taken in overdoses and can cause dangerous deep unconsciousness . However , they are much less toxic than their predecessors , the barbiturates , and death rarely results when a benzodiazepine is the only drug taken ; however , when combined with other central nervous system ( CNS ) depressants such as ethanol and opioids , the potential for toxicity and fatal overdose increases . Benzodiazepines are commonly misused and taken in combination with other drugs of abuse .
= = Medical uses = =
Benzodiazepines possess sedative , hypnotic , anxiolytic , anticonvulsant , muscle relaxant , and amnesic actions , which are useful in a variety of indications such as alcohol dependence , seizures , anxiety , panic , agitation , and insomnia . Most are administered orally ; however , they can also be given intravenously , intramuscularly , or rectally . In general , benzodiazepines are well @-@ tolerated and are safe and effective drugs in the short term for a wide range of conditions . Tolerance can develop to their effects and there is also a risk of dependence , and upon discontinuation a withdrawal syndrome may occur . These factors , combined with other possible secondary effects after prolonged use such as psychomotor , cognitive , or memory impairments , limit their long @-@ term applicability . The effects of long @-@ term use or misuse include the tendency to cause or worsen cognitive deficits , depression , and anxiety .
= = = Panic disorder = = =
Because of their effectiveness , tolerability , and rapid onset of anxiolytic action , benzodiazepines are frequently used for the treatment of anxiety associated with panic disorder . However , there is disagreement among expert bodies regarding the long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines for panic disorder . The views range from those that hold that benzodiazepines are not effective long @-@ term and that they should be reserved for treatment @-@ resistant cases to that they are as effective in the long term as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors .
The American Psychiatric Association ( APA ) guidelines note that , in general , benzodiazepines are well tolerated , and their use for the initial treatment for panic disorder is strongly supported by numerous controlled trials . APA states that there is insufficient evidence to recommend any of the established panic disorder treatments over another . The choice of treatment between benzodiazepines , SSRIs , serotonin – norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors , tricyclic antidepressants , and psychotherapy should be based on the patient 's history , preference , and other individual characteristics . Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are likely to be the best choice of pharmacotherapy for many patients with panic disorder , but benzodiazepines are also often used , and some studies suggest that these medications are still used with greater frequency than the SSRIs . One advantage of benzodiazepines is that they alleviate the anxiety symptoms much faster than antidepressants , and therefore may be preferred in patients for whom rapid symptom control is critical . However , this advantage is offset by the possibility of developing benzodiazepine dependence . APA does not recommend benzodiazepines for persons with depressive symptoms or a recent history of substance abuse . The APA guidelines state that , in general , pharmacotherapy of panic disorder should be continued for at least a year , and that clinical experience support continuing benzodiazepine treatment to prevent recurrence . Although major concerns about benzodiazepine tolerance and withdrawal have been raised , there is no evidence for significant dose escalation in patients using benzodiazepines long @-@ term . For many such patients stable doses of benzodiazepines retain their efficacy over several years .
Guidelines issued by the UK @-@ based National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence ( NICE ) , carried out a systematic review using different methodology and came to a different conclusion . They questioned the accuracy of studies that were not placebo @-@ controlled . And , based on the findings of placebo @-@ controlled studies , they do not recommend use of benzodiazepines beyond two to four weeks , as tolerance and physical dependence develop rapidly , with withdrawal symptoms including rebound anxiety occurring after six weeks or more of use . Nevertheless , benzodiazepines continue to be prescribed for the long @-@ term treatment of anxiety disorders , although specific antidepressants and psychological therapies are recommended as the first @-@ line treatment options with the anticonvulsant drug pregabalin indicated as a second- or third @-@ line treatment and suitable for long @-@ term use . NICE stated that long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines for panic disorder with or without agoraphobia is an unlicensed indication , does not have long @-@ term efficacy , and is , therefore , not recommended by clinical guidelines . Psychological therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy are recommended as a first @-@ line therapy for panic disorder ; benzodiazepine use has been found to interfere with therapeutic gains from these therapies .
Benzodiazepines are usually administered orally ; however , very occasionally lorazepam or diazepam may be given intravenously for the treatment of panic attacks .
= = = Generalized anxiety disorder = = =
Benzodiazepines have robust efficacy in the short @-@ term management of generalized anxiety disorder ( GAD ) , but were not shown to be effective in producing long @-@ term improvement overall . According to National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence ( NICE ) , benzodiazepines can be used in the immediate management of GAD , if necessary . However , they should not usually be given for longer than 2 – 4 weeks . The only medications NICE recommends for the longer term management of GAD are antidepressants .
Likewise , Canadian Psychiatric Association ( CPA ) recommends benzodiazepines alprazolam , bromazepam , lorazepam , and diazepam only as a second @-@ line choice , if the treatment with two different antidepressants was unsuccessful . Although they are second @-@ line agents , benzodiazepines can be used for a limited time to relieve severe anxiety and agitation . CPA guidelines note that after 4 – 6 weeks the effect of benzodiazepines may decrease to the level of placebo , and that benzodiazepines are less effective than antidepressants in alleviating ruminative worry , the core symptom of GAD . However , in some cases , a prolonged treatment with benzodiazepines as the add @-@ on to an antidepressant may be justified .
A 2015 review found a larger effect with medications than talk therapy . Medications with benefit include serotonin @-@ noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors , benzodiazepines , and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors .
= = = Insomnia = = =
Benzodiazepines can be useful for short @-@ term treatment of insomnia . Their use beyond 2 to 4 weeks is not recommended due to the risk of dependence . It is preferred that benzodiazepines be taken intermittently and at the lowest effective dose . They improve sleep @-@ related problems by shortening the time spent in bed before falling asleep , prolonging the sleep time , and , in general , reducing wakefulness . However , they worsen sleep quality by increasing light sleep and decreasing deep sleep . Other drawbacks of hypnotics , including benzodiazepines , are possible tolerance to their effects , rebound insomnia , and reduced slow @-@ wave sleep and a withdrawal period typified by rebound insomnia and a prolonged period of anxiety and agitation .
The list of benzodiazepines approved for the treatment of insomnia is fairly similar among most countries , but which benzodiazepines are officially designated as first @-@ line hypnotics prescribed for the treatment of insomnia can vary distinctly between countries . Longer @-@ acting benzodiazepines such as nitrazepam and diazepam have residual effects that may persist into the next day and are , in general , not recommended .
Since the release of nonbenzodiazepines in 1992 in response to safety concerns , individuals with insomnia and other sleep disorders have increasingly been prescribed nonbenzodiazepines ( 2 @.@ 3 % in 1993 to 13 @.@ 7 % of Americans in 2010 ) , less often prescribed benzodiazepines ( 23 @.@ 5 % in 1993 to 10 @.@ 8 % in 2010 ) . It is not clear as to whether the new nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics ( Z @-@ drugs ) are better than the short @-@ acting benzodiazepines . The efficacy of these two groups of medications is similar . According to the US Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality , indirect comparison indicates that side @-@ effects from benzodiazepines may be about twice as frequent as from nonbenzodiazepines . Some experts suggest using nonbenzodiazepines preferentially as a first @-@ line long @-@ term treatment of insomnia . However , the UK National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence did not find any convincing evidence in favor of Z @-@ drugs . NICE review pointed out that short @-@ acting Z @-@ drugs were inappropriately compared in clinical trials with long @-@ acting benzodiazepines . There have been no trials comparing short @-@ acting Z @-@ drugs with appropriate doses of short @-@ acting benzodiazepines . Based on this , NICE recommended choosing the hypnotic based on cost and the patient 's preference .
Older adults should not use benzodiazepines to treat insomnia unless other treatments have failed to be effective . When benzodiazepines are used , patients , their caretakers , and their physician should discuss the increased risk of harms , including evidence which shows twice the incidence of traffic collisions among driving patients as well as falls and hip fracture for all older patients .
= = = Seizures = = =
Prolonged convulsive epileptic seizures are a medical emergency that can usually be dealt with effectively by administering fast @-@ acting benzodiazepines , which are potent anticonvulsants . In a hospital environment , intravenous clonazepam , lorazepam , and diazepam are first @-@ line choices , clonazepam due to its stronger and more potent anticonvulsant action , diazepam due to its faster onset and lorazepam for its longer duration of action . In the community , intravenous administration is not practical and so rectal diazepam or ( more recently ) buccal midazolam are used , with a preference for midazolam as its administration is easier and more socially acceptable .
When benzodiazepines were first introduced , they were enthusiastically adopted for treating all forms of epilepsy . However , drowsiness and tolerance become problems with continued use and none are now considered first @-@ line choices for long @-@ term epilepsy therapy . Clobazam is widely used by specialist epilepsy clinics worldwide and clonazepam is popular in the Netherlands , Belgium and France . Clobazam was approved for use in the United States in 2011 . In the UK , both clobazam and clonazepam are second @-@ line choices for treating many forms of epilepsy . Clobazam also has a useful role for very short @-@ term seizure prophylaxis and in catamenial epilepsy . Discontinuation after long @-@ term use in epilepsy requires additional caution because of the risks of rebound seizures . Therefore , the dose is slowly tapered over a period of up to six months or longer .
= = = Alcohol withdrawal = = =
Chlordiazepoxide is the most commonly used benzodiazepine for alcohol detoxification , but diazepam may be used as an alternative . Both are used in the detoxification of individuals who are motivated to stop drinking , and are prescribed for a short period of time to reduce the risks of developing tolerance and dependence to the benzodiazepine medication itself . The benzodiazepines with a longer half @-@ life make detoxification more tolerable , and dangerous ( and potentially lethal ) alcohol withdrawal effects are less likely to occur . On the other hand , short @-@ acting benzodiazepines may lead to breakthrough seizures , and are , therefore , not recommended for detoxification in an outpatient setting . Oxazepam and lorazepam are often used in patients at risk of drug accumulation , in particular , the elderly and those with cirrhosis , because they are metabolized differently from other benzodiazepines , through conjugation .
Benzodiazepines are the preferred choice in the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome , in particular , for the prevention and treatment of the dangerous complication of seizures and in subduing severe delirium . Lorazepam is the only benzodiazepine with predictable intramuscular absorption and it is the most effective in preventing and controlling acute seizures .
= = = Anxiety = = =
Benzodiazepines are sometimes used in the treatment of acute anxiety , as they bring about rapid and marked or moderate relief of symptoms in most individuals ; however , they are not recommended beyond 2 – 4 weeks of use due to risks of tolerance and dependence and a lack of long @-@ term effectiveness . As for insomnia , they may also be used on an irregular / " as @-@ needed " basis , such as in cases where said anxiety is at its worst . Compared to other pharmacological treatments , benzodiazepines are twice as likely to lead to a relapse of the underlying condition upon discontinuation . Psychological therapies and other pharmacological therapies are recommended for the long @-@ term treatment of generalized anxiety disorder . Antidepressants have higher remission rates and are , in general , safe and effective in the short and long term .
= = = Other indications = = =
Benzodiazepines are often prescribed for a wide range of conditions :
They can be very useful in intensive care to sedate patients receiving mechanical ventilation or those in extreme distress . Caution is exercised in this situation due to the occasional occurrence of respiratory depression , and it is recommended that benzodiazepine overdose treatment facilities should be available .
Benzodiazepines are effective as medication given a couple of hours before surgery to relieve anxiety . They also produce amnesia , which can be useful , as patients will not be able to remember any unpleasantness from the procedure . They are also used in patients with dental phobia as well as some ophthalmic procedures like refractive surgery ; although such use is controversial and only recommended for those who are very anxious . Midazolam is the most commonly prescribed for this use because of its strong sedative actions and fast recovery time , as well as its water solubility , which reduces pain upon injection . Diazepam and lorazepam are sometimes used . Lorazepam has particularly marked amnesic properties that may make it more effective when amnesia is the desired effect .
Benzodiazepines are well known for their strong muscle @-@ relaxing properties and can be useful in the treatment of muscle spasms , although tolerance often develops to their muscle relaxant effects . Baclofen or tizanidine are sometimes used as an alternative to benzodiazepines . Tizanidine has been found to have superior tolerability compared to diazepam and baclofen .
Benzodiazepines are also used to treat the acute panic caused by hallucinogen intoxication . Benzodiazepines are also used to calm the acutely agitated individual and can , if required , be given via an intramuscular injection . They can sometimes be effective in the short @-@ term treatment of psychiatric emergencies such as acute psychosis as in schizophrenia or mania , bringing about rapid tranquillization and sedation until the effects of lithium or neuroleptics ( antipsychotics ) take effect . Lorazepam is most commonly used but clonazepam is sometimes prescribed for acute psychosis or mania ; their long @-@ term use is not recommended due to risks of dependence .
Clonazepam , a benzodiazepine is used to treat many forms of parasomnia . Rapid eye movement behavior disorder responds well to low doses of clonazepam . Restless legs syndrome can be treated using clonazepam as a third line treatment option as the use of clonazepam is still investigational .
Benzodiazepines are sometimes used for obsessive – compulsive disorder ( OCD ) , although they are generally believed to be ineffective for this indication ; effectiveness was , however , found in one small study . Benzodiazepines can be considered as a treatment option in treatment resistant cases .
Antipsychotics are generally a first @-@ line treatment for delirium ; however , when delirium is caused by alcohol or sedative hypnotic withdrawal , benzodiazepines are a first @-@ line treatment .
There is some evidence that low doses of benzodiazepines reduce adverse effects of electroconvulsive therapy .
= = Contraindications = =
Because of their muscle relaxant action , benzodiazepines may cause respiratory depression in susceptible individuals . For that reason , they are contraindicated in people with myasthenia gravis , sleep apnea , bronchitis , and COPD . Caution is required when benzodiazepines are used in people with personality disorders or intellectual disability because of frequent paradoxical reactions . In major depression , they may precipitate suicidal tendencies and are sometimes used for suicidal overdoses . Individuals with a history of alcohol , opioid and barbiturate abuse should avoid benzodiazepines , as there is a risk of life @-@ threatening interactions with these drugs .
= = = Pregnancy = = =
In the United States , the Food and Drug Administration has categorized benzodiazepines into either category D or X meaning potential for harm in the unborn has been demonstrated .
Exposure to benzodiazepines during pregnancy has been associated with a slightly increased ( from 0 @.@ 06 to 0 @.@ 07 % ) risk of cleft palate in newborns , a controversial conclusion as some studies find no association between benzodiazepines and cleft palate . Their use by expectant mothers shortly before the delivery may result in a floppy infant syndrome , with the newborns suffering from hypotonia , hypothermia , lethargy , and breathing and feeding difficulties . Cases of neonatal withdrawal syndrome have been described in infants chronically exposed to benzodiazepines in utero . This syndrome may be hard to recognize , as it starts several days after delivery , for example , as late as 21 day for chlordiazepoxide . The symptoms include tremors , hypertonia , hyperreflexia , hyperactivity , and vomiting and may last for up to three to six months . Tapering down the dose during pregnancy may lessen its severity . If used in pregnancy , those benzodiazepines with a better and longer safety record , such as diazepam or chlordiazepoxide , are recommended over potentially more harmful benzodiazepines , such as temazepam or triazolam . Using the lowest effective dose for the shortest period of time minimizes the risks to the unborn child .
= = = Elderly = = =
The benefits of benzodiazepines are least and the risks are greatest in the elderly . The elderly are at an increased risk of dependence and are more sensitive to the adverse effects such as memory problems , daytime sedation , impaired motor coordination , and increased risk of motor vehicle accidents and falls , and an increased risk of hip fractures . The long @-@ term effects of benzodiazepines and benzodiazepine dependence in the elderly can resemble dementia , depression , or anxiety syndromes , and progressively worsens over time . Adverse effects on cognition can be mistaken for the effects of old age . The benefits of withdrawal include improved cognition , alertness , mobility , reduced risk incontinence , and a reduced risk of falls and fractures . The success of gradual @-@ tapering benzodiazepines is as great in the elderly as in younger people . Benzodiazepines should be prescribed to the elderly only with caution and only for a short period at low doses . Short to intermediate @-@ acting benzodiazepines are preferred in the elderly such as oxazepam and temazepam . The high potency benzodiazepines alprazolam and triazolam and long @-@ acting benzodiazepines are not recommended in the elderly due to increased adverse effects . Nonbenzodiazepines such as zaleplon and zolpidem and low doses of sedating antidepressants are sometimes used as alternatives to benzodiazepines .
Long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines has been associated with increased risk of cognitive impairment , but its relationship with dementia remains inconclusive . The association of a past history of benzodiazepine use and cognitive decline is unclear , with some studies reporting a lower risk of cognitive decline in former users , some finding no association and some indicating an increased risk of cognitive decline .
Benzodiazepines are sometimes prescribed to treat behavioral symptoms of dementia . However , like antidepressants , they have little evidence of effectiveness , although antipsychotics have shown some benefit . Cognitive impairing effects of benzodiazepines that occur frequently in the elderly can also worsen dementia .
= = Adverse effects = =
The most common side @-@ effects of benzodiazepines are related to their sedating and muscle @-@ relaxing action . They include drowsiness , dizziness , and decreased alertness and concentration . Lack of coordination may result in falls and injuries , in particular , in the elderly . Another result is impairment of driving skills and increased likelihood of road traffic accidents . Decreased libido and erection problems are a common side effect . Depression and disinhibition may emerge . Hypotension and suppressed breathing ( hypoventilation ) may be encountered with intravenous use . Less common side effects include nausea and changes in appetite , blurred vision , confusion , euphoria , depersonalization and nightmares . Cases of liver toxicity have been described but are very rare .
The long @-@ term effects of benzodiazepine use can include cognitive impairment as well as affective and behavioural problems . Feelings of turmoil , difficulty in thinking constructively , loss of sex @-@ drive , agoraphobia and social phobia , increasing anxiety and depression , loss of interest in leisure pursuits and interests , and an inability to experience or express feelings can also occur . Not everyone , however , experiences problems with long @-@ term use . Additionally an altered perception of self , environment and relationships may occur .
= = = Cognitive effects = = =
The short @-@ term use of benzodiazepines adversely affects multiple areas of cognition , the most notable one being that it interferes with the formation and consolidation of memories of new material and may induce complete anterograde amnesia . However , researchers hold contrary opinions regarding the effects of long @-@ term administration . One view is that many of the short @-@ term effects continue into the long @-@ term and may even worsen , and are not resolved after stopping benzodiazepine usage . Another view maintains that cognitive deficits in chronic benzodiazepine users occur only for a short period after the dose , or that the anxiety disorder is the cause of these deficits .
While the definitive studies are lacking , the former view received support from a 2004 meta @-@ analysis of 13 small studies . This meta @-@ analysis found that long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines was associated with moderate to large adverse effects on all areas of cognition , with visuospatial memory being the most commonly detected impairment . Some of the other impairments reported were decreased IQ , visiomotor coordination , information processing , verbal learning and concentration . The authors of the meta @-@ analysis and a later reviewer noted that the applicability of this meta @-@ analysis is limited because the subjects were taken mostly from withdrawal clinics ; the coexisting drug , alcohol use , and psychiatric disorders were not defined ; and several of the included studies conducted the cognitive measurements during the withdrawal period .
= = = Paradoxical effects = = =
Paradoxical reactions , such as increased seizures in epileptics , aggression , violence , impulsivity , irritability and suicidal behavior sometimes occur . These reactions have been explained as consequences of disinhibition and the subsequent loss of control over socially unacceptable behavior . Paradoxical reactions are rare in the general population , with an incidence rate below 1 % and similar to placebo . However , they occur with greater frequency in recreational abusers , individuals with borderline personality disorder , children , and patients on high @-@ dosage regimes . In these groups , impulse control problems are perhaps the most important risk factor for disinhibition ; learning disabilities and neurological disorders are also significant risks . Most reports of disinhibition involve high doses of high @-@ potency benzodiazepines . Paradoxical effects may also appear after chronic use of benzodiazepines .
= = = Long @-@ term worsening of psychiatric symptoms = = =
While benzodizapines may have short @-@ term benefits for anxiety , sleep and agitation in some patients , long @-@ term ( i.e. , greater than 2 – 4 weeks ) use can result in a worsening of the very symptoms the medications are meant to treat . Potential explanations include exacerbating cognitive problems that are already common in anxiety disorders , causing or worsening depression and suicidality , disrupting sleep architecture by inhibiting deep stage sleep , withdrawal symptoms or rebound symptoms in between doses mimicking or exacerbating underlying anxiety or sleep disorders , inhibiting the benefits of psychotherapy by inhibiting memory consolidation and reducing fear extinction , and reducing coping with trauma / stress and increasing vulnerability to future stress . Anxiety , insomnia and irritability may be temporarily exacerbated during withdrawal , but psychiatric symptoms after discontinuation are usually less than even while taking benzodiazepines . Fortunately , for those with benzodiazepine @-@ induced problems , functioning significantly improves within 1 year of discontinuation .
= = = Reinforcement disorders = = =
= = = = Tolerance = = = =
The main problem of the chronic use of benzodiazepines is the development of tolerance and dependence . Tolerance manifests itself as diminished pharmacological effect and develops relatively quickly to the sedative , hypnotic , anticonvulsant , and muscle relaxant actions of benzodiazepines . Tolerance to anti @-@ anxiety effects develops more slowly with little evidence of continued effectiveness beyond four to six months of continued use . In general , tolerance to the amnesic effects does not occur . However , controversy exists as to tolerance to the anxiolytic effects with some evidence that benzodiazepines retain efficacy and opposing evidence from a systematic review of the literature that tolerance frequently occurs and some evidence that anxiety may worsen with long @-@ term use . The question of tolerance to the amnesic effects of benzodiazepines is , likewise , unclear . Some evidence suggests that partial tolerance does develop , and that , " memory impairment is limited to a narrow window within 90 minutes after each dose " .
A major disadvantage of benzodiazepines that tolerance to therapeutic effects develops relatively quickly while many adverse effects persist . Tolerance develops to hypnotic and myorelexant effects within days to weeks , and to anticonvulsant and anxiolytic effects within weeks to months . Therefore , benzodiazepines are unlikely to be effective long @-@ term treatments for sleep and anxiety . While BZD therapeutic effects disappear with tolerance , depression and impulsivity with high suicidal risk commonly persist . Several studies have confirmed that long @-@ term benzodiazepines are not significantly different from placebo for sleep or anxiety . This may explain why patients commonly increase doses over time and many eventually take more than one type of benzodiazepine after the first loses effectiveness . Additionally , because tolerance to benzodiazepine sedating effects develops more quickly than does tolerance to brainstem depressant effects , those taking more benzodiazepines to achieve desired effects may suffer sudden respiratory depression , hypotension or death . Most patients with anxiety disorders and PTSD have symptoms which persist for at least several months , making tolerance to therapeutic effects a distinct problem for them and necessitating the need for more effective long @-@ term treatment ( e.g. , psychotherapy , serotonergic antidepressants ) .
= = = = Withdrawal symptoms and management = = = =
Discontinuation of benzodiazepines or abrupt reduction of the dose , even after a relatively short course of treatment ( three to four weeks ) , may result in two groups of symptoms — rebound and withdrawal . Rebound symptoms are the return of the symptoms for which the patient was treated but worse than before . Withdrawal symptoms are the new symptoms that occur when the benzodiazepine is stopped . They are the main sign of physical dependence .
The most frequent symptoms of withdrawal from benzodiazepines are insomnia , gastric problems , tremors , agitation , fearfulness , and muscle spasms . The less frequent effects are irritability , sweating , depersonalization , derealization , hypersensitivity to stimuli , depression , suicidal behavior , psychosis , seizures , and delirium tremens . Severe symptoms usually occur as a result of abrupt or over @-@ rapid withdrawal . Abrupt withdrawal can be dangerous , therefore a gradual reduction regimen is recommended .
Symptoms may also occur during a gradual dosage reduction , but are typically less severe and may persist as part of a protracted withdrawal syndrome for months after cessation of benzodiazepines . Approximately 10 % of patients will experience a notable protracted withdrawal syndrome , which can persist for many months or in some cases a year or longer . Protracted symptoms tend to resemble those seen during the first couple of months of withdrawal but usually are of a sub @-@ acute level of severity . Such symptoms do gradually lessen over time , eventually disappearing altogether .
Benzodiazepines have a reputation with patients and doctors for causing a severe and traumatic withdrawal ; however , this is in large part due to the withdrawal process being poorly managed . Over @-@ rapid withdrawal from benzodiazepines increases the severity of the withdrawal syndrome and increases the failure rate . A slow and gradual withdrawal customised to the individual and , if indicated , psychological support is the most effective way of managing the withdrawal . Opinion as to the time needed to complete withdrawal ranges from four weeks to several years . A goal of less than six months has been suggested , but due to factors such as dosage and type of benzodiazepine , reasons for prescription , lifestyle , personality , environmental stresses , and amount of available support , a year or more may be needed to withdraw .
Withdrawal is best managed by transferring the physically dependent patient to an equivalent dose of diazepam because it has the longest half @-@ life of all of the benzodiazepines , is metabolised into long @-@ acting active metabolites and is available in low @-@ potency tablets , which can be quartered for smaller doses . A further benefit is that it is available in liquid form , which allows for even smaller reductions . Chlordiazepoxide , which also has a long half @-@ life and long @-@ acting active metabolites , can be used as an alternative .
Nonbenzodiazepines are contraindicated during benzodiazepine withdrawal as they are cross tolerant with benzodiazepines and can induce dependence . Alcohol is also cross tolerant with benzodiazepines and more toxic and thus caution is needed to avoid replacing one dependence with another . During withdrawal , fluoroquinolone @-@ based antibiotics are best avoided if possible ; they displace benzodiazepines from their binding site and reduce GABA function and , thus , may aggravate withdrawal symptoms . Antipsychotics are not recommended for benzodiazepine withdrawal ( or other CNS depressant withdrawal states ) especially clozapine , olanzapine or low potency phenothiazines e.g. chlorpromazine as they lower the seizure threshold and can worsen withdrawal effects ; if used extreme caution is required .
Withdrawal from long term benzodiazepines is beneficial for most individuals . Withdrawal of benzodiazepines from long @-@ term users , in general , leads to improved physical and mental health particularly in the elderly ; although some long term users report continued benefit from taking benzodiazepines , this may be the result of suppression of withdrawal effects .
= = Overdose = =
Although benzodiazepines are much safer in overdose than their predecessors , the barbiturates , they can still cause problems in overdose . Taken alone , they rarely cause severe complications in overdose ; statistics in England showed that benzodiazepines were responsible for 3 @.@ 8 % of all deaths by poisoning from a single drug . However , combining these drugs with alcohol , opiates or tricyclic antidepressants markedly raises the toxicity . The elderly are more sensitive to the side effects of benzodiazepines , and poisoning may even occur from their long @-@ term use . The various benzodiazepines differ in their toxicity ; temazepam appears to be most toxic in overdose and when used with other drugs . The symptoms of a benzodiazepine overdose may include ; drowsiness , slurred speech , nystagmus , hypotension , ataxia , coma , respiratory depression , and cardiorespiratory arrest .
A reversal agent for benzodiazepines exists , flumazenil ( Anexate ) . Its use as an antidote is not routinely recommended because of the high risk of resedation and seizures . In a double @-@ blind , placebo @-@ controlled trial of 326 patients , 4 patients suffered serious adverse events and 61 % became resedated following the use of flumazenil . Numerous contraindications to its use exist . It is contraindicated in patients with a history of long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines , those having ingested a substance that lowers the seizure threshold or may cause an arrhythmia , and in those with abnormal vital signs . One study found that only 10 % of the patient population presenting with a benzodiazepine overdose are suitable candidates for treatment with flumazenil .
= = Interactions = =
Individual benzodiazepines may have different interactions with certain drugs . Depending on their metabolism pathway , benzodiazepines can be divided roughly into two groups . The largest group consists of those that are metabolized by cytochrome P450 ( CYP450 ) enzymes and possess significant potential for interactions with other drugs . The other group comprises those that are metabolized through glucuronidation , such as lorazepam , oxazepam , and temazepam , and , in general , have few drug interactions .
Many drugs , including oral contraceptives , some antibiotics , antidepressants , and antifungal agents , inhibit cytochrome enzymes in the liver . They reduce the rate of elimination of the benzodiazepines that are metabolized by CYP450 , leading to possibly excessive drug accumulation and increased side @-@ effects . In contrast , drugs that induce cytochrome P450 enzymes , such as St John 's wort , the antibiotic rifampicin , and the anticonvulsants carbamazepine and phenytoin , accelerate elimination of many benzodiazepines and decrease their action . Taking benzodiazepines with alcohol , opioids and other central nervous system depressants potentiates their action . This often results in increased sedation , impaired motor coordination , suppressed breathing , and other adverse effects that have potential to be lethal . Antacids can slow down absorption of some benzodiazepines ; however , this effect is marginal and inconsistent .
= = Pharmacology = =
= = = Mechanism of action = = =
Benzodiazepines work by increasing the efficiency of a natural brain chemical , GABA , to decrease the excitability of neurons . This reduces the communication between neurons and , therefore , has a calming effect on many of the functions of the brain .
GABA controls the excitability of neurons by binding to the GABAA receptor . The GABAA receptor is a protein complex located in the synapses of neurons . All GABAA receptors contain an ion channel that conducts chloride ions across neuronal cell membranes and two binding sites for the neurotransmitter gamma @-@ aminobutyric acid ( GABA ) , while a subset of GABAA receptor complexes also contain a single binding site for benzodiazepines . Binding of benzodiazepines to this receptor complex does not alter binding of GABA . Unlike other positive allosteric modulators that increases ligand binding , benzodiazepine binding acts as a positive allosteric modulator by increasing the total conduction of chloride ions across the neuronal cell membrane when GABA is already bound to its receptor . This increased chloride ion influx hyperpolarizes the neuron 's membrane potential . As a result , the difference between resting potential and threshold potential is increased and firing is less likely . Different GABAA receptor subtypes have varying distributions within different regions of the brain and , therefore , control distinct neuronal circuits . Hence , activation of different GABAA receptor subtypes by benzodiazepines may result in distinct pharmacological actions . In terms of the mechanism of action of benzodiazepines , their similarities are too great to separate them into individual categories such as anxiolytic or hypnotic . For example , a hypnotic administered in low doses will produce anxiety @-@ relieving effects , whereas a benzodiazepine marketed as an anti @-@ anxiety drug will at higher doses induce sleep .
The subset of GABAA receptors that also bind benzodiazepines are referred to as benzodiazepine receptors ( BzR ) . The GABAA receptor is a heteromer composed of five subunits , the most common ones being two αs , two βs , and one γ ( α2β2γ ) . For each subunit , many subtypes exist ( α1 – 6 , β1 – 3 , and γ1 – 3 ) . GABAA receptors that are made up of different combinations of subunit subtypes have different properties , different distributions in the brain and different activities relative to pharmacological and clinical effects . Benzodiazepines bind at the interface of the α and γ subunits on the GABAA receptor . Binding also requires that alpha subunits contain a histidine amino acid residue , ( i.e. , α1 , α2 , α3 , and α5 containing GABAA receptors ) . For this reason , benzodiazepines show no affinity for GABAA receptors containing α4 and α6 subunits with an arginine instead of a histidine residue . Once bound to the benzodiazepine receptor , the benzodiazepine ligand locks the benzodiazepine receptor into a conformation in which it has a greater affinity for the GABA neurotransmitter . This increases the frequency of the opening of the associated chloride ion channel and hyperpolarizes the membrane of the associated neuron . The inhibitory effect of the available GABA is potentiated , leading to sedatory and anxiolytic effects . For instance , those ligands with high activity at the α1 are associated with stronger hypnotic effects , whereas those with higher affinity for GABAA receptors containing α2 and / or α3 subunits have good anti @-@ anxiety activity .
The benzodiazepine class of drugs also interact with peripheral benzodiazepine receptors . Peripheral benzodiazepine receptors are present in peripheral nervous system tissues , glial cells , and to a lesser extent the central nervous system . These peripheral receptors are not structurally related or coupled to GABAA receptors . They modulate the immune system and are involved in the body response to injury . Benzodiazepines also function as weak adenosine reuptake inhibitors . It has been suggested that some of their anticonvulsant , anxiolytic , and muscle relaxant effects may be in part mediated by this action .
= = = Pharmacokinetics = = =
A benzodiazepine can be placed into one of three groups by its elimination half @-@ life , or time it takes for the body to eliminate half of the dose . Some benzodiazepines have long @-@ acting active metabolites , such as diazepam and chlordiazepoxide , which are metabolised into desmethyldiazepam . Desmethyldiazepam has a half @-@ life of 36 – 200 hours , and flurazepam , with the main active metabolite of desalkylflurazepam , with a half @-@ life of 40 – 250 hours . These long @-@ acting metabolites are partial agonists .
Short @-@ acting compounds have a median half @-@ life of 1 – 12 hours . They have few residual effects if taken before bedtime , rebound insomnia may occur upon discontinuation , and they might cause daytime withdrawal symptoms such as next day rebound anxiety with prolonged usage . Examples are brotizolam , midazolam , and triazolam .
Intermediate @-@ acting compounds have a median half @-@ life of 12 – 40 hours . They may have some residual effects in the first half of the day if used as a hypnotic . Rebound insomnia , however , is more common upon discontinuation of intermediate @-@ acting benzodiazepines than longer @-@ acting benzodiazepines . Examples are alprazolam , estazolam , flunitrazepam , clonazepam , lormetazepam , lorazepam , nitrazepam , and temazepam .
Long @-@ acting compounds have a half @-@ life of 40 – 250 hours . They have a risk of accumulation in the elderly and in individuals with severely impaired liver function , but they have a reduced severity of rebound effects and withdrawal . Examples are diazepam , clorazepate , chlordiazepoxide , and flurazepam .
= = Physical and chemical properties = =
Benzodiazepines share a similar chemical structure , and their effects in humans are mainly produced by the allosteric modification of a specific kind of neurotransmitter receptor , the GABAA receptor , which increases the overall conductance of these inhibitory channels ; this results in the various therapeutic effects as well as adverse effects of benzodiazepines . Other less important mechanisms of action are also known .
= = = Chemistry = = =
The term benzodiazepine is the chemical name for the heterocyclic ring system ( see figure to the right ) , which is a fusion between the benzene and diazepine ring systems . Under Hantzsch – Widman nomenclature , a diazepine is a heterocycle with two nitrogen atoms , five carbon atom and the maximum possible number of cumulative double bonds . The " benzo " prefix indicates the benzene ring fused onto the diazepine ring .
Benzodiazepine drugs are substituted 1 @,@ 4 @-@ benzodiazepines , although the chemical term can refer to many other compounds that do not have useful pharmacological properties . Different benzodiazepine drugs have different side groups attached to this central structure . The different side groups affect the binding of the molecule to the GABAA receptor and so modulate the pharmacological properties . Many of the pharmacologically active " classical " benzodiazepine drugs contain the 5 @-@ phenyl @-@ 1H @-@ benzo [ e ] [ 1 @,@ 4 ] diazepin @-@ 2 ( 3H ) -one substructure ( see figure to the right ) . Benzodiazepines have been found to mimic protein reverse turns structurally which enable them with their biological activity in many cases .
Nonbenzodiazepines also bind to the benzodiazepine binding site on the GABAA receptor and possess similar pharmacological properties . While the nonbenzodiazepines are by definition structurally unrelated to the benzodiazepines , both classes of drugs possess a common pharmacophore ( see figure to the lower @-@ right ) , which explains their binding to a common receptor site .
= = = Common types = = =
2 @-@ keto compounds :
clorazepate , diazepam , flurazepam , halazepam , prazepam , and others .
3 @-@ hydroxy compounds :
lorazepam , lormetazepam , oxazepam , temazepam
7 @-@ nitro compounds :
clonazepam , flunitrazepam , nimetazepam , nitrazepam
Triazolo compounds :
adinazolam , alprazolam , estazolam , triazolam
Imidazo compounds
climazolam , loprazolam , midazolam
= = History = =
The first benzodiazepine , chlordiazepoxide ( Librium ) , was synthesized in 1955 by Leo Sternbach while working at Hoffmann – La Roche on the development of tranquilizers . The pharmacological properties of the compounds prepared initially were disappointing , and Sternbach abandoned the project . Two years later , in April 1957 , co @-@ worker Earl Reeder noticed a " nicely crystalline " compound left over from the discontinued project while spring @-@ cleaning in the lab . This compound , later named chlordiazepoxide , had not been tested in 1955 because of Sternbach 's focus on other issues . Expecting the pharmacology results to be negative and hoping to publish the chemistry @-@ related findings , researchers submitted it for a standard battery of animal tests . However , the compound showed very strong sedative , anticonvulsant , and muscle relaxant effects . These impressive clinical findings led to its speedy introduction throughout the world in 1960 under the brand name Librium . Following chlordiazepoxide , diazepam marketed by Hoffmann – La Roche under the brand name Valium in 1963 , and for a while the two were the most commercially successful drugs . The introduction of benzodiazepines led to a decrease in the prescription of barbiturates , and by the 1970s they had largely replaced the older drugs for sedative and hypnotic uses .
The new group of drugs was initially greeted with optimism by the medical profession , but gradually concerns arose ; in particular , the risk of dependence became evident in the 1980s . Benzodiazepines have a unique history in that they were responsible for the largest @-@ ever class @-@ action lawsuit against drug manufacturers in the United Kingdom , involving 14 @,@ 000 patients and 1 @,@ 800 law firms that alleged the manufacturers knew of the dependence potential but intentionally withheld this information from doctors . At the same time , 117 general practitioners and 50 health authorities were sued by patients to recover damages for the harmful effects of dependence and withdrawal . This led some doctors to require a signed consent form from their patients and to recommend that all patients be adequately warned of the risks of dependence and withdrawal before starting treatment with benzodiazepines . The court case against the drug manufacturers never reached a verdict ; legal aid had been withdrawn and there were allegations that the consultant psychiatrists , the expert witnesses , had a conflict of interest . This litigation led to changes in the British law , making class action lawsuits more difficult .
Although antidepressants with anxiolytic properties have been introduced , and there is increasing awareness of the adverse effects of benzodiazepines , prescriptions for short @-@ term anxiety relief have not significantly dropped . For treatment of insomnia , benzodiazepines are now less popular than nonbenzodiazepines , which include zolpidem , zaleplon and eszopiclone . Nonbenzodiazepines are molecularly distinct , but nonetheless , they work on the same benzodiazepine receptors and produce similar sedative effects .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Legal status = = =
In the United States , benzodiazepines are Schedule IV drugs under the Federal Controlled Substances Act , even when not on the market ( for example , nitrazepam and bromazepam ) . Flunitrazepam is subject to more stringent regulations in certain states and temazepam prescriptions require specially coded pads in certain states .
In Canada , possession of benzodiazepines is legal for personal use . All benzodiazepines are categorized as Schedule IV substances under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act .
In the United Kingdom , the benzodiazepines are schedule 4 controlled drugs , except for flunitrazepam , temazepam and midazolam , which are schedule 3 controlled drugs and carry stronger penalties for possession and trafficking .
In the Netherlands , since October 1993 , benzodiazepines , including formulations containing less than 20 mg of temazepam , are all placed on List 2 of the Opium Law . A prescription is needed for possession of all benzodiazepines . Temazepam formulations containing 20 mg or greater of the drug are placed on List 1 , thus requiring prescriptions to be written in the List 1 format .
In East Asia and Southeast Asia , temazepam and nimetazepam are often heavily controlled and restricted . In certain countries , triazolam , flunitrazepam , flutoprazepam and midazolam are also restricted or controlled to certain degrees . In Hong Kong , all benzodiazepines are regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong 's Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance . Previously only brotizolam , flunitrazepam and triazolam were classed as dangerous drugs .
Internationally , benzodiazepines are categorized as Schedule IV controlled drugs , apart from flunitrazepam which is a Schedule III drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances .
= = = Recreational use = = =
Benzodiazepines are considered to be major drugs of abuse . Benzodiazepine abuse is mostly limited to individuals who abuse other drugs , i.e. , poly @-@ drug abusers . On the international scene , benzodiazepines are categorized as Schedule IV controlled drugs by the INCB , apart from flunitrazepam which is a Schedule III drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances . Some variation in drug scheduling exists in individual countries ; for example , in the United Kingdom , midazolam and temazepam are Schedule III controlled drugs . British law requires temazepam ( but not midazolam ) to be stored in safe custody . Safe custody requirements ensures that pharmacists and doctors holding stock of temazepam must store it in securely fixed double @-@ locked steel safety cabinets and maintain a written register , which must be bound and contain separate entries for temazepam and must be written in ink with no use of correction fluid ( although a written register is not required for temazepam in the United Kingdom ) . Disposal of expired stock must be witnessed by a designated inspector ( either a local drug @-@ enforcement police officer or official from health authority ) . Benzodiazepine abuse ranges from occasional binges on large doses , to chronic and compulsive drug abuse of high doses .
Benzodiazepines are used recreationally and by problematic drug misusers . Mortality is higher among poly @-@ drug misusers that also use benzodiazepines . Heavy alcohol use also increases mortality among poly @-@ drug users . Dependence and tolerance , often coupled with dosage escalation , to benzodiazepines can develop rapidly among drug misusers ; withdrawal syndrome may appear after as little as three weeks of continuous use . Long @-@ term use has the potential to cause both physical and psychological dependence and severe withdrawal symptoms such as depression , anxiety ( often to the point of panic attacks ) , and agoraphobia . Benzodiazepines and , in particular , temazepam are sometimes used intravenously , which , if done incorrectly or in an unsterile manner , can lead to medical complications including abscesses , cellulitis , thrombophlebitis , arterial puncture , deep vein thrombosis , and gangrene . Sharing syringes and needles for this purpose also brings up the possibility of transmission of hepatitis , HIV , and other diseases . Benzodiazepines are also misused intranasally , which may have additional health consequences . Once benzodiazepine dependence has been established , a clinician usually converts the patient to an equivalent dose of diazepam before beginning a gradual reduction program .
A 1999 – 2005 Australian police survey of detainees reported preliminary findings that self @-@ reported users of benzodiazepines were less likely than non @-@ user detainees to work full @-@ time and more likely to receive government benefits , use methamphetamine or heroin , and be arrested or imprisoned . Benzodiazepines are sometimes used for criminal purposes ; they serve to incapacitate a victim in cases of drug assisted rape or robbery .
Overall , anecdotal evidence suggests that temazepam may be the most psychologically habit @-@ forming ( addictive ) benzodiazepine . Temazepam abuse reached epidemic proportions in some parts of the world , in particular , in Europe and Australia , and is a major drug of abuse in many Southeast Asian countries . This led authorities of various countries to place temazepam under a more restrictive legal status . Some countries , such as Sweden , banned the drug outright . Temazepam also has certain pharmacokinetic properties of absorption , distribution , elimination , and clearance that make it more apt to abuse compared to many other benzodiazepines .
= = Veterinary use = =
Benzodiazepines are used in veterinary practice in the treatment of various disorders and conditions . As in humans , they are used in the first @-@ line management of seizures , status epilepticus , and tetanus , and as maintenance therapy in epilepsy ( in particular , in cats ) . They are widely used in small and large animals ( including horses , swine , cattle and exotic and wild animals ) for their anxiolytic and sedative effects , as pre @-@ medication before surgery , for induction of anesthesia and as adjuncts to anesthesia .
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= Claire Underwood =
Claire Hale Underwood is a fictional character in House of Cards , played by Robin Wright . She is the wife of the show 's protagonist Francis J. " Frank " Underwood . She is a lobbyist and runs an environmental nonprofit organization , but in later seasons ascends to the position of Second Lady of the United States , and finally First Lady of the United States and the United States Ambassador to the United Nations . Underwood made her first appearance in the series ' pilot episode , " Chapter 1 " . The character is based on Elizabeth Urquhart , a character from the British miniseries from which the current series is derived . Unlike the original character , however , Claire has her own storylines .
The role has been critically acclaimed . Wright won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama for this role at the 71st Golden Globe Awards , becoming the first actress to win a Golden Globe Award for a web television online @-@ only role in a series . She was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for this role at the 65th , 66th and 67th Primetime Emmy Awards .
= = Character overview = =
Claire Hale Underwood is originally from the exclusive Highland Park enclave of Dallas , Texas . Her late father was a major Texas Republican . While at Radcliffe College in Cambridge , she met a Harvard Law student from South Carolina . That student was Francis J. Underwood . She is of wealthy background and the show characterizes her as a " Dallas Debutante " and " Lily White " . She recounts her father taking her to Dealey Plaza , where John F. Kennedy was assassinated , and that she felt “ so sad , so angry . ” She has a difficult relationship with her mother , Elizabeth Hale ( Ellen Burstyn ) , who despises Frank and is disappointed in Claire for marrying him .
Brian Stelter of The New York Times described her as Frank Underwood 's conniving wife and described the Underwoods as " the scheming husband and wife at the center of ' House of Cards ' " . She is a woman " who will stop at nothing to conquer everything " . Hank Stuever of The Washington Post describes her as an " ice @-@ queen wife " . The Independent 's Sarah Hughes echoes this description , saying she is so dedicated to the couple 's schemes that it is clear she will execute them herself if Frank wavers . Following season 4 , Robin Wright stated that she felt Claire Underwood was the equal of Frank Underwood and demanded equal pay for her performance . Netflix acquiesced .
= = = Relationship with Frank = = =
While Frank is Machiavellian , Claire presents a woman urging on her husband 's assertion of power in the image of Lady Macbeth . She encourages his vices while noting her disapproval of his weaknesses , saying " My husband doesn ’ t apologize ... even to me . " This gives a credibility to their symbiosis .
Willimon notes that , " What 's extraordinary about Frank and Claire is there is deep love and mutual respect , but the way they achieve this is by operating on a completely different set of rules than the rest of us typically do . "
Nancy deWolf Smith of The Wall Street Journal describes Claire as " a short @-@ haired blonde who manages to be masculine and demasculinizing at the same time . " Smith describes their relationship as pivotal to the show : " Benign though they may seem — and their harmless air is what makes the Underwoods so effective as political plotters — this is a power couple with the same malignant chemistry as pairs of serial killers , where each needs the other in order to become lethal " .
Upon viewing a four episode preview of season 2 , Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter says the series " ... sells husband and wife power @-@ at @-@ all @-@ costs couple Frank ( Kevin Spacey ) and Claire ( Robin Wright ) Underwood as a little too oily and reptilian for anyone 's good . " Los Angeles Times critic Mary McNamara makes the case that House of Cards is a love story on many levels but most importantly between Frank and Claire .
In season 3 , when the Underwoods are President and First Lady of the United States , Claire 's marriage to Frank begins to falter , and she ultimately decides he is no longer " enough " for her . She leaves him in the season finale , but comes back in the fourth season , treating their marriage as a purely political arrangement to further her own career . When he is shot during a campaign event , Claire privately admits that she feels nothing for him . Throughout the season , she works behind the scenes to undermine Frank 's election campaign , before finally joining forces with him in order to become his vice president . She also has an affair with her speechwriter Tom Yates ( Paul Sparks ) , with Frank 's approval .
= = Fictional character biography = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
Claire is a lobbyist who runs an environmental group while serving as her husband 's primary accomplice . After President Garrett Walker ( Michel Gill ) goes back on his promise to make Frank Secretary of State , Frank enlists Claire to help him get revenge and propel them both to positions of power . She and Frank scheme nightly over a cigarette , and together they maneuver their way into Walker 's inner circle . Frank says of Claire : " I love that woman , I love her more than sharks love blood . "
Claire is aware of Frank 's sexual relationship with reporter Zoe Barnes ( Kate Mara ) , and approves of it as long as it achieves their ends . She herself has an affair with an old boyfriend , Adam Galloway ( Ben Daniels ) .
By the end of the season , Walker appoints Frank the Vice President of the United States , making Claire the Second Lady of the United States .
= = = Season 2 = = =
Claire 's main storyline in season 2 is her advocacy , as Second Lady , for a sexual assault prevention bill . During her campaign for the bill , a skeleton from her college days emerges : During a nationally televised interview , she admits that she was raped in college , and that her rapist , Dalton McGinnis ( Peter Bradbury ) , is now a high @-@ ranking general . ( She had earlier had an uncomfortable encounter with McGinnis at a White House dinner , during which she had told Frank what the general had done to her . ) She also admits to having aborted a pregnancy that she claims was the result of the rape ; it is later revealed that she in fact aborted Frank 's child , with his consent . She then converts the focus on that issue into political support that becomes critical to the Underwoods ' ascension to the Oval Office .
Claire becomes increasingly ruthless as the season progresses . When Galloway leaks an intimate photo of Claire to appease his jealous fiancee , Claire intimidates him into publicly stating that he fabricated the picture , ruining his reputation . When Gillian Cole ( Sandrine Holt ) , a pregnant former employee , returns to demand health care as part of her severance , Claire says , " I am willing to let your child wither and die inside you , if that ’ s what ’ s required , ... Am I really the sort of enemy you want to make ? " Claire also manipulates First Lady Patricia Walker ( Joanna Going ) into believing that her husband is having an affair in order to distract President Walker from Frank 's machinations . She shows remorse for her actions only once . When another of McGinnis ' victims , Megan Hennessy ( Libby Woodbridge ) , comes forward , Claire uses her as the poster girl for the sexual assault bill , leaving the fragile young woman open to public scrutiny and reprisals from the bill 's opponents . Before she can testify about her ordeal before Congress , however , Megan suffers a breakdown and attempts suicide . Upon realizing what she has caused Megan to go through , Claire bursts into tears .
In the season finale , she urges Frank to humble himself before President Walker , with whom he has fallen out of favor , in order to complete the plan : " Cut out your heart and put it in his fucking hands . " The gambit works : Walker keeps Frank as his Vice President , allowing Frank to succeed him when he resigns . Frank is now President of the United States , with Claire as the First Lady of the United States .
According to Drew Grant of The New York Observer , Claire 's season @-@ long storyline was similar to the real life efforts of United States Senator Kirsten Gillibrand 's to legislate an end to military sexual assault . Based upon the 4 @-@ episode preview , Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times says that in season 2 Claire " is still ruthlessly pursuing her own agenda as well as her husband ’ s . She remains an enigma even as she reveals more and more disturbing secrets from her past . " Claire remains composed and stylish with or without her husband and plays the press with aplomb .
= = = Season 3 = = =
In Season 3 , Claire feels the need to be something more " significant " than the First Lady , and asks Frank to nominate her to a United Nations post . He nominates her , but the Senate rejects her after a rocky hearing . Frank gives her the job anyway in a recess appointment , but her tenure is brief ; she ruins a treaty between the U.S. and Russia by publicly confronting Russian President Viktor Petrov ( Lars Mikkelsen ) about his anti @-@ gay policies , and is forced to resign when Petrov uses her as a bargaining chip during a diplomatic crisis .
During Frank 's election campaign , Claire begins to question whether she still loves him . In the season finale , she and Frank get into an ugly fight in which she says he is not enough for her ; Frank replies that without him , she is nothing . Season three ends with Claire leaving Frank as he prepares to go to the New Hampshire primary .
= = = Season 4 = = =
After leaving Frank , Claire goes back to Texas , where she has a tense reunion with her mother , who is dying of lymphoma . She sets her sights on running for a House of Representatives seat in Texas , with help from political consultant LeAnn Harvey ( Neve Campbell ) . Frank persuades her to resume public appearances with him by promising to support her run . However , he sandbags her prospective candidacy by endorsing a political ally 's daughter , in order to keep Claire focused on his campaign . Claire retaliates on the day the South Carolina primary by covertly leaking a photo of Frank 's father with a Klansman , imperiling Frank 's candidacy . Frank figures out that she was behind the leak and confronts her . Claire calmly admits what she did , and proposes that she join him in the ticket as his vice president . Frank rejects the idea .
Shortly thereafter , Frank is shot by Lucas Goodwin in an assassination attempt , and falls into a coma . While Frank is in surgery , Claire helps guide Frank 's vice @-@ president Donald Blythe through diplomatic oil crisis with Russia . While Frank is receiving a liver transplant , she declines going to the hospital in favor of negotiating a treaty with Petrov , and strong @-@ arms him into accepting the U.S. ' terms . When Frank recovers from surgery , he agrees to let Claire be his vice president . He and Claire advocate for a controversial gun control bill for the sole purpose of creating an atmosphere divisive enough to pick off the potential running mates . In the ensuing open convention , they publicly endorse Secretary of State Catherine Durant ( Jayne Atkinson ) for the job , while working behind the scenes to undermine her and ensure that Claire wins enough delegates to be nominated . Meanwhile , she reluctantly honors her mother 's request to help her die . She and Frank then use the public sympathy from Elizabeth 's death to win the nomination ; they are now running mates .
When a group of homegrown ICO terrorists take an American family hostage , Claire negotiates with their imprisoned leader , Yusuf Al Ahmadi ( Farshad Farahat ) , who agrees to tell his followers to release the hostages . Al Ahmadi reneges on the deal , however , and tells them to kill the hostages . At the same time , Tom Hammerschmidt ( Boris McGiver ) publishes an investigative news story detailing Frank 's crimes . Claire gives Frank the idea to declare war on the terrorists and allow the public to see the hostage die in order to distract from the scandal and create an atmosphere of widespread fear that they can exploit .
= = Reception = =
Wright 's performance is described as " nuanced and compelling " . Claire has " chilly poise " but the " coolly regal doyenne " softens over the course of the first season according to New Republic 's Laura Bennet . Wright plays the role with " an almost terrifying froideur " . As a couple Frank and Claire are said to " reverberate with tension and wit " . Michael Dobbs , who wrote the trilogy of novels upon which the British miniseries is based , compares the compelling nature of the relationship between Frank and Claire favorably to the original characters in House of Cards and likens them to Macbeth and Lady Macbeth . He is not alone . In season 2 , she remains " equally steely " . Despite suggestions to the contrary , Wright insists that the character is not based on Hillary Clinton .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
On July 18 , 2013 , Netflix earned the first Primetime Emmy Award nominations for original online only web television for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards . Three of its web series , Arrested Development , Hemlock Grove , and House of Cards , earned nominations . Among those nominations was Wright 's portrayal of Claire Underwood for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series as well as Kevin Spacey 's portrayal of Frank Underwood for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series and Jason Bateman 's portrayal of Michael Bluth in Arrested Development for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series , making these three roles the first three leading roles to be Primetime Emmy Award @-@ nominated from a web television series . The role has also earned Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama award at the 71st Golden Globe Awards on January 12 , 2014 . In so doing she became the first actress to win a Golden Globe Award for an online @-@ only web television series .
For season 2 , Wright earned a Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Actress in a Drama Series nomination at the 4th Critics ' Choice Television Awards . Wright was again nominated for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series at the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards and Best Actress – Television Series Drama at the 72nd Golden Globe Awards . She was nominated for both Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series and Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series at the 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards .
In season 3 , she was nominated for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series at the 67th Primetime Emmy Awards , Best Actress – Television Series Drama at the 73rd Golden Globe Awards , as well as both Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series and Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series at the 22nd Screen Actors Guild Awards .
The season 4 performance earned a nomination for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actreaa in a Drama Series at the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards .
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= The Utility of Force =
The Utility of Force : The Art of War in the Modern World is a treatise on modern warfare written by General Sir Rupert Smith and published in 2005 . Smith is a retired general who spent 40 years in the British Army ; he commanded the 1st Armoured Division in the First Gulf War and served as General Officer Commanding Northern Ireland at the end of the Troubles . He was motivated to write the book by his experiences in the Balkans . He commanded the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) in Bosnia from 1995 to 1996 , during which time the Srebrenica massacre occurred and the capital , Sarajevo , was under siege by Serb forces . Smith was instrumental in the lifting of the siege by arranging for NATO air strikes and an artillery barrage . This enabled a ground assault by Bosnian and Croatian forces that ended the siege and led to the Dayton Agreement . Smith 's second involvement with the Balkans was in 1999 during the Kosovo War , when he was serving as NATO 's Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe , overseeing air strikes against Serb targets .
Smith 's thesis , and the central theme of The Utility of Force , is that the world entered a new paradigm of conflict at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries , which he calls " war amongst the people " , and that Western , industrialised armies are ill @-@ suited to the new style of warfare . The defining characteristics of " war amongst the people " are that conflicts tend to be timeless , more political in nature , and fought between parties that are part of , and in amongst , the civilian population rather than between uniformed armies on a battlefield . To prove his theory , Smith provides a detailed history starting with Napoleon , who invented what Smith calls " industrial warfare " — the paradigm in which the entire resources of the nation were mustered and which culminated in the two world wars . In the second half of the book , Smith states that the advent of nuclear weapons rendered industrial warfare obsolete , but that Western governments and generals refused to acknowledge the new paradigm , which led to several significant defeats in the second half of the 20th century . He provides six themes which characterise modern conflicts and proceeds to analyse each in detail , before dedicating his final chapter to his reflections on his command in Bosnia . He concedes that he did not foresee the Srebenica massacre , but criticises UNPROFOR , believing that it was not in a position to act even had the massacre been foreseen and that it had no strategy for effectively intervening in the war . In his conclusion , Smith argues that military force is only part of the solution in modern conflicts , and that it must be combined with political initiatives which together will subdue but not necessarily end the conflict .
The Utility of Force was broadly praised by reviewers on both sides of the Atlantic . It was compared favourably with Carl von Clausewitz 's treatise On War and American reviewers felt that it contained important lessons for the United States military . Smith was criticised for over @-@ emphasising the paradigm shift , with several reviewers observing that conventional wars are still fought and that the threat of such wars still exists , and for drawing too clear a distinction between " war amongst the people " and conventional war , particularly with his opening sentence " war no longer exists " . Reviewers also felt that Smith under @-@ emphasised the extent to which " war amongst the people " has always existed . Nonetheless , reviewers praised Smith 's analysis of modern war and recommended that The Utility of Force ought to be read by politicians and military officers .
= = Background = =
General Sir Rupert Smith is a retired career military officer who served in the British Army for 40 years . At the height of his career , Smith held several significant commands in both conventional conflicts and " wars amongst the people " . As a major general , he commanded the 1st Armoured Division during the first Gulf War ( 1990 – 91 ) . He went on to serve as Assistant Chief of the Defence Staff for operations and security from 1992 to 1995 , during which time he came to the conclusion that military force could only achieve one of four things when used to intervene in a political conflict : " ameliorate , contain , deter or coerce , and destroy " .
Smith 's decision to write The Utility of Force was prompted by his experience in the Balkans . In late January 1995 , Smith was appointed to command the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) , sent to intervene in the Bosnian War . Smith was based in the Bosnian capital , Sarajevo , where he devised a strategy for the multi @-@ national UN force that had been deployed effectively to carry out mainly humanitarian tasks but without a plan to bring the war to a successful conclusion . At the time of Smith 's deployment , Sarajevo was in the middle of a siege , which Smith was instrumental in lifting after arranging for NATO air strikes and an artillery barrage against Serb forces commanded by Ratko Mladic . A ground campaign by Bosnian and Croatian forces eventually led to the Dayton Agreement , which brought the war to an end . It was also during Smith 's command of UNPROFOR that the Srebrenica massacre — recognised by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia as an act of genocide — took place . Historian Niall Ferguson was adamant that Smith bore no responsibility for the events at Srebrenica and was indeed one of the few British officials " to emerge with distinction " from the intervention in Bosnia ; nonetheless , Ferguson believed that the experience illuminates Smith 's theoretical writings .
After UNPROFOR , Smith served as General Officer Commanding Northern Ireland from 1996 to 1998 towards the conclusion of the Troubles . In 1999 , during the Kosovo War , Smith was NATO 's Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe . NATO commenced air strikes against Serb forces led by Slobodan Milošević , again lacking defined objectives , while Smith worked to incorporate the bombing raids into an overall strategy .
= = Narrative = =
= = = Industrial war = = =
The book opens with the statement that " war no longer exists " ; that is , war as " battle in a field between men and machinery " or " a massive deciding event in a dispute in international affairs " is unlikely to happen again . The premise of the book is that the world is experiencing a new paradigm of war in the late 20th and early 21st centuries , which Smith dubs " war amongst the people " , in which nebulous , open @-@ ended conflicts have become the norm . Smith believes that Western , industrialised armies struggle to win in " wars amongst the people " because their opponents are not uniformed armies . He uses the term " rhizomatic " to describe terrorist and guerrilla movements ; he states his belief that such fighters can adapt much more easily than state institutions , and that they exhibit a greater understanding of the utility of force . Rather than being part of a recognisable army , the fighters are part of the civilian population , and their objectives are more political than military — they seek to " win hearts and minds " rather than take or hold territory . As a consequence , wars are no longer confined to a battlefield , but the theatre of operations is fluid , and commanders now operate inside the theatre .
To prove his theory , Smith provides a detailed history of modern warfare , using examples from history to illustrate his contentions . Throughout the book , Smith analyses the use of force in each of the examples , and how it was used to achieve particular aims . The discussion of history begins with Napoleon , who invented the paradigm of industrial warfare . Prior to Napoleon , wars were mostly fought for territory rather than ideology , and did not substantially alter the balance of power between nations . Napoleon 's concept of war involved using the entire resources of the nation with the aim of comprehensively defeating his opponent and replacing the political order ; in order to meet the new challenge , the Prussian Army undertook sweeping reforms . Napoleon 's strategy and the Prussian response influenced Prussian general Carl von Clausewitz in writing his treatise On War ( published posthumously in 1832 ) . Throughout the narrative , Smith analyses how armies applied force in order to achieve their objectives . He also discusses the emergence of guerrilla forces during the Peninsular War , which Smith believes was the first " war amongst the people " — irregular forces with no clear leadership structure conducting hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks on Napoleon 's forces , fighting to preserve the ideology of Spanish independence rather than for a battlefield victory . The concept of industrial war culminated in the early 20th century with the two world wars .
= = = War amongst the people = = =
In the second half of the book , Smith states that the advent of the atomic bomb rendered industrial warfare obsolete , but that governments clung to the concept throughout the Cold War era — the Cold War itself being the last act of the old @-@ style industrial war . The belief in industrial war tactics and institutions continued into the post @-@ Cold War era , and Smith believes that political and military leaders refused to acknowledge the new paradigm of " war amongst the people " , which resulted in significant defeats , such as for France in Algeria , the United States in Vietnam , and the Soviet Union in Afghanistan , and caused problems for NATO operations in the Balkans , and later for the Western coalitions in Iraq and Afghanistan . Smith also notes that , in the new paradigm , soldiers are frequently being asked to undertake new tasks — such as humanitarian operations — while still equipped and trained for old @-@ paradigm conflicts between massed armies .
In the final third of the book , Smith uses six themes to describe the new paradigm of war :
The ends for which we fight are changing from the hard objectives that decide a political outcome to those of establishing conditions in which the outcome may be decided
We fight amongst the people , not on the battlefield
Our conflicts tend to be timeless , even unending
We fight so as to preserve the force rather than risking all to gain the objective
On each occasion new uses are found for old weapons and organizations which are the products of industrial war
The sides are mostly non @-@ state , comprising some form of multinational grouping against some non @-@ state party or parties .
Smith then proceeds to discuss each of the six themes in detail . Smith discusses modern guerrilla and insurgency campaigns , including various civil wars and ethnic conflicts in the Balkans , the Middle East , and Africa . The conflicts he discusses in the second half are almost all " wars amongst the people " and appear intractable to conventional forces . Smith analyses situations in which countries have adapted their tactics in order to respond to " war amongst the people " , such as those used by Israeli forces in response to the Palestinian Intifada , in which the Israelis resorted to targeted searches when superior firepower proved ineffective . He points out that modern wars are rarely fought between individual nations , but the parties often consist of supranational coalitions or sub @-@ state entities , and that Western governments in particular fight in such a way as to keep casualties and material losses to a minimum . Smith is critical of the conduct of the American @-@ led coalition in the Iraq War during the insurgency which followed the initial invasion and occupation of Iraq in 2003 ; he opines that the soldiers undertaking the counter @-@ insurgency operations did not have the proper skills or equipment for the task . He believes that the commanders were working at a tactical rather than a strategic level , and that operations were not sufficiently guided by intelligence — relying too heavily on battlefield strength and assessments of the insurgents ' technical capabilities , rather than their political objectives .
Smith includes various anecdotes and personal reflections from his own career , and the final chapter of the book is dedicated to Smith 's reflections on his command of UNPROFOR in Bosnia . Ferguson describes Smith as " candid " in admitting that he did not foresee the events at Srebenica in the summer of 1995 , but Smith suggests that , even had the genocide been foreseen , UNPROFOR was not in any position to prevent it . He described the force as " reinforced camps of international troops attempting to defend the delivery of humanitarian aid , and often themselves " . Smith 's belief was that none of the governments that contributed soldiers to UNPROFOR had any intention of committing them to fight — that they had decided " to deploy forces with no intention to employ their force " , having been scared into inaction by inaccurate reporting and a lack of understanding of the war .
In his conclusion , Smith states his belief that modern politicians and military leaders use force where it has no utility and commit military forces without fully defined political and strategic objectives . He believes that politicians and generals remain in the mindset of industrial war , which leads them to prepare for a decisive confrontation that never happens , and he condemns them for failing to recognise the shift in the way wars are fought . Discussing humanitarian interventions , such as those in the Balkans , Smith does not argue against intervention , but believes that the intervention must be based on a full understanding of the conflict and a clear strategy with defined objectives . According to Smith , " no act of force will ever be decisive " because the aim of modern conflicts is to win the will of the people , which will not be achieved by battlefield victory alone . He argues that whereas , in the industrial war paradigm , war led to victory and thus to peace , in the modern paradigm confrontation leads to conflict , which then reverts to confrontation . He asserts that force is only part of the solution to modern conflicts ; they require complex political and military solutions , which will subdue but not necessarily permanently end the conflict .
= = Release and critical reception = =
The Utility of Force was published in November 2005 by Allen Lane , an imprint of Penguin Books .
William Grimes , writing in the New York Times , described The Utility of Force as " a closely argued , searching textbook on strategy and the efficient use of military power in the post @-@ Cold War era " . Grimes also described it as a " difficult , challenging book " , saying " you can almost hear the pointer hit the blackboard as he works his way rigorously through each argument and sub @-@ arguments A , B and C , before proceeding to the next step . At times the history lecture becomes a forced march over very familiar terrain , but patient readers will discover that there is indeed a final destination " . In a second review for the New York Times in 2007 , Niall Ferguson , a history professor at Harvard University , described The Utility of Force as an update of Clausewitz 's On War " for our times " . Ferguson went on to criticise Smith for drawing too clear a distinction between " war amongst the people " and " war between peoples " , pointing out that in several conflicts there was no single , homogeneous " people " and that wars amongst the people can easily transform into wars between people , citing Bosnia as an example . Ferguson was underwhelmed by Smith 's recommendations for the future — Smith believes that new equipment and strategies are required in order for armies to be effective in the new paradigm , but does not offer any suggestions . Ferguson 's final criticism was what he described as the book 's " limited historical perspective " ; Smith argues that " war amongst the people " emerged in the second half of the 20th century during the proxy wars and de @-@ colonisation campaigns of the Cold War era , but Ferguson gave examples of similar campaigns which pre @-@ dated the Cold War , including the First Boer War ( 1880 – 81 ) and campaigns fought in Eastern Europe during the Second World War . Nonetheless , Ferguson concludes that The Utility of Force is " an impressive and absorbing work " , and described Smith as " the Clausewitz of low @-@ intensity conflict and peacekeeping operations " .
Academic Eliot A. Cohen , professor of strategic studies at Johns Hopkins University wrote for The Washington Post that the British Army had " a higher quotient of sophisticated leaders who have thought hard about the profession of arms " than was found in other armed forces , including the US military , which he believed explained why it " produces generals who write [ ... ] serious , important books " such as the Utility of Force . Cohen wrote that Smith 's thesis , that the world has entered a new era of conflict , is of " central importance " for the United States military , which Cohen believed would have to undergo significant adaptation if Smith was correct . Cohen criticised the book for its limited historical perspective , noting that conventional wars are still fought ( for example the Kargil War in 1999 ) and that several confrontations in Asia threatened to spill over into conventional warfare . Nevertheless , Cohen concluded " Smith has clearly written one of the most important books on modern warfare in the last decade . We would be better off if the United States had a few more generals like him " .
The Guardian 's Martin Woollacott reviewed the book along with sociologist Martin Shaw 's The New Western Way of War : Risk @-@ Transfer War and its Crisis in Iraq , which he believes makes similar arguments to Smith 's , though the two reach slightly different conclusions — Smith that force should only be used as part of a wider political strategy , Shaw that war should be avoided where at all possible but that use of force is sometimes inevitable . Woollacott described Smith as " a soldier trying to wrest some continuing purpose for his profession " , and described both books as " very worthwhile efforts to map difficult ground " .
Sir Adam Roberts , professor of international relations at the University of Oxford , was more critical in reviewing The Utility of Force for The Independent . Roberts believed that Smith over @-@ stated the transformation into the new paradigm of war by playing down the extent to which there have always been wars amongst the people , over @-@ emphasised the role of technology in the shift from industrial warfare , and downplayed the continuation of industrial war . By way of example , Roberts points to the Iran – Iraq War and the role of precision bombing used by the United States in its campaigns since the end of the 20th century . In conclusion , Roberts states that " it is possible to quibble over many details " , but that " such quibbles miss the essential point of the book : that involvement in today 's crises , in the attempt to stop atrocities and bring wars to an end , requires a capacity for clear thought , a sensitivity to situation , and a talent for acting , that armed forces and their officers have not always possessed – and now badly need " .
Writing in the journal of the Royal United Services Institute ( RUSI ) , Christopher Coker , professor of international relations at London School of Economics , gave a detailed analysis of Smith 's opening sentence , " war no longer exists " . He concluded that war had metastasised , but that war was not over , and that Smith 's " eye @-@ catching quote detracts from the force of his own argument " . Nevertheless , Coker praises Smith for the latter 's criticism of those who failed to recognise the shift in the paradigm of war , and of the lack of strategy in the military campaigns of the late 20th and early 21st centuries . Coker concludes with the statement : " [ Smith 's ] experience , distilled in a book sometimes too controversial for its own good , should become standard reading in every military academy " .
In 2013 , General David Richards , then Chief of the Defence Staff , included The Utility of Force on a list of publications that he recommended to officers wishing to improve their leadership skills .
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= Fighter Squadron RAAF =
Fighter Squadron was a flying unit of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in the early 1930s . It operated Bristol Bulldog single @-@ seat fighters . Along with Seaplane Squadron , Fighter Squadron was a component of No. 1 Flying Training School , based at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria . As well as participating in training exercises , Fighter Squadron was frequently employed for aerobatic displays and flag @-@ waving duties .
= = History = =
Although the first entry in Fighter Squadron records is dated 12 February 1934 , the official history of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) between the wars refers to the unit as having been established for the specific purpose of operating Australia 's eight Bristol Bulldog fighters , which began entering service in May 1930 . Fighter Squadron was one of two formations raised at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , under the auspices of No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) , the other being Seaplane Squadron , which operated Supermarine Southamptons among other types . No. 1 FTS had been the first unit to be formed as part of the new Australian Air Force on 31 March 1921 ( the prefix " Royal " was added in August that year ) . The single @-@ seat Bulldogs were procured to give the RAAF a dedicated air defence capability following the retirement of the Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 fighter in 1928 . Although only a " token " combat force according to the official history , the Bulldogs represented the latest technology available and gave Fighter Squadron the aura of an elite formation .
On 15 May 1930 , barely two weeks after delivery , one of the Bulldogs crashed due to structural failure while performing an inverted loop ; the pilot parachuted to safety , the first time an RAAF member had done so in an emergency . In September 1931 , Fighter Squadron began flight testing the prototype Wackett Warrigal general @-@ purpose biplane ; testing was still under way when the aircraft 's undercarriage collapsed during landing , putting off its service trials until the following January .
As well as participating in training exercises , Fighter Squadron was often employed for aerobatic displays and flag @-@ waving duties . The young Air Force was keen to show off its skills and equipment to the public , leading to regular participation in aerial pageants and races as far afield as Western Australia and Tasmania ; this had the added benefit of providing exposure to a variety of conditions on long @-@ distance flights , as pilots were required to fly their aircraft to and from displays in remote areas . The commanding officer of Fighter Squadron , Squadron Leader Johnny Summers , considered that it gave personnel " most useful experience in the handling and maintenance of their aircraft under adverse conditions " . One of No. 1 FTS 's leading instructors during the early 1930s , Flight Lieutenant Frederick Scherger , was also a flight commander in Fighter Squadron . In October 1931 , during a flight to Adelaide to take part in an aero club pageant , Scherger had to land at Nhill , Victoria , in strong winds ; his Bulldog finished up on its nose but the damage was slight , allowing him to complete the journey and win his air race with a top speed of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) .
Fighter Squadron 's public displays often involved mock dogfights and simulated dive bombing , sometimes at night . On 12 February 1934 , Summers , Scherger and another pilot demonstrated night @-@ time combat tactics over the Exhibition Ground in Melbourne , the sky being lit with searchlights . In October and November that year , the Bulldogs took part in several aerial displays in Victoria to commemorate the visit of Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester . The following month , Fighter Squadron aircraft escorted the Duke on his visit to Brisbane aboard HMAS Australia . The Bulldogs were also occasionally detailed for meteorological and photographic survey work . Throughout their existence , Fighter and Seaplane Squadrons remained under the control of No. 1 FTS and were " really little more than flights " , in the words of the official history . Fighter Squadron was dissolved in December 1935 when its six surviving Bulldogs were re @-@ designated as fighter @-@ bombers and transferred from Point Cook to nearby RAAF Laverton , where they joined the Hawker Demons of No. 1 Squadron . During its service with Fighter Squadron , the Bulldog had been the only single @-@ seat fighter in the RAAF 's inventory , and no specialist fighter type took its place for the remainder of the decade .
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= One Times Square =
One Times Square , also known as 1475 Broadway , the New York Times Building , the New York Times Tower , or simply as the Times Tower , is a 25 story , 363 @-@ foot ( 111 @-@ metre ) -high skyscraper , designed by Cyrus L. W. Eidlitz ( HLW International ) , located at 42nd Street and Broadway in New York City . The tower was originally built to serve as the headquarters of the local newspaper , The New York Times ( which also gave its name to the area as a whole , known as Times Square ) ; however , the Times stayed in the building for less than 10 years before moving to a new building on 229 West 43rd Street .
Despite the Times leaving the building , One Times Square remained a major focal point of Times Square due to its annual New Year 's Eve " ball drop " festivities ( the ball itself has remained atop the tower year @-@ round since 2009 ) , and the introduction of an electronic news ticker at street @-@ level in 1928 . Following its sale to Lehman Brothers in 1995 , One Times Square was re @-@ purposed as an advertising location to take advantage of its prime location within the square . Most of the building 's interior remains vacant ( aside from its only major tenant , a Walgreens pharmacy which occupies its lower levels ) , while its exterior features a large number of traditional and electronic billboards . Due to the large amount of revenue that its ads pull , One Times Square is considered one of the most valuable advertising locations in the world .
= = Building history = =
The building , on the site of the Pabst Hotel , was originally completed in 1904 to serve as the new headquarters of The New York Times , which officially moved into the building in January 1905 . The paper 's owner , Adolph Ochs , also successfully persuaded the city to rename the surrounding area ( then known as Longacre Square ) after the newspaper , becoming Times Square . To help promote the new headquarters , the Times held a New Year 's Eve event on December 31 , 1903 , welcoming the year of 1904 with a fireworks display set off from the roof of the building at midnight . The event was a success , attracting 200 @,@ 000 spectators , and was continued annually until 1907 . For 1908 , Ochs replaced the display with what he thought would be a more spectacular event — the lowering of a lit ball down the building 's flagpole at midnight , patterned off the use of time balls to indicate a certain time of day ( the " ball drop " is still held on One Times Square to this day , attracting an average of one million spectators yearly ) .
In 1913 , only eight years after it moved to One Times Square , the Times moved its corporate headquarters to 229 West 43rd Street , which served as its home from 1913 to 2007 . The Times has since moved to The New York Times Building on nearby Eighth Avenue . After leaving One Times Square , the Times still maintained ownership of the tower .
On November 6 , 1928 , an electronic news ticker known as the Motograph News Bulletin ( colloquially known as the " zipper " ) was introduced near the base of the building . The zipper originally consisted of 14 @,@ 800 light bulbs , with the display controlled by a chain conveyor system inside the building ; individual letter elements ( a form of movable type ) were loaded into frames to spell out news headlines . As the frames moved along the conveyor , the letters themselves triggered electrical contacts which lit the external bulbs ( the zipper has since been upgraded to use modern LED technology ) . The first headline displayed on the zipper announced Herbert Hoover 's victory in that day 's presidential election . The zipper was used to display other major news headlines of the era , and its content later expanded to include sports and weather updates as well . On the evening of August 14 , 1945 , the zipper was famously used to announce Japan 's surrender from World War II to a packed crowd in Times Square .
The Times sold the building to advertising executive and sign designer Douglas Leigh in 1961 . Leigh then sold the building to Allied Chemical in 1963 . Allied Chemical greatly modified the building 's facade in a $ 10 million renovation , replacing intricate granite and terracotta elements with marble facing . In 1974 , the building was sold to investor Alex Parker for $ 6 @.@ 25 million , and then to the Swiss @-@ based investment group Kemekod . Kemekod later sold the tower to an investment group led by Lawrence I. Linksman in 1982 . Linksman promised further renovations to the building , including the possibility of using its north face for signage displays . Following the sale of the building by the Times , the zipper was operated on an inconsistent basis by various news outlets , and was shut off entirely between 1961 and 1965 , and again from 1977 to 1986 . In 1986 , the ticker was revived by Newsday , which operated it until December 31 , 1994 . The newspaper declined to renew its lease on the ticker , believing that they " [ didn 't ] get very much out of that sign " financially . Publishing company Pearson PLC operated the zipper for a period beginning on December 31 , 1994 , until ceding its role to Dow Jones & Company in June 1995 .
From 1990 to 1996 , Sony operated a Jumbotron on the exterior of the tower . Alongside its use for advertising and news , it was also frequently used by the producers of the late @-@ night talk show Late Show with David Letterman , who could display a live feed from its studio on the screen as well . As a cost @-@ saving measure , Sony declined to renew its lease of the space , leading to the subsequent removal of the Jumbotron in June 1996 . Due to its frequent use by Late Show , its producer Rob Burnett jokingly considered the removal of the Jumbotron to be " a sad , sad day for New York . "
= = Billboards = =
In 1992 , the owners of One Times Square filed for bankruptcy protection . In March 1995 , One Times Square was sold to the financial services firm Lehman Brothers for $ 27 @.@ 5 million . The new owners felt that it would not be cost @-@ effective to house new tenants in the tower due to the cost of the extensive renovation required in order to make it suitable for tenants as compared to the relatively small rental revenue that its limited floor space would have brought in . Instead , they decided to market the tower as a location for advertising to capitalize on its prominent location within the Square . The entire exterior of One Times Square above the ticker was modified to add a grid frame for mounting billboard signs . Throughout 1996 , One Times Square 's first electronic billboards were installed , such as , a Cup Noodles billboard with steam effects was added to the front of the tower , later accompanied by an animated Budweiser sign . In October , a new 55 @-@ foot video screen sponsored by ITT Corporation was introduced to the top of the tower , which would feature video advertisements and community service announcements . In December 1996 , a new Panasonic display operated by NBC known as Astrovision was introduced as a replacement for Sony 's Jumbotron at the base of the tower .
Lehman Brothers sold One Times Square in 1997 to the Jamestown , L.P. for $ 117 million . Filings related to the sale revealed that the billboards on the tower had been generating a net revenue of $ 7 million yearly , representing a 300 % profit . With growing tourism and high traffic in the Times Square area ( with a yearly average of over 100 million pedestrians — alongside its prominence in media coverage of New Year 's festivities , seen by a wide audience yearly ) , annual revenue from the signs grew to over $ 23 million by the year 2012 — rivaling London 's Piccadilly Circus as the most valuable public advertising space in the world .
Despite becoming primarily used for advertising , One Times Square continued to house tenants in its ground @-@ level floors : in the late 1990s , a Warner Bros. retail store filled the first three floors . In early 2006 , the floors were occupied by a J. C. Penney pop @-@ up store known as The J C. Penney Experience . In November 2008 , pharmacy chain Walgreens opened a new flagship store in the space , renting it in a lease valued at $ 4 million yearly . Walgreens also introduced a new digital sign to the building as part of its grand opening : designed by Gilmore Group and constructed by D3 LED , the 17 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 600 m2 ) sign runs diagonally up both sides of the building and contains 12 million LEDs , surpassing the nearby NASDAQ sign as the largest LED sign in Times Square . The former electrical room in the tower 's basement currently serves as a " vault " for the storage of items relating to New Year 's Eve celebrations at Times Square , including the ball itself ( prior to 2009 ) , spare parts , numeral signage and other memorabilia .
= = = Advertisers = = =
From 1996 to 2006 , Nissin Foods operated a Cup Noodles billboard with smoke effects ( an effect that had also been famously used by other Times Square billboards , such as the Camel Cigarettes sign ) . The Cup Noodles billboard was replaced in 2006 by a General Motors billboard featuring a Chevrolet branded clock ; however , as a part of cutbacks resulting from GM 's bankruptcy and re @-@ organization , the Chevrolet Clock was removed in 2009 and eventually replaced by the current Dunkin ' Donuts display .
On August 19 , 1998 , Discover Card replaced ITT Corporation as the operator and sponsor of the top @-@ most screen on One Times Square as part of a ten @-@ year deal . The deal came alongside the announcement that Discover Card would be an official sponsor of Times Square 's New Year 's Eve 2000 festivities .
In 2006 , News Corporation ( now 21st Century Fox ) replaced NBC as the operator and sponsor of the Astrovision screen . In 2010 , Sony returned to One Times Square by replacing the News Corp. Panasonic screen with a new high @-@ definition LED display .
In December 2007 , Toshiba took over sponsorship of the top @-@ most screen of One Times Square from Discover Card in a 10 @-@ year lease . Throughout 2008 , upgrades began to be made to the upper portion of One Times Square ; including the installation of new Toshiba high definition LED displays ( known as ToshibaVision ) , and the redesign of its roof to accommodate a larger New Year 's Eve ball , which became a year @-@ round fixture of the building beginning in 2009 .
As of 2012 , advertising displays on the front of One Times Square currently include an Anheuser @-@ Busch display , a Dunkin ' Donuts display featuring photos posted by users on Facebook and Twitter , a TDK display , and the ToshibaVision screens at the top of the tower . Toshiba 's Contract to display Toshiba Vision in Times Sqaure expires in 2018 .
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= USS Henry R. Mallory ( ID @-@ 1280 ) =
USS Henry R. Mallory ( ID @-@ 1280 ) was a transport for the United States Navy during World War I. She was also sometimes referred to as USS H. R. Mallory or as USS Mallory . Before her Navy service she was USAT Henry R. Mallory as a United States Army transport ship . From her 1916 launch , and after her World War I military service , she was known as SS Henry R. Mallory for the Mallory Lines . Pressed into service as a troopship in World War II by the War Shipping Administration , she was torpedoed by the German submarine U @-@ 402 in the North Atlantic ocean and sank with the loss of 272 men — over half of those on board .
= = World War I = =
SS Henry R. Mallory was built by the Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Co. of Newport News , Virginia ( yard no . 193 ) , and delivered to the Mallory Steamship Line on 21 October 1916 . Named for Mallory Lines president Henry R. Mallory , she operated on a New Orleans – New York route , carrying passengers and freight .
= = = U.S. Army service = = =
After the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917 , the United States Army , needing transports to get its men and materiel to France , had a select committee of shipping executives pore over registries of American shipping . The committee selected Henry R. Mallory and thirteen other American @-@ flagged ships that were sufficiently fast , could carry enough fuel in their bunkers for transatlantic crossings , and , most importantly , were in port or not far at sea . After Henry R. Mallory discharged her last load of passengers and cargo , she was officially handed over to the Army on 24 May , one of the first three ships acquired .
Before any troop transportation could be undertaken , all of the ships were hastily refitted . Of the fourteen ships , ten , including Henry R. Mallory , were designated to carry human passengers ; the other four were designated as animal ships . The ten ships designated to carry troops had all of their second- and third @-@ class accommodations ripped out and replaced with berths for troops . Cooking and toilet facilities were greatly expanded to handle the large numbers of men aboard . Gun platforms were installed on each ship before docking at the Brooklyn Navy Yard to have the guns themselves installed . All the ships were manned by merchant officers and crews but carried two U.S. Navy officers , Navy gun crews , quartermasters , signalmen , and wireless operators . The senior Navy officer on board would take control if a ship came under attack .
The American convoy carrying the first units of the American Expeditionary Force was broken into four groups ; Henry R. Mallory was in the third group with San Jacinto and Finland , and escorts consisting of cruiser Charleston , armed collier Cyclops , and destroyers Allen , Preston , and McCall . Henry R. Mallory departed with her group on 14 June for Brest , France , steaming at a 13 @-@ knot ( 24 km / h ) pace . A thwarted submarine attack on the first convoy group , and reports of heavy submarine activity off of Brest resulted in a change in the convoy 's destination to Saint @-@ Nazaire .
After her return from France , Henry R. Mallory sailed again in the 5th convoy on 31 July , the 7th convoy on 8 September , and the 12th convoy on 26 November , all of which sailed from the New York embarkation point in Hoboken , New Jersey . In January 1918 , Henry R. Mallory became the first transport to sail from the Newport News embarkation port , when — loaded with eight aero squadrons — she sailed on 17 January . Departing again from Hoboken on 14 March in the 24th convoy , Henry R. Mallory began her last journey under Army charter . After arriving in France on 26 March and landing her troops , Henry R. Mallory began her return to the United States with Army transport Tenadores and Navy transport Mercury . At 11 : 45 on 4 April , a German submarine fired torpedoes at the group . Through evasive maneuvers , none of the ships were hit , and with timely gunfire targeting the sub , no more was seen of the threat . Arriving back in the United States on 13 April , Henry R. Mallory was handed over to the U.S. Navy .
= = = U.S. Navy transport duties = = =
After problems with crew discipline aboard Army transports Antilles and Finland when they were torpedoed , the U.S. Navy , led by the recommendations of Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves , insisted that all troop transports be manned entirely by Navy personnel . This was accomplished soon after so as to avoid the need for what Gleaves called " ignorant and unreliable men " who were " the sweepings of the docks " . Accordingly , Henry R. Mallory was handed over to the Navy on 13 April 1918 and commissioned on 17 April .
Other than the official change command of the vessel , little else change for Henry R. Mallory . She sailed in her first convoy under Navy command on 23 April , and continued carrying troops to France , making five additional trips before the Armistice in November 1918 . In all , Henry R. Mallory carried 9 @,@ 756 troops to France .
With the fighting at an end , the task of bringing home American soldiers began almost immediately . Henry R. Mallory did her part by carrying home 14 @,@ 514 healthy and wounded men in seven roundtrips . Henry R. Mallory returned from her last Navy voyage on 29 August 1919 , and was returned to the Mallory Lines the following day .
= = World War II = =
In the early stages of World War II for the United States , the War Shipping Administration requisitioned Henry R. Mallory for use as a civilian @-@ manned troopship in July 1942 . Remaining under the operation of her owners , Agwilines , Inc . , she began operation on U.S. Army schedules in July 1942 , when she sailed from New York to Belfast . After her return to New York in August , she made way to Boston from whence she sailed to Saint John , Wabana , Newfoundland ; Sydney , Nova Scotia ; and Halifax , before returning to New York in October .
After first sailing to Boston and Newport , Rhode Island , Henry R. Mallory departed New York as a part of Convoy SC @-@ 118 headed for Liverpool via Halifax on 24 January 1943 . The crew on board Henry R. Mallory consisted of 9 officers , 68 crewmen , and 34 Naval Armed Guards ( who manned the 11 guns on deck ) . Also on board were 383 passengers , consisting of 2 civilians , 136 from the U.S. Army , 72 from the U.S. Marine Corps , and 173 from the U.S. Navy . As the convoy , which consisted of 60 ships and 26 escorts , sailed near Iceland , a " wolfpack " of Kriegsmarine U @-@ Boats attacked the convoy repeatedly over a four @-@ day period . Some 20 U @-@ boats participated , ultimately sinking 12 Allied ships , including Henry R. Mallory ; three U @-@ boats were lost .
It was at 06 : 59 on 7 February 1943 when , traveling in station 33 of the convoy , Henry R. Mallory was hit by one torpedo launched from German submarine U @-@ 402 ( 2 ) around 600 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) south @-@ southwest of Iceland . Hit in the number three hold on the starboard side , the ship began settling by the stern and listing to port , and sank at about 07 : 30 . Of Henry R. Mallory 's ten lifeboats , only three were successfully launched , holding 175 men . Many other men jumped overboard for rafts in the water .
None of the other ships in the convoy were aware of the Mallory 's predicament . American destroyer Schenck — searching for survivors from the convoy 's sunken rescue ship , SS Toward , sunk three hours earlier , also by U @-@ 402 — saw lights but was denied permission to investigate . Only when survivors were found by U.S. Coast Guard cutter Bibb some four hours later was the fate of Henry R. Mallory made clear . Bibb rescued 205 men , 3 of whom later died . Another Coast Guard cutter , Ingham , rescued a further 22 , of whom 2 later died . Among the 272 dead was the ship 's master , 48 crewmen , 15 armed guards , and 208 passengers .
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= Italian ironclad Francesco Morosini =
Francesco Morosini was an ironclad battleship built in the 1880s and 1890s for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) . The ship , named for Francesco Morosini , the 17th @-@ century Doge of Venice , was the second of three ships in the Ruggiero di Lauria class , along with Ruggiero di Lauria and Andrea Doria . She was armed with a main battery of four 17 @-@ inch ( 432 mm ) guns , was protected with 17 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 451 mm ) thick belt armor , and was capable of a top speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) .
The ship 's construction period was very lengthy , beginning in August 1881 and completing in February 1888 . She was quickly rendered obsolescent by the new pre @-@ dreadnought battleships being laid down , and as a result , her career was limited . She spent her career alternating between the Active and Reserve Squadrons , where she took part in training exercises each year with the rest of the fleet . The ship was stricken from the naval register in August 1909 ; the following month , she was expended as a target ship for experiments with torpedoes .
= = Design = =
Francesco Morosini was 105 @.@ 9 meters ( 347 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 19 @.@ 84 m ( 65 @.@ 1 ft ) and an average draft of 8 @.@ 37 m ( 27 @.@ 5 ft ) . She displaced 9 @,@ 886 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 730 long tons ) normally and up to 11 @,@ 145 t ( 10 @,@ 969 long tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of compound steam engines each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by eight coal @-@ fired , oval boilers . Her engines produced a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) at 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) . She could steam for 2 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km ; 3 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 507 – 509 officers and men .
Francesco Morosini was armed with a main battery of four 17 in ( 432 mm ) 27 @-@ caliber guns , mounted in two pairs en echelon in a central barbette . She carried a secondary battery of two 6 in ( 152 mm ) 32 @-@ cal. guns , one at the bow and the other at the stern , and four 4 @.@ 7 in ( 119 mm ) 32 @-@ cal. guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she carried five 14 in ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull . She was protected by steel armor ; her armored belt was 17 @.@ 75 in ( 451 mm ) thick , and her armored deck was 3 in ( 76 mm ) thick . Her conning tower was armored with 9 @.@ 8 in ( 249 mm ) of steel plate , and the barbette had 14 @.@ 2 in ( 361 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Francesco Morosini was under construction for nearly eight years . She was laid down at the Venetian Arsenal on 4 December 1881 and launched on 30 July 1885 . She was not completed for another four years , her construction finally being finished on 21 August 1889 . Because of the rapid pace of naval technological development in the late 19th century , her lengthy construction period meant that she was an obsolete design by the time she entered service . The year she entered service , the British began building the Royal Sovereign class ; these ships marked a significant advance over previous types of capital ships and set the standard for future vessels , which became known as pre @-@ dreadnought battleships . In addition , technological progress , particularly in armor production techniques — first Harvey armor and then Krupp armor — rapidly rendered older vessels like Francesco Morosini obsolete .
Francesco Morosini took part in the annual fleet maneuvers of 1894 in 2nd Division of the Active Squadron , along with the protected cruiser Ettore Fieramosca , the torpedo cruiser Tripoli , and four torpedo boats . She remained in the 2nd Division the following year , which now included the protected cruiser Etruria and the torpedo cruisers Euridice and Calatafimi . The Squadron was based at La Spezia at the time . The following year , she cruised off Crete as the flagship of the 2nd Division , under Rear Admiral E. Gaulterio . During that year 's summer maneuvers , held in July , Francesco Morosini continued as Gaulterio 's flagship ; the 2nd Division also included her sister Andrea Doria and the protected cruiser Giovanni Bausan . The 1st and 2nd Divisions of the Active Squadron were tasked with defending against a hostile fleet , simulated by older ships in reserve .
In 1898 , Francesco Morosini was transferred to the Reserve Squadron , along with Ruggiero di Lauria and the ironclad Lepanto and five cruisers . The following year , Francesco Morosini and her two sisters returned to the Active Squadron , which was kept in service for eight months of the year , with the remainder spent with reduced crews . The Squadron also included the ironclads Re Umberto , Sicilia , and Lepanto . In 1900 , Francesco Morosini and her sisters were significantly modified and received a large number of small guns for defense against torpedo boats . These included a pair of 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns , ten 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 40 @-@ caliber guns , twelve 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , five 37 mm revolver cannon , and two machine guns .
In 1905 , Francesco Morosini and her two sisters were joined in the Reserve Squadron by the three Re Umberto @-@ class ironclads and Enrico Dandolo , three cruisers , and sixteen torpedo boats . This squadron only entered active service for two months of the year for training maneuvers , and the rest of the year was spent with reduced crews . In 1908 , the Italian Navy decided to discard Francesco Morosini and her sister Ruggiero di Lauria . She was formally stricken from the naval register in August 1909 , and was thereafter used as a target ship for a torpedo experiment . On 15 September , she was sunk at La Spezia ; the experiment was conducted to test the effect of a torpedo hit in order to develop more a more effective hull design . The explosion tore a 50 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 540 sq ft ) hole in the hull , causing her to list severely and sink on her side . Her wreck was later scrapped .
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= Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit =
Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit is a steel roller coaster at Universal Studios Florida in Orlando , Florida . With a height of 167 feet ( 51 m ) , a length of 3 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) , and a top speed of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) , it is the largest X @-@ Coaster ever built by German manufacturer Maurer Söhne . It was announced on March 19 , 2008 and officially opened on August 19 , 2009 though originally planned to open in the spring of that year . Some of the special features are that riders are recorded during the entire 1 minute and 37 second ride and can choose one of thirty songs to listen to during the experience .
= = History = =
During the second week of January 2008 , Universal Parks & Resorts filed a Notice of Commencement with Orange County , Florida indicating that they were to construct a ride system that they had code @-@ named " Project Rumble . " The notice also stated that the contractor was " Maurer Rides GmbH , " located in Munich , Germany .
After months of rumours , the new attraction was announced by Universal officials on March 19 , 2008 . Unlike usual announcements , officials did not reveal the specifications of the entire roller coaster . In the original press release , it stated that the roller coaster 's vertical lift hill would be 167 feet ( 51 m ) tall , and that the trains would reach a maximum speed of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . The press release also mentioned that each train would be equipped with a multi @-@ media package , LED lights , built in video recorders , and the option for riders to choose a song from a list to be played during the course of the ride . The ride would also include six near miss encounters . At the time , the new roller coaster was scheduled to open in Spring 2009 . Also , in the months after the announcement , Universal surveyed guests on what songs they think should be included in the roller coaster . Some of the artists that guests could choose from were : The Black Eyed Peas , Bee Gees , The Beach Boys , and Johnny Cash .
Construction began in May 2008 with preliminary land clearing . The first track pieces were installed during the week of December 7 , 2008 . In February 2009 , Universal launched a website for the attraction , which included a construction blog and photographs chronicling progress of the attraction 's construction . The track layout was completed at the end of April 2009 with the crowning of the lift hill .
In April 2009 , Universal confirmed that the roller coaster would not open as originally planned and said it would open in the summer . Though Universal has never mentioned what the exact problem with the roller coaster was , it is believed by newspapers that issues with the anti @-@ rollback devices on the lift hill that were not working correctly caused the delay .
After the issues with the ride were resolved , Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit began public previews in mid @-@ August 2009 . On August 19 , 2009 , Universal Studios Florida officially opened the attraction .
= = Ride experience = =
= = = Queue = = =
Guest first enter into one of two queues ; either the main queue , or the single rider queue . In both queue lines , there are several large screen displays that explain how to pick a song to play during the ride and important safety instructions . In the video , characters called " Video DJ 's " are used as demonstrators to provide a visual explanation .
= = = Ride = = =
The station for the roller coaster is quite different than traditional stations . As the train enters , it slows down but does not stop . There is a moving sidewalk on both sides of the station moving at the same speed as the train so riders can load and unload . Riders have about 45 seconds to take their seat , lower the lap @-@ bar and make their song choice . After the restraints are checked , the train immediately begins to climb the 167 @-@ foot ( 51 m ) vertical chain lift and the song that the rider picked begins to play while the on @-@ ride video recorder begins recording . When the train reaches the top of the lift , it drops back to the ground reaching a maximum speed of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . Following the drop , the train goes through a non @-@ inverting loop ( meaning that the train doesn 't go through an inversion ) , which is nicknamed " The Double Take " . Then the train makes an upward right turn into one of the several mid @-@ course brakes . It then drops back down going through a hole in a wall before entering a left upward helix . This section of the coaster is nicknamed " The Treble Clef " . Next the train enters a quick element nicknamed , " The Jump Cut " which is similar to a non @-@ inverting corkscrew . The train then drops back down before climbing back up into the second mid @-@ course brakes . Following a small drop to the left , it travels straight before making a right turn , followed by a left , and then another right leading into the third set of mid @-@ course brakes . Another drop is followed by the brakes leading into an s @-@ bend / turn . The train then travels into an inclined loop , then the train enters the fourth set of brakes after going back up . Finally , the train drops back down , and goes over a small hill before entering the final brake run where the train enters the station and the riders song ends .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track of Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit is 3 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) long in length , and the height of the lift is approximately 167 feet ( 51 m ) . Because the lift hill is vertical , a special evacuation system is used in the event that a train stalls on the lift . Also , the track is filled with sand and gravel to reduce the noise when a train is on the track . Throughout the layout of the roller coaster , there are 5 sets of brakes to control the speed of the trains .
= = = Trains = = =
The roller coaster operates with seven stadium @-@ style seating X @-@ Car trains . Each train has two cars that can hold six riders each for a total of twelve riders per train . On the head rest of each seat there are two speakers that play music during the ride . The speakers have been designed so that only the rider 's selected music track will be audible . On the restraint is a small touch screen where riders can choose which song they want to listen to during the ride . Additionally , the trains are equipped with multi @-@ coloured lights that can be seen during the night .
= = Musical selections = =
The initial announcement just said that there would be 5 categories of songs . The full track list was not released until July 6 , 2009 , with Universal Studios Florida unveiling thirty songs ( 6 in each category ) that can be played during the ride .
After riders board the train and lower their restraint , attached to the restraint is a small screen containing the logo of the ride and five categories of songs the rider can pick from . The song that the rider picked begins as the train climbs the vertical lift hill . Depending on the song , it may not begin at the beginning and end early as the total cycle time of the roller coaster is 1 minute and 39 seconds .
= = = Hidden Song Selections = = =
In addition to these 30 songs , Universal Studios Florida also provided additional " hidden " songs that are available to riders , but are not included in the queue video .
To access these songs , after lowering the restraint , on the screen , riders must push and hold the logo of the ride for approximately ten seconds . When they release their finger , a number pad will then show up . Entering a three digit code will allow the rider to listen to the song that the code corresponds to .
= = = Awards = = =
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= Doreen Valiente =
Doreen Edith Dominy Valiente ( 4 January 1922 – 1 September 1999 ) was an English Wiccan who was responsible for writing much of the early religious liturgy within the tradition of Gardnerian Wicca . An author and poet , she also published five books dealing with Wicca and related esoteric subjects .
Born to a middle @-@ class family in Surrey , Valiente began practicing magic while a teenager . Working as a translator at Bletchley Park during the Second World War , she also married twice in this period . Developing her interest in occultism after the war , she began practicing ceremonial magic with a friend while living in Bournemouth . Learning of Wicca , in 1953 she was initiated into the Gardnerian tradition by its founder , Gerald Gardner . Soon becoming the High Priestess of Gardner 's Bricket Wood coven , she helped him to produce or adapt many important scriptural texts for Wicca , such as The Witches Rune and the Charge of the Goddess , which were incorporated into the early Gardnerian Book of Shadows . In 1957 , a schism resulted in Valiente and her followers leaving Gardner to form their own short @-@ lived coven . After investigating the Wiccan tradition of Charles Cardell , in 1953 she was initiated into Raymond Howard 's Coven of Atho . In 1964 she then went to work with Robert Cochrane in his coven , the Clan of Tubal Cain , although she later broke from this group .
Eager to promote and defend her religion , she played a leading role in both the Witchcraft Research Association and then the Pagan Front during the 1960s and 1970s . That latter decade also saw her briefly involve herself in far right politics as well as becoming a keen ley hunter and proponent of Earth mysteries . As well as regularly writing articles on esoteric topics for various magazines , from the 1960s onward she authored a number of books on the subject of Wicca , as well as contributing to the publication of works by Wiccan friends Stewart Farrar , Janet Farrar , and Evan John Jones . In these works also she became an early advocate of the idea that anyone could practice Wicca without requiring initiation by a pre @-@ existing Wiccan , while also contributing to and encouraging research into the religion 's early history . Living in Brighton during these years , she worked with both her partner and initiate Ron Cook and was a member of the Silver Malkin coven . In her final years she served as patron of the Sussex @-@ based Centre for Pagan Studies prior to her death from pancreatic cancer .
Valiente 's magical artefacts and papers were bequeathed to her friend John Belham @-@ Payne , who entrusted them to a charitable trust , the Doreen Valiente Foundation , in 2011 . Having had a significant influence in the history of Wicca , she is widely revered in the Wiccan community as " the Mother of Modern Witchcraft " , and has been the subject of two biographies .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life : 1922 – 52 = = =
Valiente was born Doreen Edith Dominy on 4 January 1922 at Colliers Wood in the Southern English town of Mitcham , Surrey . Her father , Harry Dominy , was a civil engineer , and he lived with her mother Edith in Colliers Wood . Harry came from a Methodist background and Edith from a Congregationalist one , however Doreen was never baptised , as was the custom of the time , due to an argument that Edith had had with the local vicar . Doreen later claimed that she had not had a close or affectionate relationship with her parents , whom she characterised as highly conventional and heavily focused on social climbing . During her childhood they moved to Horley in Surrey , and it was there – according to her later account – that she had an early spiritual experience while staring at the moon . From there , her family moved to the West Country and then to the New Forest . In either late 1934 or 1935 , Doreen 's mother left her father and took her to live with maternal relatives in Southampton . Valiente first began practicing magic aged 13 , performing a spell to prevent her mother being harassed by a co @-@ worker ; she came to believe that it had worked . Her early knowledge of magical practices may have derived from books that she found in the local library . Her parents were concerned by this behaviour and sent her to a convent school . She despised the school and left it at the age of 15 , refusing to return . She had wanted to go to art school , but instead gained employment in a factory , before moving on to work as a clerk and typist at the Unemployment Assistance Board .
During the Second World War , she became a Foreign Office Civilian Temporary Senior Assistant Officer , in this capacity working as a translator at Bletchley Park . In relation to this work , she was also sent to South Wales , and it was there , in the town of Barry , that she met Joanis Vlachopolous , a Greek seaman in the Merchant Navy . Entering a relationship , they were married in East Glamorgan on 31 January 1941 . However , in June 1941 he was serving aboard the Pandias when it was sunk by a U @-@ boat off of the West African coast ; he was declared missing in action and presumed deceased . Widowed , during 1942 and 1943 Valiente had a number of short @-@ term jobs in Wales , which were possibly a cover for intelligence work .
After October 1943 she was transferred to the intelligence service 's offices in Berkeley Street in the Mayfair area of London , where she was involved in message decryption . In London she met and entered into a relationship with Casimiro Valiente , a Spaniard who had fled from the Spanish Civil War , where he had fought on the side of the Spanish Republican Army before later joining the French Foreign Legion , where he was wounded at the Battle of Narvik and evacuated to England . They were married on 29 May 1944 at St Pancras Registry Office . The couple moved to Bournemouth – where Doreen 's mother was then living – and here Casimiro worked as a chef . Valiente would later say that both she and her husband suffered racism after the war because of their foreign associations .
Developing an interest in occultism , she began practicing ceremonial magic with a friend , " Zerki " , at his flat . She had obtained the magical regalia and notebooks of a recently deceased doctor , who had been a member of the Alpha et Omega , a splinter group of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn , and attempted to learn Hebrew , a language with uses in various forms of ceremonial magic . It was at this point that she selected " Ameth " as her magical name . She was particularly interested by John Symonds ' book The Great Beast , which was a biography of the occultist Aleister Crowley , who had founded the religion of Thelema in 1904 , and following this she avidly read a copy of Crowley 's Magick in Theory and Practice which she found in a local library . Alongside these , she also had some practical experience with the esoteric religions of Spiritualism and Theosophy , having attended the services of a local Christian Spiritualist church in Charminster .
= = = Gerald Gardner and the Bricket Wood Coven : 1952 – 57 = = =
She had also become familiar with the idea of a pre @-@ Christian witch @-@ cult surviving into the modern period through the works of Charles Godfrey Leland , Margaret Murray , and Robert Graves , although believed that the religion was extinct . It was in autumn 1952 that she read an article by the reporter Allen Andrews in Illustrated magazine titled " Witchcraft in Britain " . Discussing the recent opening of the Folklore Centre of Superstition and Witchcraft in Castletown on the Isle of Man , it mentioned the museum 's director , Cecil Williamson , and its " resident witch " , Gerald Gardner .
Intrigued by the article , Valiente wrote a letter to Williamson in 1952 , who in turn put her in contact with Gardner . Valiente and Gardner wrote several letters back @-@ and @-@ forth , with the latter eventually suggesting that she meet him at the home of his friend and fellow Wiccan Edith Woodford @-@ Grimes ( " Dafo " ) , who lived not far from Bournemouth , in the Christchurch area . Before she left the meeting , Gardner gave her a copy of his 1949 novel , High Magic 's Aid , in which he describes a fictionalised account of Wiccan initiates in the Middle Ages ; he allegedly did so in order to gauge her opinion on ritual nudity and scourging , both of which were present in his tradition of Gardnerian Wicca .
On Midsummer 1953 Gardner invited Valiente again to Woodford @-@ Grimes 's house , and it was here that he initiated her into Wicca in a ritual during which they stood before an altar and he read from his Book of Shadows . The three of them then set off to the prehistoric monument of Stonehenge in Wiltshire , where they witnessed the Druids performing a ritual there . Gardner had lent a ritual sword which he owned to the Druids , who placed it within the monument 's Heel Stone during their rite . Valiente told her husband and mother about the visit to Stonehenge , but not about her initiation , of which , she feared , they would not have approved .
Later in the year , Gardner invited Valiente to visit him at his flat in Shepherd 's Bush , West London , and it was there that she met the eight to ten members of his Bricket Wood coven , which met near St. Albans , north of London . She soon rose to become the coven 's High Priestess . The historian Ronald Hutton later commented that in doing so , she formed " the second great creative partnership of [ Gardner 's ] life " after that with Woodford @-@ Grimes . Valiente recognised how much of the material in Gardner 's Book of Shadows was taken not from ancient sources as Gardner had initially claimed , but from the works of Crowley . She confronted Gardner with this , who claimed that the text he had received from the New Forest coven had been fragmentary and he had had to fill much of it using various sources . She took the Book of Shadows , and with Gardner 's permission , rewrote much of it , cutting out a lot of sections that had come from Crowley , fearing that his infamous reputation would sully Wicca . In 1953 she wrote " Queen of the Moon , Queen of the Stars " , an invocation for use in a Yule ritual which was inspired by a Hebridean song found in the Carmina Gadelica . With Gardner she also wrote " The Witches Rune " , a chant for use while dancing in a circle . She rewrote much of the Charge of the Goddess , with Hutton characterising this act as " her greatest single contribution to Wicca " , for her version of the Charge became " the principle expression of Wiccan spirituality " in coming years .
Gardner spent his summers at the Museum of Magic and Witchcraft on the Isle of Man , and thus often relied on Valiente to deal with his affairs in Southern England . He sent her to meet with the occult artist Austin Osman Spare when he wanted some talismans produced by the latter . Spare subsequently described Valiente as " a myopic stalky nymph ... harmless and a little tiresome " in a letter that he wrote to Kenneth Grant . At Gardner 's prompting , she also met with the occultist Gerald Yorke , who was interested in learning about Wicca ; Gardner insisted that she lie to Yorke by informing him that she was from a longstanding family of hereditary Wiccan practitioners . She also aided him in preparing his second non @-@ fiction book about Wicca , The Meaning of Witchcraft , focusing in particular on those sections refuting the sensationalist accusations of the tabloid press .
However Gardner 's increasing desire for publicity , much of it ending up negative , caused conflict with Valiente and other members of his coven like Ned Grove and Derek Boothby . She felt that in repeatedly communicating with the press , he was compromising the coven 's security . She was also not enthusiastic about two young people whom Gardner brought into the coven , Jack L. Bracelin and his girlfriend ' Dayonis ' , stating that " a more qualid pair of spivs it would be hard to find indeed " . Two factions emerged within the coven ; Valiente led a broadly anti @-@ publicity group , while Gardner led a pro @-@ publicity one . In 1957 , Valiente and Grove drew up a list of " Proposed Rules of the Craft " which were partly designed to curtail Gardner 's publicity seeking . From his home in the Isle of Man , he responded that this was not necessary as a series of rules already existed , at which point he produced the Wiccan Laws . These laws limited the control of the High Priestess , which angered Valiente , who later realised that Gardner had simply made them up in response to her own Proposed Laws . In summer 1957 , the coven split . According to Valiente , she and her followers " had had enough of the Gospel according to St. Gerald ; but we still believed that the real traditional witchcraft lived " . According to Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White , " Wicca had experienced its first great schism " .
= = = Robert Cochrane and Where Witchcraft Lives : 1957 – 69 = = =
After breaking from Gardner 's Bricket Wood coven , Valiente formed her own coven with Grove as High Priest , still following the tradition of Gardnerian Wicca , albeit without the Wiccan laws , which she believed to be entirely an invention of Gardner 's . This coven however failed to last , breaking up amid arguments between its founders . In 1956 , Valiente , along with her husband and her mother , moved into a basement flat in Lewes Crescent , Kemptown , in the southern coastal town of Brighton , although in 1968 they moved into a flat nearer to the town centre . She befriended another Kemptown resident , the journalist Leslie Roberts , who shared her interest in the supernatural . He attracted much attention to himself in the local press through his claims that practitioners of black magic were also operating in the area . Valiente remained a good friend to Roberts until his death from heart disease in 1966 . She also got back in touch with Gardner , and mended their friendship , remaining on good terms until his death in 1964 , when he left her £ 200 in his will . During the early 1960s she also developed a correspondence with two Gardnerian initiates in Sheffield , Patricia Crowther and her husband Arnold Crowther , finally meeting them when the latter couple visited Brighton in 1965 .
After her mother 's death in August 1962 , Valiente felt that she could be more open about being a Wiccan herself . Eager to spread information about Wicca throughout Britain , she also began to interact with press , sending a 1962 letter to the Spiritualist newspaper Psychic News , and in 1964 being interviewed for her involvement with Wicca by Brighton 's Evening Argus . During the 1960s , she began producing articles about Wicca and other esoteric subjects on a regular basis , for such esoteric magazines as Light , Fate , and Prediction . In this capacity , she also began to make appearances on television and radio . She also involved herself in the newly formed Witchcraft Research Association ( WRA ) , becoming its second President after the resignation of Sybil Leek . Valiente 's letter of welcome was included in the first issue of the WRA 's newsletter , Pentagram , published in August 1964 , while she also gave a speech at the WRA 's Halloween dinner in October . It was at the speech that Valiente proclaimed the Wiccan Rede ; this was its first public appearance in a recognisable form , with Doyle White arguing that it was Valiente herself who both created and named the Rede . It was through the WRA that Valiente came to communicate with the journalist Justine Glass , who was then conducting research for her book Witchcraft , the Sixth Sense , and Us .
Valiente began visiting local libraries and archives in order to investigate the history of witchcraft in Sussex . On the basis of this research , the esoteric press Aquarian published her first book , Where Witchcraft Lives , in 1962 . Just as Gardner had done in his book Witchcraft Today , here Valiente did not identify as a practicing Wiccan , but as an interested scholar of witchcraft . It contained her own research into the history and folklore of witchcraft in her county of Sussex , which she had collected both from archival research and from the published work of the historian L 'Estrange Ewen . It interpreted this evidence in light of the discredited theories of Margaret Murray , which claimed that a pre @-@ Christian religious movement had survived to the present , when it had emerged as Wicca . Hutton later related that it was " one of the first three books to be published on the subject " of Wicca , and that the " remarkable feature of the book is that it remains , until this date [ 2010 ] , the only one produced by a prominent modern witch that embodies actual original research into the records of the trials of people accused of the crime of witchcraft during the early modern period . " In 1966 , Valiente then produced a manuscript for a book titled I am a Witch ! , a collection of poems with a biographical introduction , however it was never published , with publishers not believing that it would be commercially viable .
Valiente learned of the non @-@ Gardnerian Wiccan Charles Cardell from a 1958 article , and subsequently struck up a correspondence with him . Cardell suggested that they pool their respective traditions together , but Valiente declined the offer , expressing some scepticism regarding Cardell 's motives and conduct . In 1962 , Valiente began a correspondence course run by Raymond Howard , a former associate of Cardell 's ; this course instructed her in a Wiccan tradition known as the Coven of Atho . At Halloween 1963 she was then initiated into the Coven of Atho in a ritual overseen by Howard , entering the lowest rank of the course , that of ' Sarsen ' , and beginning to copy the teachings that she received into notebooks , where she was able to identify many of the sources from which Howard had drawn upon in fashioning his tradition .
In 1964 , Valiente was introduced to the Pagan witch Robert Cochrane by a mutual friend , the ceremonial magician William G. Gray , who had met him at a gathering at Glastonbury Tor held by the Brotherhood of the Essenes . Although sceptical of Cochrane 's claims to have come from a hereditary family of witches , she was impressed by his charisma , his desire to avoid publicity , and his emphasis on working outdoors . Valiente was invited to join Cochrane 's coven , the Clan of Tubal Cain , becoming its sixth member . However , she became dissatisfied with Cochrane , who was openly committing adultery and constantly insulting Gardnerians , even at one point calling for " a Night of the Long Knives of the Gardnerians " , at which point Valiente openly criticised him and then left his Clan . In her own words , she " rose up and challenged him in the presence of the rest of the coven . I told him that I was fed up with listening to all this senseless malice , and that , if a ' Night of the Long Knives ' was what his sick little soul craved , he could get on with it , but he could get on with it alone , because I had better things to do " . Shortly after , Cochrane committed ritual suicide on Midsummer 1966 ; she authored the poem " Elegy for a Dead Witch " in his memory . She remained in contact with his widow and other members of the Clan , as well as with Gray , and proceeded to work on occasion with The Regency , a group founded by former members of the Clan .
= = = The Pagan Front , National Front , and further publications : 1970 – 84 = = =
Living in Brighton , Valiente took up employment in a branch of the Boots pharmacist . In 1971 she appeared on the BBC documentary , Power of the Witch , which was devoted to Wicca and also featured the prominent Wiccan Alex Sanders . That same year , she was involved in the founding of the Pagan Front , a British pressure group that campaigned for the religious rights of Wiccans and other Pagans . In November 1970 she developed a full moon inauguration ritual for local branches of the Front to use and on May Day 1971 she chaired its first national meeting , held at Chiswick , West London . It was she who developed the three principles that came to be central to the Pagan Front 's interpretation of their religion : adherence to the Wiccan Rede , a belief in reincarnation , and a sense of kinship with nature .
In April 1972 her husband Casimiro died ; he had never taken an interest in Wicca or esotericism and Valiente later claimed that theirs had been an unhappy relationship . Newly widowed , she soon had to move as the local council decided that her home was unfit for human habitation ; she was relocated into council accommodation in the mid @-@ 1960s tower block of Tyson Place in Grosvenor Square , Brighton . Her flat was described by visitors as cramped , being filled with thousands of books . It was there that she met Ronald Cooke , a member of the apartment block 's residents ' committee ; they entered into a relationship and she initiated him into Wicca , where he became her working partner . Together they regularly explored the Sussex countryside , and went on several holidays to Glastonbury , further considering moving there . She also joined a coven that was operating in the local area , Silver Malkin , after it was established by the Wiccan High Priestess Sally Griffyn .
During the early 1970s , Valiente became a member of a far right white nationalist political party , the National Front , for about eighteen months , during which she designed a banner for her local branch . Valiente 's biographer Philip Heselton suggested that the party 's nationalistic outlook may have appealed to her strongly patriotic values and that she might have hoped that the Front would serve as a political equivalent to the Pagan movement . At the same time she also became a member of another , more extreme far right group , the Northern League . However , she allowed her membership of the National Front to lapse , sending a letter to her local branch stating that although she respected its leader John Tyndall and had made friends within the group , she was critical of the party 's opposition to women 's liberation , gay rights , and sex education , all of which she lauded as progressive causes . Heselton has also suggested that Valiente may have joined these groups in order to investigate them before reporting back to Britain 's intelligence agencies .
It was also in the early 1970s that she read John Michell 's The View Over Atlantis and was heavily influenced by it , embracing Michell 's view that there were ley lines across the British landscape that channelled earth energies . Inspired , she began searching for ley lines in the area around Brighton . She also began subscribing to The Ley Hunter magazine , for which she authored several articles and book reviews . Valiente came to see the public emergence of Wicca as a sign of the Age of Aquarius , arguing that the religion should ally with the feminist and environmentalist movements in order to establish a better future for the planet .
In 1973 , the publishing company Robert Hale brought out Valiente 's second book , An ABC of Witchcraft , in which she provided an encyclopaedic overview of various topics related to Wicca and esotericism . In 1975 , Hale published Valiente 's Natural Magic , a discussion of what she believed to be the magical usages and associations of the weather , stones , plants , and other elements of the natural world . In 1978 Hale then published Witchcraft for Tomorrow , in which Valiente proclaimed her belief that Wicca was ideal for the dawning Age of Aquarius and espoused James Lovelock 's Gaia hypothesis . It also explained to the reader how they could initiate themselves into Wicca and establish their own coven . In 1978 she offered a book of poetry to Hale , although they declined to publish it , believing that there would not be sufficient market for such a publication . In 1982 she then submitted a book of short stories , The Witch Ball , to Hale , but again they declined to publish it .
In 1978 , Valiente struck up a friendship with the Alexandrian Wiccans Stewart Farrar and Janet Farrar , who were then living in Ireland . With the Farrars , she agreed to publish the original contents of the Gardnerian Book of Shadows , in order to combat the garbled variants that had been released by Cardell and Lady Sheba . The original Gardnerian material appeared in the Farrars ' two books , Eight Sabbats for Witches and The Witches ' Way ( 1984 ) , both published with Hale at Valiente 's recommendation . In these works , Valiente and the Farrars identified differences between early recensions of the Book and identified many of the older sources that it drew upon . Hutton believed that later scholars such as himself had to be " profoundly grateful " to the trio for undertaking this task , while Doyle White opined that these publications , alongside Witchcraft for Tomorrow , helped contribute to " the democratisation of Wicca " by enabling any reader to set themselves up as a Wiccan practitioner . As an appendix to The Witches ' Way she also published the result of her investigations into " Old Dorothy " , the woman whom Gardner had claimed had been involved with the New Forest coven . The academic historian Jeffrey Burton Russell had recently suggested that Gardner invented " Old Dorothy " as an attempt to hide the fact that he had invented Wicca himself . Valiente sought to disprove this , discovering that " Old Dorothy " was a real person : Dorothy Clutterbuck . Valiente biographer Jonathan Tapsell described it as " one of Doreen 's greatest known moments " .
= = = Autobiography and final years : 1985 – 1999 = = =
In the mid @-@ 1980s , Valiente began writing an autobiography in which she focused on her own place within Wiccan history . It would be published by Hale in 1989 as The Rebirth of Witchcraft . In this work she did not dismiss the Murrayite witch @-@ cult theory , but she did undermine the belief that Wicca was the survival of it by highlighting the various false claims made by Gardner , Cochrane , and Sanders , instead emphasising what she perceived as the religion 's value for the modern era . She also provided a foreword for Witchcraft : A Tradition Renewed , a book published in 1990 by Hale . It had been written by Evan John Jones , a former member of the Clan of Tubal Cain who also lived in Brighton . Heselton has expressed the view that Valiente likely did more than this , and that she wrote a number of the chapters herself . As Valiente became better known , she came to correspond with a wide range of people within the Pagan and esoteric communities . Through this , she met the American Wiccan Starhawk – whom she greatly admired – on one of the latter 's visits to Britain . She also communicated with the American Wiccan and scholar of Pagan studies Aidan A. Kelly during his investigations into the early Gardnerian liturgies . She disagreed with Kelly that there had been no New Forest coven and that Gardner had therefore invented Wicca , instead insisting that Gardner had stumbled on a coven of the Murrayite witch @-@ cult .
In 1997 Valiente discovered the Centre for Pagan Studies ( CPS ) , a Pagan organisation based in the Sussex hamlet of Maresfield that had been established in 1995 . Befriending its founders , John Belham @-@ Payne and his wife Julie , she became the Centre 's patron and gave several lectures for the group . In 1997 Cooke died , leaving Valiente grief @-@ stricken . Her final public speech was at the Pagan Federation 's annual conference , held at Croydon 's Fairfield Halls in November 1997 ; here she praised the work of early twentieth @-@ century occultist Dion Fortune and urged the Wiccan community to accept homosexuals . Valiente 's health was deteriorating as she was diagnosed first with diabetes and then terminal pancreatic cancer ; increasingly debilitated , John Belham @-@ Payne and two of her friends became her primary carers . In her last few days she was moved to the Sackville Nursing Home , there requesting that Belham @-@ Payne publish an anthology of her poems after her death . She died on 1 September 1999 , with Belham @-@ Payne at her side .
Valiente 's body was kept at the CPS ' barn in Maresfield , where an all @-@ night vigil was held ; those invited included Ralph Harvey , Janet Farrar , Gavin Bone , and Hutton . After this Pagan rite was completed , her coffin was cremated at Brighton 's Woodvale crematorium , in an intentionally low @-@ key affair with no media publicity . As per her wishes , Valiente 's ashes were scattered in Sussex woodland . Her magical artifacts and manuscripts , including her Book of Shadows , were bequeathed to the Centre , although there was nevertheless public disagreement over her will . Her book of poems was published posthumously in 2000 , followed by an enlarged second edition in 2014 .
= = Personality = =
Hutton characterised Valiente as " a handsome woman of striking , dark @-@ haired , aquiline looks , possessed of a strong , enquiring , candid , and independent personality , and a gift for poetry and ritual " . Belham @-@ Payne noted that Valiente was " very tall , rather reserved and preferred to be in the background " , while Valiente 's friend Ashley Mortimer described her as " sensible , practical , decent , honest and , perhaps most importantly , pragmatic " . The writer Leo Ruickbie described her as " a plain , owlishly bespectacled woman with a slight stoop and a friendly twinkle in her eye " . Throughout her life , Valiente remained a believer in the Murrayite Witch @-@ Cult theory despite the fact that it had been academically discredited by the 1970s .
Valiente had a strong dislike of unexpected visitors , and would often refuse to answer the door to those who knocked unannounced . Valiente was an avid fan of football , and closely followed the World Cup , refusing to open the door to any visitors while she was watching the competition on television . She also enjoyed betting on horse races . Her favourite foods included cucumber sandwiches , cauliflower cheese , and baked potatoes .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Within the occult community , Valiente has become internationally known as the " Mother of Modern Witchcraft " , although she herself disliked this moniker . Heselton believed that Valiente 's influence on Wicca was " profound and far @-@ reaching " , while Ruickbie characterised her as Gardner 's " most gifted acolyte " . In 2016 , Heselton expressed the view that Valiente was best known for her books , which are " still some of the most readable on the subject " of Wicca , further highlighting that they often appeared on Wiccan reading lists . The ritual liturgies that Valiente composed also proved highly influential within the Wiccan religion and constitute a core element of her legacy .
Kelly asserted that Valiente " deserves credit for having helped transform the Craft from being the hobby of a handful of eccentric Brits into being an international religious movement " . Describing her as " a major personality in the development " of Wicca , Hutton also expressed the view that " her enduring greatness lay in the very fact that she was so completely and strong @-@ mindedly dedicated to finding and declaring her own truth , in a world in which the signposts to it were themselves in a state of almost complete confusion " .
= = = Events and organisations = = =
In 2009 , the CPS organised " A Day for Doreen " , an event in central London dedicated to Valiente . Sixteen speakers from within the Wiccan and Pagan community came to talk at the event , which was a sell @-@ out .
Following Valiente 's death , Belham @-@ Payne received offers of substantial amounts of money from buyers seeking to purchase parts of her collection . In 2011 he entrusted the collection of artefacts that he had inherited from Valiente to the newly established Doreen Valiente Foundation . A charitable trust , the Foundation was designed to prevent the collection being broken up and sold , moreover allowing for future Wiccans and researchers to start " delving into it , protecting it , making it accessible and available for people to research , learn from and enjoy . " Belham @-@ Payne became the group 's chairman , while Ashley Mortimer , Brian Botham , and Trish Botham were appointed as trustees .
On 21 June 2013 the CPS unveiled a blue plaque at the Tyson Place tower block , Valiente 's final home . At the ceremony , a speech was given by Denise Cobb , the Mayor of Brighton . It had been preceded by an open solstice ritual in Brighton 's Steine Gardens , led by Ralph Harvey .
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= Lung cancer =
Lung cancer , also known as lung carcinoma , is a malignant lung tumor characterized by uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung . If left untreated , this growth can spread beyond the lung by the process of metastasis into nearby tissue or other parts of the body . Most cancers that start in the lung , known as primary lung cancers , are carcinomas . The two main types are small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( SCLC ) and non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( NSCLC ) . The most common symptoms are coughing ( including coughing up blood ) , weight loss , shortness of breath , and chest pains .
The vast majority ( 85 % ) of cases of lung cancer are due to long @-@ term tobacco smoking . About 10 – 15 % of cases occur in people who have never smoked . These cases are often caused by a combination of genetic factors and exposure to radon gas , asbestos , second @-@ hand smoke , or other forms of air pollution . Lung cancer may be seen on chest radiographs and computed tomography ( CT ) scans . The diagnosis is confirmed by biopsy which is usually performed by bronchoscopy or CT @-@ guidance .
Prevention is by avoiding risk factors including smoking and air pollution . Treatment and long @-@ term outcomes depend on the type of cancer , the stage ( degree of spread ) , and the person 's overall health . Most cases are not curable . Common treatments include surgery , chemotherapy , and radiotherapy . NSCLC is sometimes treated with surgery , whereas SCLC usually responds better to chemotherapy and radiotherapy .
Worldwide in 2012 , lung cancer occurred in 1 @.@ 8 million people and resulted in 1 @.@ 6 million deaths . This makes it the most common cause of cancer @-@ related death in men and second most common in women after breast cancer . The most common age at diagnosis is 70 years . Overall , 17 @.@ 4 % of people in the United States diagnosed with lung cancer survive five years after the diagnosis , while outcomes on average are worse in the developing world .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Signs and symptoms which may suggest lung cancer include :
Respiratory symptoms : coughing , coughing up blood , wheezing , or shortness of breath
Systemic symptoms : weight loss , weakness , fever , or clubbing of the fingernails
Symptoms due to the cancer mass pressing on adjacent structures : chest pain , bone pain , superior vena cava obstruction , or difficulty swallowing
If the cancer grows in the airways , it may obstruct airflow , causing breathing difficulties . The obstruction can lead to accumulation of secretions behind the blockage , and predispose to pneumonia .
Depending on the type of tumor , paraneoplastic phenomena — symptoms not due to the local presence of cancer — may initially attract attention to the disease . In lung cancer , these phenomena may include hypercalcemia , syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone ( SIADH , abnormally concentrated urine and diluted blood ) , ectopic ACTH production , or Lambert – Eaton myasthenic syndrome ( muscle weakness due to autoantibodies ) . Tumors in the top of the lung , known as Pancoast tumors , may invade the local part of the sympathetic nervous system , leading to Horner 's syndrome ( dropping of the eyelid and a small pupil on that side ) , as well as damage to the brachial plexus .
Many of the symptoms of lung cancer ( poor appetite , weight loss , fever , fatigue ) are not specific . In many people , the cancer has already spread beyond the original site by the time they have symptoms and seek medical attention . Symptoms that suggest the presence of metastatic disease include weight loss , bone pain and neurological symptoms ( headaches , fainting , convulsions , or limb weakness ) . Common sites of spread include the brain , bone , adrenal glands , opposite lung , liver , pericardium , and kidneys . About 10 % of people with lung cancer do not have symptoms at diagnosis ; these cancers are incidentally found on routine chest radiography .
= = Causes = =
Cancer develops following genetic damage to DNA and epigenetic changes . These changes affect the normal functions of the cell , including cell proliferation , programmed cell death ( apoptosis ) and DNA repair . As more damage accumulates , the risk of cancer increases .
= = = Smoking = = =
Smoking , particularly of cigarettes , is by far the main contributor to lung cancer . Cigarette smoke contains at least 73 known carcinogens , including benzo [ a ] pyrene , NNK , 1 @,@ 3 @-@ butadiene and a radioactive isotope of polonium , polonium @-@ 210 . Across the developed world , 90 % of lung cancer deaths in men during the year 2000 were attributed to smoking ( 70 % for women ) . Smoking accounts for about 85 % of lung cancer cases .
Passive smoking — the inhalation of smoke from another 's smoking — is a cause of lung cancer in nonsmokers . A passive smoker can be defined as someone living or working with a smoker . Studies from the US , Europe and the UK have consistently shown a significantly increased risk among those exposed to passive smoke . Those who live with someone who smokes have a 20 – 30 % increase in risk while those who work in an environment with secondhand smoke have a 16 – 19 % increase in risk . Investigations of sidestream smoke suggest it is more dangerous than direct smoke . Passive smoking causes about 3 @,@ 400 deaths from lung cancer each year in the USA .
Marijuana smoke contains many of the same carcinogens as those in tobacco smoke . However , the effect of smoking cannabis on lung cancer risk is not clear . A 2013 review did not find an increased risk from light to moderate use . A 2014 review found that smoking cannabis doubled the risk of lung cancer .
= = = Radon gas = = =
Radon is a colourless and odorless gas generated by the breakdown of radioactive radium , which in turn is the decay product of uranium , found in the Earth 's crust . The radiation decay products ionize genetic material , causing mutations that sometimes turn cancerous . Radon is the second @-@ most common cause of lung cancer in the USA , causing about 21 @,@ 000 deaths each year . The risk increases 8 – 16 % for every 100 Bq / m ³ increase in the radon concentration . Radon gas levels vary by locality and the composition of the underlying soil and rocks . About one in 15 homes in the US has radon levels above the recommended guideline of 4 picocuries per liter ( pCi / l ) ( 148 Bq / m ³ ) .
= = = Asbestos = = =
Asbestos can cause a variety of lung diseases , including lung cancer . Tobacco smoking and asbestos have a synergistic effect on the formation of lung cancer . In smokers who work with asbestos , the risk of lung cancer is increased 45 @-@ fold compared to the general population . Asbestos can also cause cancer of the pleura , called mesothelioma ( which is different from lung cancer ) .
= = = Air pollution = = =
Outdoor air pollution has a small effect on increasing the risk of lung cancer . Fine particulates ( PM2.5 ) and sulfate aerosols , which may be released in traffic exhaust fumes , are associated with slightly increased risk . For nitrogen dioxide , an incremental increase of 10 parts per billion increases the risk of lung cancer by 14 % . Outdoor air pollution is estimated to account for 1 – 2 % of lung cancers .
Tentative evidence supports an increased risk of lung cancer from indoor air pollution related to the burning of wood , charcoal , dung or crop residue for cooking and heating . Women who are exposed to indoor coal smoke have about twice the risk and a number of the by @-@ products of burning biomass are known or suspected carcinogens . This risk affects about 2 @.@ 4 billion people globally , and is believed to account for 1 @.@ 5 % of lung cancer deaths .
= = = Genetics = = =
About 8 % of lung cancer is due to inherited factors . In relatives of people with lung cancer , the risk is doubled . This is likely due to a combination of genes . Polymorphisms on chromosomes 5 , 6 and 15 are known to affect the risk of lung cancer .
= = = Other causes = = =
Numerous other substances , occupations , and environmental exposures have been linked to lung cancer . The International Agency for Research on Cancer ( IARC ) states there is " sufficient evidence " to show the following are carcinogenic in the lungs :
Some metals ( aluminum production , cadmium and cadmium compounds , chromium ( VI ) compounds , beryllium and beryllium compounds , iron and steel founding , nickel compounds , arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds , underground hematite mining )
Some products of combustion ( incomplete combustion , coal ( indoor emissions from household coal burning ) , coal gasification , coal @-@ tar pitch , coke production , soot , diesel engine exhaust )
Ionizing radiation ( X @-@ radiation , gamma radiation , plutonium )
Some toxic gases ( methyl ether ( technical grade ) , Bis- ( chloromethyl ) ether , sulfur mustard , MOPP ( vincristine @-@ prednisone @-@ nitrogen mustard @-@ procarbazine mixture ) , fumes from painting )
Rubber production and crystalline silica dust
= = Pathogenesis = =
Similar to many other cancers , lung cancer is initiated by activation of oncogenes or inactivation of tumor suppressor genes . Carcinogens cause mutations in these genes which induce the development of cancer .
Mutations in the K @-@ ras proto @-@ oncogene are responsible for 10 – 30 % of lung adenocarcinomas . About 4 % of non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinomas involve an EML4 @-@ ALK tyrosine kinase fusion gene .
Epigenetic changes — such as alteration of DNA methylation , histone tail modification , or microRNA regulation — may lead to inactivation of tumor suppressor genes .
The epidermal growth factor receptor ( EGFR ) regulates cell proliferation , apoptosis , angiogenesis , and tumor invasion . Mutations and amplification of EGFR are common in non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinoma and provide the basis for treatment with EGFR @-@ inhibitors . Her2 / neu is affected less frequently . Other genes that are often mutated or amplified are c @-@ MET , NKX2 @-@ 1 , LKB1 , PIK3CA , and BRAF .
The cell lines of origin are not fully understood . The mechanism may involve abnormal activation of stem cells . In the proximal airways , stem cells that express keratin 5 are more likely to be affected , typically leading to squamous @-@ cell lung carcinoma . In the middle airways , implicated stem cells include club cells and neuroepithelial cells that express club cell secretory protein . Small @-@ cell lung carcinoma may be derived from these cell lines or neuroendocrine cells , and may express CD44 .
Metastasis of lung cancer requires transition from epithelial to mesenchymal cell type . This may occur through activation of signaling pathways such as Akt / GSK3Beta , MEK @-@ ERK , Fas , and Par6 .
= = Diagnosis = =
Performing a chest radiograph is one of the first investigative steps if a person reports symptoms that may suggest lung cancer . This may reveal an obvious mass , widening of the mediastinum ( suggestive of spread to lymph nodes there ) , atelectasis ( collapse ) , consolidation ( pneumonia ) or pleural effusion . CT imaging is typically used to provide more information about the type and extent of disease . Bronchoscopy or CT @-@ guided biopsy is often used to sample the tumor for histopathology .
Lung cancer often appears as a solitary pulmonary nodule on a chest radiograph . However , the differential diagnosis is wide . Many other diseases can also give this appearance , including metastatic cancer , hamartomas , and infectious granulomas such as tuberculosis , histoplasmosis and coccidioidomycosis . Lung cancer can also be an incidental finding , as a solitary pulmonary nodule on a chest radiograph or CT scan done for an unrelated reason . The definitive diagnosis of lung cancer is based on histological examination of the suspicious tissue in the context of the clinical and radiological features .
Clinical practice guidelines recommend frequencies for pulmonary nodule surveillance . CT imaging should not be used for longer or more frequently than indicated as extended surveillance exposes people to increased radiation .
= = = Classification = = =
Lung cancers are classified according to histological type . This classification is important for determining management and predicting outcomes of the disease . Lung cancers are carcinomas — malignancies that arise from epithelial cells . Lung carcinomas are categorized by the size and appearance of the malignant cells seen by a histopathologist under a microscope . For therapeutic purposes , two broad classes are distinguished : non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinoma and small @-@ cell lung carcinoma .
= = = = Non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinoma = = = =
The three main subtypes of NSCLC are adenocarcinoma , squamous @-@ cell carcinoma and large @-@ cell carcinoma .
Nearly 40 % of lung cancers are adenocarcinoma , which usually originates in peripheral lung tissue . Although most cases of adenocarcinoma are associated with smoking , adenocarcinoma is also the most common form of lung cancer among people who have smoked fewer than 100 cigarettes in their lifetimes ( " never @-@ smokers " ) and ex @-@ smokers with a modest smoking history . A subtype of adenocarcinoma , the bronchioloalveolar carcinoma , is more common in female never @-@ smokers , and may have a better long @-@ term survival .
Squamous @-@ cell carcinoma accounts for about 30 % of lung cancers . They typically occur close to large airways . A hollow cavity and associated cell death are commonly found at the centre of the tumor . About 9 % of lung cancers are large @-@ cell carcinoma . These are so named because the cancer cells are large , with excess cytoplasm , large nuclei and conspicuous nucleoli .
= = = = Small @-@ cell lung carcinoma = = = =
In small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( SCLC ) , the cells contain dense neurosecretory granules ( vesicles containing neuroendocrine hormones ) , which give this tumor an endocrine / paraneoplastic syndrome association . Most cases arise in the larger airways ( primary and secondary bronchi ) . Sixty to seventy percent have extensive disease ( which cannot be targeted within a single radiation therapy field ) at presentation .
= = = = Others = = = =
Four main histological subtypes are recognised , although some cancers may contain a combination of different subtypes , such as adenosquamous carcinoma . Rare subtypes include carcinoid tumors , bronchial gland carcinomas and sarcomatoid carcinomas .
= = = Metastasis = = =
The lung is a common place for the spread of tumors from other parts of the body . Secondary cancers are classified by the site of origin ; e.g. , breast cancer that has spread to the lung is called metastatic breast cancer . Metastases often have a characteristic round appearance on chest radiograph .
Primary lung cancers themselves most commonly metastasize to the brain , bones , liver and adrenal glands . Immunostaining of a biopsy is often helpful to determine the original source . The presence of Napsin @-@ A , TTF @-@ 1 , CK7 and CK20 are helpful in confirming the subtype of lung carcinoma . SCLC derived from neuroendocrine cells may express CD56 , neural cell adhesion molecule , synaptophysin or chromogranin .
= = = Staging = = =
Lung cancer staging is an assessment of the degree of spread of the cancer from its original source . It is one of the factors affecting the prognosis and potential treatment of lung cancer .
The evaluation of non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( NSCLC ) staging uses the TNM classification . This is based on the size of the primary tumor , lymph node involvement , and distant metastasis .
Using the TNM descriptors , a group is assigned , ranging from occult cancer , through stages 0 , IA ( one @-@ A ) , IB , IIA , IIB , IIIA , IIIB and IV ( four ) . This stage group assists with the choice of treatment and estimation of prognosis .
Small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( SCLC ) has traditionally been classified as " limited stage " ( confined to one half of the chest and within the scope of a single tolerable radiotherapy field ) or " extensive stage " ( more widespread disease ) . However , the TNM classification and grouping are useful in estimating prognosis .
For both NSCLC and SCLC , the two general types of staging evaluations are clinical staging and surgical staging . Clinical staging is performed prior to definitive surgery . It is based on the results of imaging studies ( such as CT scans and PET scans ) and biopsy results . Surgical staging is evaluated either during or after the operation , and is based on the combined results of surgical and clinical findings , including surgical sampling of thoracic lymph nodes .
Diagrams of main features of staging
= = Prevention = =
Smoking prevention and smoking cessation are effective ways of preventing the development of lung cancer .
= = = Smoking ban = = =
While in most countries industrial and domestic carcinogens have been identified and banned , tobacco smoking is still widespread . Eliminating tobacco smoking is a primary goal in the prevention of lung cancer , and smoking cessation is an important preventive tool in this process .
Policy interventions to decrease passive smoking in public areas such as restaurants and workplaces have become more common in many Western countries . Bhutan has had a complete smoking ban since 2005 while India introduced a ban on smoking in public in October 2008 . The World Health Organization has called for governments to institute a total ban on tobacco advertising to prevent young people from taking up smoking . They assess that such bans have reduced tobacco consumption by 16 % where instituted .
= = = Screening = = =
Cancer screening uses medical tests to detect disease in large groups of people who have no symptoms . For individuals with high risk of developing lung cancer , computed tomography ( CT ) screening can detect cancer and give a person options to respond to it in a way that prolongs life . This form of screening reduces the chance of death from lung cancer by an absolute amount of 0 @.@ 3 % ( relative amount of 20 % ) . High risk people are those age 55 @-@ 74 who have smoked equivalent amount of a pack of cigarettes daily for 30 years including time within the past 15 years .
CT screening is associated with a high rate of falsely positive tests which may result in unneeded treatment . For each true positive scan there are about 19 falsely positives scans . Other concerns include radiation exposure and the cost of testing along with follow up . Research has not found two other available tests — sputum cytology or chest radiograph ( CXR ) screening tests — to have any benefit .
The U.S. Preventative Services Task Force ( USPSTF ) recommends yearly screening using low @-@ dose computed tomography in those who have a total smoking history of 30 pack @-@ years and are between 55 and 80 years old until a person has not been smoking for more than 15 years . Screening should not be done in those with other health problems that would make treatment of lung cancer if found not an option . The English National Health Service was in 2014 re @-@ examining the evidence for screening .
= = = Other prevention strategies = = =
The long @-@ term use of supplemental vitamin A , vitamin C , vitamin D or vitamin E does not reduce the risk of lung cancer . Some studies suggest that people who eat diets with a higher proportion of vegetables and fruit tend to have a lower risk , but this may be due to confounding — with the lower risk actually due to the association of a high fruit / vegetables diet with less smoking . More rigorous studies have not demonstrated a clear association between diet and lung cancer risk .
= = Management = =
Treatment for lung cancer depends on the cancer 's specific cell type , how far it has spread , and the person 's performance status . Common treatments include palliative care , surgery , chemotherapy , and radiation therapy . Targeted therapy of lung cancer is growing in importance for advanced lung cancer .
= = = Surgery = = =
If investigations confirm NSCLC , the stage is assessed to determine whether the disease is localized and amenable to surgery or if it has spread to the point where it cannot be cured surgically . CT scan and positron emission tomography are used for this determination . If mediastinal lymph node involvement is suspected , the nodes may be sampled to assist staging . Techniques used for this include transthoracic needle aspiration , transbronchial needle aspiration ( with or without endobronchial ultrasound ) , endoscopic ultrasound with needle aspiration , mediastinoscopy , and thoracoscopy . Blood tests and pulmonary function testing are used to assess whether a person is well enough for surgery . If pulmonary function tests reveal poor respiratory reserve , surgery may not be possible .
In most cases of early @-@ stage NSCLC , removal of a lobe of lung ( lobectomy ) is the surgical treatment of choice . In people who are unfit for a full lobectomy , a smaller sublobar excision ( wedge resection ) may be performed . However , wedge resection has a higher risk of recurrence than lobectomy . Radioactive iodine brachytherapy at the margins of wedge excision may reduce the risk of recurrence . Rarely , removal of a whole lung ( pneumonectomy ) is performed . Video @-@ assisted thoracoscopic surgery ( VATS ) and VATS lobectomy use a minimally invasive approach to lung cancer surgery . VATS lobectomy is equally effective compared to conventional open lobectomy , with less postoperative illness .
In SCLC , chemotherapy and / or radiotherapy is typically used . However the role of surgery in SCLC is being reconsidered . Surgery might improve outcomes when added to chemotherapy and radiation in early stage SCLC .
= = = Radiotherapy = = =
Radiotherapy is often given together with chemotherapy , and may be used with curative intent in people with NSCLC who are not eligible for surgery . This form of high @-@ intensity radiotherapy is called radical radiotherapy . A refinement of this technique is continuous hyperfractionated accelerated radiotherapy ( CHART ) , in which a high dose of radiotherapy is given in a short time period . Postoperative thoracic radiotherapy generally should not be used after curative intent surgery for NSCLC . Some people with mediastinal N2 lymph node involvement might benefit from post @-@ operative radiotherapy .
For potentially curable SCLC cases , chest radiotherapy is often recommended in addition to chemotherapy .
If cancer growth blocks a short section of bronchus , brachytherapy ( localized radiotherapy ) may be given directly inside the airway to open the passage . Compared to external beam radiotherapy , brachytherapy allows a reduction in treatment time and reduced radiation exposure to healthcare staff . Evidence for brachytherapy , however , is less than that for external beam radiotherapy .
Prophylactic cranial irradiation ( PCI ) is a type of radiotherapy to the brain , used to reduce the risk of metastasis . PCI is most useful in SCLC . In limited @-@ stage disease , PCI increases three @-@ year survival from 15 % to 20 % ; in extensive disease , one @-@ year survival increases from 13 % to 27 % .
Recent improvements in targeting and imaging have led to the development of stereotactic radiation in the treatment of early @-@ stage lung cancer . In this form of radiotherapy , high doses are delivered over a number of sessions using stereotactic targeting techniques . Its use is primarily in patients who are not surgical candidates due to medical comorbidities .
For both NSCLC and SCLC patients , smaller doses of radiation to the chest may be used for symptom control ( palliative radiotherapy ) .
= = = Chemotherapy = = =
The chemotherapy regimen depends on the tumor type . Small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( SCLC ) , even relatively early stage disease , is treated primarily with chemotherapy and radiation . In SCLC , cisplatin and etoposide are most commonly used . Combinations with carboplatin , gemcitabine , paclitaxel , vinorelbine , topotecan , and irinotecan are also used . In advanced non @-@ small cell lung carcinoma ( NSCLC ) , chemotherapy improves survival and is used as first @-@ line treatment , provided the person is well enough for the treatment . Typically , two drugs are used , of which one is often platinum @-@ based ( either cisplatin or carboplatin ) . Other commonly used drugs are gemcitabine , paclitaxel , docetaxel , pemetrexed , etoposide or vinorelbine .
Adjuvant chemotherapy refers to the use of chemotherapy after apparently curative surgery to improve the outcome . In NSCLC , samples are taken of nearby lymph nodes during surgery to assist staging . If stage II or III disease is confirmed , adjuvant chemotherapy improves survival by 5 % at five years . The combination of vinorelbine and cisplatin is more effective than older regimens . Adjuvant chemotherapy for people with stage IB cancer is controversial , as clinical trials have not clearly demonstrated a survival benefit . Chemotherapy before surgery in NSCLC that can be removed surgically also appears to improve outcomes .
Chemotherapy may be combined with palliative care in the treatment of the NSCLC . In advanced cases , appropriate chemotherapy improves average survival over supportive care alone , as well as improving quality of life . With adequate physical fitness maintaining chemotherapy during lung cancer palliation offers 1 @.@ 5 to 3 months of prolongation of survival , symptomatic relief , and an improvement in quality of life , with better results seen with modern agents . The NSCLC Meta @-@ Analyses Collaborative Group recommends if the recipient wants and can tolerate treatment , then chemotherapy should be considered in advanced NSCLC .
= = = = Targeted therapy = = = =
Several drugs that target molecular pathways in lung cancer are available , especially for the treatment of advanced disease . Erlotinib , gefitinib and afatinib inhibit tyrosine kinase at the epidermal growth factor receptor . Denosumab is a monoclonal antibody directed against receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa @-@ B ligand . It may be useful in the treatment of bone metastases .
= = = Bronchoscopy = = =
Several treatments can be administered via bronchoscopy for the management of airway obstruction or bleeding . If an airway becomes obstructed by cancer growth , options include rigid bronchoscopy , balloon bronchoplasty , stenting , and microdebridement . Laser photosection involves the delivery of laser light inside the airway via a bronchoscope to remove the obstructing tumor .
= = = Palliative care = = =
Palliative care when added to usual cancer care benefits people even when they are still receiving chemotherapy . These approaches allow additional discussion of treatment options and provide opportunities to arrive at well @-@ considered decisions . Palliative care may avoid unhelpful but expensive care not only at the end of life , but also throughout the course of the illness . For individuals who have more advanced disease , hospice care may also be appropriate .
= = Prognosis = =
Of all people with lung cancer in the US , 16 @.@ 8 % survive for at least five years after diagnosis . In England , between 2005 and 2009 , overall five @-@ year survival for lung cancer was less than 10 % . Outcomes are generally worse in the developing world . Stage is often advanced at the time of diagnosis . At presentation , 30 – 40 % of cases of NSCLC are stage IV , and 60 % of SCLC are stage IV . Survival for lung cancer falls as the stage at diagnosis becomes more advanced : the English data suggest that around 70 % of patients survive at least a year when diagnosed at the earliest stage , but this falls to just 14 % for those diagnosed with the most advanced disease .
Prognostic factors in NSCLC include presence of pulmonary symptoms , large tumor size ( > 3 cm ) , nonsquamous cell type ( histology ) , degree of spread ( stage ) and metastases to multiple lymph nodes , and vascular invasion . For people with inoperable disease , outcomes are worse in those with poor performance status and weight loss of more than 10 % . Prognostic factors in small cell lung cancer include performance status , gender , stage of disease , and involvement of the central nervous system or liver at the time of diagnosis .
For NSCLC , the best prognosis is achieved with complete surgical resection of stage IA disease , with up to 70 % five @-@ year survival . People with extensive @-@ stage SCLC have an average five @-@ year survival rate of less than 1 % . The average survival time for limited @-@ stage disease is 20 months , with a five @-@ year survival rate of 20 % .
According to data provided by the National Cancer Institute , the median age at diagnosis of lung cancer in the United States is 70 years , and the median age at death is 72 years . In the US , people with medical insurance are more likely to have a better outcome .
= = Epidemiology = =
Worldwide , lung cancer is the most common cancer among men in terms of both incidence and mortality , and among women has the third highest incidence , and is second after breast cancer in mortality . In 2012 , there were 1 @.@ 82 million new cases globally , and 1 @.@ 56 million deaths due to lung cancer , representing 19 @.@ 4 % of all deaths from cancer . The highest rates are in North America , Europe and East Asia , with over a third of new cases in 2012 in China . Rates in Africa and South Asia are much lower .
The population segment most likely to develop lung cancer is people aged over 50 who have a history of smoking . In contrast to the mortality rate in men , which began declining more than 20 years ago , women 's lung cancer mortality rates have been rising over the last decades , and are just recently beginning to stabilize . In the USA , the lifetime risk of developing lung cancer is 8 % in men and 6 % in women .
For every 3 – 4 million cigarettes smoked , one lung cancer death occurs . The influence of " Big Tobacco " plays a significant role in the smoking culture . Young nonsmokers who see tobacco advertisements are more likely to take up smoking . The role of passive smoking is increasingly being recognized as a risk factor for lung cancer , leading to policy interventions to decrease undesired exposure of nonsmokers to others ' tobacco smoke . Emissions from automobiles , factories , and power plants also pose potential risks .
In the United States , black men and women have a higher incidence . Lung cancer rates are currently lower in developing countries . With increased smoking in developing countries , the rates are expected to increase in the next few years , notably in China and India .
In the United States military veterans have a 25 @-@ 50 % higher rate of lung cancer primarily due to higher rates of smoking . During World War Two and the Korean War asbestos also played a part and Agent Orange may have caused some problems during the Vietnam War .
Lung cancer is the second most common cancer in the UK ( around 43 @,@ 500 people were diagnosed with the disease in 2011 ) , and it is the most common cause of cancer death ( around 35 @,@ 400 people died in 2012 ) .
From the 1960s , the rates of lung adenocarcinoma started to rise relative to other types of lung cancer . This is partly due to the introduction of filter cigarettes . The use of filters removes larger particles from tobacco smoke , thus reducing deposition in larger airways . However , the smoker has to inhale more deeply to receive the same amount of nicotine , increasing particle deposition in small airways where adenocarcinoma tends to arise . The incidence of lung adenocarcinoma continues to rise .
= = History = =
Lung cancer was uncommon before the advent of cigarette smoking ; it was not even recognized as a distinct disease until 1761 . Different aspects of lung cancer were described further in 1810 . Malignant lung tumors made up only 1 % of all cancers seen at autopsy in 1878 , but had risen to 10 – 15 % by the early 1900s . Case reports in the medical literature numbered only 374 worldwide in 1912 , but a review of autopsies showed the incidence of lung cancer had increased from 0 @.@ 3 % in 1852 to 5 @.@ 66 % in 1952 . In Germany in 1929 , physician Fritz Lickint recognized the link between smoking and lung cancer , which led to an aggressive antismoking campaign . The British Doctors ' Study , published in the 1950s , was the first solid epidemiological evidence of the link between lung cancer and smoking . As a result , in 1964 the Surgeon General of the United States recommended smokers should stop smoking .
The connection with radon gas was first recognized among miners in the Ore Mountains near Schneeberg , Saxony . Silver has been mined there since 1470 , and these mines are rich in uranium , with its accompanying radium and radon gas . Miners developed a disproportionate amount of lung disease , eventually recognized as lung cancer in the 1870s . Despite this discovery , mining continued into the 1950s , due to the USSR 's demand for uranium . Radon was confirmed as a cause of lung cancer in the 1960s .
The first successful pneumonectomy for lung cancer was performed in 1933 . Palliative radiotherapy has been used since the 1940s . Radical radiotherapy , initially used in the 1950s , was an attempt to use larger radiation doses in patients with relatively early @-@ stage lung cancer , but who were otherwise unfit for surgery . In 1997 , continuous hyperfractionated accelerated radiotherapy was seen as an improvement over conventional radical radiotherapy . With small @-@ cell lung carcinoma , initial attempts in the 1960s at surgical resection and radical radiotherapy were unsuccessful . In the 1970s , successful chemotherapy regimens were developed .
= = Research directions = =
Current research directions for lung cancer treatment include immunotherapy , which encourages the body 's immune system to attack the tumor cells , epigenetics , and new combinations of chemotherapy and radiotherapy , both on their own and together . Many of these new treatments work through immune checkpoint blockade , disrupting cancer 's ability to evade the immune system .
Ipilimumab blocks signaling through a receptor on T cells known as CTLA @-@ 4 which dampens down the immune system . It has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) for treatment of melanoma and is undergoing clinical trials for both non @-@ small cell lung cancer ( NSCLC ) and small cell lung cancer ( SCLC ) .
Other immunotherapy treatments interfere with the binding of programmed cell death 1 ( PD @-@ 1 ) protein with its ligand PD @-@ 1 ligand 1 ( PD @-@ L1 ) . Signaling through PD @-@ 1 inactivates T cells . Some cancer cells appear to exploit this by expressing PD @-@ L1 in order to switch off T cells that might recognise them as a threat . Monoclonal antibodies targeting both PD @-@ 1 and PD @-@ L1 , such as pembrolizumab and nivolumab are currently in clinical trials for treatment for lung cancer .
Epigenetics is the study of small , usually heritable , molecular modifications — or " tags " — that bind DNA and modify gene expression levels . Targeting these tags with drugs can kill cancer cells . Early @-@ stage research in NSCLC using drugs aimed at epigenetic modifications shows that blocking more than one of these tags can kill cancer cells with fewer side effects . Studies also show that giving patients these drugs before standard treatment can improve its effectiveness . Clinical trials are underway to evaluate how well these drugs kill lung cancer cells in humans . Several drugs that target epigenetic mechanisms are in development . Histone deacetylase inhibitors in development include valproic acid , vorinostat , belinostat , panobinostat , entinostat , and romidepsin . DNA methyltransferase inhibitors in development include decitabine , azacytidine , and hydralazine .
The TRACERx project is looking at how NSCLC develops and evolves , and how these tumors become resistant to treatment . The project will look at tumor samples from 850 NSCLC patients at various stages including diagnosis , after first treatment , post @-@ treatment , and relapse . By studying samples at different points of tumor development , the researchers hope to identify the changes that drive tumor growth and resistance to treatment . The results of this project will help scientists and doctors gain a better understanding of NSCLC and potentially lead to the development of new treatments against the disease .
For lung cancer cases that develop resistance to epidermal growth factor receptor ( EGFR ) and anaplastic lymphoma kinase ( ALK ) tyrosine kinase inhibitors , new drugs are in development . New EGFR inhibitors include afatinib and dacomitinib . An alternative signaling pathway , c @-@ Met , can be inhibited by tivantinib and onartuzumab . New ALK inhibitors include crizotinib and ceritinib .
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= Canadians =
Canadians ( French : Canadiens ) are the people who are identified with the country of Canada . This connection may be residential , legal , historical , or cultural . For most Canadians , several ( or all ) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their being Canadian .
Canada is a bilingual and multicultural society home to people of many different ethnic , religious and national origins , with the majority of the population made up of Old World immigrants and their descendants . Following the initial period of French and then the much larger British colonization , different waves ( or peaks ) of immigration and settlement of non @-@ aboriginal peoples took place over the course of nearly two centuries and continue today . Elements of Aboriginal , French , British and more recent immigrant customs , languages and religions have combined to form the culture of Canada and thus a Canadian identity . Canada has also been strongly influenced by its linguistic , geographic and economic neighbour , the United States .
Canadian independence from Britain grew gradually over the course of many years since the formation of the Canadian Confederation in 1867 . World War I and World War II in particular gave rise to a desire among Canadians to have their country recognized as a fully @-@ fledged sovereign state with a distinct citizenship . Legislative independence was established with the passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931 , the Canadian Citizenship Act of 1946 took effect on January 1 , 1947 , and full sovereignty was achieved with the patriation of the constitution in 1982 . Canada 's nationality law closely mirrored that of the United Kingdom . Legislation since the mid 20th century represents Canadians ' commitment to multilateralism and socioeconomic development .
= = Population = =
As of 2010 , Canadians make up 0 @.@ 5 % of the world 's total population , having relied upon immigration for population growth and social development . Approximately 41 % of current Canadians are first- or second @-@ generation immigrants , and 20 percent of Canadian residents in the 2000s were not born in the country . Statistics Canada projects that , by 2031 , nearly one @-@ half of Canadians above the age of 15 will be foreign @-@ born or have one foreign @-@ born parent . Aboriginal peoples , according to the 2011 Canadian Census , numbered at 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 685 or 4 @.@ 3 % of the country 's 33 @,@ 476 @,@ 688 population .
= = = Immigration = = =
The French originally settled New France , in present @-@ day Quebec and Ontario ; and Acadia , in present @-@ day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick , during the early part of the 17th century . Approximately 100 Irish @-@ born families would settle the Saint Lawrence Valley by 1700 , assimilating into the Canadien population and culture . During the 18th and 19th century ; immigration westward ( to the area known as Rupert 's Land ) was carried out by " Voyageurs " ; French settlers working for the North West Company ; and by British settlers ( English and Scottish ) representing the Hudson 's Bay Company , coupled with independent entrepreneurial woodsman called " Coureur des bois " . This arrival of newcomers led to the creation of the Métis , an ethnic group of mixed European and First Nations parentage .
The British conquest of New France was preceded by a small number of Germans and Swedes who settled alongside the Scottish in Port Royal , Nova Scotia , while some Irish immigrated to the Colony of Newfoundland . In the wake of the 1775 invasion of Canada by the newly formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War , approximately 60 @,@ 000 United Empire Loyalist fled to British North America , a large portion of whom migrated to New Brunswick . After the War of 1812 , British ( including British army regulars ) , Scottish and Irish immigration was encouraged throughout Rupert 's Land , Upper Canada and Lower Canada .
Between 1815 and 1850 , some 800 @,@ 000 immigrants came to the colonies of British North America , mainly from the British Isles as part of the great migration of Canada . These new arrivals included some Gaelic @-@ speaking Highland Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances to Nova Scotia . The Irish Potato Famine of the 1840s significantly increased the pace of Irish immigration to Prince Edward Island and the Province of Canada , with over 35 @,@ 000 distressed individuals landing in Toronto in 1847 and 1848 . Beginning in the late 1850s , the immigration of Chinese into the Colony of Vancouver Island and Colony of British Columbia peaked with the onset of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush . The Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 eventually placed a head tax on all Chinese immigrants , in hopes of discouraging Chinese immigration after completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway .
The population of Canada has consistently risen , doubling approximately every 40 years , since the establishment of the Canadian Confederation in 1867 . From the mid- to late 19th century , Canada had a policy of assisting immigrants from Europe , including an estimated 100 @,@ 000 unwanted " Home Children " from Britain . Block settlement communities were established throughout western Canada between the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Some were planned and others were spontaneously created by the settlers themselves . Canada was now receiving a large number of European immigrants , predominantly Italians , Germans , Scandinavians , Dutch , Poles , and Ukrainians . Legislative restrictions on immigration ( such as the Continuous journey regulation and Chinese Immigration Act ) that had favoured British and other European immigrants were amended in the 1960s , opening the doors to immigrants from all parts of the world . While the 1950s had still seen high levels of immigration by Europeans , by the 1970s , immigrants were increasingly Chinese , Indian , Vietnamese , Jamaican and Haitian . During the late 1960s and early 1970s , Canada received many American Vietnam War draft dissenters . Throughout the late 1980s and 1990s , Canada 's growing Pacific trade brought with it a large influx of South Asians , who tended to settle in British Columbia . Immigrants of all backgrounds tend to settle in the major urban centres . The Canadian public as @-@ well as the major political parties support immigration .
The majority of illegal immigrants come from the southern provinces of the People 's Republic of China , with Asia as a whole , Eastern Europe , Caribbean , Africa and the Middle East all contributing to the illegal population . Estimates of numbers of illegal immigrants range between 35 @,@ 000 and 120 @,@ 000 . A 2008 report by the Auditor General of Canada Sheila Fraser stated that Canada has lost track of approximately 41 @,@ 000 illegal immigrants whose visas have expired .
= = = Citizenship and diaspora = = =
Canadian citizenship is typically obtained by birth in Canada or by birth or adoption abroad when at least one biological parent or adoptive parent is a Canadian citizen who was born in Canada or naturalized in Canada ( and did not receive citizenship by being born outside of Canada to a Canadian citizen ) . It can also be granted to a permanent resident who lives in Canada for three out of four years and meets specific requirements . Canada established its own nationality law in 1946 with the enactment of the Canadian Citizenship Act which took effect on January 1 , 1947 . The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act , was passed by the Parliament of Canada in 2001 as Bill C @-@ 11 , which replaced the Immigration Act of 1976 as the primary federal legislation regulating immigration . Prior to the conferring of legal status on Canadian citizenship , Canada 's naturalization laws consisted of a multitude of Acts beginning with the Immigration Act of 1910 .
According to Citizenship and Immigration Canada , there are three main classifications for immigrants : Family class ( persons closely related to Canadian residents ) , Economic class ( admitted on the basis of a point system that accounts for age , health and labour @-@ market skills required for cost effectively inducting the immigrants into Canada 's labour market ) and Refugee class ( those seeking protection by applying to remain in the country by way of the Canadian immigration and refugee law ) . In 2008 , there were 65 @,@ 567 immigrants in the family class , 21 @,@ 860 refugees , and 149 @,@ 072 economic immigrants amongst the 247 @,@ 243 total immigrants to the country . Canada resettles over one in 10 of the world ’ s refugees and has one of the highest per @-@ capita immigration rates in the world .
As of a 2010 report by the Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada , there were 2 @.@ 8 million Canadian citizens abroad . This represents about 8 % of the total Canadian population . Of those living abroad , the United States , Hong Kong , the United Kingdom , Taiwan , China , Lebanon , United Arab Emirates and Australia have the largest Canadian diaspora . Canadians in the United States constitute the greatest single expatriate community at over 1 million in 2009 , representing 35 @.@ 8 % of all Canadians abroad . Under current Canadian law , Canada does not restrict dual citizenship but Passport Canada encourages its citizens to travel abroad on their Canadian passport , so they can access Canadian consular services .
= = = Ethnic ancestry = = =
Canada has 34 ethnic groups with at least 100 @,@ 000 members each , of which 11 have over 1 million people and numerous others are represented in smaller amounts . According to the 2006 census , the largest self @-@ reported ethnic origin is " Canadian " ( 32 % ) , followed by English ( 21 % ) , French ( 15 @.@ 8 % ) , Scottish ( 15 @.@ 1 % ) , Irish ( 13 @.@ 9 % ) , German ( 10 @.@ 2 % ) , Italian ( 4 @.@ 6 % ) , Chinese ( 4 @.@ 3 % ) , North American Indian ( 4 @.@ 0 % ) , Ukrainian ( 3 @.@ 9 % ) , and Dutch ( Netherlands ) ( 3 @.@ 3 % ) . In the 2006 census , over five million Canadians identified themselves as a member of a visible minority . Together , they make up 16 @.@ 2 % of the total population : most numerous among these are South Asian ( 4 @.@ 0 % ) , Black ( 2 @.@ 5 % ) , and Filipino ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) . Aboriginal peoples are not considered a visible minority under the Employment Equity Act , and this is the definition that Statistics Canada also uses .
For a complete list see : Canadian ethnic groups
= = Culture = =
Canada 's culture is a product of its ethnicities , languages , religions , political and legal system ( s ) . Canada has been shaped by waves of migration that have combined to form a unique blend of art , cuisine , literature , humour and music . Today , Canada has a diverse makeup of nationalities and constitutional protection for policies that promote multiculturalism rather than cultural assimilation . In Quebec , cultural identity is strong , and many French @-@ speaking commentators speak of a Quebec culture distinct from English Canadian culture . However , as a whole , Canada is a cultural mosaic : a collection of several regional , aboriginal , and ethnic subcultures .
Canadian government policies such as official bilingualism ; publicly funded health care ; higher and more progressive taxation ; outlawing capital punishment ; strong efforts to eliminate poverty ; strict gun control ; leniency in regard to drug use , and , most recently , legalizing same @-@ sex marriage are social indicators of Canada 's political and cultural values . American media and entertainment are popular , if not dominant , in English Canada ; conversely , many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the United States and worldwide . The Government of Canada has also influenced culture with programs , laws and institutions . It has created Crown corporations to promote Canadian culture through media and has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian content .
Canadian culture has historically been influenced by Aboriginal , French and British cultures and traditions . Most of Canada 's territory was inhabited and developed later than other European colonies in the Americas , with the result that themes and symbols of pioneers , trappers , and traders were important in the early development of the Canadian identity . First Nations played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada , particularly for their role in assisting exploration of the continent during the North American fur trade . The British conquest of New France in the mid @-@ 1700s brought a large Francophone population under British Imperial rule , creating a need for compromise and accommodation . The new British rulers left alone much of the religious , political , and social culture of the French @-@ speaking habitants , guaranteeing through the Quebec Act of 1774 the right of the Canadiens to practise the Catholic faith and to use French civil law ( now Quebec law ) .
The Constitution Act of 1867 was designed to meet the growing calls of Canadians for autonomy from British rule , while avoiding the overly strong decentralization that contributed to the Civil War in the United States . The compromises made by the Fathers of Confederation set Canadians on a path to bilingualism , and this in turn contributed to an acceptance of diversity .
The Canadian Forces and overall civilian participation in the First World War and Second World War helped to foster Canadian nationalism , however in 1917 and 1944 conscription crisis ' highlighted the considerable rift along ethnic lines between Anglophones and Francophones . As a result of the First and Second World Wars , the Government of Canada became more assertive and less deferential to British authority . With the gradual loosening of political ties to the United Kingdom and the modernization of Canadian immigration policies , 20th @-@ century immigrants with African , Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture . The multiple @-@ origins immigration pattern continues today with the arrival of large numbers of immigrants from non @-@ British or non @-@ French backgrounds .
Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the government during the premiership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau in the 1970s and 1980s . The Canadian government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration . Multiculturalism is administered by the Department of Citizenship and Immigration and reflected in the law through the Canadian Multiculturalism Act and section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms .
= = = Religion = = =
Canada as a nation is religiously diverse , encompassing a wide range of groups , beliefs and customs . The preamble to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms references " God " , and the monarch carries the title of " Defender of the Faith " . However Canada has no official religion , and support for religious pluralism ( Freedom of religion in Canada ) is an important part of Canada 's political culture . With the role of Christianity in decline , having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life ; commentators have suggested that Canada has come to enter a post @-@ Christian period in a secular state , with irreligion in Canada on the rise . The majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives , but still believe in God . The practice of religion is now generally considered a private matter throughout society and within the state .
The 2011 Canadian census reported that 67 @.@ 3 % of Canadians identify as being Christians ; of this number , Catholics make up the largest group , accounting for 38 @.@ 7 percent of the population . The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada ( accounting for 6 @.@ 1 % of Canadians ) ; followed by Anglicans ( 5 @.@ 0 % ) , and Baptists ( 1 @.@ 9 % ) . About 23 @.@ 9 % of Canadians declare no religious affiliation , including agnostics , atheists , humanists , and other groups . The remaining are affiliated with non @-@ Christian religions , the largest of which is Islam ( 3 @.@ 2 % ) , followed by Hinduism ( 1 @.@ 5 % ) , Sikhism ( 1 @.@ 4 % ) , Buddhism ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) , and Judaism ( 1 @.@ 0 % ) .
Before the arrival of European colonists and explorers , First Nations followed a wide array of mostly animistic religions . During the colonial period , the French settled along the shores of the Saint Lawrence River , specifically Latin Rite Roman Catholics , including a number of Jesuits dedicated to converting Aboriginals ; an effort that eventually proved successful . The first large Protestant communities were formed in the Maritimes after the British conquest of New France , followed by American Protestant settlers displaced by the American Revolution . The late nineteenth century saw the beginning of a substantive shift in Canadian immigration patterns . Large numbers of Irish and Southern Europeans immigrants were creating new Roman Catholic communities in English Canada . The settlement of the west brought significant Eastern Orthodox immigrants from Eastern Europe and Mormon and Pentecostal immigrants from the United States .
The earliest documentation of Jewish presence in Canada occurs in the 1754 British Army records from the French and Indian War . In 1760 , General Jeffrey Amherst , 1st Baron Amherst attacked and won Montreal for the British . In his regiment there were several Jews , including four among his officer corps , most notably Lieutenant Aaron Hart who is considered the father of Canadian Jewry . The Islamic , Jains , Sikh , Hindu and Buddhist communities , although small , are as old as the nation itself . The 1871 Canadian Census ( first " Canadian " national census ) indicated thirteen Muslims among the populace , with approximately 5000 Sikh by 1908 . The first Canadian mosque was constructed in Edmonton , in 1938 , when there were approximately 700 Muslims in Canada . Buddhism first arrived in Canada when Japanese immigrated during the late 19th century . The first Japanese Buddhist temple in Canada was built in Vancouver in 1905 . The influx of immigrants in the late 20th century , with Sri Lankan , Japanese , Indian and Southeast Asian customs , has contributed to the recent expansion of the Jain , Sikh , Hindu and Buddhist communities .
= = = Languages = = =
A multitude of languages are used by 35 million Canadians , with English and French ( the official languages ) being the mother tongues of approximately 60 % and 20 % of Canadians respectively . In 2011 , nearly 6 @.@ 8 million Canadians listed a non @-@ official language as their mother tongue . Some of the most common non @-@ official first languages include Chinese ( mainly Cantonese ; 1 @,@ 072 @,@ 555 first @-@ language speakers ) , Punjabi ( 430 @,@ 705 ) , Spanish ( 410 @,@ 670 ) , German ( 409 @,@ 200 ) , and Italian ( 407 @,@ 490 ) . Less than one percent of Canadians ( just over 250 @,@ 000 individuals ) can speak an aboriginal language . About half this number ( 129 @,@ 865 ) reported using an aboriginal language on a daily basis . Additionally , Canadians speak several sign languages ; it is unknown the number of speakers of the most spoken languages , ASL and LSQ , nor of Maritime Sign Language or of Plains Sign Talk . There are only 47 speakers of the Inuit language Inuiuuk .
English and French are recognized by the Constitution of Canada as official languages . Thus all federal government laws are enacted in both English and French with government services available in both languages . Two of Canada 's territories give official status to indigenous languages . In Nunavut , Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun are official languages alongside the national languages of English and French , and Inuktitut is a common vehicular language in territorial government . In the Northwest Territories , the Official Languages Act declares that there are eleven different languages : Chipewyan , Cree , English , French , Gwich ’ in , Inuinnaqtun , Inuktitut , Inuvialuktun , North Slavey , South Slavey and Tłįchǫ . Multicultural media are widely accessible across the county and offer specialty television channels , newspapers and other publications in many minority languages .
In Canada , as elsewhere in the world of European colonies , the frontier of European exploration and settlement tended to be a linguistically diverse and fluid place , as cultures using different languages met and interacted . The need for a common means of communication between the indigenous inhabitants and new arrivals for the purposes of trade , and ( in some cases ) intermarriage , led to the development of Mixed languages . Languages like Michif , Chinook Jargon and Bungi creole tended to be highly localized and were often spoken by only a small number of individuals who were frequently capable of speaking another language . Reaching across Canada , the United States and into Mexico existed Plains Sign Talk which functioned originally as a trade language used to communicate internationally and across linguistic borders .
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= SMS Prinzregent Luitpold =
SMS Prinzregent Luitpold was the fifth and final vessel of the Kaiser class of battleships of the Imperial German Navy . Prinzregent Luitpold 's keel was laid in October 1910 at the Germaniawerft dockyard in Kiel . She was launched on 17 February 1912 and was commissioned into the navy on 19 August 1913 . The ship was equipped with ten 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets , and had a top speed of 21 @.@ 7 knots ( 40 @.@ 2 km / h ; 25 @.@ 0 mph ) .
Prinzregent Luitpold was assigned to the III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet for the majority of her career ; in December 1916 , she was transferred to the IV Battle Squadron . Along with her four sister ships , Kaiser , Friedrich der Grosse , Kaiserin , and König Albert , Prinzregent Luitpold participated in all of the major fleet operations of World War I , including the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . The ship was also involved in Operation Albion , an amphibious assault on the Russian @-@ held islands in the Gulf of Riga , in late 1917 .
After Germany 's defeat in the war and the signing of the Armistice in November 1918 , Prinzregent Luitpold and most of the capital ships of the High Seas Fleet were interned by the Royal Navy in Scapa Flow . The ships were disarmed and reduced to skeleton crews while the Allied powers negotiated the final version of the Treaty of Versailles . On 21 June 1919 , days before the treaty was signed , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . Prinzregent Luitpold was raised in July 1931 and subsequently broken up for scrap in 1933 .
= = Construction = =
Prinzregent Luitpold was 172 @.@ 4 m ( 565 ft 7 in ) long overall and displaced a maximum of 27 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 26 @,@ 570 long tons ) . She had a beam of 29 m ( 95 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 1 m ( 29 ft 10 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 8 m ( 28 ft 10 in ) aft . She had a crew of 41 officers and 1 @,@ 043 enlisted men . Prinzregent Luitpold was powered by two sets of Parsons steam turbines , supplied with steam by 14 coal @-@ fired boilers . Unlike her four sisters , the ship was intended to use a diesel engine on the center shaft , but this was not ready by the time work on the ship was completed . The engine was never installed , and so Prinzregent Luitpold was slightly slower than her sisters , which were equipped with a third turbine on the center shaft . The powerplant produced a top speed of 21 @.@ 7 knots ( 40 @.@ 2 km / h ; 25 @.@ 0 mph ) . She carried 3 @,@ 600 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 540 long tons ) of coal , which enabled a maximum range of 7 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 630 km ; 9 @,@ 090 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
Prinzregent Luitpold was armed with a main battery of ten 30 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 50 guns in five twin turrets . The ship dispensed with the inefficient hexagonal turret arrangement of previous German battleships ; instead , three of the five turrets were mounted on the centerline , one forward and two of them arranged in a superfiring pair aft . The other two turrets were placed en echelon amidships , such that both could fire on the broadside . The ship was also armed with fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 guns in casemates amidships , eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 guns in casemates and four 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns . The ship 's armament was rounded out by five 50 cm ( 20 in ) torpedo tubes , all mounted in the hull ; one was in the bow , and the other four were on the broadside .
= = Service history = =
Ordered under the contract name Ersatz Odin as a replacement for the obsolete coastal defense ship Odin , Prinzregent Luitpold was laid down at the Howaldtswerke dockyard in Kiel in October 1910 . She was launched on 17 February 1912 and christened by Princess Theresa of Bavaria ; Ludwig III , the last king of Bavaria and the son of the ship 's namesake , Luitpold , Prince Regent of Bavaria , gave a speech . After fitting @-@ out work was completed , the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 19 August 1913 . Prinzregent Luitpold was equipped with facilities for a squadron commander , and became the flagship of the III Battle Squadron upon commissioning .
Directly after commissioning , Prinzregent Luitpold took part in the annual autumn maneuvers , which followed the fleet cruise to Norway . The exercises lasted from 31 August to 9 September . Unit drills and individual ship training were conducted in October and November . In early 1914 , Prinzregent Luitpold participated in additional ship and unit training . The annual spring maneuvers were conducted in the North Sea at the end of March . Further fleet exercises followed in April and May in the Baltic and North Seas . The ship went to Kiel Week that year . Despite the rising international tensions following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June , the High Seas Fleet began its summer cruise to Norway on 13 July . During the last peacetime cruise of the Imperial Navy , the fleet conducted drills off Skagen before proceeding to the Norwegian fjords on 25 July . The following day the fleet began to steam back to Germany , as a result of Austria @-@ Hungary 's ultimatum to Serbia . On the 27th , the entire fleet assembled off Cape Skadenes before returning to port , where they remained at a heightened state of readiness . War between Austria @-@ Hungary and Serbia broke out the following day , and in the span of a week all of the major European powers had joined the conflict .
Prinzregent Luitpold was present during the first sortie by the German fleet into the North Sea , which took place on 2 – 3 November 1914 . No British forces were encountered during the operation . A second operation followed on 15 – 16 December . This sortie was the initiation of a strategy adopted by Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander of the High Seas Fleet . He intended to use the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group to raid British coastal towns to lure out portions of the British Grand Fleet where they could be destroyed by the High Seas Fleet . Early on 15 December the fleet left port to raid the towns of Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby . That evening , the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts — including Prinzregent Luitpold and her four sisters — and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced von Ingenohl that he was faced with the entire Grand Fleet . Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II to avoid risking the fleet unnecessarily , von Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battle fleet back toward Germany .
Prinzregent Luitpold went into the Baltic for squadron training from 23 to 29 January 1916 . While on the maneuvers , the newer battleship König became the III Squadron flagship . Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the commander of III Squadron , lowered his flag on 24 January and transferred it to König . The Kaiser removed von Ingenohl from his post on 2 February , following the loss of the armored cruiser SMS Blücher at the Battle of Dogger Bank the month before . Admiral Hugo von Pohl succeeded him as the commander of the fleet . Pohl continued the policy of sweeps into the North Sea to destroy isolated British formations . On 24 April , Prinzregent Luitpold ran aground in the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal , though she was freed without causing significant damage . A series of advances into the North Sea were conducted throughout the rest of 1915 ; Prinzregent Luitpold was present for the sweeps on 17 – 18 May , 29 – 30 May , 10 August , 11 – 12 September , and 23 – 24 October . The III Squadron completed the year with another round of unit training in the Baltic on 5 – 20 December .
Pohl 's tenure as fleet commander was brief ; by January 1916 hepatic cancer had weakened him to the point where he was no longer able to carry out his duties . He was replaced by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer in January . Scheer proposed a more aggressive policy designed to force a confrontation with the British Grand Fleet ; he received approval from the Kaiser in February . The first of Scheer 's operations was conducted the following month , on 5 – 7 March , with an uneventful sweep of the Hoofden . Prinzregent Luitpold was also present during an advance to the Amrun Bank on 2 – 3 April . Another sortie was conducted on 21 – 22 April .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
Prinzregent Luitpold was present during the fleet operation that resulted in the battle of Jutland which took place on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . During the operation , Prinzregent Luitpold was the third ship in the VI Division of III Squadron and the seventh ship in the line , directly astern of Kaiserin and ahead of Friedrich der Grosse . The VI Division was behind only the V Division , consisting of the four König @-@ class battleships . The eight Helgoland- and Nassau @-@ class battleships of the I and II Divisions in I Squadron followed the VI Division . The six elderly pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the III and IV Divisions in II Battle Squadron formed the rear of the formation .
Shortly before 16 : 00 , the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of Vice Admiral David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of Indefatigable , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary , less than half an hour later . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , the crew of the leading German battleship , König , spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given .
Prinzregent Luitpold engaged the nearest target her gunners could make out , one of the Lion @-@ class battlecruisers , at a range of some 22 @,@ 300 yd ( 20 @,@ 400 m ) , though her shots fell short . Beatty 's ships increased speed and at 17 : 51 veered away to further increase the distance to the III Squadron battleships . At 18 : 08 , Prinzregent Luitpold shifted her fire to the battleship Malaya at a range of 19 @,@ 100 yd ( 17 @,@ 500 m ) , though without any success . By 18 : 38 , Malaya disappeared in the haze and Prinzregent Luitpold was forced to cease fire . The British destroyers Nestor and Nomad , which had been disabled earlier in the engagement , lay directly in the path of the advancing High Seas Fleet . Prinzregent Luitpold and her three sisters destroyed Nomad with their secondary guns while the I Squadron battleships dispatched Nestor . At around 19 : 00 , the German battle line came into contact with the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron ; Prinzregent Luitpold fired two salvos from her main battery at an unidentified four @-@ funneled cruiser at 19 : 03 but made no hits .
Shortly after 19 : 00 , the German cruiser Wiesbaden had become disabled by a shell from the British battlecruiser Invincible ; Rear Admiral Paul Behncke in König attempted to maneuver the III Squadron to cover the stricken cruiser . Simultaneously , the British 3rd and 4th Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns . The eight III Squadron battleships fired on the British cruisers , but even sustained fire from the battleships ' main guns failed to drive off the British cruisers . The armored cruisers Defence , Warrior , and Black Prince joined in the attack on the crippled Wiesbaden . Between 19 : 14 and 19 : 17 , several German battleships and battlecruisers opened fire on Defence and Warrior . Instead of joining the fire on the much closer cruisers , Prinzregent Luitpold engaged the leading battleships of the British line , firing a total of 21 salvos . The gunners reported ranges of 17 @,@ 500 to 18 @,@ 800 yd ( 16 @,@ 000 to 17 @,@ 200 m ) , though this was an overestimation that caused the ship 's salvos to fall past their intended target .
By 20 : 00 , the German line was ordered to complete a 180 @-@ degree turn eastward to disengage from the British fleet . The maneuver , conducted under heavy fire , caused disorganization in the German fleet . Kaiserin had come too close to Prinzregent Luitpold and was forced to haul out of line to starboard to avoid a collision . Prinzregent Luitpold came up alongside Kaiserin at high speed , which forced Kaiserin to remain out of line temporarily . The turn reversed the order of the German line ; Prinzregent Luitpold was now the eighth ship from the rear of the German line , leading the III Squadron . At around 23 : 30 , the German fleet reorganized into the night @-@ cruising formation . Kaiserin was the eleventh ship , in the center of the 24 @-@ ship line .
After a series of night engagements between the leading battleships and British destroyers , the High Seas Fleet punched through the British light forces and reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . The German fleet reached Wilhelmshaven a few hours later ; the I Squadron battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead , and Prinzregent Luitpold , Kaiserin , Kaiser , and Kronprinz stood ready just outside the entrance to Wilhelmshaven . The remainder of the battleships and battlecruisers entered Wilhelmshaven , where those that were still in fighting condition replenished their stocks of coal and ammunition . In the course of the battle , Prinzregent Luitpold fired one @-@ hundred and sixty @-@ nine 30 @.@ 5 cm shells and one @-@ hundred and six 15 cm rounds . She and her crew emerged from the battle completely unscathed .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
In early August , Prinzregent Luitpold and the rest of the operational III Squadron units conducted divisional training in the Baltic . On 18 August , Admiral Scheer attempted a repeat of the 31 May operation ; the two serviceable German battlecruisers — Moltke and Von der Tann — supported by three dreadnoughts , were to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty 's battlecruisers . The rest of the fleet , including Prinzregent Luitpold , would trail behind and provide cover . During the operation , Prinzregent Luitpold carried the Commander of U @-@ boats . On the approach to the English coast , Scheer turned north after receiving a false report from a zeppelin about a British unit in the area . As a result , the bombardment was not carried out , and by 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and so turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
Another fleet advance followed on 18 – 20 October , though it ended without encountering any British units . Two weeks later , on 4 November , Prinzregent Luitpold took part in an expedition to the western coast of Denmark to assist two U @-@ boats — U @-@ 20 and U @-@ 30 — that had become stranded there . The fleet was reorganized on 1 December ; the four König @-@ class battleships remained in III Squadron , along with the newly commissioned Bayern , while the five Kaiser @-@ class ships , including Prinzregent Luitpold , were transferred to IV Squadron . Prinzregent Luitpold became the flagship of the new squadron . In the Wilhelmshaven Roads on 20 January 1917 , the ship struck a steel hawser that became entangled in the ship 's starboard propeller . In March , Friedrich der Grosse was replaced as the fleet flagship by the newly commissioned battleship Baden . Friedrich der Grosse in turn replaced Prinzregent Luitpold as the flagship of IV Squadron . Steadily decreasing morale and discontent with rations provoked a series of small mutinies in the fleet . On 6 June and 19 July , stokers protested the low quality of the food they were given , and on 2 August , some 800 men went on a hunger strike . The ship 's officers relented and agreed to form a Menagekommission , a council that gave the enlisted men a voice in their ration selection and preparation . One of the ringleaders of the protests , however , was arrested and executed on 5 September .
= = = Operation Albion = = =
In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The Admiralstab ( the Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , Moltke , along with the III and IV Battle Squadrons of the High Seas Fleet . Along with nine light cruisers , three torpedo boat flotillas , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , supported by over 100 aircraft and six zeppelins . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts Slava and Tsesarevich , the armored cruisers Bayan , Admiral Makarov , and Diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gunboats . The garrison on Ösel numbered some 14 @,@ 000 men .
The operation began on the morning of 12 October , when Moltke and the III Squadron ships engaged Russian positions in Tagga Bay while Prinzregent Luitpold and the rest of IV Squadron shelled Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula on Ösel . Prinzregent Luitpold , along with Kaiser and Kaiserin , were tasked with silencing the Russian guns at Hundsort which had taken Moltke under fire . The ships opened fire at 05 : 44 , and by 07 : 45 , Russian firing had ceased and German troops were moving ashore . Two days later , Vice Admiral Wilhelm Souchon left Tagga Bay with Prinzregent Luitpold , Friedrich der Grosse , and Kaiserin to support German ground forces advancing on the Sworbe Peninsula . By 20 October , the fighting on the islands was winding down ; Moon , Ösel , and Dagö were in German possession . The previous day , the Admiralstab had ordered the cessation of naval actions and the return of the dreadnoughts to the High Seas Fleet as soon as possible . On the 24th , Prinzregent Luitpold was detached from the task force and returned to Kiel .
After arriving in Kiel , Prinzregent Luitpold went into drydock for periodic maintenance , from which she emerged on 21 December . She then proceeded on to Wilhelmshaven , where she resumed guard duty in the Bight . On 17 March 1918 , the ship steamed to the Baltic for training exercises , and the following day the battlecruiser Derfflinger rammed her outside Kiel . The accident caused no serious damage , however . The ship participated in the fruitless advance to Norway on 23 – 25 April 1918 , after which she resumed guard duties in the German Bight .
= = = Fate = = =
Prinzregent Luitpold and her four sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Großadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , to improve Germany 's bargaining position , despite the expected casualties . But many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt that the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated " I no longer have a navy " .
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , was interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to von Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any circumstances . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . Once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks , and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and men per ship .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Prinzregent Luitpold sank at 13 : 30 ; she was subsequently raised on 9 July 1931 and broken up by 1933 in Rosyth .
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= Michèle Mouton =
Michèle Mouton ( born 23 June 1951 ) is a French former rally driver . Competing in the World Rally Championship for the Audi factory team , she took four victories and finished runner @-@ up in the drivers ' world championship in 1982 . She is still the last woman to compete in top @-@ level rallying .
Mouton debuted in rallying as a co @-@ driver but quickly moved to the driver 's seat , steering an Alpine @-@ Renault A110 in national rallies . In 1975 , she competed in circuit racing and won the two @-@ litre prototype class in the 24 Hours of Le Mans . After being signed by Fiat France for 1977 , Mouton finished runner @-@ up to Bernard Darniche in the European Rally Championship . She went on to win the 1978 Tour de France Automobile and record consistent results in her home events in the WRC ; the Tour de Corse and the Monte Carlo Rally . For 1981 , Audi Sport signed Mouton to partner Hannu Mikkola . In her first year with the Audi Quattro , she took a surprise victory at the Rallye Sanremo .
In the 1982 season , Mouton finished a close second overall to Walter Röhrl , after wins in Portugal , Brazil and Greece , and helped Audi to its first manufacturers ' title . Her campaign the following year resulted in fifth place . With the team having four top drivers for 1984 , Mouton 's participation on world championship level became part @-@ time . In 1985 , she won the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb in the United States , setting a record time in the process . In 1986 , she moved to Peugeot and won the German Rally Championship as the first female driver to win a major championship in rallying . Soon after securing the title , Mouton retired from rallying due to the ban of Group B supercars . In 1988 , she co @-@ founded the international motorsport event Race of Champions in memory of her former rival Henri Toivonen . Mouton became the first president of the FIA 's Women & Motor Sport Commission in 2010 and the FIA 's manager in the World Rally Championship in 2011 .
= = Career = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Michèle Mouton was born 23 June 1951 in Grasse , a town on the French Riviera known for its perfume industry , close to the mountain stages famously featured in French rallies . Her parents grew roses and jasmine on their large property . After graduating from high school , Mouton began law studies , but would soon drop out and concentrate on a career in rallying . Although Mouton began driving her father 's Citroën 2CV when she was 14 years old , she did not turn her interest to rallying until 1972 , when her friend Jean Taibi asked her to practise the Tour de Corse with him . Mouton later co @-@ drove for him in the 1973 Monte Carlo Rally , the first @-@ ever World Rally Championship ( WRC ) event . After a few more rallies , Mouton 's father suggested a switch to driving if she wanted to continue in rallying , and promised to buy her a car and give her one @-@ year to prove herself . Driving an Alpine @-@ Renault A110 , she debuted at the Critérium Féminin Paris @-@ Saint @-@ Raphaël and then tackled the Tour de France Automobile . In the Île de Beauté , a complementary event to the Tour de Corse at the end of 1973 , Mouton finished eighth overall .
In the World Rally Championship , Mouton made her driver debut in 1974 , finishing 12th in the Tour de Corse in an Alpine A110 . It was rumoured her good performances were the result of a special engine , however her car passed inspection by WRC scrutineers . At the end of the year , Mouton was crowned both French and European ladies ' champion . Re @-@ entering the Tour de Corse the following season , she took seventh place . Mouton successfully defended her ladies ' titles , and also competed in circuit racing : In an all @-@ female team with Christine Dacremont and Marianne Hoepfner , she won the two @-@ litre prototype category of the 1975 24 Hours of Le Mans . Recalling the race in 2008 , Mouton said : " It started to rain I remember , and I started to pass everybody . I was running on slicks . In the pits they were saying ' Michele you must stop ' , but I did not want to because I was passing everyone . " Her results attracted a major sponsor in the form of the French oil company Elf . In 1976 , Mouton drove the A110 to 11th place in Monte Carlo and retired at the Rallye Sanremo . At the Tour de Corse , her debut in the newer A310 also ended in retirement .
= = = Fiat = = =
For the 1977 season , Fiat France signed Mouton to partner Jean @-@ Claude Andruet . She was not impressed by the handling of the Fiat 131 Abarth , stating it was " like a big truck , not a car " and " terrible to drive " . However , the car would prove successful and Mouton put in very consistent results , finishing eighth in the Tour de Corse in 1977 and fifth three years in a row from 1978 to 1980 . In 1980 , she had been running as high as second before her engine died for a time . In Monte Carlo , she drove the car to seventh place in 1979 and 1980 , equalling the result she had achieved in the event in a Lancia Stratos HF in 1978 .
Outside the World Rally Championship , Mouton drove a Porsche Carrera RS to victory in the 1977 RACE Rallye de España and to second place in the 1977 Tour de France Automobile . She also finished runner @-@ up to Bernard Darniche in the overall European Rally Championship ( ERC ) . Mouton went on to win the Tour de France with the 131 Abarth the following year . At the Rallye d 'Antibes , she finished third behind the Stratos drivers Darniche and Attilio Bettega . She placed fifth in the ERC standings and fourth in the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) Cup for Drivers , the predecessor to the drivers ' world championship . In 1979 , Mouton finished second in the French Rally Championship , behind Porsche 911 SC driver Bernard Béguin .
= = = Audi = = =
= = = = 1980 = = = =
In 1980 , Audi Sport , Audi 's new factory team , called Mouton and signed her for a World Rally Championship programme for the 1981 season . Mouton described Audi 's call as " a complete shock " . Audi 's decision to nominate her instead of established male rivals attracted a great deal of publicity . As the Audi Quattro , the first rally car to have over 300 bhp and both a turbocharger and four @-@ wheel @-@ drive , had not yet gained FIA homologation , Audi could only enter rallies as zero cars and not as competitive entries . Hannu Mikkola debuted the car in the Algarve Rally in October , and would have won by about thirty minutes had his times been officially registered . Mouton joined Freddy Kottulinsky for the final round of the Finnish Rally Championship , the Northern Lights , and also showed encouraging pace on the slippery surfaces . Mouton initially found the car understeering , but became more comfortable after switching to left @-@ foot braking , as advised by Mikkola who was in charge of developing the car . Audi announced their participation in eight events in 1981 , although Mouton would not be entered in the Swedish Rally due to her lack of experience on driving on ice and snow .
= = = = 1981 = = = =
Mouton 's first competitive run in the Quattro in Monte Carlo ended before it had even begun . She withdrew from the event before the start due to apparent engine problems . The team later discovered that dirt had got into the fuel system . At the Rally Portugal , she started her long partnership with the Italian co @-@ driver Fabrizia Pons . Mouton won seven stages and took a career @-@ best fourth place , despite suffering from electronic problems . This ended criticism of Audi for signing a female driver . After a retirement due to a broken camshaft in the Tour de Corse , Mouton set several fastest times at the Acropolis Rally in Greece . While Mikkola was leading and Mouton fifth , the stewards excluded the Quattros citing homologation infractions . Although Audi protested , the stewards upheld the decision . In her debut in the high @-@ speed 1000 Lakes Rally in Finland , Mouton found it hard to get used to the rhythm changes . She recorded a few top @-@ ten stage times and finished 13th . She was satisfied with her performance , and the local newspaper Keskisuomalainen described her debut as successful . At the Rallye Sanremo in Italy , a mixed surface event with tarmac and gravel , Mouton took the lead when the local star Michele Cinotto crashed and held off Henri Toivonen and Ari Vatanen to take the victory . This marked the first time a female driver had won a world championship event in rallying . Mouton 's male rivals were left speechless . Earlier during the weekend , Vatanen had been confident : " Never can nor will I lose to a woman . " Mouton recalled her debut win in a 2008 interview for RallySport Magazine :
I remember not just because it was a win , but also because it was a big fight right into the last night . Fabrizia reminded me the other night that we had a problem with the brake pads , so we lost a lot of time . We finished three days rallying ( with one day to go ) , night and day , 32 seconds in front of Ari Vatanen . We drove the last special stage for the night , came back to the hotel and I could not sleep at all , four hours in front of me and no sleep . Then I arrive at the special stage , it 's about 42km long , and I look at Fabrizia and I said " OK , we forget everything , and we are at the first stage of the rally again , because one of us will crash . " And so Ari hit a rock , and we won the rally .
In the season @-@ ending RAC Rally in Great Britain , Mouton continued her good performances by running third at half distance , despite having been uncomfortable about competing in a rally where pacenotes and practice are not allowed . However , her Quattro later incurred gearbox problems and she retired from fifth place after sliding off the road into a snow @-@ filled ditch . Mouton would later state : " For me , rallying is England . No pacenotes – just you in the car having to do the fastest time . This , to me , is rallying . OK , it was not easy for me because I did not have experience there of the British championship , but it is really rallying . I like it very much . " Mouton finished the season in eighth place in the drivers ' championship , while Audi was fifth in the manufacturers ' standings .
= = = = 1982 = = = =
Mouton 's 1982 season started with a big accident at the Monte Carlo Rally . On stage twelve in the small town Briançonnet in Provence , she missed a patch of ice and slid off the road , crashing into the stone wall of a large house at 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . Mouton injured her knee while Pons suffered a concussion . She had been in third place , and had set the fastest time for the difficult Col de Turini mountain pass . The pair 's injuries were not serious and Mouton went on to make her debut in the Swedish Rally . She was running third when she slid into a snow bank , and crashed into the Quattro of teammate Hannu Mikkola who had gone off at the same place . She eventually finished fifth . In Portugal , Mouton recorded 18 stage wins on her way to a clear victory ahead of Toyota 's Per Eklund . She once admitted that to be competitive in the rally , she tried to think of the large crowds right by the side of the route as trees . At the Tour de Corse , she could not match the pace of the leaders and finished seventh . At the Acropolis Rally , Mouton won ahead of the Opel duo Walter Röhrl and Henri Toivonen , and closed to within 20 points of the championship leader Röhrl . The event was overshadowed by two serious accidents , one of which killed a spectator . Mouton had commented : " I 'm afraid that something might break in my car and I can no longer avoid hitting a spectator . "
In New Zealand , Mouton continued her good performances and traded the lead with Mikkola , Röhrl and Björn Waldegård . Soon after regaining the lead on stage twelve , she retired with a broken oil pump . After seven rounds , Mouton was second in the championship , 32 points behind Röhrl and 12 ahead of Eklund . The Rally of Brazil was marred by the fatal accident of Brazilian driver Thomas Fuchs , and featured chaotic conditions as parts of the course were not successfully closed for competition . Although only five teams made it to the finish , Mouton improved her title hopes by winning her duel with Röhrl after the German lost a wheel on the last day . At the 1000 Lakes , she clocked in the eighth fastest time for the famous Ouninpohja stage and placed seventh after the first day . On the following leg , Mouton drove too fast into a jump and damaged her Quattro while landing . After the next jump , her front wheels locked up and she rolled the car . Mouton was next locked in a tight battle for the win in Sanremo . Although she recorded nine stage wins and Audi took a one @-@ two , she had to settle for fourth behind Röhrl .
Audi had not originally planned to participate in the African marathon events , but now found it necessary to enter the penultimate round , the Rallye Côte d 'Ivoire , due to their title battles with Opel . Just before the start of the event , Mouton received news that her father had succumbed to cancer in his house in Nice . His last wish was that Mouton start the rally . After a first day of over 1 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 750 miles ) of racing in temperatures over 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , she was eight minutes clear of Mikkola and nearly half an hour ahead of title rival Röhrl . Mikkola said that he had never been in such a hot car , and Röhrl estimated that the temperature inside his car reached an " almost unbearable " 70 ° C. With just over half of the 5 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 100 mi ) behind , Mouton led from Röhrl by over an hour despite losing 25 minutes due to transmission problems . On the third day , both Mouton and Röhrl struggled with several reliability issues and her lead over Röhrl shrank to 18 minutes . The Toyota Celica GT2000s of Eklund and Waldegård were still over two hours behind . Should Mouton go on to hold off Röhrl , she would reduce Röhrl 's lead in the championship to just two points . As a driver 's seven best results counted towards the championship at the time , Mouton would only need a third place in the RAC Rally to take the title even if Röhrl would win . On the final day , she continued to suffer from mechanical problems and had the complete fuel injection system changed . For the next time control , Röhrl and Mouton arrived almost simultaneously . With only 600 km to go , Mouton went off the road and rolled her car . She drove the severely damaged Quattro for five more kilometres before giving up .
Röhrl inherited the win and became the first two @-@ time world champion in rallying . Having lost her father , Mouton did not dwell on losing the title . Röhrl had earlier conceded that he " would have accepted second place in the championship to Mikkola " , but not to Mouton : " This is not because I doubt her capabilities as a driver , but because she is a woman . " He believed that defeat would have devalued his performances . At the RAC , Mouton edged out Toivonen to take second place behind Mikkola . This result made Audi the first German marque to win the manufacturers ' world title . At the inaugural Autosport Awards gala , Mouton won the International Rally Driver of the Year award .
= = = = 1983 = = = =
The 1983 season started the Group B era of the WRC and Mouton was now at the wheel of the Audi Quattro A1 . She also had a new teammate ; Audi had signed Stig Blomqvist as their third regular driver . For the third year in a row , Mouton had a bad start to her season in Monte Carlo . She went off the road on a stage not far from her home town , and again hit a stone wall at over 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) . The car was destroyed , but Mouton and Pons were unharmed . Mouton explained to her team boss Roland Gumpert , later of Gumpert supercar fame , that she had had to dodge a photographer . Mouton went on to record successive points finishes . She finished fourth in Sweden in a quadruple win for Audi , after an early driving error that had sent her Quattro into a snow bank . In Portugal , Mouton finished second to Mikkola , ahead of Lancia 's Röhrl and Markku Alén . After the first section of the Safari Rally , totaling over 1 @,@ 600 km ( 1 @,@ 000 mi ) , Mouton arrived to the finish on three wheels and said she was " totally exhausted " from the effort . She eventually placed third behind Opel 's Ari Vatanen and her teammate Mikkola . After four events , Mikkola and Mouton were first and second in the drivers ' championship .
At the Tour de Corse , Audi debuted the Quattro A2 , which was 70 kg ( 155 lb ) lighter and had an engine producing 30 more horsepower . Mouton 's rally ended when her engine caught on fire . On the first stage in Greece , she rolled her car on a hairpin turn 18 km ( 11 mi ) from the start . Rally New Zealand was for Mouton a repetition of the previous year ; she took the lead on the seventh stage and held on to it until her A2 's engine failed , with only six of the 33 stages to go . The three retirements in a row dropped Mouton to fifth place in the championship . She then finished third behind Mikkola and Blomqvist at the Rally Argentina , but this would remain her last podium finish of the season . At the 1000 Lakes in Finland , Mouton finished the first day in seventh place after setting two top @-@ five stage times . Her car later caught on fire , but she was able to continue in the event by following Mikkola 's advice and driving into a lake . With a string of top @-@ ten times , she eventually finished 16th . In the Rallye Sanremo , the tarmac stages were dominated by the Lancia 037 and Mouton finished seventh after suffering from fuel injection problems . In the season @-@ ending RAC Rally , she started well and held second place after the first twelve stages . An Audi mechanic later accidentally refilled Mouton 's fuel tank with pure water which resulted in time @-@ consuming repairs . She eventually retired after crashing out , and placed fifth overall in the drivers ' championship . Although Mikkola beat Lancia 's Röhrl and Alén to the drivers ' title , Audi had lost the manufacturers ' title to Lancia after the latter 's triple win in Sanremo .
= = = = 1984 = = = =
For the 1984 season , Audi added two @-@ time world champion Walter Röhrl to their star line @-@ up and Mouton now had a part @-@ time role , competing in five WRC events . For the first time in nine years , she did not enter the Monte Carlo Rally . However , Mouton signed up to commentate the event for Radio Monte Carlo . She started her year well by finishing second at the Swedish Rally behind teammate and home favourite Blomqvist . Mouton later stated that " finishing second was fantastic . When you are out rallying on ice or snow in country like that it is like dancing . From one side to the other side . My dancing background helped my rallying . As soon as I started on gravel I liked it because of that . It was so nice to feel and move the car like that . Sweden , in ice and snow , like ballet ! " This would remain her last podium position in the World Rally Championship .
In the Safari Rally , a rotor arm in Mouton 's Quattro failed and caused the turbo to break down as well . She retired after falling victim to the team 's ranking order ; as the repairs were expected to take too long , Gumpert ordered championship leader Blomqvist 's Quattro to be fixed by using Mouton 's sister car as spares . Her debut in the new Sport Quattro at the Acropolis Rally ended with engine overheating problems . In the 1000 Lakes , Mouton placed ninth after the short first day . She later crashed and continued without a windscreen , but the damage to her Quattro could not be repaired in service . Mouton retired and left Finland pointless for the fourth year in a row . In late October , she signed a contract extension with Audi . At the RAC Rally , a slight mistake led to a puncture and Mouton dropped from third to fifth . She went on to narrowly lose the final podium spot to Toyota 's Per Eklund . Mouton 's results placed her 12th in the drivers ' world championship , a point behind Röhrl . Outside the WRC , Mouton debuted in the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb in the United States , driving an Audi Sport Quattro together with her usual co @-@ driver Fabrizia Pons . After her main opponent Martin Schanche got hampered by a flat right front tyre she won the open rally category ( now known as unlimited ) in a record time and placed second overall , leaving behind several specialised V8 single @-@ seaters that had normally dominated the race .
= = = = 1985 = = = =
Audi 's WRC programme was limited for the 1985 season due to the recent defeats to Peugeot Talbot Sport , Peugeot 's factory team headed by Jean Todt . Mouton and Mikkola were assigned to testing and development duties . She drove both the Sport Quattro and its follower , the Quattro S1 ( Sport E2 ) . Mouton considered the S1 the most difficult rally car she had driven : " For rallying on asphalt , I agree the limit had gone too far . We did not have the reflexes to control it properly . It was tough to drive the car , but not the short Quattro before . "
Although Mouton competed in only one world championship event during the season , she contested a full six @-@ round British Rally Championship . Her campaign was plagued by reliability problems and she recorded only one finish . In the National Breakdown Rally , Mouton stopped after damaging her Quattro in a jump . After technical problems led to an early retirement at the Circuit of Ireland , she finished second at the Welsh Rally behind Malcolm Wilson in another Quattro . At the Scottish Rally , Mouton had been closing in on the leading Wilson until a transmission problem forced her to retire . At the Ulster Rally , she set the fastest time for the first stage but then dropped out with a mechanical failure . In the season @-@ ending Manx International Rally , Mouton struggled to start her Quattro and then crashed out five stages later .
Mouton 's only WRC event of the year was the long @-@ distance Rallye Côte d 'Ivoire . She was co @-@ driven by Arne Hertz as Pons was ill at the time of the start . Mouton started well and tied the lead with Toyota 's Juha Kankkunen after the first day . Her Quattro incurred severe engine problems on the next day , but was seemingly repaired by Audi mechanics off the route in the jungle . At the same time , the Sport Quattro " chase car " , a high @-@ speed service car , retired and Audi faced accusations of swapping the cars . The team withdrew Mouton just before the finish and the controversy remains unresolved ; the stewards did not find proof but the media published evidence afterwards . Although her rallying year was a disappointment , Mouton made a successful return to the Pikes Peak , winning the event overall in her Sport Quattro . Despite slippery conditions caused by a hailstorm , she broke Al Unser , Jr . ' s 1982 record by about thirteen seconds . The Frenchwoman 's win irritated some of her male rivals . Bobby Unser was reputedly quite vocal about his loss , to which Mouton is said to have replied : " If you have the balls you can try to race me back down as well . "
= = = Peugeot = = =
Mouton broke off her contract with Audi in late 1985 to join Peugeot for the coming season . She contested the German Rally Championship and two WRC events in a Peugeot 205 Turbo 16 , with which the marque had captured last year 's world titles . To replace the newly @-@ wed Pons , Mouton recruited Terry Harryman who had been left jobless after Ari Vatanen 's accident . Mouton , nicknamed " der schwarze Vulkan " ( The Black Volcano ) due to her temperament and long black hair , won six of the eight events in the German championship , including the Rallye Deutschland . Although the Hessen Rallye was stopped after the severe accident of Formula One driver Marc Surer , which claimed the life of his co @-@ driver Michel Wyder , Mouton was declared the winner . She secured the German national title on the seventh and penultimate round , the Sachs Baltic , after taking her fifth win of the season . She became the first female driver to win a major championship in rallying .
Mouton 's WRC outings were her home events : Monte Carlo Rally and Tour de Corse . In Monte Carlo , she was running in eighth place after eleven stages , but soon retired with oil pump problems . For the Tour de Corse in May , Mouton was given the second evolution of the car . She quickly showed good pace and held third place behind Lancia 's Henri Toivonen and teammate Bruno Saby . However , she ran into gearbox trouble on the tenth stage and was forced to retire . During the next day , Toivonen and his co @-@ driver Sergio Cresto crashed out from the lead and died in their seats . Mouton was still in Corsica and remarked to her boyfriend that " if they stop the Group B now , it will be the end for me . " Within days , FISA announced new regulations and banned the Group B supercars for the following year .
In October , two weeks after securing the German Rally Championship title , Mouton announced her retirement from rallying . She cited the end of the Group B era as the reason behind the decision , and stated that it was " a good time to stop . " Later in the same month , Mouton crowned her career by winning the last event of the German championship , the Drei @-@ Städte @-@ Rallye ( Three Cities Rally ) , ahead of Armin Schwarz 's MG Metro 6R4 .
= = = Later career = = =
In 1988 , Mouton co @-@ founded the international motorsport event Race of Champions with Fredrik Johnsson , in memory of Toivonen and to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the world championship for rally drivers . The event originally included the world 's top rally drivers , but now features stars also from other disciplines , such as Formula One , NASCAR , Le Mans and MotoGP , competing against each other in identical cars .
In 1988 and 1989 , Mouton participated in rally raids as part of Peugeot 's service team for Ari Vatanen and Jacky Ickx . At the 1988 Rally of Tunisia , Mouton drove a 205 T16 Grand Raid chase car and transported spare parts for Vatanen and Henri Pescarolo , but also classified sixth overall . She later took part in the Dakar Rally as a press driver in 2004 and 2009 . In 2000 , Mouton finished second in the London – Sydney Marathon driving a Porsche 911 , behind former teammate Stig Blomqvist . After 22 years , Mouton and Fabrizia Pons reunited to compete in the 2008 Otago Classic Rally in New Zealand . In 2010 , Mouton competed with a 911 in the Rallye du Maroc and finished second to Grégoire De Mévius .
In 2010 , Mouton became the first president of the FIA 's Women & Motor Sport Commission . She stated that " for many years people have asked me why there have been no women following in my footsteps . I really hope the Commission can help answer that question and that we can attract and support women in all areas of our sport . " Having already headed a working group on the future of rallying , Mouton was appointed FIA 's manager in the World Rally Championship in 2011 . Mouton also serves in the nomination committee of the Rally Hall of Fame . In March 2012 , she recused herself after becoming a candidate for nomination . Mouton was inducted into the Hall of Fame along with two @-@ time world champion Carlos Sainz .
= = Personal life and legacy = =
While announcing her retirement from rallying , Mouton stated her intention to start a family with Corsican sports journalist Claude Guarnieri . She had her daughter Jessie ( Jessica ) in 1987 . Mouton credited her father Pierre 's support as the secret for her success : " He loved driving . He loved fast cars . And I think he would have loved to do what I did . He was a prisoner of war for five years and when he came back he never had the opportunity to compete . But he came to all the rallies I did . And my mother came , too . "
Mouton states that in her mind she did not try to beat her male rivals , but to be at their level . She noted that in rallying the time is the most important thing . David Evans of Autosport described her as " motorsport 's most successful ever female driver . " Rally journalist and historian Graham Robson credits Mouton , along with Pat Moss , as " the driver by whom all other females measure their skills and achievements . " Mouton and Moss were of different eras and did not compete directly against each other , although they both appeared at the 1973 Monte Carlo Rally where Mouton co @-@ drove . In 1985 , they swapped cars in a private test session with Moss driving the Quattro and Mouton an Austin @-@ Healey 3000 . Stirling Moss regarded Mouton as " one of the best " , and Niki Lauda described her as a " superwoman " .
In 2011 , Mouton was made knight of the Legion of Honour ( Légion d 'honneur ) by French President Nicolas Sarkozy .
= = Complete WRC results = =
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= Dan Borislow =
Daniel Marc Borislow ( September 21 , 1961 – July 21 , 2014 ) was an American entrepreneur , sports team owner , inventor , and thoroughbred horse breeder . Originating in the Philadelphia , Pennsylvania area , Borislow attended Widener University and worked in cable construction and landscaping before going into the telephone business . He founded Tel @-@ Save , Inc. to resell access to AT & T long @-@ distance lines in 1989 . Borislow took the company public in 1995 , and two years later brokered a $ 100 million deal with AOL that made it the exclusive telephone service of its users . At its peak in early 1998 , Tel @-@ Save had sales of $ 300 million and was valued by Wall Street investors at $ 2 billion . However , due to the financial strain of paying off the AOL deal , Tel @-@ Save lost $ 221 million in 1999 , and Borislow sold his stock for a reported $ 200 to $ 300 million and retired .
In his brief retirement , he focused on his horse racing career , sending Talk is Money to the 2001 Kentucky Derby although the thoroughbred did not complete the race . Borislow 's most successful horse yet has been Toccet , who won four graded stakes , among which are the Champagne and Hollywood Futurity in 2002 . After selling most of his horses in 2004 , Borislow set forth plans for a new voice @-@ over @-@ IP business which became the magicJack . Invented in 2007 , the magicJack is a small product which can be plugged into a computer 's USB port and allows for unlimited calling from regular telephones . In 2010 , YMAX , the company behind the magicJack , merged with an Israeli company and became a publicly traded corporation .
In 2011 , Borislow purchased a controlling share of the Washington Freedom women 's professional soccer team . He had a brief turbulent relationship with other owners and the players which ended in a battle of law suits and the termination of the soccer team and league . Borislow and his family lived in Palm Beach County , Florida , where , through D & K Charitable Foundation , Borislow issued grants to charitable causes .
Borislow died from an apparent heart attack or myocardial infarction on July 21 , 2014 .
= = Business career = =
= = = Tel @-@ Save = = =
In 1989 , Borislow founded Tel @-@ Save when he was in his 20s to resell access to AT & T long @-@ distance lines . The company was based in New Hope , Pennsylvania , and its primary market was toward small and medium @-@ sized businesses . Borislow took the company public in 1995 and had an initial public offering of three million shares . He then invested in his own long distance network by deploying five Lucent 5ESS @-@ 2000 switches throughout the United States . By 1997 , Tel @-@ Save was making $ 20 million a year .
In 1997 , Borislow negotiated a three @-@ year deal with America Online that granted Tel @-@ Save exclusive marketing rights to sell long @-@ distance service to AOL users . AOL users , meanwhile , would now be billed online for their local , long distance , cellular , and internet services . His original asking price was $ 50 million , but after negotiations , the figure increased to $ 100 million , in addition to half of future profits and 15 percent of the company 's stock . Having rescued a reeling AOL from Chapter 11 , Borislow was compared to Ted Turner for his vision and marketing abilities by Bob Pittman , president of AOL . This deal with Borislow skyrocketed AOL 's stock prices 231 % over the next year and catapulted them to be the dominant online provider with no runner up in sight . In December of that year , Borislow was behind the merger of Tel @-@ Save and STF , a similar company that provided telecommunications services to office buildings .
At its peak in early 1998 , Tel @-@ Save had sales of $ 300 million and was valued by Wall Street investors at $ 2 billion . His personal stock in the company was $ 500 million . Borislow 's America Online deal was the catalyst for other " portal deals " with AOL . The company 's fortunes turned due to the financial strain of the AOL deal , and following an annual loss of $ 221 million in 1998 , he resigned as CEO of the company on January 1 , 1999 . Gabriel Battista was named CEO in his absence . Tel @-@ Save is now known as Talk America .
= = = magicJack = = =
In 2005 , after retiring from business to focus on his horse racing career , Borislow set forth plans for a new voice @-@ over @-@ IP business , with an initial name of Talk4free . He created YMAX Communications Corporation in April 2006 as a communications and equipment service . YMAX 's profits come from the production of the magicJack , a small device which can be plugged into a computer 's USB port and allows for unlimited calling from regular telephones .
CEO Borislow invented the product in 2007 and had applied for patents from the U.S. government while he and Donald Burns shared the payment of $ 25 million to start up the company .
Before Borislow launched a widespread television campaign in January 2008 , the company sold less than 1 @,@ 000 magicJacks per day . By June , he was selling 8 @,@ 000 @-@ 9 @,@ 000 per day and had roughly 500 @,@ 000 subscribers in total . Borislow attributes its success to its pricing , at $ 40 in the first year of service and $ 20 each year thereafter . Although its voice quality has been criticized , Ted Kritsonis of The Globe and Mail said the " MagicJack was still better than most cell phones I 've tried . "
In 2009 , Florida Attorney General Bill McCollum investigated a claim that Borislow falsely marketed the magicJack as having a free 30 @-@ day trial of the product . In reality , the customer must specifically cancel the trial prior to the 30 @-@ day mark , otherwise the credit card would be automatically billed . While Borislow maintained that his company 's actions were not illegal , he reached a settlement on April 15 , agreeing to pay the state of Florida $ 125 @,@ 000 for the cost of the investigation . He said the company resolved over 500 complaints and added a disclaimer on the website clarifying the misconception .
VocalTec , an Israeli telephone company , acquired YMAX in July 2010 . Since Borislow and other YMAX businessmen contributed most of the equity , they essentially run the merged business , which kept the " YMAX " moniker . VocalTec was a publicly traded company , so YMAX went on Nasdaq following the merger . In 2010 , YMAX had a market capitalization of $ 300 million and is expected to make $ 110 million to $ 125 million in sales .
= = Horse racing career = =
After watching horse races at Philadelphia Park for some time , Borislow decided to go into the business in 1991 . He frequently wagered on trainer John Scanlan 's horses , so he requested Scanlan to be the conditioner for his horses . Among Borislow 's first acquisitions was broodmare Beautiful Bid , who gave birth to Breeders ' Cup Distaff winner and Eclipse champion Beautiful Pleasure . In 2000 , he sold Beautiful Bid for $ 2 @.@ 6 million .
Borislow bought a $ 1 @.@ 8 million yearling in September 1999 that he named Talk Is Money . The thoroughbred was named after Tel @-@ Save , with Borislow saying , " Every time someone was talking on the phone , I made money . " Talk Is Money 's best finish came at the Tesio Stakes in April 2001 , where the horse placed second . This qualified him for the 2001 Kentucky Derby , and Borislow hired jockey Jerry Bailey , who won the 2000 Breeders Cup Juvenile with Macho Uno . At 47 @-@ 1 odds , Talk Is Money came in last in the Derby and did not finish the race .
Borislow 's most successful horse was Toccet , who won four graded stakes , including the Champagne and Hollywood Futurity in 2002 . Toccet 's name is a misspelled tribute to former National Hockey League ( NHL ) player Rick Tocchet . The horse was named runner @-@ up to Vindication for the American Champion Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Colt in 2002 , a part of the Eclipse Award . Once a favorite to enter the 2003 Kentucky Derby , Toccet was derailed by ankle injuries early in the year . He won one listed stakes after his juvenile season out of 15 starts and now stands at Castleton Lyons .
After a dispute with the Internal Revenue Service , Borislow sold a majority of his horses at the Fasig Tipton November sale in 2004 . In February 2005 , he was in a partnership with baseball manager Joe Torre and hockey player Keith Jones to buy Wild Desert . In June of that year , Wild Desert won the Queen 's Plate off a layoff of over 10 weeks .
On 5 / 25 / 2014 , Borislow hit the Gulfstream Park Rainbow Six paying $ 6 @.@ 6 million . His winning Rainbow 6 ticket of all / all / all / 1 @,@ 4 / all / all cost $ 7 @,@ 603 @.@ 20 . He played two other similar tickets with a total cost of $ 22 @,@ 809 @.@ 60 .
= = Women 's Professional Soccer = =
In 2011 , Borislow bought Women 's Professional Soccer franchise Washington Freedom , moved it to South Florida , and renamed it magicJack . Borislow attracted stars of the United States national women 's soccer team such as Abby Wambach and Hope Solo with salaries well above the league average of $ 25 @,@ 000 per year . Borislow was criticized for discriminatory treatment of lesser @-@ known players . Cat Whitehill , a former player and sports broadcaster said , " There are so few superstars that the majority of players can be easily intimidated " She added that the stars " never deliberately meant for the other players on the roster to be treated badly . But it does appear that they didn 't consider what standing up to Borislow would mean for the rest of the team . "
On 8 July 2011 , the non @-@ National Team members of magicJack voted to file a grievance through their Player 's Union against Borislow . The grievance alleged that Borislow had violated the Standard Player Contract Provision , the FIFA Code of Ethics , WPS Media Policy and U.S. Soccer Federation Coaching Requirements . The suit alleged Borislow 's " practice of bullying and threatening players , and his creation of a hostile , oppressive , and intimidating work environment which adversely affects players ’ ability ( to ) perform " .
The only individual player to speak out publicly about Borislow was Ella Masar . Masar told of a team meeting in which Borislow demanded that the grievance be dropped or he would terminate the players and the magicJack season .
Borislow also had problems with WPS staff and owners of other teams . In response to ongoing conflicts with Borislow , in June 2011 WPS moved to terminate his franchise at the end of the season for breach of contractual obligations . Borislow subsequently filed an injunction that would force the league into arbitration rather than settling the matter with the league ’ s Board of Governors . On October 25 , 2011 , the WPS voted to terminate the franchise , accusing Borislow of violations ranging from " unprofessional and disparaging treatment of his players to failure to pay his bills . " WPS also stated , " Mr. Borislow 's actions have been calculated to tarnish the reputation of the league and damage the league 's business relationships . " The team was disbanded on October 28 , 2011 . The ongoing legal battle with the WPS led to the cancelling of the 2012 season for " pending legal issues " on January 1 , 2012 and the magicJack soccer franchise ceased to exist .
= = Philanthropy = =
D & K Charitable Foundation was established by Borislow in 1997 with a $ 21 million stock donation . In the first two years , he tried to use the charity to buy and preserve a tract of land in New Hope , Pennsylvania . This venture failed in 1998 when the property owner declined Borislow 's offer . Following this , D & K made donations to the Clearwater Endoscopy Center and the Center for Digestive Healthcare in Clearwater , Florida until 2001 . Since then , it has issued varied grants to causes Borislow supported , such as $ 2 @.@ 75 million to two yeshivas and $ 173 @,@ 450 to a West Palm Beach , Florida private school . Tax records indicate that Borislow and George Farley , the chief financial officer of the non @-@ profit , split approximately $ 2 @.@ 1 million in profits from 2001 @-@ 2005 , while $ 1 @.@ 6 million went to charitable causes . Borislow drew criticism in 2007 when he paid himself $ 1 @.@ 7 million through the charity .
= = Personal life = =
Borislow lived with his wife , Michele , and two children , Danny and Kylie , in Palm Beach County , Florida . The Borislows own three dogs , Magic , Jack , and Teddy . He also maintained a home in Brigantine , New Jersey .
In his free time , he enjoyed playing soccer , watching sports , and deep sea fishing . Borislow 's yacht , dubbed The Triple Crown , has three bedrooms , nine flat screen televisions , and golden fixtures .
On May 25 , 2014 , he won $ 6 @,@ 678 @,@ 939 @.@ 12 with the only ticket to have the winners of the final six races on Gulfstream 's card . The winner of the biggest payoff in American racing history invested $ 7 @,@ 603 @.@ 20 on the bet , which has a 20 @-@ cent base wager . He covered the full fields in all but the sixth race , in which he had only the Nos. 1 and 4 . Borislow made 2 other similar bets on the race , total investment was $ 22 @,@ 809 @.@ 60 .
Borislow died from a heart attack ( myocardial infarction ) in Jupiter , Florida on July 21 , 2014 , reportedly after playing in an adult league soccer match . On July 25 , 2014 , more than 500 mourners attended a memorial service at the Kravis Center in West Palm Beach .
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= Sarus crane =
The sarus crane ( Grus antigone ) is a large non @-@ migratory crane found in parts of the Indian Subcontinent , Southeast Asia and Australia . The tallest of the flying birds , standing at a height of up to 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 ft 11 in ) , they are conspicuous and iconic species of open wetlands . The sarus crane is easily distinguished from other cranes in the region by the overall grey colour and the contrasting red head and upper neck . They forage on marshes and shallow wetlands for roots , tubers , insects , crustaceans and small vertebrate prey . Like other cranes , they form long @-@ lasting pair @-@ bonds and maintain territories within which they perform territorial and courtship displays that include loud trumpeting , leaps and dance @-@ like movements . In India they are considered symbols of marital fidelity , believed to mate for life and pine the loss of their mates even to the point of starving to death . The main breeding season is during the rainy season , when the pair builds an enormous nest " island " , a circular platform of reeds and grasses nearly two metres in diameter and high enough to stay above the shallow water surrounding it . Sarus crane numbers have declined greatly in the last century and it has been estimated that the current population is a tenth or less ( perhaps 2 @.@ 5 % ) of the numbers that existed in the 1850s . The stronghold of the species is in India , where it is traditionally revered and lives in agricultural lands in close proximity to humans . Elsewhere , the species has been extirpated in many parts of its former range .
= = Description = =
The adult sarus crane is very large with grey wings and body ; a bare red head and part of the upper neck ; a greyish crown ; and a long greenish @-@ grey pointed bill . In flight , the long neck is held straight , unlike that of an heron , which folds it back , and the black wing tips can be seen ; the crane 's long pink legs trail behind them . This bird has a grey ear covert patch , an orange @-@ red iris and a greenish @-@ grey bill . Juveniles have a yellowish base to the bill and the brown @-@ grey head is fully feathered .
The bare red skin of the adult 's head and neck is brighter during the breeding season . This skin is rough and covered by papillae , and a narrow area around and behind the head is covered by black bristly feathers . The sexes do not differ in plumage although males are on average larger than females ; male sarus of the Indian population can attain a maximum height of about 180 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) making them the world 's tallest extant flying bird . The weight of nominate race individuals is 6 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 8 kg ( 15 – 17 lb ) , while five adult sharpii averaged 8 @.@ 4 kg ( 19 lb ) . Across the distribution range , the weight can vary from 5 to 12 kg ( 11 to 26 lb ) , height typically from 115 to 167 cm ( 45 @.@ 5 to 65 @.@ 5 in ) and the wingspan from 220 to 250 cm ( 86 @.@ 5 to 98 @.@ 5 in ) .
While the northern populations are amongst the heaviest cranes , alongside the red @-@ crowned and wattled cranes , and the largest in their range , birds from Australia tend to be smaller . In Australia , the sarus can easily be mistaken for the more widespread brolga . The brolga has the red colouring confined to the head and not extending into the neck . Body mass in Australian sarus cranes was found to average 6 @.@ 68 kg ( 14 @.@ 7 lb ) in males and 5 @.@ 25 kg ( 11 @.@ 6 lb ) in females , with a range for both sexes of 5 to 6 @.@ 9 kg ( 11 to 15 lb ) . Thus , Australian sarus average about 25 % lighter than the northern counterparts and are marginally lighter on average than brolgas .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The species has historically been widely distributed on the lowlands of India along the Gangetic plains , extending south to the Godavari River , west to coastal Gujarat , the Tharparkar District of Pakistan , and east to West Bengal and Assam . The species no longer breeds in Punjab , though it winters regularly . Sarus cranes are rare and occur in very low numbers in West Bengal and Assam , and are no longer found in the state of Bihar . In Nepal , its distribution is restricted to the western lowland plains , with most of the population occurring in Rupandehi , Kapilvastu , and Nawalparasi districts .
There are two distinct populations of sarus cranes in South @-@ east Asia : the northern population in China and Burma , and the southern population in Cambodia and Vietnam . The sarus used to extend to Thailand and further east into the Philippines , but may now be extinct in both these countries . In 2011 , 24 captive bred cranes raised from five original founders were reintroduced into Thailand . In Australia they are found only in the northern parts , and are partly migratory in some areas . The global range has shrunk and the largest occupied area is now in India . With marshlands largely destroyed , these cranes are increasingly dependent on wet paddy fields in India . Although now found mainly at a low elevation on the plains , there are some historical records from highland marshes further north in Harkit Sar and Kahag in Kashmir . The sarus crane breeds in some high elevation regions such as near the Pong Dam in Himachal Pradesh , where populations may be growing in response to increasing rice cultivation along the reservoir . In rice @-@ dominated districts of Uttar Pradesh , sarus crane abundance ( estimated as occupancy ) was highest in the western districts , intermediate in the central districts , and minimal in the eastern districts . Sarus crane abundance was positively associated with percentage of wetlands on the landscape , and negatively with the percentage of area under rice cultivation .
Two isolated populations exists in Australia , one from the western Kimberley region east to Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory and another population from Burketown eastwards and as far south as Townsville . Sarus cranes are not found on the Cape York Peninsula north of Weipa . They are commonly seen in Kakadu National Park , where the species is often hard to find among the more numerous brolga , and on the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland .
Sarus cranes preferentially use wetlands or uncultivated patches amid flooded rice paddies ( locally called khet @-@ taavadi ) for nesting in India . Breeding pairs are territorial and prefer to forage in natural wetlands , though wet crops like rice and wheat are also frequented . In south @-@ western Uttar Pradesh , sarus crane numbers increased with wetland size , though they were found in wetlands of all sizes despite extensive use of wetlands by humans .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
This species was described by Linnaeus in 1758 and placed in the genus Ardea that included the larger herons . Edward Blyth published a monograph on the cranes in 1881 in which he considered the " sarus crane " of India to be made up of two species , Grus collaris and Grus antigone . Most modern authors recognise one species with three disjunct populations that have been treated as subspecies , although the status of one extinct population from the Philippines is uncertain . The nominate subspecies from India is the largest , and in the east from Myanmar is replaced by race sharpii that extends into the Southeast Asian islands . The nominate form from the Indian subcontinent is well marked and differentiated by having a white collar below the bare head and upper neck , and white tertiary remiges . Some authors consider antigone and sharpii as representatives of a formerly continuous population that varied clinally . The race in Australia , initially placed in sharpii ( sometimes spelt sharpei but amended to conform to the rules of Latin grammar ) has been separated and named as the race gilliae ( sometimes spelt gillae or even gilli ) . The Australian race was designated only in 1988 , with the species itself first noticed in Australia in 1969 and regarded as a recent immigrant . Native Australians , however , differentiated the sarus and the brolga and called the sarus " the crane that dips its head in blood " . The Australian race has a distinctively darker plumage and a larger grey patch of ear coverts . This population shows the most recent divergence from the ancestral form with an estimated 3000 generations of breeding within Australia . An additional subspecies luzonica has been suggested for the population once found , but now extinct , in the Philippines . No distinctive character is known and it may be synonymous with either gilliae or sharpii .
Analysis of mitochondrial DNA , from a limited number of specimens , suggested that there was gene flow within the continental Asian populations until the 20th century reductions in range , and that Australia was colonized only in the Late Pleistocene , some 35000 years ago . This has been corroborated by nDNA microsatellite analyses with four times the sample size . This study further suggests that the Australian population is quite inbred . As there exists the possibility of ( limited ) hybridization with the genetically distinct brolga , the Australian sarus crane can be expected to be an incipient species .
= = = Etymology = = =
The common name of sarus is from the Hindi name ( " sāras " ) for the species . The Hindi word is derived from the Sanskrit word sarasa for the " lake bird " , ( sometimes corrupted to sārhans ) . While Indians held the species in veneration , British soldiers in colonial India hunted the bird , calling it the serious or even cyrus . The specific name of antigone — after the daughter of Oedipus , who hanged herself — may relate to the bare skin of the head and neck .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
Unlike many other cranes that make long migrations , sarus cranes are largely non @-@ migratory ; they may however make short @-@ distance movements in response to rain or dry @-@ weather conditions . The only migratory population is in South @-@ east Asia . Breeding pairs maintain territories that are defended from other cranes using a large repertoire of calls and displays . In Uttar Pradesh , less than a tenth of the breeding pairs maintain territories at wetlands and most pairs are scattered well away from the major wetlands . Non @-@ breeding birds occur as flocks of various sizes that vary from 1 – 430 birds . In semi @-@ arid areas , breeding pairs and successfully fledged juveniles depart from territories in the dry season and join non @-@ breeding flocks . In areas with perennial water supply , like in the western plains of Uttar Pradesh , breeding pairs maintain perennial territories . The largest known flocks are from the 29 km2 Keoladeo National Park – as many as 430 birds , and from wetlands in Etawah and Mainpuri districts in Uttar Pradesh , ranging from 245 – 412 birds . Flocks of over 100 birds are also regularly reported from Gujarat and Australia . During the breeding season , breeding pairs displace non @-@ breeding birds from some wetland sites , and local populations can appear to decline . Sarus crane populations in Keoladeo National Park have been noted to reduce from over 400 birds in summer to just 20 birds during the monsoon . In areas with perennial wetlands in the landscape such as western Uttar Pradesh , numbers of nonbreeding sarus cranes in flocks can be relatively stable throughout the year . In Etawah @-@ Mainpuri districts , nonbreeding sarus cranes form up to 65 % of the regional population .
They roost in shallow water , where they may be safe from some ground predators . Adult birds do not moult their feathers annually and instead feathers are replaced once every two or three years .
= = = Feeding = = =
Sarus cranes forage in shallow water ( usually with less than 30 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 ft ) depth of water ) or in fields , frequently probing in mud with their long bills . They are omnivorous , eating insects ( especially grasshoppers ) , aquatic plants , fish ( perhaps only in captivity ) , frogs , crustaceans and seeds . Occasionally tackling larger vertebrate prey such as water snakes ( Xenochrophis piscator ) , sarus cranes may in rare cases feed on the eggs of birds and turtles . Plant matter eaten includes tubers , corms of aquatic plants , grass shoots as well as seeds and grains from cultivated crops such as groundnuts and cereal crops such as rice .
= = = Courtship and breeding = = =
Sarus cranes have loud trumpeting calls . These calls are , as in other cranes , produced by the elongated trachea that form coils within the sternal region . Pairs may indulge in spectacular displays of calling in unison and posturing . These include " dancing " movements that are performed both during and outside the breeding season and involve a short series of jumping and bowing movements made as one of the pair circles around the other . Dancing may also be a displacement activity when the nest or young are threatened . The cranes breed mainly during the monsoons in India ( from July to October although there may be a second brood ) , and there are records of breeding in all the months . They build large nests , platforms made of reeds and vegetation in wet marshes or paddy fields . The nest is constructed within shallow water by piling up rushes , straw , grasses with their roots and mud so that the platform rises above the level of the water to form a little island . The nest is unconcealed and conspicuous , being visible from afar .
The nests can be more than two metres ( six feet ) in diameter and nearly a metre ( three feet ) high . Pairs shows high fidelity to the nest site , often refurbishing and reusing nests for as many as five breeding seasons . The clutch is one or two eggs ( rarely three or four ) which are incubated by both sexes for about 31 days ( range 26 – 35 days ) . Eggs are chalky white and weigh about 240 grams . When disturbed from the nest , parents may sometimes attempt to conceal the eggs by attempting to cover them with material from the edge of the nest . The eggshells are removed by the parents after the chicks hatch either by carrying away the fragments or by swallowing them . Approximately 30 % of all breeding pairs succeed in raising chicks in any year , and most of the successful pairs raise one or two chicks each , with brood sizes of three being rare . The chicks are fed by the parents for the first few days , but are able to feed independently after that and follow their parents for food . When alarmed , the parent cranes use a low korr @-@ rr call that signals chicks to freeze and lie still . Young birds stay with their parents until the subsequent breeding season . In captivity , birds breed only after their fifth year . The sarus is widely believed to pair for life , however cases of " divorce " and mate replacement have been recorded .
= = = Mortality factors = = =
Eggs are often destroyed at the nest by jungle ( Corvus macrorhynchos ) and house crows ( C. splendens ) . In Australia , predators of young birds include the dingo ( Canis dingo ) and fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) while brahminy kites ( Haliastur indus ) have been known to take eggs . Removal of eggs by farmers ( to reduce crop damage ) or children ( in play ) , or by migrant labourers for food or opportunistic egg collection during trips to collect forest resources are prominent causes of egg mortality . Between 31 and 100 % of nests with eggs can fail to hatch eggs for these reasons . Chicks are also prone to predation ( estimated at about 8 % ) and collection at the nest , but more than 30 % die of unknown reasons . Breeding success ( percentage of eggs hatching and surviving to fledging stage ) has been estimated at about 20 % in Gujarat and 51 – 58 % in south @-@ western Uttar Pradesh . In areas where farmers are tolerant , nests in flooded rice fields and those in wetlands have similar rates of survival . Pairs that nest later in the season have a lower chance of raising chicks successfully , but this improves when territories have more wetlands . Nest success for 96 sarus nests that were protected by locals during 2009 – 2011 via a payment @-@ for @-@ conservation program was 87 % . More pairs are able to raise chicks in years with higher total rainfall , and when territory quality was undisturbed due to increased farming or development . Permanent removal of pairs from the population due to developmental activities caused reduced population viability , and was a far more important factor relative to breeding success due to changes in total annual rainfall .
Little is known about the diseases and parasites of the sarus crane , and their effects on wild bird populations . A study conducted at the Rome zoo noted that these birds were resistant to anthrax . Endoparasites that have been described include a trematode , Opisthorhis dendriticus from the liver of a captive crane at the London zoo and a Cyclocoelid ( Allopyge antigones ) from an Australian bird . Like most birds , they have bird lice and the species recorded include Heleonomus laveryi and Esthiopterum indicum .
In captivity , sarus cranes have been known to live for as long as 42 years . Premature adult mortality is often the result of human actions . Accidental poisoning by monocrotophos , chlorpyrifos and dieldrin @-@ treated seeds used in agricultural areas has been noted . Adults have been known to fly into power lines and die of electrocution , this is responsible for killing about 1 % of the local population each year .
= = Conservation status = =
There were about an estimated 15 – 20 @,@ 000 mature sarus cranes left in the wild in 2009 . The Indian population is less than 10 @,@ 000 , but of the three subspecies , is the healthiest in terms of numbers . They are considered sacred and the birds are traditionally left unharmed , and in many areas they are unafraid of humans . They used to be found on occasion in Pakistan , but have not been seen there since the late 1980s . The population in India has however declined . Estimates of the global population suggest that the population in 2000 was at best about 10 % and at the worst just 2 @.@ 5 % of the numbers that existed in 1850 . Many farmers in India believe that these cranes damage standing crops , particularly rice , although studies show that direct feeding on rice grains resulted in losses amounting to less than one percent and trampling could account for grain loss of about 0 @.@ 4 – 15 kilograms ( 0 @.@ 88 – 33 @.@ 07 lb ) . The attitude of farmers tends to be positive in spite of these damages , and this has helped in conserving the species within agricultural areas . The role of rice paddies may be particularly important for the birds ' conservation , since natural wetlands are increasingly threatened by human activity . The conversion of wetlands to farmland , and farmland to more urban uses are major causes for habitat loss and long @-@ term population decline . Compensating farmers for crop losses has been suggested as a measure that may help . The Australian population is greater than 5 @,@ 000 birds and may be increasing , however , the Southeast Asian subspecies has been decimated by war and habitat change ( such as intensive agriculture and draining of wetlands ) and by the mid @-@ 20th century had disappeared from large parts of its range which once stretched up to southern China ; some 1500 – 2000 birds are left in several fragmented subpopulations . Payment to locals to guard nests and help increase breeding success has been attempted in northern Cambodia . Nest success of protected nests was significantly higher than that of unprotected nests , and positive population @-@ level impacts were apparent . However , the program also caused local jealousies leading to deliberate disturbance of nests , and did nothing to alleviate larger @-@ scale and more permanent threats due to habitat losses reading to the conclusion that such payment @-@ for @-@ conservation programs are at best a complement and not a substitute to more permanent interventions that include habitat preservation and local management of resources . The little @-@ known Philippine population became extinct in the late 1960s .
The sarus crane is classified as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List . Threats include habitat destruction and / or degradation , hunting and collecting , as well as environmental pollution and possibly diseases or competing species . The effects of inbreeding in the Australian population may need to be studied .
The species has been extirpated in Malaysia , the Philippines and Thailand . Reintroduction programs planned in Thailand have made use of birds from Cambodia .
= = In culture = =
The species is venerated in India and legend has it that the poet Valmiki cursed a hunter for killing a sarus crane and was then inspired to write the epic Ramayana . The species was a close contender to the Indian peafowl as the national bird of India . Among the Gondi people , the tribes classified as " five @-@ god worshippers " consider the sarus crane as sacred . The meat of the sarus was considered taboo in ancient Hindu scriptures . It is widely believed that the sarus pairs for life and that death of one partner leads to the other pining to death . They are a symbol of marital virtue and in parts of Gujarat , it is a custom to take a newly wed couple to see a pair of sarus cranes . Being ubiquitous in the flood plains of the Ganges , observations on their biology had been made by the Mughal emperor , Jahangir around AD 1607 . He noted , for instance , that the species always laid two eggs with an interval of 48 hours between them and that the incubation period was 34 days .
Although venerated and protected by Indians , these birds were hunted during the colonial period . It was noted that killing a bird would lead to its surviving partner trumpeting for many days and it was traditionally believed that the other would starve to death . Even sport hunting guides discouraged shooting these birds . According to 19th @-@ century British zoologist Thomas C. Jerdon , young birds were good to eat , while older ones were " worthless for the table " . Eggs of the sarus crane are however used in folk remedies in some parts of India .
Young birds were often captured and kept in menageries both in India and in Europe in former times . They were also successfully bred in captivity early in the 17th century by Emperor Jehangir and in Europe and the United States in the early 1930s .
... The young birds are easily reared by hand , and become very tame and attached to the person who feeds them , following him like a dog . They are very amusing birds , going through the most grotesque dances and antics , and are well worth keeping in captivity . One which I kept , when bread and milk was given to him , would take the bread out of the milk , and wash it in his pan of water before eating it . This bird , which was taken out of the King 's palace at Lucknow , was very fierce towards strangers and dogs , especially if they were afraid of him . He was very noisy — the only bad habit he possessed
The Indian state of Uttar Pradesh uses the sarus crane as its official bird symbol . An Indian 14 @-@ seater propeller aircraft , the Saras , is named after this crane .
= = Other sources = =
Matthiessen , Peter & Bateman , Robert ( 2001 ) . The Birds of Heaven : Travels with Cranes . North Point Press , New York . ISBN 0 @-@ 374 @-@ 19944 @-@ 2
Weitzman , Martin L. ( 1993 ) . " What to preserve ? An application of diversity theory to crane conservation " . The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108 ( 1 ) : 157 – 183 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2118499 . ISSN 0033 @-@ 5533 . JSTOR 2118499 .
Haigh , J. C. & Holt , P. E. ( 1976 ) . " The use of the anaesthetic " CT1341 " in a Sarus crane " . Can Vet J. 17 ( 11 ) : 291 – 292 . PMC 1697384 . PMID 974983 .
Duan , W. & Fuerst , P. A. ( 2001 ) . " Isolation of a sex @-@ Linked DNA sequence in cranes " . J. Hered . 92 ( 5 ) : 392 – 397 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / jhered / 92 @.@ 5 @.@ 392 . PMID 11773245 .
Menon , G. K. , R. V. Shah , and M. B. Jani . ( 1980 ) . " Observations on integumentary modifications and feathering on head and neck of the Sarus Crane , Grus antigone antigone " . Pavo 18 : 10 – 16 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Sundar , K. S. G. ( 2006 ) . " Flock size , density and habitat selection of four large waterbirds species in an agricultural landscape in Uttar Pradesh , India : implications for management " . Waterbirds 29 ( 3 ) : 365 – 374 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1675 / 1524 @-@ 4695 ( 2006 ) 29 [ 365 : fsdahs ] 2.0.co ; 2 .
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= United Nations Parliamentary Assembly =
A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly ( UNPA ) is a proposed addition to the United Nations System that would allow for participation of member nations ' legislators and , eventually , direct election of United Nations ( UN ) parliament members by citizens worldwide . The idea was raised at the founding of the League of Nations in the 1920s and again following the end of World War II in 1945 , but remained dormant throughout the Cold War . In the 1990s and 2000s , the rise of global trade and the power of world organizations that govern it led to calls for a parliamentary assembly to scrutinize their activity . The Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly was formed in 2007 to coordinate pro @-@ UNPA efforts , which as of July 2013 has received the support of over 800 Members of Parliament from over 100 countries worldwide and is supported by over 5 @,@ 000 people . The Commission on Global Security , Justice and Governance , chaired by former U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright and former Nigerian Foreign Minister Ibrahim Gambari , has called for the creation of a United Nations Parliamentary Network " to raise greater awareness and participation by strengthening the voices of legislators in global institutions . " The Commission proposes that this Network " would be similar in initial composition to the Parliamentary Network on the World Bank and International Monetary Fund and the Parliamentary Conference on the World Trade Organization " .
Supporters have set forth possible UNPA implementations , including promulgation of a new treaty ; creation of a UNPA as a subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly ; and evolution of a UNPA from the Inter @-@ Parliamentary Union or another non @-@ governmental organization . Several proposals for apportionment of votes have been raised to address disparities in UN members ' population and economic power . CEUNPA advocates initially giving the UNPA advisory powers and gradually increasing its authority over the UN system . Opponents cite issues such as funding , voter turnout , and undemocratic UN member nations as reasons for abandoning the project altogether .
= = History = =
Proposals for a parliamentary assembly in the global organization of nations date back to at least the 1920s , when League of Nations founders considered ( and rejected ) plans to include a people 's assembly as part of the League 's structure . League and UN founding documents include few mechanisms for direct participation by citizens or legislators , aside from Article 71 provision allowing ECOSOC to grant consultative status to certain organizations , and the Chapter XVIII and XIX requirements that ratification and amendments be approved by member states " in accordance with their respective constitutional processes " which typically involve legislative and / or public input . In 1945 , a people 's world assembly was proposed by British politician Ernest Bevin , who said in the House of Commons that " There should be a study of a house directly elected by the people of the world to whom the nations are accountable . "
On 16 October 1945 , before the UN Charter had even entered into force , retired U.S. Supreme Court Justice Owen J. Roberts and former New Hampshire Governor Robert P. Bass held a conference in Dublin , New Hampshire , which passed the Dublin Declaration . It stated that the UN Charter was inadequate to preserve peace and proposed the transformation of the U.N. General Assembly into a world legislature , opining , " Such a government should be based upon a constitution under which all peoples and nations will participate upon a basis of balanced representation which will take account of natural and industrial resources and other factors as well as population . It cannot be based on treaties ... in which the states ... act and vote as states " . It called for " limited but definite and adequate power for the prevention of war . " Grenville Clark and other participants in the Dublin conference went on to become active in the United World Federalists ( UWF ) and the global World Federalist Movement . UWF enjoyed some success in the postwar period , as 23 state legislatures passed bills supporting the organization ’ s goals , but McCarthyism prompted many prominent members to resign lest Senator Joseph McCarthy ruin their careers . In the United States , internationalism came to be associated with communism .
In the post @-@ Cold War era , several factors contributed to a more favorable environment for UNPA proposals . A Trilateral Commission report notes that the shift from a world led by the two rival Soviet- and U.S.-led blocs meant a general diffusion of power . Growth of economic interdependence , proliferation of transnational actors , nationalism in weak states , spread of technology , and increasing numbers of issues ( such as global environmental problems and weapons of mass destruction containment ) that are both domestic and international generated stronger incentive to develop international cooperation than ever before . Democracy in general had spread ; in 2003 , Freedom House counted 121 electoral democracies , compared to 66 in 1987 and 30 in 1975 ( although by the mid @-@ 2000s , the trend appeared to have stagnated ) . The rapidly integrating European Union , a unique supranational body whose European Parliament was gradually growing in power , provided an example to the world of how a multi @-@ nation parliament can evolve and function . The World Trade Organization and similar organizations generated great concern as they seemed to be gaining more influence and control over trade disputes , yet were not accountable to the people ; U.S. President Bill Clinton argued , " We must insist that international trade organizations be open to public scrutiny instead of mysterious , secret things subject to wild criticism . " A " new diplomacy " seemed to be taking shape in which NGOs and governments cooperated to create new global institutions such as the International Criminal Court . U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy Chairman Harold C. Pachios of Preti , Flaherty , Beliveau & Pachios noted :
In early 1993 , the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on External Affairs and International Trade presented a report stating , " By way of building the public and political constituency for the United Nations , the Committee recommends that Canada support the development of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly . " The Campaign for a Democratic United Nations ( CAMDUN ) , the International Network for a United Nations Second Assembly ( INFUSA ) , and the Global People 's Assembly Movement ( GPAM ) , began circulating UNPA proposals around 1995 , and other organizations , such as One World Trust , began publishing analyses of how to proceed in the current political situation . On 8 February 2005 , on the initiative of the Committee for a Democratic UN , 108 Swiss Parliamentarians signed an open letter to the Secretary @-@ General calling for the establishment of just such a body . On 14 May 2005 , the Congress of the Liberal International issued a resolution stating that " the Liberal International calls on the member states of the United Nations to enter into deliberations on the establishment of a Parliamentary Assembly at the United Nations . " On 9 June 2005 , the European Parliament issued a resolution that contained an item stating that Europarl " calls for the establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly ( UNPA ) within the UN System , which would increase the democratic profile and internal democratic process of the organisation and allow world civil society to be directly associated in the decision @-@ making process ; states that the Parliamentary Assembly should be vested with genuine rights of information , participation and control , and should be able to adopt recommendations directed at the UN General Assembly ; [ ... ] " In 2006 , Citizens for a United Nations People 's Assembly circulated a petition to UN Secretary @-@ General Kofi Annan to " convene a High Level Panel to determine the steps required for the establishment of a Peoples ' Parliamentary Assembly within the United Nations Organization "
In April 2007 , international NGOs launched the International Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly , the principal current movement for the establishment of a UNPA . Its Secretariat is led by the Committee for a Democratic U.N. Over 150 civil society groups and more than 550 parliamentarians from all over the world are taking part in the Campaign . As of November 2008 , CEUNPA 's appeal was endorsed by around 2400 signatories from over 120 countries , among them hundreds of parliamentarians , civil society leaders , leading academics and distinguished individuals such as former UN Secretary @-@ General Boutros Boutros @-@ Ghali , the President of the Pan @-@ African Parliament , Gertrude Mongella , Academy Award winner Emma Thompson , SF @-@ author Sir Arthur C. Clarke and Edgar Mitchell , former NASA astronaut and sixth human being to walk on the moon . On 25 September 2007 , the statement by H.E. Mr. José Sócrates , Prime Minister of Portugal , on behalf of the European Union , at the United Nations 62nd Session of the General Assembly , General Debate , stated , " We remain committed to the reform of its main bodies in order to enhance the Organization 's representativity , transparency and effectiveness . " On 24 October 2007 , the Pan African Parliament unanimously adopted a resolution calling for the establishment of a Parliamentary Assembly at the United Nations , noting , " in contrast to regional international bodies such as the African Union , the European Union , the Council of Europe , or Mercosur , the United Nations and its specialized organizations is one of the last international fora lacking an integrated and institutionalized Parliamentary Assembly . " So far , four international conferences of CEUNPA have taken place .
One of the most influential and well @-@ known pro @-@ UN organizations , UNA @-@ USA has been on both sides of the issue . In 2003 , UNA @-@ USA 's executive director of policy studies , Jeffrey Laurenti , wrote an article , An Idea Whose Time Has Not Come , arguing that there were important unresolved issues of inclusivity , authority , and efficiency with the UNPA . UNA 's position seemed to reverse in November 2006 , when the 38th plenary session of the World Federation of United Nations Associations issued a resolution stating that it " Supports the establishment of a United Nations parliamentary Assembly as a consultative body within the United Nations system as a voice of the citizens ; Calls upon the governments of the United Nations member states , parliamentarians and civil society representatives to jointly examine possible steps and options to create a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly . "
According to Stefan Marschal , the post @-@ World War II years , particularly the 1980s and 1990s , saw tremendous growth in parliamentary assemblies , with more than 40 established since 1949 . About 42 % of the world 's parliamentary assemblies are formally affiliated with an intergovernmental organization ; 32 % are informally affiliated ; and 26 % are unaffiliated . The spread in parliamentary assemblies was spurred by acceptance of parliamentarism as a means of legitimizing decisions ; initiatives for intergovernmental cooperation reaching a point at which stronger parliamentary backing was needed ; and regional integration . However , many global organizations , such as the UN and WTO , still lack a parliamentary assembly and " have been heavily criticized for what is supposed to be an institutional deficit . "
On 9 February 2010 , a resolution of an international conference of sitting and former judges of the supreme courts of over 30 countries that took place in Lucknow , India , called for a revision of the United Nations Charter and for the establishment of a world parliament .
= = Implementation = =
There are five main options for creating a U.N. Parliamentary Assembly , according to various assessments .
Amending the UN Charter , possibly through a Charter Review Conference under Article 109 of the UN Charter , is a commonly cited possibility . This is difficult because it requires ratification by two @-@ thirds of UN members , including all five permanent members of the Security Council . There have been only five amendments to the UN Charter since 1945 , and none of them were done through the Article 109 process . Louis Sohn and Grenville Clark , in their 1958 book World Peace Through World Law , proposed establishing a UN Parliamentary Assembly through this method .
Another possibility is establishing the UNPA as a subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly . The General Assembly has authority to do this under Article 22 of the UN Charter . Erskine Childers and Sir Brian Urquhart endorsed this approach in their 1994 book , Renewing the United Nations System . The Committee for a Democratic UN also recommended the establishment of UNPA by Article 22 or by transformation of the Inter @-@ Parliamentary Union in its report , Developing International Democracy . In 2006 , the Council of Europe passed a resolution noting , " A decisive step towards the development of a UN parliamentary dimension could be the establishment of an experimental parliamentary committee with consultative functions for General Assembly committees . "
Yet another option is to create the UNPA as a nongovernmental organization of democratically elected legislators . This would have the advantage of not requiring the cooperation of ( sometimes dictatorial ) national governments or world parliamentary organizations with dictatorial members , so only democratic legislators , parliaments and countries would be represented . The World Constitution and Parliament Association and other NGOs have attempted to set up workable parliaments . Dieter Heinrich critiqued this approach by saying , " If it did succeed on any scale , it would divert resources from pressuring governments on thousands of specific issues , which citizens are good at , into the operation of a pan @-@ global institutional structure , which citizens ' groups are ill equipped to do ... And the resulting assembly would always be of doubtful legitimacy ( who does it really represent ? ) and of unlikely value as an evolutionary starting point for a real world parliament . "
A UNPA could be created through a stand @-@ alone treaty . This would have the advantage that as few as 20 or 30 economically and geographically diverse countries could establish a UNPA , and it could expand as more countries ratified the treaty . Strauss notes that this is the method by which most international bodies , such the World Health Organization , International Labour Organization , and International Criminal Court , were founded . The way to get started presumably would be to hold a conference of plenipotentiaries to draft the treaty ; then the ratification process would begin .
It might also be possible to use and / or transform the Inter @-@ Parliamentary Union ( IPU ) , which was granted observer status in 2002 . The IPU 's Second World Conference of Speakers of Parliament adopted a resolution stating , " We would greatly welcome more substantive interaction and coordination with the United Nations , and call upon the world body to resort more frequently to the political and technical expertise which the IPU together with its Member Parliaments can provide . " Moreover , a 2005 article by IPU Secretary @-@ General Anders B. Johnsson stated that , " It makes little practical or political sense to set up a separate parliamentary assembly alongside the existing governmental General Assembly . " Indeed , the Inter @-@ Parliamentary Union seems to favor a reformed IPU as a substitute for a UNPA , saying , " The Union had the necessary experience , and further bureaucracy should be avoided . " Many national parliaments , however , are currently not members of the IPU .
= = Powers = =
The CEUNPA proposes that the UNPA 's begin as a consultative body whose powers could be augmented as it evolved into a directly elected assembly : " Step by step , it should be provided with genuine rights of information , participation and control vis @-@ à @-@ vis the UN and the organizations of the UN system . " An article in the Asian @-@ Pacific Law & Policy Journal notes that precedents for this idea include the British Parliament , French Estates @-@ General , U.S. Congress , and Europarl , which are all systems in which , over time , power shifted to directly elected officials : " In the past , fledgling democracy has always had to compromise with the realities of power and evolve step @-@ by @-@ step , where possible . This is often accomplished in the form of a ' non @-@ democratic ' additional house in the parliamentary structure . Thus , in Britain , the necessity of compromise of the ' common people ' with the powers and interests of the armed and titled nobility necessitated a bicameral system incorporating the House of Lords , as well as the House of Commons . The French Estates @-@ General included similar power blocs as ' estates ' or functional separate houses , and the United States Senate reflected a necessary compromise of the interests of less populous states hesitant to subject themselves to ' democratic inundation ' by the more populous states . "
World federalists often point out that a democratic union of peoples , rather than governments , is suggested by the opening words of the Preamble to the United Nations Charter , " We the peoples ... " This sentiment was expressed by Theo van Boven , who said , " A more democratic United Nations as envisaged by the campaign for a UN Parliament will strengthen the legitimacy of We the peoples of the United Nations in whose name the UN Charter was proclaimed . " According to the Committee for a Democratic UN , " The UNPA concept is the a first step towards a democratic world parliament " . World federalists typically view an empowered democratic assembly as a means of preventing war by providing everyone a peaceful means of pursuing their political objectives . Walter Cronkite , for instance , said , " Within the next few years , we must change the basic structure of our global community from the present anarchic system of war and ever more destructive weaponry to a new system governed by a democratic U.N. federation . "
But there is some opposition to the idea of an empowered global parliament . A 2007 BBC poll of approximately 12 @,@ 000 respondents asked , " How likely would you be to support a Global Parliament , where votes are based on country population sizes , and the global parliament is able to make binding policies ? " Of those polled , 19 @.@ 1 % responded " Very unlikely – it is a bad idea " ; 14 @.@ 9 % responded " Quite unlikely – but it might work " ; 23 @.@ 1 % said " Quite likely – but with reservations " ; and 14 @.@ 4 % said " Very likely – it is a good idea " . The poll was broken out by country , and the U.S. and Australia showed the strongest opposition . Potential challenge to the UNPA are political organizations such as the U.S. Constitution Party , and politicians such as 2008 U.S. presidential candidate Ron Paul , which favor withdrawal from the United Nations and other multilateral organizations altogether due to sovereignty concerns . Canadian Action Party leader Connie Fogal also opposes the UNPA , saying , " It is very revealing to see the NDP and the Greens as part of and promoting this ... Further , the European assembly has proven to be a rubber stamping mechanism of bureaucratic decisions . This is not democracy . " In addition , a Civicus article warns , " With an unexpected backlash against civil society in the offing ( despite the good efforts of the UN General Assembly President , Jan Eliasson , to reverse the trend ) , citizen participation at the UN is diminishing quickly . It would be safe to assume that Member States as a whole are not in the mood to consider a Parliamentary Assembly at this time . "
Herbert W. Briggs points out that while a UNPA could be established as a UNGA subsidiary body without any changes to international law , granting it the power to pass binding legislation would require UN Charter amendment or a new treaty . The UNGA plays a role in admitting , suspending and expelling UN members , approving the budget , and electing members to other UN bodies , but its powers as set forth in Chapter IV of the UN Charter are mostly advisory in nature . These include the power to " discuss , " " make recommendations , " " consider , " " call the attention of the Security Council to situations , " " initiate studies , " " receive ... reports , " etc . , as well as " establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions . " The Charter contains no provision allowing the UNGA to delegate any powers it does not itself possess . And while Article 25 states , " The Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council , " there is no requirement that members abide by the recommendations of the UNGA . On the other hand , Article 13 ( 1 ) ( a ) of the Charter tasks the UNGA with " encouraging the progressive development of international law and its codification . "
According to Oscar Schachter , there is some question as to whether the traditional international lawmaking process of state @-@ by @-@ state treaty ratification is adequate today : " The traditional case @-@ by @-@ case process of customary law cannot meet the necessity for common action to deal with the numerous problems raised by technological developments , demographic and environmental impacts , changing attitudes as to social justice , or the many requirements of international business . While all of these matters can be dealt with by multilateral treaties , the treaty processes are often complicated and slow , whereas UN resolutions can be more readily attained . " The Law of the Sea is an example of an agreement that has taken decades to pass in the U.S. ( although the Cato Institute views the delay as a good thing . ) George Monbiot argues , " The absence of an international legislature undermines the authority of an international judiciary ( such as the proposed criminal court ) . Judges presiding over the war @-@ crimes tribunals at the Hague and in Arusha have been forced , in effect , to make up the law as they go along . "
Proposals to give the UNGA legislative power – including the " binding triad " idea which would have made UNGA resolutions binding if passed by countries constituting a supermajority of the world 's states , population , and economic production – have made little headway . According to Heinrich , once the UNPA is established , it will be easier to gather support for empowering it . The assembly 's own members can be expected to play a major role in pushing for its evolution by seeking a UN Charter amendment to make it a " principal organ " in parallel with the General Assembly . With their political know @-@ how , their access to the highest levels of their national governments , and their credibility with the world public and the media , the politicians in the UN Parliamentary Assembly can be expected to become a strong and persistent political force for organizing the assembly 's eventual transformation .
= = Legitimacy and accountability = =
One of the main purposes for the creation of a UNPA is enhancing UN accountability and legitimacy . The United Nations System spent more than $ 1 @.@ 8 billion of public money in 2005 and its own auditors have pointed out that it lacks adequate internal controls to protect against waste , fraud and mismanagement . By holding hearings , issuing reports , and passing resolutions , the UNPA could exercise oversight over other UN bodies . In a September 2007 press release , MEP Graham Watson expressed his hope that " in an era where the UN 's mandate has grown exponentially the UNPA would act as a watch @-@ dog on its activities , monitoring its decision @-@ making deadlines , its accountability and transparency " . London Mayor Ken Livingstone promised that , " a more democratic United Nations as envisaged by this campaign will strengthen the accountability and legitimacy of the UN . " The Pan African Parliament 's resolution mirrored this sentiment : " If democratization is a major means to legitimize and improve national governance , it is also the most reliable way to legitimize and improve international organization , making it more open and responsive by increasing participation . "
Canadian Senator Douglas Roche , O.C. , argues in The Case for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly that even an indirectly elected UNPA consisting of delegates appointed by national parliaments could create additional checks and balances by providing for oversight by a parliamentary body that would be independent of member nations ' executive branches . It would open up the global policymaking process to a larger group of elected officials by shifting some power from the relatively small executive branches of countries to the larger legislative branches . According to Roche , globalization has tended to increase the power of the executive branch while marginalizing the legislative branch ; for instance , U.S. Presidents since George H. W. Bush have been given fast track authority to negotiate trade agreements , subject to a " yea or nay " scrutiny by the U.S. Congress on the negotiated deal . A Property and Environment Research Center report argues that changes in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development are another example of how international regulation removes checks and balances between the branches of government : " The OECD was created by a 1961 treaty , ratified by the U.S. Senate , to help achieve economic growth . In April 1998 , a ministerial meeting reinterpreted the treaty , adding social and environmental considerations to the economic ones . The United States executive branch agreed to the changes , but the Senate had no opportunity to debate this treaty , even though it was significantly different from the 1961 treaty . The executive branch had essentially negotiated a new deal without Senate approval . " World Federalist Canada Briefing Paper No. 30 , however , suggests that UNPA proposals may spark opposition from the executive branches that stand to lose power : " Experience has shown that civil servants and diplomats working in national foreign ministries are less likely to support or see the need for a UNPA . They view the UN as a forum for discussion among sovereign states ; whatever action the UN takes is a result of bargaining and compromise among member states " .
A significant practical obstacle to a completely democratically elected and representative UNPA is that , in contrast to the situation in which the European Parliament functions , a significant number of UN members , including populous countries such as China are not electoral democracies . In the past , bodies such as the United Nations Commission on Human Rights were criticized for being dominated by abusive regimes . If UNPA representatives were to be drawn from member nations ' parliaments , it could create legitimacy concerns since some national legislatures are regarded as a rubber stamp for the rulers ' decrees . Some global parliament proponents , such as Prof. Lucio Levi , propose starting a federation limited to democracies : " Though the democratization of states all over the world hasn ’ t been completed , this does not preclude starting the democratization of the UN . Six Western European countries founded the European Community , starting its democratization without waiting for the democratization of the institutions of all the European states . " UNA @-@ USA 's Jeff Laurenti notes the problems associated with excluding undemocratic countries from membership : " It is one thing to deny membership to a few small " rogue " dictatorships . It is quite another to exclude China , the vast majority of Arab countries , and two @-@ thirds of Africa , and imagine that the resulting body can have a formal consultative or oversight role with United Nations agencies , be part of UN @-@ sponsored negotiations on multilateral conventions ( the real work of international legislating ) , or pass on the resolutions of UN political bodies . "
UNPA proponents frequently counter by pointing out that most of the world 's countries are democratic .
= = Funding = =
Heinrich argues , " It is essential that the salary and travel costs of UN parliamentarians should be paid by the institution of the UN Parliamentary Assembly from its own budget ( which would be part of the UN budget ) , and not by the national governments individually . This is both to assure the independence of the UNPA politicians in their service to the UN and to assure equality of participation . " Article 17 of the UN Charter stipulates , " The expenses of the Organization shall be borne by the Members as apportioned by the General Assembly . " Thus , unless funded by private donors ( as the land for UN headquarters was in 1946 ) , presumably the UNPA would be funded like the rest of the UN system , with larger economies such as the U.S. paying larger shares of the contributions . This disparity might be offset by weighting members ' votes according to their gross national product or their contributions to the UN system . A Vancouver Sun article notes , " Another point of opposition would involve the notion of adding bureaucracy and complexity to the UN . Estimated cost of the new outfit runs $ 140 million to $ 280 million a year . "
A 1993 Parliamentarians for Global Action survey showed that a strong majority of parliamentary respondents thought that the public would support the idea of a UN Parliamentary Assembly , but they were less sure the public would be prepared to finance it . The analysis pointed out , " The possibility of a greater financial burden to support an enlarged UN is unlikely to evoke support unless it can be demonstrated that the return on investment is significant . Citizens are often known to express lofty globalist sentiments when questioned on general principles , and to surrender them when costs or trade offs are concerned . " A 1995 United Nations University report claimed , " it is difficult to see how the Parliamentary Assembly would be able to pay for the salaries and travel of what could be over 1 @,@ 000 representatives ; this proposal could increase the duplication and waste that already exist within multilateral bodies . "
CEUNPA 's response to this objection is that " it is true that a Parliamentary Assembly at the United Nations would be another player in the diplomatic scenery which governments and their executives in international organizations would have to take into account to a certain degree . On the other hand , being composed of elected parliamentarians , the assembly would be closer to the citizens and as such it would lend more credibility and legitimacy to international decisions in which it is involved . In this way , the parliamentary assembly actually would contribute to an increased efficiency of international action . "
= = Direct election vs. appointment by national parliaments = =
A UNPA might begin as an inter @-@ parliamentary institution – an assembly of parliamentarians from their respective countries ' legislatures – and then change to a directly elected body . This would be similar to the evolution of the European Parliament . Beginning with the European Common Assembly 's founding in 1952 , MEPs were appointed by each of the Member States ' national parliaments ; in 1979 , direct election was instituted . Sen. Douglas Roche , O.C. , in The Case for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly , analyzes the tradeoffs between the two choices . A UNPA based on existing parliamentarians may be easier to establish , because it avoids several hurdles , such as decisions on electoral cycles , a universally acceptable electoral body , legitimacy of elections , and so on : " A body comprising national parliamentarians has the ' stamp of approval ' built @-@ in . National parliamentarians can claim electoral legitimacy in their own right . Admittedly , the credibility of domestic franchised can be called into question , but the trend toward democracy has been strengthening rapidly . "
National parliamentarians also generally have staff and money , which could ease the funding issues associated with forming a new world parliamentary assembly . Delegates to a directly elected UNPA , on the other hand , would have more time to devote to the global assembly , since its members would not be occupied with duties relating to their membership in their national legislature . Heinrich points out strategic advantages of an indirectly elected UNPA : " Another advantage to basing representation in a UN Parliamentary Assembly on national parliaments is that it may engage parliamentarians as allies in the cause of getting the assembly established , and , later , helping to build the political will for its evolution . The experience of being a UN parliamentarian will galvanize many of these politicians into going home as advocates for the UN , including the need for strengthening and democratizing the UN Parliamentary Assembly itself . "
Heinrich also notes the possibility that national parliaments could appoint citizen representatives to the UNPA , similarly to how the U.S. Electoral College officially selects the President . This would be a stopgap solution until direct election became possible . Yet it would still ensure that citizens would be electing citizens ( albeit indirectly ) , rather than the executive appointing officials , to the UNPA .
= = Apportionment of votes = =
A global parliamentary assembly could be structured to give populous states greater influence . The one state , one vote rule of the UN General Assembly gives small states a disproportionate amount of influence over the UN system . In Entitlement quotients as a vehicle for United Nations reform , University of Minnesota professor emeritus Joseph E. Schwartzberg notes , " The sixty @-@ four least populous members – enough to block a two @-@ thirds majority vote – comprise less than one percent of the world 's total population , and in theory , the 127 least populous members , accounting for barely eight percent of humanity , are enough to provide the two @-@ thirds majority needed to pass a substantive resolution . " He continues this point in his essay , Overcoming Practical Difficulties in Creating a World Parliamentary Assembly :
There are several alternate proposals for apportionment of votes among member nations :
Schwartzberg 's weighted voting formula takes into account population ( the democratic / demographic principle ) , contribution to the UN budget ( the economic principle ) , and share of the total membership . The idea of weighting countries ' votes according to their financial contribution to the organization is not unprecedented , as the World Bank , International Monetary Fund and other Bretton Woods institutions use this method .
The Provisional People 's Assembly 's methodology gives each nation Population Seats based on a calculation that combines the Penrose method , which takes the square root of the millions of inhabitants of each country , Economic Seats equal to its portion of the world 's total gross domestic product , and classification as Free , Partially Free , or Unfree by Freedom House .
Under one person , one vote , each country 's number of votes is directly proportional to its population . This would be similar to how U.S. states are represented in the United States House of Representatives . In The Future of Sovereignty - Rethinking a Key Concept of International Relations , Hasenclever et al. sum up the advantages and disadvantages of this system : " In a strict meaning of democracy based on individuals as subjects , every person 's vote would have to have exactly the same weight . None of the known proposals , however , supports such a strict interpretation , because the inequality among the states ' voting powers would be extreme with only four countries - China , India , the United States and the former USSR - disposing of an absolute majority . " A way to resolve the disparity in population between countries would be to apportion representation to regions instead of nations . This would , for example , place Suriname and Brazil , the least and most populated South American countries , in a single South American voting bloc of approximately 400 million people , preserving the one person , one vote system while eliminating extreme disparities in population . This approach , however , is dependent upon elected officials being entrusted to represent said regions and not just their home countries , and could potentially leave some less populated countries with no representatives from their country if they are either outvoted by people in more populated countries in their assigned region or if the people in less populated countries vote in large numbers for candidates or political parties from other countries .
= = Election standards = =
A directly elected UNPA might have common election standards if it follows the example of European Parliament ( EP ) . The European Parliament has adopted certain minimum requirements , such as proportional representation , that each member country must abide by to be represented . Schwartzberg proposes a professional election commission " to ensure that assembly elections are carried out , to the maximum extent , on a level playing field " . Under Schwartzberg 's proposal , the commission would have several powers , including the authority to establish rules of fairness , determine in advance whether fairness criteria were being met , and foreclose polling where those criteria were not met . He proposes criteria that an election must meet to be considered valid , such as minimum participation rates that initially could be set as low as 20 % , and gradually increased .
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= Dave Stamper =
Dave Stamper ( November 10 , 1883 – September 18 , 1963 ) was an American songwriter of the Tin Pan Alley and vaudeville eras , a contributor to twenty @-@ one editions of the Ziegfeld Follies , writer for the Fox Film Corporation , and composer of more than one thousand songs , in spite of never learning to read or write traditional music notation . He may have written " Shine On Harvest Moon " , a claim supported by vaudeville performer and writer Eddie Cantor . He was also a charter member of the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers or ASCAP .
= = Biography = =
Stamper was born in New York City on November 10 , 1883 , and took up piano at age ten . At seventeen , he left school and became a pianist at a Coney Island dance hall for two years before becoming a " song @-@ plugger " for publisher F. A. Mills . Stamper was twenty when he met singer Nora Bayes and her husband Jack Norworth becoming her accompanist and touring widely for the next four years . After Stamper left Bayes ' employment , he resumed working as a song @-@ plugger and vaudeville pianist . In 1910 he met Gene Buck , an artist who painted cover images for sheet music . The two started collaborating , with Buck providing lyrics for Stamper 's melodies . Their first published songs were In the Cool of the Evening , Daddy Has a Sweetheart ( and Mother Is Her Name ) and Some Boy .
Stamper 's first marriage to Gertrude Springer ended in divorce after the birth of two children , Maurice and Regina Stamper . On 16 July 1926 he married " vaudeville and revue comedienne " Edna Leedom who had performed in the Follies of 1923 , 1924 and 1925 . The marriage ended within two years . On 16 August . 1928 he married Agnes White , a Follies performer who was in Stamper and Buck 's musical Take The Air ( 1927 ) . The couple were married for 40 years and produced one daughter , Susan Stamper , a dancer . One of their grandchildren is singer / songwriter Happy Rhodes .
Stamper did not learn to read or write traditional musical notation , creating his own numerical notation .
= = Career = =
= = = The Ziegfeld years = = =
In 1912 Stamper began writing songs for the Ziegfeld Follies of 1913 , contributing Just You and I and The Moon , Without You and Everybody Sometime Must Love Somebody . He is credited as " additional music " for the Follies of 1914 and 1915 , but he wrote the majority of the music for the Follies of 1916 @.@ and was on an equal billing with Louis A. Hirsch , Jerome Kern , and Irving Berlin . The music of the Follies of 1917 was written by Stamper and Raymond Hubbell and he was described as " an old hand " for his work with Louis A. Hirsch by the Follies of 1918 . In addition to his 1918 Follies work , he wrote all the music for Ziegfeld Midnight Frolic with Gene Buck , a series that also had editions in 1919 , 1920 and 1921 .
The Follies of 1919 found Stamper branching out into writing lyrics as well as writing comic sketches . 1919 was a very busy year , with Stamper writing songs for the Follies as well as the Midnight Frolic and the Ziegfeld Nine O 'Clock Review both of which appeared in a theater on the roof of the New Amsterdam theater .
Stamper continued as principal songwriter for the Follies of 1920 through 1925 , with an additional summer edition in 1923 . He returned for the Follies of 1931 , the last edition produced by Florenz Ziegfeld himself .
= = = Other musicals = = =
While his work with Ziegfeld encompassed the majority of his working life , Stamper and Gene Buck worked for other producers as well . He had songs in two plays - When Claudia Smiles ( 1914 ) and Broadway and Buttermilk ( 1916 ) prior to traveling to London with Buck to write songs for Zig Zag ! which ran for 648 performances at the London Hippodrome . Stamper returned to London in 1918 to write songs for another review Box O ' Tricks with Frederick Chapelle , which ran for 625 performances . During his first trip to London , Buck befriended a man who turned out to be a German spy . Two results of this event were fellow passenger Eddie Rickenbacker deciding to enlist to fly , and Dave Stamper having to prove to British police and a Judge that his pages covered with numbers were sheet music rather than a code .
Stamper was fully occupied with work for Ziegfeld until 1927 , when Gene Buck hired Stamper to write the music for Take The Air ( 1927 ) . He also worked for the Schubert organization on Lovely Lady ( 1927 ) before returning to Ziegfeld for the 1931 Follies .
He finished out his work on Broadway with Provincetown Follies ( 1935 ) which only ran for 63 performances and Orchids Preferred ( 1937 ) which closed in a week .
= = = Hollywood = = =
In 1928 , Stamper was signed by Fox Film Corporation as a staff composer , remaining there until 1930 . He contributed Dance Away the Night and Peasant Love Song to the film Married in Hollywood ( 1929 ) often called the first filmed operetta . The film Words and Music ( 1929 ) featured The Hunting Song , Take a Little Tip and Too Wonderful for Words all written with lyricist Harlan Thompson . In 1930 , he contributed Only One and The Gay Heart written with Clare Kummer and Once In A While written with Clare Kummer and Cecil Arnold to the " singing cowboy " movie One Mad Kiss. and the Bela Lugosi film Such Men Are Dangerous .
= = = Shine On , Harvest Moon = = =
Stamper claimed to have written " Shine On , Harvest Moon " , while the writers of record were his former employers Nora Bayes and Jack Norworth . Stamper 's claim was supported by vaudeville comic Eddie Cantor in his 1934 book Ziegfeld , The Great Glorifier and David Ewen 's All the Years of American Popular Music .
Stamper was working as a pianist rather than as a songwriter at the time the song appeared but never learned how to read or write using traditional music notation thus he would have not been able submit the song for copyright , or produce sheet music to prove his claim . Bayes and Norworth compelled Stamper at one point to wear stage make @-@ up to appear Japanese , apparently to keep him from being interviewed by reporters .
= = In popular culture = =
Stamper 's caricature was on the wall at Sardi 's restaurant .
Stamper and Buck 's song The Shakespearian Rag appears in T. S. Eliot 's The Waste Land :
But
O O O O that Shakespeherian Rag — It 's so elegant
So intelligent
Ring Lardner and George S. Kaufman mentioned Stamper in their play June Moon :
Paul : Did I tell you what Dave Stamper said about it ?
Lucille : Yes ! Paul : He said it was another " Paprika " . Wait till you hear it played . Dave Stamper says it 's sure fire .
John Hyams played Stamper in the 1936 film The Great Ziegfeld starring William Powell , which won the Academy Award for Best Motion Picture . His songwriting partner Gene Buck was played by William Demarest , best known as " Uncle Charley " on the TV show My Three Sons .
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= Advanced Gemini =
Advanced Gemini is a number of proposals that would have extended the Gemini program by the addition of various missions , including manned low Earth orbit , circumlunar and lunar landing missions . Gemini was the second manned spaceflight program operated by NASA , and consisted of a two @-@ seat spacecraft capable of maneuvering in orbit , docking with unmanned spacecraft such as Agena Target Vehicles , and allowing the crew to perform tethered extra @-@ vehicular activities .
A range of applications were considered for Advanced Gemini missions , including military flights , space station crew and logistics delivery , and lunar flights . The Lunar proposals ranged from reusing the docking systems developed for the Agena target vehicle on more powerful upper stages such as the Centaur , which could propel the spacecraft to the Moon , to complete modifications of the Gemini to enable it to land on the Lunar surface . Its applications would have ranged from manned lunar flybys before Apollo was ready , to providing emergency shelters or rescue for stranded Apollo crews , or even replacing the Apollo program .
Some of the Advanced Gemini proposals used " off @-@ the @-@ shelf " Gemini spacecraft , unmodified from the original program , whilst others featured modifications to allow the spacecraft to carry more crew , dock with space stations , visit the Moon , and perform other mission objectives . Other modifications considered included the addition of wings or a parasail to the spacecraft , in order to enable it to make a horizontal landing .
= = Background = =
Gemini was the second American manned orbital spaceflight program , after Mercury . It was intended to demonstrate technologies and techniques required for the Apollo program , such as extra @-@ vehicular activities , rendezvous and docking , maneuvering in orbit and long duration flight .
The Gemini spacecraft , which was built by McDonnell Aircraft , was derived from the earlier Mercury spacecraft , but modified to accommodate two astronauts . It was also equipped with a larger equipment module , allowing it to support longer missions , and maneuver in orbit . It was launched by the Titan II rocket flying from Launch Complex 19 at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station . In total , twelve missions were launched , ten of which were manned . Following two unmanned test flights , the first manned flight , Gemini 3 , was launched on 23 March 1965 . The program concluded on 15 November 1966 , with the successful recovery of Gemini 12 .
Many other applications were envisaged for the Gemini spacecraft at various stages before , during , and after the two years in which it was used by NASA for manned spaceflight . Although none of these proposals ever made it into operation , many were considered seriously , and in some cases flight hardware was constructed prior to cancellation . In the case of the Manned Orbital Laboratory , a Gemini spacecraft was launched on a suborbital demonstration flight in support of the program . In some cases technology developed in the Advanced Gemini program has been reintegrated into other programs , such as components from the Titan IIIM , which was to have launched MOL , being used to upgrade other Titan rockets .
= = Military applications = =
The United States Air Force intended to use the Gemini spacecraft to transport astronauts to its proposed space stations , the Manned Orbital Development System and later the Manned Orbital Laboratory ( MOL ) . These stations would have been launched by Titan IIIM rockets , with a Gemini spacecraft atop , eliminating the need for rendezvous and docking maneuvers . For this purpose , several modifications were made to the Gemini capsule , including the installation of a hatch in the heat shield to allow access to the space station .
In order to give its astronauts experience before these programs started , the Blue Gemini program was proposed , which would have seen USAF astronauts fly on NASA missions in order to practice various techniques required for their own missions . This would have first seen cooperative missions between NASA and the US Air Force , with two missions flying with crews composed of one astronaut from NASA , and one from the USAF , followed by two missions with all @-@ USAF crews , but performing missions for NASA . After these flights , the US Air Force would have flown a number of missions of its own . Firstly , it would have flown a two @-@ man Agena rendezvous and docking mission , followed by two one @-@ man scientific or technology research missions . Other proposed missions included tests of the Astronaut Mobility Unit which was designed to assist with EVAs , inertial navigation systems , and flying a radar imaging system .
MOL Launches would have been conducted from Launch Complex 40 at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , and Space Launch Complex 6 at Vandenberg Air Force Base . In 1966 , a test flight was launched from LC @-@ 40 , using a Titan IIIC . It consisted of the Gemini B spacecraft , built from the spacecraft used for the Gemini 2 test flight , atop OPS 0855 , a boilerplate MOL space station . Gemini B was released on a suborbital trajectory , and descended to Earth to test modifications made to the heat shield , and ensure that the access hatch would not affect its performance . OPS 0855 continued on to orbit . Early MOL stations would have only been manned by a single crew , launched with the station . Later stations would have been designed to be resupplied , and support multiple crews , delivered by additional Gemini spacecraft , or derivatives .
The MOL program was cancelled on 10 June 1969 , in favour of unmanned reconnaissance satellites . Some systems developed for the program were later used on unmanned missions , while the space suits which were under development were transferred to NASA . The Titan IIIM rocket which was to launch MOL never flew , however some of the upgrades that were built into it were later used to upgrade other Titan rockets — the stretched first and second stages became the Titan 34 , which was used as the core of some later Titan IIIB flights , and on the Titan 34D . The seven @-@ segment solid rocket boosters were later introduced on the Titan IVA .
= = Gemini Ferry = =
Several Gemini Ferry spacecraft were proposed to provide transportation of crews and cargo to NASA and USAF space stations in low Earth orbit . NASA contracted McDonnell to conduct a study into what modifications would be needed to allow the Gemini spacecraft to support this . Three spacecraft were envisioned ; a manned spacecraft to transport crew to the stations , a manned spacecraft with a cargo module for both crew and cargo delivery , and a dedicated unmanned spacecraft to resupply the station every three or four months .
The studies looked at minimizing required modifications to the Gemini spacecraft . Three docking methods were considered . The first was use of the existing docking system used on Gemini @-@ Agena missions . This would have allowed the mission to be accomplished with little modification to the Gemini spacecraft needed , however crew transfer could only have been accomplished by means of an Extra @-@ vehicular activity ( EVA ) . Changes that would have been required included strengthening the nose , installing two solid rockets to be used for a separation burn , adding the necessary equipment to perform the transfer EVA , and providing provisions for flight to and from the station . The number of retro @-@ rockets would have been increased from four to six . A second method would have seen the spacecraft dock in the same way , but after docking , the spacecraft would be swung round and attached to the side of the space station . A tunnel would then have been placed over the Gemini 's hatches , allowing the crew to transfer to the station without performing an EVA . Some modifications to the hatches would have been required . The final proposed docking method was to use a port mounted on the rear of the equipment module , which would have allowed the crew to transfer directly between the spacecraft and space station , through the docking port .
A modified version of the spacecraft was proposed , which would have included a cargo module attached to the back of a modified equipment module . The spacecraft would have approached the station , and docked backwards using a port on the rear of the cargo module . If one of the forward docking configurations had been used for the Gemini itself , the docking would have been controlled remotely from the station , with the Gemini then separating from the cargo module and flying around the station to dock normally on a different port . The rear @-@ docking Gemini would have simply remained attached to the cargo module , with the crew boarding the station through it . Its docking would have been controlled by its own crew , from a station at the back of the cargo module .
Two Gemini @-@ derived spacecraft were considered for unmanned resupply flights . The first of these would have involved a Gemini spacecraft , with all systems for manned flight , re @-@ entry and landing removed . The spacecraft would have docked using a port at the front of the spacecraft . Cargo would have been transferred through the nose of the spacecraft , where the re @-@ entry attitude control system was located on the manned spacecraft . The spacecraft was equipped with a liquid propellant engine to perform rendezvous , and to reboost the space station . The other proposal was for a new spacecraft to be built for unmanned missions , but re @-@ using as many Gemini systems as possible . It would have had a higher cargo capacity than the stripped @-@ down version of the Gemini spacecraft .
Crew @-@ only or cargo @-@ only supply missions would have been launched aboard a Titan II , and the Saturn I or Saturn IB would have been used for the combined crew and cargo spacecraft . Because of the increased power of the Saturn I , the Gemini spacecraft 's ejection seats would not have been able to propel the crew far enough in the event of an explosion , so a launch escape tower was proposed , based on the one used on the Mercury spacecraft . The Titan IIIM was also considered to launch the heavier spacecraft .
= = Big Gemini = =
Big Gemini , or Big G , grew out of a 1963 proposal called Gemini Transport , to develop an enlarged Gemini spacecraft with docking capability , which would take advantage of the increased capacity offered by the Saturn IB and Titan IIIM rockets . It was designed to transport between nine and twelve astronauts into space , and to be able to dock with space stations , in support of Apollo Applications and MOL missions . It would have been launched by a Heavy lift launch vehicle ; either a Titan IIIG or Saturn INT @-@ 20 , the former being intended for use on US Air Force missions and the latter being intended for NASA missions . The Titan IIIM was also considered , which would have launched a smaller version of the spacecraft due to its lower capacity , to resupply MOL space stations later in the program . NASA also proposed several Saturn IB derivatives with solid first stages as alternatives to the INT @-@ 20 , offering similar payload capacity .
The shape and mass of the spacecraft would have varied depending on the rocket that was to launch it . The Saturn @-@ launched version had a short , conical cargo module , and a total mass of 47 @,@ 300 kilograms ( 104 @,@ 300 lb ) whereas the Titan IIIG @-@ launched version featured a longer , cylindrical module , with a total mass of 59 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 130 @,@ 000 lb ) . The Titan IIIM version would have been much shorter and lighter , with a mass of 15 @,@ 600 kilograms ( 34 @,@ 400 lb ) , as that rocket had less payload capacity than the Titan IIIG or Saturn . The IIIG variant would have carried twelve crew , whilst the others had a maximum capacity of nine . Use of the NASA variant with the Apollo Service Module was also considered .
Once in orbit , Big G would have docked with space stations using an Apollo docking probe mounted on the rear of the cargo module , which was in turn mounted on the rear of the re @-@ entry module . The re @-@ entry module itself would have been enlarged to accommodate the larger crew , and the modifications made to the spacecraft for the MOL program would have been incorporated , including the hatch in the heat shield , which would have been used to provide access to the cargo module . In the event of a launch failure , the launch escape system developed for the Apollo spacecraft would have been used to propel the re @-@ entry module clear of the rocket .
Big G would have made landings on land , using a parasail or paraglider to guide it onto a runway or dry lake , such as the one at Edwards Air Force Base . It would have landed using skids derived from the North American X @-@ 15 .
= = Lunar exploration = =
= = = Circumlunar missions = = =
A number of studies investigated sending a Gemini spacecraft onto a circumlunar trajectory . Many of the proposals made for this involved a two launch architecture , with the Gemini spacecraft rendezvousing with an upper stage in orbit . Upper stages that were considered included the Transtage , the second stage of a Titan II , four different types of Centaur , including the S @-@ V variant developed for the Saturn I , the Agena @-@ D , an enlarged Agena , and two Agenas burning in parallel . Either a Titan or Saturn IB would have been used to launch the upper stage , whilst the Gemini would launch on the Titan II , as it had in the Gemini program .
Other proposals involved launching the Gemini spacecraft on a Titan IIIC , and refueling in low Earth orbit before proceeding to the Moon , and a single launch architecture using a three @-@ stage variant of the Saturn IB .
The Gemini @-@ Centaur proposal was predicted to have been able to achieve a 72 @-@ hour circumlunar flight . The Centaur would have performed trans @-@ lunar injection , before separating from the Gemini spacecraft .
Some concerns were raised that the Gemini spacecraft 's heat shield would not have been able to protect it during the higher speed ballistic reentry associated with the trajectory that would have been required . NASA proposed using a thicker heat shield and more insulation to protect the spacecraft . This and several other modifications made the spacecraft too heavy to be launched by the Titan II rocket which was used for the original twelve Gemini missions , so several solid rocket motors would have been added to allow this additional mass to be flown .
= = = Lunar orbit missions = = =
The Gemini spacecraft would have rendezvoused with stacked Centaur and Agena upper stages in low Earth orbit . The Centaur would have placed the Gemini and Agena onto a circumlunar trajectory , along which they would coast until they reached the Moon . The Agena would then have been used to perform Lunar orbit insertion . Following the completion of activities in Lunar orbit , the Agena would have been fired again for trans @-@ Earth injection .
This architecture would have used a Titan II to launch the Gemini spacecraft , with a Saturn IB launching the upper stages .
= = = Lunar landing = = =
Using the Gemini spacecraft for a manned Lunar landing was considered as early as the original Mercury Mark II proposal which led to the Gemini program . The initial proposal was for a Lunar orbit rendezvous mission , using a Gemini spacecraft and a lightweight , open cockpit lander , launched by a Saturn C @-@ 3 rocket . It was the first time that Lunar orbit rendezvous was proposed as part of a lunar landing concept . The spacecraft would have been tested in Low Earth orbit before the Lunar missions , using two Titan II launches . The lander , which was designed by NASA 's Langley Research Center , would have had a mass of no more than 4 @,@ 372 kilograms ( 9 @,@ 639 lb ) . Some of the proposals had a mass as low as 1 @,@ 460 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 220 lb ) , with cryogenic propellants being used in place of heavier hypergolic propellant . The proposal was intended to provide a faster and lower @-@ cost alternative to the Apollo program , which was at that time proposing a direct ascent landing .
Another proposal would have used a Saturn V to achieve a direct ascent mission profile . The spacecraft consisted of four modules . The Retrograde Module would have been powered by an RL10 engine , and used to propel the spacecraft during the trans @-@ lunar coast . During landing , it would be used for the initial phases of powered descent . At an altitude of 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) above the Lunar surface , the RM would have been jettisoned , and a second module , the Terminal Landing Module , would have performed the final descent . After landing , the spacecraft would have stayed on the Moon for a day , before it was propelled back to Earth . Launch from the Lunar Surface and trans @-@ Earth injection would have been performed by the Service Module , which would also have contained components of the life support system , and other systems which were located in the Equipment Module of the Earth orbit Gemini spacecraft . The Reentry Module was based on the Gemini capsule , but would have been modified to allow it to reenter the atmosphere at the higher velocity that would have been required by a Lunar flight . It was seen as the last effort by NASA managers and engineers who still advocated the direct ascent mission profile , and was intended to be cheaper , faster and safer than the Apollo lunar orbit rendezvous technique .
= = = Apollo rescue = = =
Due to the risks associated with the Lunar landing , a number of rescue spacecraft were proposed , to be used to allow the crew of an Apollo mission to return to Earth safely in the event of a problem . Many of these designs were based around the Gemini spacecraft .
One of these proposals was the Gemini Lunar Orbit Rescue Vehicle , which was designed to retrieve the crew of an Apollo spacecraft stranded in orbit around the Moon . It was to have used a stretched reentry module to accommodate the three astronauts who would have been aboard the Apollo . This would have been attached to a modified Equipment Module . The Equipment Module contained engines which would be used for Lunar orbit insertion and trans @-@ Earth injection , as well as life support equipment to keep the crew alive until they returned to Earth . Launch and trans @-@ Lunar injection would have been performed by a Saturn V. Once the spacecraft was in Lunar orbit , the Apollo crew would have boarded it by means of an EVA .
Another proposed spacecraft , the Gemini Lunar Surface Survival Shelter , was designed to be sent to the Moon ahead of an Apollo mission . It would have landed close to the planned Apollo landing site , and if the Apollo Lunar Module 's ascent stage failed to ignite , the crew would have performed an EVA to transfer to the LSSS . The shelter was not designed to take off again after landing , so an LSRS or another Apollo mission would then be sent to collect the crew , whilst the Command Module Pilot of the original Apollo mission would have returned to Earth alone aboard his spacecraft . It consisted of a Gemini Reentry Module , which would have housed the astronauts whilst they awaited rescue , and a descent stage containing life support systems , consumables , and the engine and propellant used to land the spacecraft .
The Gemini Lunar Surface Rescue Spacecraft was intended to fly a direct ascent mission , launched by a Saturn V. Descent stages , built from either the descent stage of the Apollo Lunar Module , or from the Apollo Service Module , would have reduced the spacecraft 's velocity as it approached the Moon . One configuration used two Service Modules and one LEM descent stage , with the LEM descent stage performing the final landing , and then being reused for ascent from the Lunar surface and trans @-@ Earth injection . The other configuration used three LEM descent stages , with the second being used for landing and the third for ascent and TEI . The LSRS would have landed close to the Apollo Lunar Module on the Moon , and the Apollo crew would have transferred to it by EVA .
Following the Apollo 1 fire in January 1967 , NASA conducted a safety review of the Apollo program . In response to this review , McDonnell proposed the Universal Lunar Rescue Vehicle , a repackaged version of the Lunar Surface Rescue Spacecraft with an enlarged capsule to make room for the three astronauts who were being rescued . It was intended to rescue an Apollo crew at almost any point whilst they were at the Moon , should an anomaly occur . Some ULRV designs included five seats , with two astronauts piloting it to the Moon . The proposal was considered , but rejected due to lack of funds .
= = Other proposals = =
A number of other applications were considered for the Gemini spacecraft .
= = = Manned Orbital Telescope = = =
The Manned Orbital Telescope was a proposal for a manned spacecraft for astronomical or solar observation . It would have used the larger reentry module which was also proposed for the Big Gemini spacecraft , and would have been launched on a Saturn IB . The enlarged reentry module was also considered for a spacecraft proposed at the same time , which would have been used to rescue the crews of manned spacecraft that were stranded in low Earth orbit . It would have launched atop a Titan IIIC , once in orbit it would have maneuvered by means of a Transtage integrated into the equipment module . The larger capsule would have been used to accommodate the crew of the spacecraft which required rescuing .
= = = Rendezvous with a Pegasus satellite = = =
Another proposed mission would have seen a Gemini spacecraft rendezvous with a Pegasus satellite in low Earth orbit . The spacecraft would have either been launched directly into an orbit to rendezvous with the Pegasus , or into a lower orbit , subsequently docking with an Agena , and using that to raise its orbit . The Gemini would have flown around the Pegasus , and then one of the crew would have performed an EVA to recover a piece of one of the spacecraft 's micrometeoroid detection panels . This mission would have been used to prove that rendezvous could be accomplished with any spacecraft , to collect data on the satellite 's exposure to micrometeoroids — supporting data that the satellite had returned itself , and to demonstrate technology for military flights to inspect hostile satellites .
= = = Gemini Paraglider = = =
Several missions were proposed to demonstrate methods of landing the Gemini spacecraft on land . The spacecraft had originally been designed to land using a paraglider and a set of skis or wheels , however this was abandoned in favor of splashdowns under parachutes due to delays in development and failures during testing . As the proposed Big Gemini spacecraft would have landed this way , McDonnell Aircraft asked NASA to consider flying standard Gemini spacecraft with the paraglider in order to test the system before it would be required operationally .
= = = Winged Gemini = = =
Another alternative landing concept was the US Air Force 's proposal to attach wings to the spacecraft . This proposal arose soon after the cancellation of the X @-@ 20 Dyna @-@ Soar , and would have seen a Gemini spacecraft attached to a set of wings developed during the ASSET program . This would have been launched by a Titan II rocket , and would have been unable to maneuver in orbit . Another proposal saw the spacecraft being launched by a Titan IIIA or IIIC , using the Transtage for maneuvering . Once the mission was complete , the spacecraft would have been deorbited by means of five solid rocket motors .
= = = Long @-@ duration missions = = =
There were also proposals to use the Gemini spacecraft to conduct long @-@ duration missions to small , purpose @-@ built space stations in low @-@ Earth orbit . One proposal saw a space station based on the Agena , which would have been used to provide propulsion and attitude control for the station . A pressurized module between the Agena and the docking adapter would have been used by the crew for accommodation and to conduct experiments . The crew would have boarded the Agena by means of an inflatable tunnel between the hatches and its airlock . The Pecan spacecraft was a similar proposal .
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= MacPaint =
MacPaint is a bitmap @-@ based graphics painting software program developed by Apple Computer and released with the original Macintosh personal computer on January 24 , 1984 . It was sold separately for US $ 195 with its word processor counterpart , MacWrite . MacPaint was notable because it could generate graphics that could be used by other applications . Using the mouse , and the clipboard and QuickDraw picture language , pictures could be cut from MacPaint and pasted into MacWrite documents . Pictures could also be cut from MacPaint and pasted into the resource fork of any application via ResEdit , allowing application internationalization .
The original MacPaint was developed by Bill Atkinson , a member of Apple 's original Macintosh development team . Early development versions of MacPaint were called MacSketch , still retaining part of the name of its roots , LisaSketch . It was later developed by Claris , the software subsidiary of Apple which was formed in 1987 . The last version of MacPaint was version 2 @.@ 0 , released in 1988 . It was discontinued by Claris in 1998 because of diminishing sales .
= = Development = =
MacPaint was written by Bill Atkinson , a member of Apple 's original Macintosh development team . The original MacPaint consisted of 5 @,@ 804 lines of Pascal computer code , augmented by another 2 @,@ 738 lines of 68000 assembly language . MacPaint 's user interface was designed by Susan Kare , also a member of the Macintosh team . Kare also beta @-@ tested MacPaint before release .
MacPaint uses two offscreen memory buffers to avoid flicker when dragging shapes or images across the screen . One of these buffers contained the existing pixels of a document , and the other contained the pixels of its previous state . The second buffer was used as the basis of the software 's undo feature . In April 1983 , the software 's name was changed from MacSketch to MacPaint . The original MacPaint was programmed as a single @-@ document interface . The palette positions and sizes were unalterable , as was the document window . This was different from other Macintosh software at the time , which allowed the users to move windows and resize them .
The original MacPaint did not incorporate a zoom function . Instead of a zoom function , a special magnification mode called FatBits was used . FatBits showed each pixel as a clickable rectangle with a white border . The FatBits editing mode set the standard for many future editors . MacPaint included a " Goodies " menu which included the FatBits tool . This menu was named the " Aids " menu in prerelease versions , but was renamed " Goodies " as public awareness of the AIDS epidemic grew in the summer of 1983 .
= = Release and version history = =
MacPaint was first advertised in an 18 @-@ page brochure in December 1983 , following the earlier announcement of the Macintosh 128K . The Macintosh was released on January 24 , 1984 with two applications , MacPaint and MacWrite . For a special post @-@ election edition of Newsweek in November 1984 , Apple spent more than US $ 2 @.@ 5 million to buy all 39 of the advertising pages in the issue . The Newsweek advertisement included many pages dedicated to explaining how MacWrite and MacPaint worked together . After launch , a New York Times reviewer noted how MacPaint unfolded numerous graphic possibilities for the personal computer ; he went further to say " it is better than anything else of its kind offered on personal computers by a factor of 10 . "
MacPaint 2 @.@ 0 was released on January 11 , 1988 by Claris . It added many improvements to the software , including the capability to open and use up to nine documents simultaneously . The original MacPaint operated as a single @-@ document application with a non @-@ movable window . MacPaint 2 @.@ 0 eliminated this limitation , introducing a fully functioning document window , which could be sized up to 8 x 10 " . Several other features were introduced , such as a Zoom tool , MagicEraser tool for undo actions and stationary documents . MacPaint 2 @.@ 0 was developed by David Ramsey , a developer at Claris . MacPaint 2 @.@ 0 was sold for US $ 125 , with a US $ 25 upgrade available for existing users of MacPaint . Claris discontinued technical support for the original MacPaint in 1989 . Claris stopped selling MacPaint in early 1998 because of diminishing sales . There has been an unofficial update called MacPaint X which is 3 @.@ 0 beta , mainly for people who wished to be able to use the program .
Since 2010 MacPaint 1 @.@ 3 's source code ( written in a combination of Assembly and Pascal ) is available through the Computer History Museum , along with the QuickDraw source code , a library to draw bitmapped graphics , due to the support of Steve Jobs .
MacPaint inspired other companies to release similar products for other platforms ; within a year a half @-@ dozen clones existed for the Apple II and IBM PC . Some of these included Broderbund 's Dazzle Draw for the Apple II , Mouse Systems ' PC Paint for the PC , and IBM 's Color Paint for the IBM PCjr .
= = Version history = =
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= Night Out ( The Office ) =
" Night Out " is the fifteenth episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's sixty @-@ eighth episode overall . The episode was written by Mindy Kaling and directed by Ken Whittingham . It first aired in the United States on April 24 , 2008 on NBC . " Night Out " was viewed by a measured audience of over 7 @.@ 5 million people , bringing in the lowest number of estimated viewers that The Office received among 12 episodes . " Night Out " received mixed reviews from critics .
In the episode , Michael and Dwight travel to New York City to party with Ryan . Ryan starts acting erratically , and it is revealed that he is under the influence of drugs . Meanwhile , the remaining employees are going to be forced to work on a Saturday . Jim proposes that they work late on Friday , so they do not have to come in the next day . Once Jim and his co @-@ workers finish working , they find that they are locked in , and everyone quickly places the blame on Jim .
= = Plot = =
Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) arrives at the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the Dunder Mifflin Paper Company and is noticeably friendlier than on his previous visits . The employees , by now fed up with Ryan 's new website , angrily ask him questions about the website and their clients . Ryan shows the staff at the branch the new Dunder Mifflin website , " Dunder Mifflin Infinity 2 @.@ 0 " , the previous version of which was shut down because sexual predators had invaded the social networking component of the site . As Ryan leaves , he tells Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) of the women he meets in clubs in New York City . Michael and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) subsequently decide to go to New York , locate Ryan , attend parties with him , and try to meet women while doing so .
In New York , Michael and Dwight locate Ryan after discovering which club Ryan frequents ; Ryan is thrilled to see them but appears to be under the influence of drugs though Michael and Dwight do not notice . Later , Michael , Dwight , Ryan and Ryan 's colleague , Troy Undercook ( Noel Petok ) ( who Dwight is certain is a Hobbit due to his short stature ) wait outside another club , but fail to get in because they do not have dates . Dwight comes to the rescue when he manages to pair each of them with members of a women 's basketball team , who are also waiting in line . Inside the club , Ryan 's dancing becomes erratic and aggressive , and he accidentally hits a girl , prompting her friends to attack Ryan . Dwight and Michael escort him out of the club , and after Troy advises them not to take Ryan to a hospital , he runs off . Michael and Dwight bring Ryan back to his apartment , where he tells them that he thinks his " friend Troy " has a drug problem , and asks what he should do about it . Michael , oblivious to the fact that Ryan is obviously referring to his own drug addiction , gives him hypothetical advice involving a wiretap and snitching on a drug dealer . He then tells the camera that he has been watching The Wire but does not understand what is going on in the show .
Back in Scranton , the rest of the employees are going to be forced to work on a Saturday to record their own sales as the website 's sales , which is , according to Ryan , " a temporary procedure to increase the legitimacy of the website . " With no one eager to participate , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) decides to ask everyone to stay in the office late instead of coming in for the Saturday . They all agree to the plan , and after working until 9 : 00 pm , they are shocked to find the parking lot gates locked . Jim had forgotten to tell the security guard that they were staying late . They are unable to return to the office because Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) locked the door from the inside , and Dwight , miles away in New York , has both the spare and master keys . Jim repeatedly calls Hank the security guard ( Hugh Dane ) . Pam accidentally injures Meredith by hitting her head with a football that was found in the parking lot . Sitting in the lobby area waiting for the security guard to arrive , the employees are clearly frustrated with Jim , and even vote by a show of hands that Andy and Angela are a better couple than Jim and Pam .
During a moment of levity , Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) affectionately places his hand on Pam 's knee . After an awkward silence , Toby proclaims that he is moving to Costa Rica ; he then hops the parking lot fence and runs away . The cleaning staff arrives and lets the group out ( with help from Oscar , who speaks Spanish ) .
At the end of the episode , Hank finally shows up but is upset because everyone but the cleaning staff is gone .
= = Production = =
" Night Out " was the seventh episode of the series directed by Ken Whittingham . It was written by Mindy Kaling , who also acts in the show as customer @-@ service representative Kelly Kapoor . The episode was the eighth of the series to be written by Kaling . " Night Out " was the third new episode of The Office to be broadcast since the episode " The Deposition " on November 15 , 2007 , due to the effects of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . Filming of The Office immediately halted on that date , because many members of the cast including Carell , Novak , Kaling , and Lieberstein are members of the WGA and refused to cross WGA picket lines . If not for the writers ' strike , this episode would have most likely been filmed in November 2007 .
Most of " Night Out " was shot during the night . The scene that has Toby putting his hand on Pam 's knee was shot at 2 : 30 am on a Friday . The scene was shot about eight times because according to Kaling , " everyone kept breaking because Toby was so vulnerable and awkward . " Kate Flannery did her stunts in the scene where Pam throws a football and hits Customer and Supplier Relations worker Meredith Palmer ( Flannery ) in the face . Flannery had a stunt double on the set , but she was never needed for the scene . Kate recalls that she " didn 't get a scratch in all 14 takes that we shot . " Lieberstein on the other hand used a stunt double for the scene in which Toby climbs over the fence . Although Lieberstein offered to do the stunt himself , executive producer and show runner Greg Daniels decided against it .
When casting " Tall Girl # 1 " ( the woman who would kiss with Dwight ) , the show was looking for a girl 6 ' 1' ' or taller . Actress Cassie Fliegel , who is 5 ' 11 ' ' , auditioned for the part anyway . After getting a callback , Fliegel went to a gym to work out , attempting to gain muscle to look more like a basketball player . On the day of the callbacks , Fliegel remembers being next to a girl who was 6 ' 8' ' . Despite her size , Fliegel , a former basketball player herself , was cast for the part . Initially , she did not know that her character was going to make out with Dwight . Fliegel recalls that when she first heard about kissing Dwight she " was like , I don 't think so " . However , after finding out that she had her own trailer , Fliegel warmed up to the idea . The music in the club was chosen by Novak , Kaling 's then @-@ boyfriend Benjamin Nugent , and Daniel Chun . When filming Ryan dancing in the club , the girl that Ryan hit was actually a stunt woman . Pads had been placed on the floor so Novak could fall down safely . The German lullaby that Dwight sang to Ryan was script supervisor Veda Semarne 's idea . Semarne 's Austrian grandmother sang the same song to her when she was a child .
= = Reception = =
" Night Out " received 4 @.@ 0 / 10 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings . This means that four percent of all households with an 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old living in it watched the episode , and ten percent had their televisions tuned to the channel at any point . The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 56 million viewers . " Night Out " did not do as well as " Chair Model " did the week before , losing 20 percent of the previous episode 's viewers . Some attribute the loss of viewers to a lack of Grey 's Anatomy and a repeat of CSI the previous week . With 7 @.@ 69 million , " Night Out " had fewer viewers than any other episode of The Office from the fourth season , except for " Job Fair " , which garnered only 7 @.@ 16 million viewers .
Reviews for " Night Out " were mixed . Zap2It 's Rick Porter thought that although it wasn 't " as sublime in its Needy Michael @-@ ness as last week 's ( episode ) " and " in some ways , though , it was maybe even a little sadder " , " Night Out " was " still pretty darn funny " . Porter went on to praise the acting work of both B.J. Novak and Paul Lieberstein , as well as the writing of Mindy Kaling . TV Squad 's Jay Black said that Michael summed up " Night Out " perfectly when he said " Best . Night . Ever . " Black went on to praise both of the storylines , and the ability of the show to achieve success both in as well as out of the Dunder Mifflin Scranton building . Similar to Black 's statements , Gretchen Hansen of Entertainment Weekly stated that " ' Best . Night . Ever . ' Oh , so true , Michael . " She also stated that " I guess I knew it was going to be a good episode of The Office when I had two pages of scribbled notes before the first commercial break . " Hansen went on to praise both the acting and the writing of the episode as points that contributed to the success of the episode . Rachel Cericola , of TV Fodder , praised the writing of the episode by Mindy Kaling . She also praised the storyline of the episode that didn 't involve Michael and Dwight , saying " The second plotline was its usual funny filler . However , it was Toby 's revelation that made it all worthwhile . "
Travis Fickett of IGN said that the episode was " still satisfying , even when it 's not one of the show 's funnier episodes " , but " it 's a bit of a shame this episode wasn 't a home run , because having Dwight and Michael hit the clubs is a funny idea . " Fickett went on to praise the episode 's awkward moment between Toby and Pam , when Toby placed his hand on Pam 's leg , and Toby 's subsequent escape by hopping the fence . Fickett stated that , for Toby 's growing love of Pam , and growing jealousy of Jim , " this is pretty great pay off " . Claire Zulkey , a writer for the Los Angeles Times , was not as pleased with the episode . Zulkey wrote " that when it 's at its zaniest , The Office is at its worst " , and the episode was " just too silly to be funny " . Zulkey did say that " it was hilarious to see him ( Toby ) let his hand more @-@ than @-@ linger on her knee and then abruptly flee the premises by jumping over the fence and running home . " In a poll done by Office fansite OfficeTally.com , viewers ranked " Night Out " as the 13th @-@ most popular episode out of the 14 episodes of season four .
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= Raining Men ( Rihanna song ) =
" Raining Men " is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna from her fifth studio album , Loud ( 2010 ) . Written by Melvin Hough II , Rivelino Wouter , Timothy Thomas , Theron Thomas and Onika Maraj , and produced by Mel & Mus , the song was sent to urban radio on December 7 , 2010 , as the album 's third single in the United States , and was re @-@ sent to urban radio on January 25 , 2011 . A hip hop song , it features rap vocals by Nicki Minaj and instrumentation consisting of sirens and bass . The song 's lyrics revolve around how there is an endless supply of men available in the world . The song garnered a mixed response from music critics ; some praised the chemistry between Rihanna and Minaj , while others commented that it bore strong resemblances to Beyoncé 's song " Diva " with regard to its composition , and were critical of the notion .
Upon the release of Loud , " Raining Men " charted on the singles charts in South Korea , the United Kingdom and the United States on the strength of digital download sales . In South Korea , the song peaked at number 41 , while in the United Kingdom it peaked at number 142 on the UK Singles Chart and number 31 on the UK R & B Chart . In the United States , it peaked at number 11 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles , making this Rihanna 's third single that failed to reach the US Billboard Hot 100 chart ( " We Ride " , " Wait Your Turn " ) . Following the song 's release to US urban radio , " Raining Men " peaked at number 48 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . No music video was shot for the song , and it received no televised performances as part of promotion . The song was included on the set list of the Loud Tour ( 2011 ) . The performance featured Rihanna in a camouflage inspired outfit , accompanied by dancers in the same attire who held pink rifles .
= = Recording and production = =
" Raining Men " was written by Melvin Hough II , Rivelino Wouter , Timothy Thomas , Theron Thomas and Nicki Minaj ( credited as Onika Maraj ) , with instrumental production of the song done by Mel & Mus . It features rap vocals by Minaj ; Rihanna 's and Minaj 's vocals were recorded by Kuk Harrell , Josh Gudwin , Marcos Tovar and Aerial Chobaz at Platinum Sound Recording Studios ; Manhattan , New York City ; Electric Lady Studios , Greenwich Village , New York City and Glenwood Recording Studios , Burbank , California . Koby Hassi served as the assistant vocal recorder . The song 's music was recorded by Dana Nielsen , and was mixed by Jaycen Joshua . Jesus Garnica served as the mixing assistant .
= = Conception and development = =
" Raining Men " marked the second collaboration between Rihanna 's and Minaj , the first being Minaj 's song " Fly " , from her album Pink Friday ( 2010 ) , on which Rihanna appeared as a guest vocalist . During an interview with Capital FM radio station in London , England , Rihanna revealed that herself and Minaj had written songs together , specifically ballads , for possible inclusion on the formers fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) , however none of the songs made the final track listing . Rihanna concluded her statement by saying that she could not wait to collaborate with the rapper again for her fifth studio album , the at the time unreleased and unnamed Loud . When questioned about what " Raining Men " was like , the singer stated that it is " a really fun song . Nothing like the original . It 's quite uptempo but kind of quirky and funny . "
In the same interview , Rihanna explained why she liked to collaborate with Minaj , saying " She has a great buzz and she has a ' thing ' to her . She is a star and that 's why people love her . She 's also really entertaining with her visual as well as her lyrics , and she has a great melody . " The singer continued to reveal how she was impressed with Minaj 's songwriting abilities , saying " I 'm really amazed that she can write like that . [ Nicki ] not only raps but she can write songs too ... It was really easy actually . We were going back and forth with the texts on how we were going to get to do it because we were in two different places and had two opposite schedules . " In an interview with DJ Semtex for BBC Radio , Minaj explained how the concept for her rap verse developed , revealing " I just wanted to be crazy , I wrote that track in bed actually . I had an off day , they sent me a record and said they needed it back in 24 hours and I wrote . " With regard to the original , " It 's Raining Men " , Minaj stated that she wanted to make " Raining Men " " more melodic and crazy . " " Raining Men " was sent for urban radio adds as the third single from Loud on December 7 , 2010 . On January 25 , 2011 , the song was re @-@ released for urban radio adds .
= = Composition = =
" Raining Men " is a hip hop song , with a " shiny trap beat " . that lasts for a duration of 3 : 44 ( 3 minutes , 44 seconds ) . The song is not a cover of The Weather Girls song " It 's Raining Men " , composed by Paul Jabara and Paul Shaffer , however it is based on it with regard to its lyrical content and does sample it . Instrumentation consists of sirens and " mind @-@ melting " bass . The song is written in the key of B ♭ major and is set in simple time with a moderated hip @-@ hop groove , with a metronome of 80 beats per minute . " Raining Men " ' s composition was likened to the work of M.I.A. by Emily McKay for NME . Stacey Anderson for Spin commented on Minaj 's vocal stylizaion of the word " really , " writing that she projects the word as a " breathless contortion into its own fully demented sideshow , " with regard to the fast speed in which Minaj raps . James Reed for The Boston Globe described Minaj 's verse as a " manic guest rhyme " . Rihanna 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of G3 to the high note of B ♭ 4 . According to Jon Pareles for The New York Times , the songs lyrics revolve around Rihanna and Minaj " singing and rapping about an endless supply of available men . " Lyrically , Kevin O 'Donnell of Spin described the song as Rihanna and Minaj 's own " female empowerment anthem .
= = Critical reception = =
The song was met with mixed reviews from music critics . Jon Pareles and Jon Caramanica of The New York Times commented that " Rihanna shares the mechanized , chattering beat of " Raining Men " with Nicki Minaj , singing and rapping about an endless supply of available men " . Stacey Anderson of Spin commented that the song is the highlight of the album , calling it " a gloriously eccentric collaboration with Nicki Minaj that entwines their minor @-@ key hyperventilating , air sirens dissolving into mind @-@ melting bass , and the scene @-@ stealing Minaj 's breathless contortion of the simple word ' really ' into its own fully demented sideshow " . BBC Music also commended Minaj 's presence on the song , saying that " Nicki Minaj makes for a superb partner in crime on Raining Men , her wild , kinetic flow complementing Rihanna ’ s steely delivery to wicked effect " . Jim Farber for New York Daily News said that " Rihanna pairs just as well with Nicki Minaj , on a complete tear @-@ down on the old Weather Girls disco standard ' It 's Raining Men . ' Here it 's not a gay song of lust but a statement of assurance that no man should incite too much worry , considering their sheer numbers " . Chris Richards of The Washington Post said that " Nicki Minaj , a quick @-@ witted rapper able to assume the voices of a dozen characters in a single song , fails to impart any wisdom on her colleague with " Raining Men " . Emily Mackay of NME said that " Raining Men " is a bold collaboration between Rihanna and Minaj , which plays to both of their strengths in the " hip @-@ pop " collaboration .
August Brown for Los Angeles Times said that " ' Cheers ( Drink to That ) ' and ' Raining Men , ' as foamy and spunky as they may be , are such a dogleg turn from Rated R that they come off as little more than image recalibration . That 's her prerogative as an artist , and it 's certainly earned . But it underscores the one thing we 've always wondered about Rihanna — what is she really feeling ? " . Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media was more critical of the song , commenting that " Raining Men is a shameless Beyoncé rip @-@ off that would be quickly dismissed if not for the fact that it 's a pretty @-@ damn @-@ good Beyoncé rip off with a characteristically scene @-@ stealing guest verse from Nicki Minaj " . James Reed of The Boston Globe also noticed the similarity between the song 's composition and the work of American R & B recording artist Beyoncé Knowles , saying " ' Raining Men ' , borrowing a digitized riff from Beyoncé 's ' Diva ' , features rising rapper Nicki Minaj on a typically manic guest rhyme . The song 's message doubles as the album 's mantra : Some cats really do have nine lives " . Idolator reviewer Becky Bain praised Minaj 's " infectious and energetic verse " and felt the song 's rhythm " fits Nicki 's quirkiness perfectly " .
= = Chart performance = =
Upon the release of Loud , " Raining Men " charted in South Korea , the United Kingdom and the United States on the strength of digital download sales . The song debuted at number 41 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart on November 14 , 2010 , and fell to number 85 the following week before dropping out of the chart . It debuted and peaked at number 142 on the UK Singles Chart on November 27 , 2010 . The song was more successful on the UK R & B Chart , where it peaked at number 30 in the same chart issue . " Raining Men " peaked at number 11 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles , a component chart which represents the 25 songs which failed to make an impact on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . The song debuted at number 69 US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart for the week of December 25 , 2010 . It peaked at number 48 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs .
= = Live performances = =
" Raining Men " was included on the set list of the Loud Tour in 2011 . The performance featured Rihanna in a camouflage inspired outfit , and was accompanied by dancers in the same attire who held pink rifles . The set included a pink tank which was also present on the Rated R supported tour , Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 / 11 ) . It began with Rihanna appearing on stage sitting on the pink tank as it was wheeled from the back of the stage to the front while Minaj 's rap verse played ; Rihanna then concluded the song with her vocals . " Raining Men " was preceded by " Hard " and " Breakin ' Dishes " , and featured the singer wearing the same outfit and set design . Minaj has also performed her verse on her Pink Friday : Reloaded Tour .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Loud , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
Management
SESAC / ASCAP / BMI
Mel & Mus appears on behalf of Wall Street Ent .
Kuk Harrell appears on behalf of Suga Wuga Music , Inc .
Jaycen Joshua appears on behalf of the Penua Project / Innersound Management
Nicki Minaj appears courtesy of Young Money / Universal Motown
Recording
Vocal recording – Platinum Sound Recording Studios ( New York City , NY ) ; Electric Lady Recording Studios ( New York City , NY ) ; Glenwood Studios ( Burbank , CA )
Music recording – Cahuenga Pass Studio ( Los Angeles , CA )
Mixing – Larrabee Sound Studios ( Los Angeles , CA )
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Radio history = =
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= Brooks Laich =
Evan Brooks Laich ( / ˈlaɪk / ; born June 23 , 1983 ) is a Canadian ice hockey player currently playing for the Toronto Maple Leafs of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) .
Laich was originally drafted by the Ottawa Senators in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft , and was later traded to the Washington Capitals as part of the package for Peter Bondra . Before playing professionally , Laich spent time in the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) playing with the Moose Jaw Warriors and Seattle Thunderbirds . He has represented Canada internationally , capturing a silver medal at the 2003 World Junior Championships , and playing for Canada again at the 2010 World Hockey Championships .
= = Hockey career = =
= = = Minor = = =
Laich started playing minor hockey in his hometown of Wawota , Saskatchewan . During the 1999 – 2000 season , he was the top scorer and most valuable player for the midget AAA Tisdale Trojans . He was the runner up for league MVP .
= = = Junior = = =
Laich started his junior hockey career with the Moose Jaw Warriors of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) during the 2000 – 01 season . He played in 71 games with the Warriors , scoring nine goals and adding 21 assists . Laich was a dedicated student in Moose Jaw , being awarded the club 's Scholastic Player of the Year for the 2000 – 01 season . After the season , he was drafted by the Ottawa Senators in the sixth round , 193rd overall , of the 2001 NHL Entry Draft . He started the 2001 – 02 season with the Warriors , but was traded to the Seattle Thunderbirds along with Tomáš Mojžíš for Craig Olynick and Stas Avksentiev . The deal was unpopular with Warriors fans , as Olynick left the club and Avksentiev never reported .
Laich spent the rest of his junior career with the Thunderbirds . He started to develop more of an offensive game , finishing off the 2001 – 02 season with 58 points in the 47 games he played in Seattle . Laich has said that getting traded to Seattle was a good move for him , with coach Dean Chynoweth providing ample opportunities for him to display his skills . He was named the team 's Most Dedicated Player after the 2001 – 02 season . His offensive game flourished further in his first full season with the Thunderbirds ( 2002 – 03 ) , as he finished the season with 41 goals and 53 assists , leading the team . These stats placed him sixth overall in the WHL points race . He was named the WHL 's Western Conference MVP . He was also named to the WHL 's Western Conference First All @-@ Star Team , and the Canadian Hockey League 's Third All @-@ Star Team .
= = = Professional = = =
Laich attended the Ottawa Senators training camp before the 2002 – 03 season . He played his first professional game in the American Hockey League ( AHL ) for the Binghamton Senators in 2003 . He made his National Hockey League ( NHL ) debut with the Senators on February 3 , 2003 , against the New Jersey Devils . Later in the season , Laich was traded to the Washington Capitals , along with a second round draft pick , for Peter Bondra , a deal which ended Bondra 's 14 @-@ year career with the Capitals . After the trade , he reported to the Capitals ' AHL affiliate , the Portland Pirates , making his debut with the Capitals on March 12 , 2003 , against the Chicago Blackhawks . He finished the season playing with the Pirates , appearing in six playoff games . The NHL lockout saw Laich spend the entire 2004 – 05 season with the Pirates , playing in 68 games , finishing eighth on the team in scoring with 16 goals and 10 assists .
During the 2005 – 06 season , Laich played in 104 regular season and playoff games between the Capitals and their new AHL affiliate , the Hershey Bears ; this tied him for the most games played in the organization with Boyd Gordon . After training camp , he started the season in the AHL , but was optimistic about his chances to play in the NHL , saying , " You 've just got to work hard . There 's spots up there , guys could go down with an injury , you want to be the first guy called up . " He spent most of the season at the NHL level , playing in 73 games and recording 21 points . After the Capitals ' season was over , Laich rejoined the Bears for their playoff run and scored eight goals in 21 games while helping the team capture the Calder Cup . Laich played the entire 2006 – 07 season with the Capitals , scoring eight goals and adding ten assists . After the season , Laich and the Capitals went to salary arbitration , where he was awarded a one @-@ year contract worth $ 725 @,@ 000 .
Laich played in all 82 games for the Capitals during the 2007 – 08 season , and set career highs in goals , assists and points . His 21 goals ranked third overall on the team . He led the Capitals with two short handed goals , and played in his 200th career regular season game . After a two @-@ goal game against the Atlanta Thrashers , Laich summed up his philosophy towards scoring : " If you want money , go to the bank . If you want bread , go to the bakery . If you want goals , go to the net . " During the playoffs , Laich had a five @-@ game point streak in the Eastern Conference quarter @-@ finals against the Philadelphia Flyers . This tied him for the longest point streak during the first round of the playoffs . As a restricted free agent after the season , Laich signed a three @-@ year deal with the team on July 9 , 2008 .
The 2008 – 09 season saw Laich play in all 82 games for the Capitals again , where he set new career highs in goals , assists and points ; he scored 23 goals and added 30 assists , breaking the 50 @-@ point plateau for the first time in his career . During the Capitals ' playoff run , Laich played in 14 games and added seven points . He assisted on the overtime winning goal in Game 6 of the Eastern Conference Semi @-@ Final against the eventual Stanley Cup champions Pittsburgh Penguins .
Laich 's streak of consecutive games played was broken in the 2009 – 10 season , when he missed four games with a cheekbone injury in February 2010 . He still managed to set new career highs in both goals ( 25 ) and assists ( 34 ) . On February 10 , shortly after returning from injury , Laich recorded his first career NHL hat trick , against the Montreal Canadiens . During the playoffs , Laich scored the last goal of the Capitals season during Game 7 against the Montreal Canadiens .
During the 2010 – 11 season , the Capitals participated in the 2011 NHL Winter Classic against the Pittsburgh Penguins at Heinz Field , Pittsburgh . Leading up to the game , both teams were featured on HBO 's 24 / 7 , which offered a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes look at both teams as they prepared . Laich refused to blame the presence of the cameras for the team 's losing streak , saying , " There 's no using the HBO cameras as a crutch or an annoyance or anything like that . There 's no excuse . I don 't think HBO has played any bit of an ounce in how things have gone the last two weeks . " Laich was appreciative of the opportunities afforded by the outdoor game , and was happy to be able to share time with his family and friends on the outdoor rink set up at Heinz Field .
On June 28 , 2011 , Laich signed a six @-@ year , $ 27 million contract extension worth $ 4 @.@ 5 million per season .
As the player representative for the Washington Capitals during the 2012 NHL @-@ NHLPA CBA negotiations , Laich stated in support of the National Hockey League Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) that , " At some point you have to dig your heels in and fight . If we don ’ t this time , then what happens next ? Appeasement only makes the aggressor more aggressive , and the players really understand that . We believe in our cause and our leadership and I believe we ’ re more unified this time and ready for a fight . "
Prior to the start of the lockout @-@ shortened 2012 @-@ 2013 playing season , Laich played for the Kloten Flyers of Switzerland 's National League . In 35 games for the Flyers , Laich posted 17 goals and a total of 38 points . He also reportedly suffered a groin injury , which limited his play upon his return stateside with the NHL . When play resumed for the 2012 – 13 season , Laich was limited to nine games .
On March 17 , 2014 , the Capitals announced via Twitter that Laich " underwent a successful procedure to release a tight adductor , " a part of the groin muscle . He is expected to miss the rest of the season with a recovery time of four @-@ to @-@ six weeks .
Except for a minor shoulder injury resulting in him missing 16 games , Laich returned to full health in 2014 @-@ 15 . He finished with seven goals and 20 points in 66 games played .
In the 2015 – 16 season , Laich 's offensive production rapidly declined , while his $ 4 @.@ 5 million cap hit stuck out as one of the only adverse aspects of a league @-@ leading Capitals squad . On February 27 , 2016 , the Capitals placed Laich on waivers for the purpose of sending him to the Hershey Bears of the AHL . The following day , on the eve of the trade deadline , Laich , along with Connor Carrick and a second round selection in the 2016 draft , were traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for Daniel Winnik and a fifth round pick in the 2016 draft . The purpose of the trade was to give the Capitals salary cap relief to use toward younger core player contracts that needed re @-@ signing the following off @-@ season . Capitals GM Brian Maclellan called the trade , when asked , the hardest thing he had done as General Manager of the team . Laich had been the longest tenured active professional Washington @-@ area athlete at the time of the trade , concluding his service of 12 years with the franchise . In what easily stands as the most emotional trade in Capitals history since Laich was dealt to Washington in a package for Peter Bondra , one journalist wrote " It 's ironic that money is what ultimately forced the Caps to move Laich . This is a guy who loves the game so much , he 'd probably play for free . "
Laich 's play improved significantly in Toronto , recording identical numbers to what he scored in Washington while playing in a third of the games .
= = International play = =
Laich debuted with Team Canada at the 2003 World Junior Championships , which were held in Halifax , Nova Scotia . In a game against Sweden , Laich scored Canada 's first goal of the tournament . He scored two goals and added four assists in six games at the tournament , where Canada won a silver medal . According to his father , Harold , his son had always dreamed of playing for Canada . Laich 's next experience with Team Canada came at the 2010 World Championships . He scored one goal in seven games as Canada finished seventh . During the tournament in a game against Russia , Laich raised the ire of his Capitals ' teammate Semyon Varlamov for slashing and cross @-@ checking Alexander Ovechkin . Varlamov said of Laich 's play , " ... Brooks Laich was constantly trying to slash and cross @-@ check him ( Ovechkin ) as painful [ sic ] as possible . After the game he certainly wished me luck and victory at the world championship , but the unpleasant impression still remains . "
= = Playing style = =
In 2009 , Capitals ' Head Coach Bruce Boudreau believed that Laich had not yet reached his full potential , saying , " ... I still don 't think we 've seen the best of Brooks . I think he 's going to be a 25- , 30 @-@ goal scorer in this league and become a staple for a while . " Boudreau also said Laich is considered one of the hardest working players on the Capitals ' roster by his coaches and teammates . Part of Laich 's inspiration comes from his father , who , during a 34 @-@ year tenure as a high school principal , only missed three days of work . Laich plays on the Capitals power play and kills penalties in addition to his ice time at even strength . Superstar Alexander Ovechkin is the Capitals current captain , but Laich has been lauded for his leadership and was considered for a more formal role in the team 's leadership structure in 2009 .
Laich is a hard worker , and dedicated to his team , saying , " If I asked you about your family , you would talk about them forever because it 's something you love . That 's the way I feel about this team . This team is my life , and I love playing here and I 'm passionate about playing hockey . So it 's easy for me to talk about it . " Boudreau has said , " You are never going to find a guy that cares more than Brooks Laich . " Laich spends time in the off @-@ season with a power skating instructor , which he feels is key to a long career .
= = Personal life = =
Laich has two siblings , an older sister and younger brother . His father worked as a high school teacher and principal . In his free time , he plays guitar and golfs . Colorado Avalanche star Joe Sakic was Laich 's favorite player growing up . He is actively involved in charity work , supporting charities related to multiple sclerosis and Athletes Against Autism . While still playing junior hockey , Laich helped his hometown of Wawota raise money to purchase a Zamboni for the local arena .
Laich received national media attention when he stopped to help two stranded Capitals fans change their flat tire after a Game 7 loss in the 2010 playoffs . When he came across the woman and her teenaged daughter stranded on the Theodore Roosevelt Bridge , Laich stopped to install their spare and apologized for the club 's early loss in the playoffs . For his efforts , Laich was hockey analyst Michael Farber 's nominee for the 2010 Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year . When asked about the incident , Laich responded , " It 's not a big deal . It was just a tire . The lady was stranded on the side of the road , I saw that it was just a lady and her daughter , and I figured my tire expertise outweighed hers . "
In February 2014 , it was revealed that he started dating professional dancer and actress Julianne Hough . On August 18 , 2015 Laich officially announced via Instagram that he and Hough were engaged .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
Statistics source
= = = International = = =
Statistics source
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= Tempus Fugit ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Tempus Fugit " is the seventeenth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on March 16 , 1997 . It was directed by Rob Bowman , and written by Frank Spotnitz and series creator Chris Carter . " Tempus Fugit " featured guest appearances by Joe Spano , Tom O 'Brien and Brendan Beiser , and saw the return of Scott Bellis as alien abductee Max Fenig . The episode helped to explore the overarching mythology , or fictional history of The X @-@ Files . " Tempus Fugit " earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 9 , being watched by 18 @.@ 85 million people in its initial broadcast . The title translates from Latin as " time flies . "
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Max Fenig — an old acquaintance of Mulder — is found dead following an airplane crash , which Mulder believes to have been caused by a UFO attempting to abduct Fenig . " Tempus Fugit " is a two @-@ part episode , with the plot continuing in the next episode , " Max " .
" Tempus Fugit " was conceived when the series ' special effects supervisor Dave Gauthier constructed an elaborate rig capable of simulating a crashing airplane . Carter and Spotnitz expanded upon the idea of a crash to bring back the character of Fenig , who had last been seen in season one 's " Fallen Angel " . " Tempus Fugit " received mixed to positive critical reception , and earned the production crew two Emmy Award nominations , including a win for Outstanding Sound Editing For A Series .
= = Plot = =
Max Fenig ( Scott Bellis ) , last seen in Fallen Angel , is traveling on an airplane , Flight 549 , which flies over upstate New York . He watches another man on the plane who seems to be following him . The man heads to the plane 's bathroom , where he assembles a zip gun . However , when he comes back out , the airplane begins shaking and a bright light flashes outside , showing that the plane is encountering a UFO . The emergency door next to Max 's seat is opened .
Elsewhere , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) celebrate Scully 's birthday . They are approached by a woman named Sharon Graffia , who claims to be Max 's sister ; she tells them that Max planned to deliver something to Mulder , but that his flight to Washington has crashed . The agents head to the crash site in Northville , New York , and attend an NTSB meeting where Flight 549 's final transmissions are shown . Mulder theorizes that the plane was forced down by aliens attempting to abduct Max ; the NTSB team , led by chief investigator Mike Millar ( Joe Spano ) , dismisses his claims .
When Mulder and Scully survey the crash site , they realize that there is a nine @-@ minute disparity between the crash and the time on the victims ' wristwatches , indicating missing time . Mulder believes that Max was abducted from the plane and that his body will not be found . Meanwhile , Scott Garrett , a Man in Black posing as an NTSB investigator , steals the zip gun from the assassin 's body and erases his face and fingerprints with acid . Larold Rehbun , a passenger who sat next to Max , is found alive . His injuries indicate exposure to radiation .
Upon being confronted by Scully , Sharon denies that Max brought a radioactive substance aboard the plane , but divulges that she is not actually Max 's sister . She also gives up details about his underground life . Scully subsequently tells Mulder that Max worked at an environmental energy plant in Colorado under an alias , and believes that he may have caused the crash after bringing plutonium on board ; Mulder , however , believes that Max was taken off the plane by a UFO , and that Rehbun 's injuries were caused by exposure to the craft . Scully informs Mulder that Max 's body has already been pulled from the crash site . Meanwhile , Sharon is abducted from her hotel room .
After identifying Max 's body , Mulder finds that the wristwatches have been stolen from the other victims . He refutes the NTSB 's official explanation of malfunction as a cause of the crash , and is doubtful that the true cause will be found unless they discern what happened during the nine minutes of missing time . The agents visit Sergeant Louis Frish ( Tom O 'Brien ) , an air traffic controller from the U.S. Air Force who was on duty during the crash . Frish denies anything unusual happened . However , after the agents leave , Frish and a colleague argue over whether to reveal the " truth " about Flight 549 's demise .
After finding Sharon 's trashed hotel room , Mulder meets with Millar , who tells him that the door was pulled off the plane from the outside while it was in flight . Later , Frish finds his colleague dead from a faked suicide . A group of commandos arrive to capture Frish , but he escapes . Frish goes to see Mulder and Scully , telling them that he lied before and that his commanding officer had ordered him to track the plane 's coordinates as it was being intercepted by a second aircraft . Seconds later , there was an explosion and the plane disappeared from his radar . Mulder believes that a third aircraft , a UFO , approached the plane and was destroyed by the second aircraft , also causing the Flight 549 crash . The agents leave with Frish and are soon chased by the commandos . Meanwhile , Millar returns to the crash site and encounters a UFO . He finds Sharon nearby , having just been returned by her abductors .
Scully returns to Washington with Frish while Mulder heads to Great Sacandaga Lake , searching for the crashed UFO . Scully brings Frish to a local bar where they run into fellow FBI agent Pendrell ( Brendan Beiser ) . The Man in Black soon enters the bar seeking to kill Frish , accidentally shooting Pendrell instead . Meanwhile , Mulder arrives at the lake where he finds a team of men already searching for the crashed UFO . He dives underwater and finds the craft , including an alien body .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
During the production of the third season , special effects supervisor Dave Gauthier constructed an elaborate mock @-@ up of a Boeing 737 airplane in order to be able to simulate a crash . Series creator Chris Carter decided to make use of this rig during the fourth season . When conceiving of the episode , the desire to add to Fox Mulder 's emotional involvement by having someone he knew on board led to the writers bringing back the character of Max Fenig to be that person .
Scott Bellis , who had previously portrayed Fenig in the first season episode " Fallen Angel " , had auditioned for other roles on the show in the interim , but had always been rejected by the producers because his character was felt to be too memorable . Bellis met series star David Duchovny at a gym several times , and learnt from him that the character of Max was being considered for a two @-@ part episode . The episode 's co @-@ writer Frank Spotnitz did not want to have Fenig 's appearance " milked " or do something the show had already done . As such he came up with the idea to kill off Fenig in the first part of the episode , which he felt was " a bold choice " .
= = = Filming = = =
Gauthier 's 737 rig — which required 400 U.S. gallons ( 1 @,@ 500 L ) of hydraulic fluid to construct — was designed to move across multiple axes in order to better simulate turbulence ; it could rotate 22 degrees each way about its length , and move four feet to either side . The fuselage could be opened up at intervals every 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) to better allow cameras to record inside it . The show 's producers wanted the plane crash site and investigation to be as authentic as possible , so they used a National Transportation Safety Board official to act as their technical advisor on the episode to ensure that everything was properly recreated . The NTSB officials noted that the site was authentic in every way " except for the smell " ; Carter has noted that this level of verisimilitude left some of the crew members " frightened by their work " . Director Rob Bowman admitted that the episode exceeded its given budget , noting that Carter would often defend him from Fox studio officials angry at his production costs . Bellis ' abduction scene , in which his character is levitated through the door of the airplane , was achieved by pulling the actor out of the airplane rig with a harness ; additional coverage was achieved by repeating this with a stuntman , who Bellis notes was pulled out of the rig " a lot harder " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Tempus Fugit " premiered on the Fox network on March 16 , 1997 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on January 14 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 9 with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 18 @.@ 85 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing .
The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , rated " Tempus Fugit " an A − . Handlen praised the effectiveness of the cold open , and noted the episode highlighted how " particularly ruthless " the series was with its recurring cast , noting " the mortality rate helps to create a mood of ever @-@ encroaching doom , as if the darkness that seems about to swallow Mulder and Scully in so many scenes ... is as much symbolic as it is literal " . Paula Vitaris , writing for Cinefantastique , rated " Tempus Fugit " two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , describing it as " gripping " with " lots of action " . However , Vitaris felt that the fleeting use of guest star Scott Bellis was " a waste " , and that the discovery of an alien corpse towards the end " robs this story of any ambiguity " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , calling it " the best conspiracy episode we 've seen in nearly two years " . Shearman and Peason felt that " Tempus Fugit " was " told very clearly , with remarkably little baggage " , and praised the acting of guests Tom O 'Brien and Joe Spano . Twelve members of the show 's post @-@ production crew won the 1997 Emmy Award for Outstanding Sound Editing For A Series for their work on this episode ; while four others received a nomination for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series .
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= Pain in My Heart =
Pain in My Heart is the debut album of soul singer @-@ songwriter Otis Redding . Redding recorded for Volt Records , a subsidiary of Stax Records , based in Memphis , Tennessee . Volt LPs were initially issued on the Atco label , which released this album ( the singles were issued on the Volt label ) .
The album includes four successful singles , released in 1962 and 1963 : " These Arms of Mine " , " That 's What My Heart Needs " , " Security " , and the title track . Since Billboard did not publish an R & B singles chart from late 1963 to early 1965 , the R & B chart peaks of the latter two singles are unknown .
= = Biography = =
As a member of the Pat T. Cake and the Mighty Panthers , Redding toured in the Southern United States , mostly on the chitlin ' circuit , a string of nightclubs and dance halls hospitable to African @-@ American musicians when racial segregation of performance venues was prevalent . Guitarist Johnny Jenkins , who helped Redding win a talent contest at the Hillview Springs Social Club 15 times in row and also at the talent show " The Teenage Party " , left the band to become a featured artist with the Pinetoppers . Around this time , Redding met Phil Walden , the future founder of the recording company Phil Walden and Associates ( even though without an associate ) , and later Bobby Smith , who ran Confederate Records , a small label . He signed with Confederate and recorded his second single , " Shout Bamalama " ( a rewrite of his " Gamma Lamma " ) , with his band Otis and the Shooters . Wayne Cochran , the only solo artist signed to Confederate , became the Pinetoppers ' bass guitarist .
At the same time , Walden started to look for a record label . Atlantic Records representative Joe Galkin was interested in working with Jenkins and around 1962 proposed to send him to the Stax studio in Memphis . On the way to a Pinetoppers studio session , Redding drove for Jenkins , as the latter did not have a driver 's license . Jenkins performed with Booker T. & the M.G. ' s , and when the session ended early , Redding received the opportunity to perform two songs . The first was " Hey Hey Baby " , but studio chief Jim Stewart thought it sounded too much like Little Richard . Next , he sang " These Arms of Mine " , which became his first single for Stax . After that performance , Redding was signed by Stax .
= = Recording and release = =
Pain in My Heart includes songs from Redding 's 1962 – 1963 sessions . Stewart signed Redding for Stax and released Redding 's debut single , " These Arms of Mine " , with " Hey Hey Baby " on the B @-@ side . " These Arms of Mine " was released by Volt , a subsidiary of Stax , in October 1962 , and charted in March the following year . It was one of his most successful songs , selling more than 800 @,@ 000 copies .
In the 1963 session , " That 's What My Heart Needs " and " Mary 's Little Lamb " were recorded and cut in June 1963 ; the latter became one of the worst @-@ selling singles by Redding . Rob Bowman , in his book Soulsville , U.S.A. : The Story of Stax Records , wrote that in these two songs " Otis sings with a harsh , impassioned gospel voice reminiscent of Archie Brownlee of the Five Blind Boys of Mississippi " and further reckoned the ending of the first would have made Redding " a suberb gospel singer had he chosen to record in that idiom . " " That 's What My Heart Needs " became Redding 's second single on Stax .
The title track , recorded on September , the next year , sparked some copyright issues , as it sounded like Irma Thomas 's " Ruler of My Heart " . After a few months , " Pain in My Heart " , with the B @-@ side " Something Is Worrying Me " , peaked at number 60 on Billboard 's Hot 100 chart . Rob Bowman observed that " with ' Pain in My Heart , ' Otis 's dynamic control is front and center as he uses his voice as a horn , swelling and decreasing in volume , swallowing syllables and worrying the word ' heart . ' ... It was Otis 's most successful effort to date , commercially and aesthetically . "
The last single , " Security " , was released in April 1964 and reached number 97 on Billboard 's Hot 100 chart . According to Matthew Greenwald of Allmusic , the song is " a stinging , up @-@ tempo groover " and " showed Otis Redding stretching his funky rock & roll roots . Aided by the usual gang of Stax musicians , it 's one of his tightest early records .... [ T ] he song could have easily succeeded as an instrumental . "
The other tracks on the album are covers of popular songs , including " The Dog " , by Rufus Thomas ; " Louie Louie " , by Richard Berry ; " Lucille " , by Little Richard ; and " Stand by Me " , by Ben E. King .
Despite the alleged copyright infringement , Pain in My Heart was released on Atlantic Records ' subsidiary Atco Records on January 1 , 1964 , and peaked at number 20 on Billboard 's R & B chart and at number 85 on Billboard 's Hot 100 .
= = Reception = =
Pain in My Heart received positive critical reception . Bruce Eder of Allmusic gave the album 4 out of 5 stars , reckoning that the album " was practically a road map to Mick Jagger and any number of other would @-@ be white soul shouters in the UK " , and finding elements of hard rock in " Hey Hey Baby " . He praised Redding 's version of " You Send Me " , considering it " the least stylized of any of his renditions of [ Sam ] Cooke 's songs " , but criticized Redding 's restraint , compared to future recordings , and the " somewhat less than memorable " writing , except on " Security " , " These Arms of Mine " and " That 's What My Heart Needs " . The reviewer concluded by saying " Redding exudes astonishing power , energy and boldness " .
A review of several albums by Redding in Rolling Stone magazine observed that " [ t ] he title track on [ Pain in My Heart ] set the pattern for all his ballads to come — Otis triumphed at rendering agony . Signs of the singer 's virtuosity are already apparent in the almost teasing way he lingers over some lyrics and spits out others ; virtually never would he sing a line the same way twice " . The review gave the album 4 out of 5 stars .
When Redding performed " These Arms of Mine " during his first session at Stax , witth Jenkins on guitar and Steve Cropper on piano , producer Jim Stewart praised his performance and noted , " Everybody was fixin ' to go home , but Joe Galkin insisted we give Otis a listen . There was something different about [ the ballad ] . He really poured his soul into it . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Musicians = =
Otis Redding - vocals
Booker T. Jones - keyboards , organ , piano
Isaac Hayes - keyboards , piano
Steve Cropper - guitar , keyboards , piano
Donald Dunn - bass
Al Jackson , Jr . - drums
Johnny Jenkins - guitar
Lewis Steinberg - bass
Wayne Jackson - trumpet
Charles Axton - tenor sax
Floyd Newman - baritone sax
= = Charts = =
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= Southampton town walls =
Southampton 's town walls are a sequence of defensive structures built around the town in southern England . Although earlier Roman and Anglo @-@ Saxon settlements around Southampton had been fortified with walls or ditches , the later walls originate with the move of the town to the current site in the 10th century . This new town was defended by banks , ditches and the natural curve of the river and coastline . The Normans built a castle in Southampton but made no attempts to improve the wider defences of the town until the early 13th century , when Southampton 's growing prosperity as a trading centre and conflict with France encouraged the construction of a number of gatehouses and stone walls to the north and east sides of the settlement .
In 1338 Southampton was raided by French forces ; the town 's defences proved inadequate , particularly along the quays on the west and south of the city . Edward III ordered some immediate improvements to Southampton 's town walls but it was not until the 1360s that substantial work began . Over the coming decades the town was entirely enclosed by a 2 km ( 1 @.@ 25 @-@ mile ) long stone wall , with 29 towers and eight gates . With the advent of gunpowder weapons in the 1360s and 1370s , Southampton was one of the first towns in England to install the new technology to existing fortifications and to build new towers specifically to house cannon .
Southampton 's town walls remained an important defensive feature during the 15th century , the gatehouses sometimes being used as important civic facilities , including acting as the town 's guildhall and housing the town 's gaol . From the end of the 17th century their importance steadily declined and the walls were slowly demolished or adapted for other uses throughout the 18th and 19th centuries . This process continued into the early 20th century until , in the post @-@ war years , the walls were recognised as an important historical feature of Southampton . Conservation projects have since occurred and the walls are now promoted as a tourist attraction .
= = History = =
= = = 1st – 10th centuries = = =
Several earlier settlements were built near modern Southampton featuring protective town walls . Following the Roman conquest of Britain in AD 43 the fortress settlement of Clausentum was established . It was an important trading port and a defensive outpost for the town of Winchester , located on the site of Bitterne Manor , today a suburb of modern Southampton . Clausentum was defended on its eastern , landwards side by a flint stone wall and two ditches . After the fall of the Roman Empire , in the 7th and 8th centuries the Anglo @-@ Saxons built a planned settlement called Hamwic , close to the current location of Southampton , approximately on the location of the later St Mary 's church . At least some parts of this burh town had a ditch dug around it , 3 m ( 10 feet ) wide and 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 feet ) deep , and possibly was defended by a bank of earth . In the 10th century , Viking raids prompted the settlement of Southampton to move to its current location .
= = = 11th – 13th centuries = = =
By the time that the Normans conquered England in 1066 , the town of Southampton occupied a rectangular area overlooking the mouth of the River Test , an important medieval waterway . It was protected by water on most sides and by protective ditches and banks to the north and east . Southampton at this time was a relatively large town , but not as significant as in the later medieval period . The Normans built a castle within the town on the site of a probable large English hall , and considerable damage was caused to the surrounding local buildings as space was opened up for the new fortification .
During the years of the Anarchy , in which the Empress Matilda and Stephen fought for control of England , Southampton was held by William le Gros , the Bishop of Winchester and a supporter of Stephen . When Henry II came to the throne in 1153 , he took back Southampton and carried out improvements to the castle , as part of his attempt to improve the general standard of security in the south . By the second half of the 12th century , Southampton was increasingly important for coastal defence and as a base for operations on the continent . Following the threat of French invasion in the 1170s , Henry II invested modest additional resources in the castle , but no efforts were undertaken to improve the town 's ditches and banks .
By the 12th century , Southampton was an important trading port with trade routes to Normandy , the Levant and Gascony . Both the town and castle played an important role in this trade , in part forming a warehouse for the king 's imports , this process being managed by a Crown Bailiff . The former castle hall was turned into a subterranean vault in the 13th century , probably for storing wine . Stone houses , often combining accommodation and storage facilities , began to be built in Southampton by the wealthiest merchants , particularly in the prosperous western and southern parts of the town , but these properties could not be easily defended against attack .
The English Channel was contested militarily between England and France during the 13th century , and Southampton was both an important base for naval operations and a tempting target for raiders . At the start of the 13th century additional work was therefore conducted to improve the town 's defences ; the king granted £ 100 in 1202 and again in 1203 to help develop the earth banks around the town . By 1217 East Gate had been built , probably of stone . In 1260 a murage grant was given to Southampton by Edward I , allowing the town to tax selected imports to build and maintain new stone walls ; these initial murage grants ran from 1260 to 1275 and were then renewed between 1282 and 1285 and from 1286 to 1291 . By the end of this work , many of the earth banks in the north and east of the town had been converted to stone . There appears to have been little interest in defending the west and south quays , however , probably because doing so would have hampered Southampton 's merchants when they moved their trading goods in and out of the town .
= = = 14th century = = =
By 1300 , Southampton was a major port and a large provincial town , with a population of around 5 @,@ 000 . The raising of money through murage grants began again in 1321 , possibly paying for the stone towers of the Bargate and some of the semi @-@ circular wall towers . Work also appears to have begun on some stone walling to the south and west of the town , construction may have begun at the South Gate and a wooden barbican was constructed near the western docks . Later investigations by the Crown would suggest that some of the monies raised in these murage grants had been misspent , however , contributing to the poor standard of town defences , which included large gaps in the walled circuit .
In 1338 there was a successful French attack on Southampton : the town 's defences , particularly in the west , proved quite inadequate and the French succeeded in burning numerous buildings down , particularly along the western quays , and damaging the castle . Edward III responded to the raid by taking immediate steps to shore up Southampton 's defences and ordering the town to be fully enclosed by stone walls . In 1339 the sheriff conscripted workmen and specialists to improve the defences , and money to pay for the building materials was raised by commuting the prison sentence of a senior official in Southampton to a fine . Murage grants were reinstated in 1345 , but the economy of Southampton had been temporarily devastated by the raids and indeed never fully recovered . The king 's instructions to fully enclose the town with walls could not be carried out . Nonetheless , by the 1350s , Southampton had mounted mangonel and springald siege engines on the existing walls .
In 1360 the king conducted an inquiry into Southampton 's defences and in 1363 he established a wider commission to examine how best to improve them . The commission came to a number of conclusions : the town walls should be better maintained and kept clear of housing and other obstructions ; the number of gateways in the walls should be reduced ; and a water @-@ filled ditch should be built to further reinforce the walls on the west . The enquiry also concluded that the outer doors and ground floor windows of properties facing the sea should be filled in to form a more defensible line .
The resulting work on Southampton 's defences resulted in considerable improvements : by the late 14th century , the town was completely encircled by 2 km ( 1 @.@ 25 miles ) of stone walls . Some existing buildings , including a dovecote , were reinforced and pressed into service as part of the defences . South Gate was built to protect the southern quays , with a wide archway , complete with parapets and machicolations . The building work proved very expensive , however , and despite the mayor and bailiffs enforcing contributions and assistance from the citizens , Parliament had to be asked several times in the 1370s to assist by remitting arrears of taxes owed by Southampton .
In 1370 the French made a successful attack on Portsmouth , commencing a new sequence of raids along the English coast . In due course first Edward , then Richard II , responded by improving the defences in the south of England . Part of this involved improving the condition of Southampton Castle , where , owing in part to the theft of building materials , including stone and lead , by the citizens of the town , the defences were in a poor condition . Henry Yevele , who oversaw the improvements to the castle , probably also constructed the Arcades along the western walls in 1380 : this involved adopting the 1360 proposal to block up the properties along the western quay to form a solid wall , and adding three towers and gunports . Sir John Sondes and John Polymond were appointed by the king in 1386 to further improve the town walls , working with Sir John Arundel , the castle governor – Polymond and Arundel Towers were probably named after these men around this time .
One of the major changes from the 1370s onwards was the adaptation of the town walls to mount gunpowder weapons . At this time cannon were still unreliable , only capable of reaching relatively short ranges and required the construction of specialist gunports . Cannons fired stone cannonballs , which did relatively little damage to stronger stone walls , and so were primarily used in defence of fortifications rather than as an offensive weapon by besiegers . The first gunports in Britain were installed in the 1360s on the Isle of Wight , but Southampton was not far behind . Around 1378 to 1379 the ongoing French threat led to gunports for handguns being built into the western Arcade wall , and by 1382 the town bought its own gun . God 's House Tower was built to defend the southern quays around 1417 and the sluices that controlled the level of the town 's moats , and equipped with numerous gunports rooftop firing points , and by 1439 Catchcold tower had also been constructed , again designed to accommodate gunpowder weapons .
Another change in the 1370s was the formalisation of the process of guarding and maintaining the walls . During the invasion scare of 1377 , Edward instructed the mayor to review these processes ; it appears that the four wards of the town were surveyed , and each property was assigned a piece of the wall to maintain , varying according to the size of the property . For these purposes , the walls were measured out in units called loupes , or embrasures . The four wards were also responsible for the security and policing of the town .
= = = 15th – 16th centuries = = =
The threat of French attack continued throughout the 15th century . Instead of relying on murage grants , more funds for the town walls were directly granted by the king in 1400 , including an ongoing annual grant of £ 100 . Concerns increased significantly after the invasion scare of 1457 , when French troops successfully attacked the town of Sandwich on the south coast . Indeed , the guns on Southampton 's walls were fired at French raiding ships the same year . The walls continued to be maintained for the rest of the century , with £ 40 being allocated annually between 1478 and 1485 for this purpose . By contrast , the castle fell into a rapid decline and its inner bailey became used first as a rubbish tip , then for small @-@ scale agriculture .
Nonetheless , a report on the quality of the walls around 1460 noted that on the north and east sides of Southampton , the walls were still too thin to block a cannon shot or for a man to stand on them ; a wood and earth wall @-@ walk had been built behind the walls , but this was proving very expensive to maintain . This contemporary assessment of the weakness of the eastern walls has been confirmed by modern archaeological excavation – in places it was only 0 @.@ 76 m ( 2 @.@ 49 feet ) thick , compared to a typical thickness in other English town walls of around 1 m ( 3 @.@ 28 feet ) .
A survey in 1454 , undertaken against the background of another French invasion scare , shows that the 1377 system for maintaining the walls was still in operation . A town gunner had also been appointed by the 15th century , earning the highest salary of any local official and was responsible for maintaining the guns and manufacturing gunpowder . As late as the mid @-@ 16th century , additional improved rectangular gunports , similar to those on the Device Forts along the Channel , were added to the West Gate by the quays .
Several of the gatehouses played an important part in the administration of the town in the 15th century . South Gate formed the main administrative centre for the port during the period , housing the Clerk of the King 's Ships and collecting customs revenue . It was expanded in the 1430s and 1440s , but was in poor condition again by the 1480s , resulting in fresh construction work around the site . Bargate was partially used as a prison from the 15th century , in a similar fashion to many other towns . The first floor of the building had been used as the town 's guildhall from at least 1441 onwards , and the treasury was kept in one of the towers . Elaborate feasts were served there on special occasions .
= = = 17th – 20th centuries = = =
The town walls became less important for defence in the 17th century , although in 1633 , a footpath was built around the inside of the wall to help the watch and other law officers better pursue vagrants and criminals . The walls fared better than Southampton Castle , which was sold off to property speculators in 1618 , but they played no part in the English Civil War . Some of the masonry from the castle was reused to strengthen the town walls in 1650 during the Third English Civil War .
In the 18th century onwards the town walls were often adapted for new uses or simply demolished . As early as 1641 , the chapel above East Gate had been leased out to private tenants . By 1707 , part of God 's House tower was being used as a prison ; from 1786 it became the official town gaol . As the century progressed , East Gate was demolished in 1774 , South Gate was mostly demolished in 1803 and Biddles Gate shortly afterwards , along with large sections of adjacent wall .
As the 19th century progressed , the destruction and remodelling of the town walls continued . The upper stories of Polymond Tower were demolished in the 1820s , to be rebuilt by 1846 as a shorter , two @-@ storey tower . The remains of the South Gate were turned into a hotel . God 's House tower continued to be used as a gaol , but was criticised by inspectors . An 1823 report described it as an " old and very awkward " facility , containing around a dozen prisoners in damp conditions , and where it was hard to separate the male and female prisoners in an appropriate fashion . In 1855 its role as a gaol was concluded , and the building fell into disuse .
In other areas , civic improvements were attempted . In 1853 the " Forty Steps " were built down the side of the west walls to make access to the town easier . Parts of the Arcades were blocked up to prevent homeless people from sleeping under the arches and disturbing the neighbourhood . The Bargate ceased to be used as the guildhall in 1888 and was heavily restored by the town in what was felt to be a more consistent medieval style .
The urban growth of Southampton , as in many English walled towns and cities , put considerable pressure on the older fortifications . In 1898 to 1899 , for example , parts of the wall west of Biddles Gate , including a square tower , were demolished to create the Western Esplanade road . By the second half of the century , the Bargate and the surrounding walls were creating serious traffic congestion ; various options were considered to relieve this including demolition , but it was not until the 1930s that the decision was made to retain the gatehouse , but to destroy the walls on either side .
Some parts of the Southampton walls were used to mount searchlights and machineguns on during the Second World War ; the walls escaped damage , unlike many other areas of the medieval city . In the post @-@ war period the historic importance of the town walls was recognised and considerable conservation work has been conducted on the walls , including reversing the Victorian alterations to the Arcades . The town walls became seen as an important part of Southampton 's tourist industry ; health and safety concerns , however , prohibit tourists walking along most of the circuit . God 's House tower reopened in 1961 opened as Southampton 's Museum of Archaeology . Today the walls are protected as grade I listed buildings and as a scheduled monument .
= = Architecture = =
Around half the length of the 2 km ( 1 @.@ 25 @-@ mile ) long medieval town walls still survives in the 21st century , mainly on the north and west sides of Southampton , together with 13 of the 29 defensive towers and six out of the eight gates . The towers are a combination of circular and square designs , with many showing an " open @-@ gorged " design , similar to those built in North Wales , that could be isolated from the rest of the walls by removing small wooden bridges . In general the town walls at Southampton were poorly built in a somewhat chaotic fashion over several years . By contrast , the surviving gatehouses are sophisticated and well designed , probably as a result of their civic importance . Historians Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham describe the surviving walls as " extremely well preserved " and containing " unique survivals in a British context " .
In the south @-@ east corner of the walls is God 's House tower . This is architecturally important as it was one of the first urban buildings to be built to hold gunpowder artillery – in this respect , it closely resembles Cow Tower in Norwich . The tower was built alongside God 's House Gate and is three storeys high . The gunports designed for handcannon can be seen on the outside , and the roof was designed to hold larger cannon . Adjacent to the tower is God 's House Gate , a two @-@ storey building also equipped with a gun @-@ port .
Little remains of the eastern walls , but in the north @-@ east corner several towers still remain largely intact , including Polymond tower , a powerful drum tower largely reconstructed during the Victorian period . Further west is the Bargate ; this was originally a simple archway but was expanded with drum towers and arrow slits in the early 14th century , and then expanded again in the early 15th century with battlements and parapets , before being heavily restored in the 19th century . The Bargate remains an elaborate building , taking military symbolism and combining it with rich civic heraldry and decoration above the gateway .
At the north @-@ west corner of the walls stands Arundel tower , another large drum tower that originally overlooked a small cliff . South of this is Catchcold tower . Catchcold tower was designed to be defended with guns and has three gunports ; the need to support cannon leaves it much heavier in appearance than the other circular towers on the walls . The remains of machine gun mountings fitted to the tower in 1941 can still be seen . The Arcades form part of the surviving west walls and are a unique feature in England ; their closest architectural equivalent are in Rouen , France . The West Gate still stands three storeys high and was originally defended by two portcullises ; the windows on the west side of the gate are the original medieval designs . Along the south side of the walls one of the twin towers protecting the South Gate still stands , largely intact .
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= Peter 's Two Dads =
" Peter 's Two Dads " is the tenth episode of the fifth season of Family Guy . The episode originally aired on Fox on February 11 , 2007 . The plot follows Peter traveling to Ireland to find his biological father , after he accidentally kills his stepfather at his daughter 's birthday party . Meanwhile , Stewie undergoes a phase of selfishness , believing everything belongs to him . This results in Lois spanking him , which makes him realize he is a masochist . Also , Meg turns 17 in the episode .
The episode was written by Danny Smith and directed by Cyndi Tang , with Greg Lovell as co @-@ director . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 7 @.@ 97 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Dan Conroy , Phyllis Diller , Charles Durning and Fred Tatasciore . It was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics , for the episode 's song entitled " Drunken Irish Dad " , at the 59th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards .
= = Plot = =
Meg asks Lois and Peter if she can have a birthday party , preferably a teenager @-@ type party with a band playing at her house . Unfortunately , Peter and Lois don 't even know how old Meg is going to be . They have bought sixteen candles , but Meg overreacts when telling them that she is turning seventeen years old , and calls them jerks . Meg notices that her birthday party is kiddie @-@ type , with games such as Pin the Tail on the Donkey . At the party , Peter dresses up as " Pee Pants the Inebriated Hobo Clown " , " an adorable tramp who wears found clothing and eats out of your garbage can " . Peter then tells Meg that he got her a scarf for her birthday . Meg declines , while Peter then says he got her " a dozen scarves " which Peter then proceeds to regurgitate as one long scarf , as he has actually tied and swallowed them ( which Lois says he was not supposed to do ) . This causes him to cough and vomit . Peter hands Meg the long scarf from his tongue , but Meg refuses to hold it . Peter then urges Meg to hold them , and then asks if his long johns are tied to the end of them . When Meg says they are not , Peter then says " Oh , god " and regurgitates them as well , and then crouches in pain following the ordeal . Meg asks Lois if she can open her gifts , and Meg notices Stewie opening most of them . Peter gets drunk , and attempts to ride a unicycle down the steps , but falls off and crushes his father , Francis , who later dies in the hospital from the accident . Just before Francis dies , he calls Peter " a fat stinking drunk " .
Peter is disappointed since Francis did not care about him – so he gives up drinking and does crack instead . Brian notices this , and tells Peter that crack is not a good substitute for drinking . As a result , Peter sees a hypnotherapist , who helps him discover that Francis was not his biological father . When Peter goes to his mom , Thelma Griffin , about it , she reveals that she had an affair with Irish man named Mickey McFinnigan and that Mickey is Peter 's biological father .
Brian and Peter travel to a village in Ireland to find Mickey , who they discover is the town drunk . At first horrified , Peter finds out it is considered an honorable position in Ireland by the locals . Mickey refuses to believe that Peter is his son and mocks him . When Peter sees the ghosts of Yoda , Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi , Francis and Hayden Christensen , the first three call him a " fat stinking drunk " , Francis ' last words to Peter , which gives him an idea . In an attempt to persuade him , Peter challenges Mickey to a drinking contest , which Peter wins . During the contest , Peter and Mickey talk about American looks and diet in a drunk language . After the contest Mickey finally believes that Peter is his son , feeling that nobody but a member of his own family could beat him in something like a drinking contest . Although Peter 's excited to have formed a bond with his real father , Brian points out that while Francis may not have been Peter 's real father ( and obviously wasn 't the nicest person ever ) , he did raise Peter like he was his own son , showing that deep down , Francis really did love Peter . After Mickey says " So what ? " to Peter 's statement , " You knocked up my mom and never called her again . " Peter says " So what ? So let 's dance ! " . Peter , Mickey and the Irish crowd enter dancing and singing to " Drunken Irish Dad . " During the last few seconds of the dance , Mickey states that the Irish do not tan well .
= = = Subplot = = =
Lois spanks Stewie while going through his " it 's mine " phase , claiming everything in the house as his own . At first he is traumatized by the ordeal , but he soon comes to realize that he likes the adrenaline rush that he gets from them , and starts deliberately misbehaving in the hope that Lois will hurt him again , but fails yet realizing he has a problem .
= = Production = =
This episode marks the third appearance of Francis Griffin . As of now , episode writer and series co @-@ executive producer Danny Smith has written all Family Guy episodes to date to feature Francis when he was alive . Show creator Seth MacFarlane comments that the episode came together and played great from start to finish . Prior to the making of the episode , there had been several different ideas and disagreements for Peter 's father 's appearance . MacFarlane comments that he had always pictured Peter 's father to be a fat , drunk leprechaun . The negativity of Francis was becoming " dull to write for " , hence the storyline of Peter finding his biological father . MacFarlane also mentions not having ideas to write for Kevin , Joe Swanson 's son , who was mentioned in a later episode that he died in the war of Iraq ( Stew @-@ Roids ) . A deleted scene showed Peter pretending to quit drinking , but continuing quietly was one of several scenes that was removed from airing as it and the others were described by the producers to be " not going anywhere . "
The scene with Peter in the hypnotherapist 's office was censored from television , as Peter discusses his genitals and reproductive organs . When Peter comes to the realization that Francis is not his real father and when Stewie dreams about being tortured by Lois , a harp sound can be heard ; MacFarlane comments that even small things like that take a lot of work to produce . The alcohol bottles being pushed by the airplane that Peter and Brian are traveling on were animated by computer , as is the taxi driving along the street . On the DVD commentary , MacFarlane notes that the scene would not have looked good without computer aid . He said it makes the animations seem more realistic than without a computer . The two men circling each other for fifty years and waiting for the other to throw the first punch was not broadcast for television .
In addition to the regular cast , actor Dan Conroy , actress Phyllis Diller , actor Charles Durning , and voice actor Fred Tatasciore guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Alex Breckenridge , Chris Cox , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener made minor appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
Stewie draws a picture of David Tua on the wall to try to get Lois to hit him . It also mocks the main character 's decisions in Pet Sematary when Peter buried Francis ' body at the same cemetery to resurrect him , but decided against it after Francis , as a zombie , jumped out of the grave in a jump scare , remarking " Okay , maybe I 'll bury him in a regular cemetery . " Peter briefly transforms into Wonder Woman after discovering his biological father is not Francis : this is a reference to Wonder Woman , and although the show could not receive rights to reproduce the original music , the scene was still broadcast . Before Peter and Brian leave to Ireland , Meg tells Peter she loves him , in which he replies , " That 'll do pig , that 'll do " , which is a reference to the film Babe . When Francis showed up as a ghost along with Yoda and Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi , Hayden Christensen said " And I 'm Hayden Christensen " , as a reference to the ending of Return of the Jedi in the remastered DVD . The song Chris and Herbert sing at the party and up in a tree is " Friends and Lovers " by Gloria Loring and Carl Anderson .
= = Reception = =
In a significant decrease from the previous week , the episode was viewed in 7 @.@ 97 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also acquired a 2 @.@ 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , being slightly edged out by The Simpsons , while still winning over American Dad ! .
A reviewer from Boxxet commented that " when I checked the schedule and saw the title of this episode was ' Peter 's Two Dads ' , I was a little torn . First , the Peter @-@ centric episodes generally have a much higher chance of going off the rails , " following on to comment that " the episode that we did see still left me with something of a mixed reaction . " concluding with a positive comment that the episode " was well constructed . "
IGN 's Ahsan Haque noted that " despite a couple of underdeveloped plotlines and an overabundance of offensive and uncomfortable jokes , this week 's episode of Family Guy somehow manages to succeed with just enough truly hilarious moments and actual story elements . " MacFarlane has said that this is one of his favorite episodes , alongside " PTV " and " Road to Rhode Island . "
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= Black mamba =
The black mamba ( Dendroaspis polylepis ) is a large and extremely venomous snake endemic to parts of sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Specimens vary in color from grey to dark brown , but not black . Juvenile black mambas tend to be lighter in color than adults and darken with age . It is the longest species of venomous snake indigenous to the African continent ; mature specimens generally exceed 2 meters ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) and commonly attain 3 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Specimens of 4 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 5 meters ( 14 @.@ 1 to 14 @.@ 8 ft ) have been reported .
Although most mamba species are tree @-@ dwelling snakes , the black mamba is not generally arboreal , preferring lairs in terrestrial habitats in a range of terrains . These include savannah , woodlands , rocky slopes and in some regions dense forest . It is diurnal and chiefly an ambush predator , known to prey on hyrax , bushbabies and other small mammals as well as birds . It is also a pursuit predator ; in this it resembles some other long , speedy , highly @-@ venomous species with well @-@ developed vision . Over suitable surfaces it is possibly the speediest species of snake , capable of at least 11 km / h ( 6 @.@ 8 mph ) over short distances . Adult mambas have few natural predators .
In a threat display , the mamba usually opens its inky black mouth , spreads its narrow neck @-@ flap and sometimes hisses . It is capable of striking at considerable range and occasionally may deliver a series of bites in rapid succession . Its venom is primarily composed of potent neurotoxins which may cause fast onset of symptoms . Despite its reputation for being formidable and highly aggressive , like most snakes , it usually attempts to flee from humans unless threatened or cornered . Not being proximal to humans , bites from the black mamba are not frequent .
= = Taxonomy = =
The black mamba is the species Dendroaspis polylepis in the genus Dendroaspis of the family Elapidae . The first formal description was by Albert Günther in 1864 . Although it had been known previously to missionaries and residents by the name " mamba " . Which was already established in the vernacular , presumably borrowed from the Zulu language . In 1873 , Wilhelm Peters described two subspecies : the nominotypical D.polylepis polylepis and also D.polylepis antinorii . However , these are no longer held to be distinct . In 1896 , Boulenger combined the species ( Dendroaspis polylepis ) as a whole with the eastern green mamba ( Dendroaspis angusticeps ) , a lumping diagnosis that remained in force until 1946 , when FitzSimons split them into separate species again .
The generic name , Dendroaspis , derives from Ancient Greek dendro ( δένδρο ) , meaning " tree " , and aspis ( ασπίς ) , which is understood to mean " shield " , but also denotes " cobra " or simply " snake " , in particular " snake with hood ( shield ) " . Via Latin aspis , it is the source of the English word " asp " . In ancient texts , aspis or asp often referred to the Egyptian cobra ( Naja haje ) , in reference to its shield @-@ like hood . Thus , " Dendroaspis " literally means tree asp , reflecting the arboreal nature of most of the species within the genus .
The specific epithet polylepis is derived from the Ancient Greek poly meaning " many " and lepis meaning " scale " . It apparently refers to the scale count of this species , which is higher than some other species in the genus .
= = Description = =
Dendroaspis polylepis is a large , round @-@ bodied , slender , but powerful snake . It tapers smoothly towards the tail , but is of markedly more robust build than its distinctly gracile congeners Dendroaspis angusticeps and Dendroaspis viridis . The head is often said to be " coffin @-@ shaped " with a somewhat pronounced brow ridge and a medium @-@ sized eye . It is a highly proteroglyphous snake , with fangs up to 6 @.@ 5 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 26 in ) in length located at the front of the maxilla . The adult snake 's length ranges from 2 meters ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) to 3 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) routinely but , according to some sources , specimens have grown to lengths of 4 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 5 meters ( 14 @.@ 1 to 14 @.@ 8 ft ) . Black mambas weigh about 1 @.@ 6 kilograms ( 3 @.@ 5 lb ) on average . A specimen of 1 @.@ 41 meters ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) was found to have weighed 651 @.@ 7 g ( 1 @.@ 437 lb ) . Dendroaspis polylepis is the second longest venomous snake species , exceeded in length only by the king cobra .
In spite of its common name , the black mamba is not actually black ; in fact the interior of the snake 's mouth is its only conspicuously black feature . Specimens vary considerably in color ; some are olive @-@ brown to khaki , many are grey , and some individuals display dark mottling towards the posterior . Such mottling may appear in the form of oblique bars . The underbody is often pale yellow or cream colored and the eyes are dark brown to black with a silver or pale yellow corona surrounding the pupil . Juvenile snakes are lighter in color than adults , typically grey or olive green in appearance , and they darken with age .
The " black " mamba has been said to take its name from the color of the inside of its mouth , but this claim is an urban legend , a factoid that lacks objective or historical support . In particular , it was referred to as the " black mamba " decades before knowledge of the color of its oral mucosa was in common circulation . Common names for mambas are to be taken no more seriously than any other common names , and we find for example that attempts to impose the more logical common name " common mamba " for the " black mamba " , which after all is not black , have been abandoned in favor of applying " common mamba " to the Eastern green mamba , Dendroaspis angusticeps . In the mean time , since the late twentieth century , some authors have unquestioningly copied the claim that the name derived from the color of its open mouth .
= = = Scalation = = =
Like most Elapidae , the scales of the black mamba are smooth and flat , without keels . Most specimens feature 23 – 25 rows of scales , but rarely as few as 21 .
The head , body and tail scalation of the black mamba :
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The black mamba has a wide and fragmented range within sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Specifically , it has been observed in : north east Democratic Republic of the Congo , south western Sudan to Ethiopia , Eritrea , Somalia , Kenya , eastern Uganda , Tanzania , Burundi , Rwanda , southwards to Mozambique , Swaziland , Malawi , Zambia , Zimbabwe and Botswana to KwaZulu @-@ Natal in South Africa , and Namibia ; then north easterly through Angola to south eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo . The black mamba 's distribution contains gaps within the Central African Republic , Chad , Nigeria and Mali . These gaps may lead physicians to misidentify black mamba bites and administer an inappropriate antivenom .
The black mamba was also recorded in 1954 in West Africa , in the Dakar region of Senegal . However , this observation , and a subsequent observation that identified a second specimen in the region in 1956 , has not been confirmed and thus the snake 's distribution in this area is inconclusive . The black mamba is not commonly found at altitudes above 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) , although its distribution does reach 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) in Kenya and 1 @,@ 650 metres ( 5 @,@ 410 ft ) in Zambia .
The black mamba is primarily terrestrial , but occasionally arboreal , especially where it occurs in forest . Typically it inhabits neglected areas of scrub , termite mounds , abandoned burrows and rock crevices . It is adapted to terrain ranging from savannah and woodland to rocky slopes and dense forests . The black mamba prefers moderately dry environments such as light woodland and scrub , rocky outcrops , and semi @-@ arid dry savannah , to dense forest or arid desert .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
The black mamba is graceful but skittish and often unpredictable . It is agile and can move quickly . It is shy and secretive by nature and , like most snakes , avoids threats . In the wild , a black mamba seldom tolerates humans approaching more closely than about 40 meters . When confronted it can display great truculence and is likely to gape in a threat display , exposing its black mouth and flicking its tongue . It also is likely to form a hood by spreading its neck @-@ flap as cobras do . The mamba 's hood however , is narrower than that of a typical cobra . The threat display may be accompanied by audible hissing .
During the threat display , any sudden movement by the intruder may provoke the mamba into a series of rapid strikes leading to severe envenomation . Also , the size of the black mamba , plus its ability to raise its head well off the ground , enable it to launch as much as 40 % of its body length upwards , so that mamba bites in humans quite often are on the upper body , and correspondingly are likely to be difficult to treat . This behaviour also permits the snake to land a strike at unexpectedly long range . The black mamba 's reputed readiness to attack is often much exaggerated and usually is provoked by perceived threats , such as blocking its intended retreat , accidentally or otherwise .
= = = Speed = = =
For its slender body , the black mamba is deceptively powerful ; it is the fastest moving snake indigenous to Africa , and perhaps the fastest anywhere . It does however , move rather clumsily over soft sand , a surface to which it is not adapted . There have been many unrealistic stories concerning the black mamba 's speed , perhaps partly because the slender body exaggerates the impression of speed . These stories include the myth that it can outrun a galloping horse or a running human . On 23 April 1906 , on the Serengeti Plains , an intentionally provoked black mamba was recorded at a speed of 11 km / h ( 6 @.@ 8 mph ) , over a distance of 43 m ( 141 ft ) . A black mamba would almost certainly not be able to exceed 16 km / h ( 9 @.@ 9 mph ) , and like most reptiles it can maintain such relatively high speeds only for short distances .
= = = Diet = = =
The black mamba is diurnal and chiefly an ambush predator , though it has been recorded as hunting partly by pursuit , such as catching pigeons at a watering hole before they can gain sufficient height to escape . It usually goes hunting from a permanent lair , to which it will regularly return to providing that the hunting is good and it is not disturbed . It hunts mainly by sight and in doing so it commonly will raise much of its length well off the ground . The black mamba does not typically hold onto prey after biting , instead releasing its quarry and waiting for it to succumb to paralysis and die . This however depends on the type of prey ; for example , it typically will hold onto a bird till it stops struggling to escape . If prey attempts to escape or defend itself , the black mamba often may follow up its initial bite with a rapid series of strikes to incapacitate and quickly kill its prey . The snake has been known to prey on hyrax and rock hyrax , bushbabies , and bats . The black mamba has a potent digestive system and has been observed to digest prey fully within eight to ten hours .
= = = Predators = = =
Not many predators challenge an adult black mamba although it does face a few threats such as birds of prey , particularly snake eagles . Although all species of snake eagle commonly prey on snakes , there are two species in particular that do so with high frequency , including preying on black mambas . These are the black @-@ chested snake eagle ( Circaetus pectoralis ) and the brown snake eagle ( Circaetus cinereus ) . The Cape file snake ( Mehelya capensis ) , which is apparently immune to all African snake venoms and preys on other snakes including venomous ones , is a common predator of black mambas ( limited only by the size it can swallow ) . Mongooses which also are partially immune to venom , and are often quick enough to evade a bite , will sometimes tackle a black mamba for prey . Humans do not usually consume black mambas , but they often kill them out of fear .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Black mambas breed annually and mating occurs in the early spring , when male mambas locate a female by following her scent trail . After finding a potential mate the male will inspect the female by flicking his tongue over her entire body . As in other species of snakes and many other reptiles , fertilization is internal and the intromittent organs of the males are in the form of hemipenes . Females lay clutches of eggs with an incubation period of some 80 to 90 days . Like most snakes female mambas are both oviparous and iteroparous . Egg @-@ laying typically occurs during the middle of summer and egg clutches range from 6 to 17 eggs .
During the mating season rival males may compete by wrestling , not by biting . Opponents attempt to subdue each other by intertwining their bodies and raising their heads high off the ground . Observers have on occasion mistaken such wrestling for mating .
Black mambas are generally solitary , but not strictly so ; as a rule they interact very little except in male rivalry during the mating season . However , black mambas are well known to share retreats occasionally , either with other mambas , or sometimes with other species of snakes .
In hatching , mambas break though the egg shell with an egg tooth and are born with fully developed venom glands ; capable of inflicting a potentially lethal bite minutes after birth . The body of the newly hatched snake contains the residues of the egg yolk , and assimilates them to sustain the young snake until it finds its first prey .
= = = Lifespan = = =
There is little information available concerning the lifespan of wild black mambas , but the longest surviving captive example had a recorded lifespan of 11 years . It is possible that wild snakes may live significantly longer than this .
= = Venom = =
The venom of the black mamba is extremely toxic , commonly causing collapse in humans within 45 minutes or less from a single bite . Without effective antivenom therapy , death typically occurs in 7 – 15 hours . The venom is chiefly composed of neurotoxins , specifically dendrotoxin . The black mamba is capable of striking at considerable range and occasionally may deliver a series of bites in rapid succession . Despite its reputation for being highly aggressive , like most snakes , it usually attempts to flee from humans unless threatened or cornered .
The black mamba 's venom is composed of neurotoxins ( dendrotoxin ) and cardiotoxins as well as other toxins such as fasciculins . In an experiment , the most abundant toxin found in black mamba venom was observed to be able to kill a mouse in as little as 4 @.@ 5 minutes . Based on the murine median lethal dose ( LD50 ) values , the black mamba 's toxicity from all published sources is as follows :
( SC ) subcutaneous ( most applicable to real bites ) : 0 @.@ 32 mg / kg , 0 @.@ 28 mg / kg .
( IV ) intravenous : 0 @.@ 25 mg / kg , 0 @.@ 011 mg / kg .
( IP ) intraperitoneal : 0 @.@ 30 mg / kg ( average ) , 0 @.@ 941 mg / kg . 0 @.@ 05 mg / kg ( the last quote doesn 't make it clear if is either intravenous or intraperitoneal ) .
Its bites can deliver about 100 – 120 mg of venom on average and the maximum dose recorded is 400 mg . It is reported that before antivenom was widely available , the mortality rate from a bite was nearly 100 % . The bite of a black mamba can potentially cause collapse in humans within 45 minutes , or less . Without effective antivenom therapy , death typically occurs in 7 – 15 hours . Presently , there is a polyvalent antivenom produced by the South African Institute for Medical Research to treat black mamba bites from many localities .
A bite from a black mamba causes initial neurological and neuromuscular symptoms which may commonly include headache and a metallic taste in the mouth , which may be accompanied by a triad of paresthesias , profuse perspiration and salivation . Other symptoms may include ptosis and gradual bulbar palsy . Localised pain or numbness around the bite site is common but not typically severe ; therefore , application of a tourniquet proximal to the bite site is feasible and may assist in slowing the onset of prominent neurotoxicity . Without appropriate treatment , symptoms typically progress to more severe reactions such as tachydysrhythmias and neurogenic shock , leading to death by asphyxiation , cardiovascular collapse , or respiratory failure .
= = Attacks on humans = =
The black mamba is popularly regarded as the most dangerous and feared snake in Africa ; to South African locals the black mamba 's bite is known as the " kiss of death " . However , attacks on humans by black mambas are rare , as they usually try to avoid confrontation , and their occurrence in highly populated areas is not very common compared with some other species . Additionally , the ocellated carpet viper is responsible for more human fatalities due to snakebite than all other African species combined . A survey of snakebites in South Africa from 1957 to 1963 recorded over 900 venomous snakebites , but only seven of these were confirmed black mamba bites , at a time when effective antivenom was not widely available . Out of more than 900 bites , only 21 ended in fatalities , including all seven black mamba bites .
= = = Reported bite cases = = =
In 1998 , Danie Pienaar , now head of South African National Parks Scientific Services , survived the bite of a black mamba without antivenom . Although no antivenom was administered , Pienaar was in serious condition , despite the fact the hospital physicians declared it a " moderate " black mamba envenomation . At one point , Pienaar lapsed into a coma and his prognosis was declared " poor " . Upon arrival at hospital Pienaar was immediately intubated , given supportive drug therapy , put on mechanical ventilation and was placed on life support for three days , until the toxins were flushed out of his system . He was released from hospital on the fifth day . Pienaar believes he survived for a number of reasons . In an article in Kruger Park Times he said : " Firstly , it was not my time to go . " The article went on to state , " The fact that he stayed calmed and moved slowly definitely helped . The tourniquet was also essential . "
In another case , 28 @-@ year @-@ old British student Nathan Layton was bitten by a black mamba and died of a heart attack in less than an hour in March 2008 . The black mamba had been found near a classroom at the Southern African Wildlife College in Hoedspruit , where Layton was training to be a safari guide . Layton was bitten by the snake on his index finger while it was being put into a jar , but he didn 't realize he 'd been bitten . He thought the snake had only brushed his hand . Approximately 30 minutes after being bitten Layton complained of blurred vision . He collapsed and died of a heart attack , nearly an hour after being bitten . Attempts to revive him failed , and he was pronounced dead at the scene .
In 2013 , in a rare case of survival without treatment , American professional photographer Mark Laita was bitten on the leg by a black mamba during a photo @-@ shoot of a black mamba at a facility in Central America . The bite ruptured an artery in his calf , and he was gushing blood profusely . Laita did not go to the doctor or the hospital , and except for the swollen fang marks giving him intense pain during the night , he was not affected and was fine physically . This led him to believe that the snake either gave him a " dry bite " ( meaning without injecting venom ) or that the heavy bleeding pushed the venom out . Some commenters to the story suggested that it was a venomoid snake ( in which the venom glands are surgically removed ) . Laita responded that it was not the case . Only later , Laita found that he had captured the snake biting his leg in a photograph .
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= Civil War token =
Civil War tokens are token coins that were privately minted and distributed in the United States between 1861 and 1864 . They were used mainly in the Northeast and Midwest . The widespread use of the tokens was a result of the scarcity of government @-@ issued cents during the Civil War .
Civil War tokens became illegal after the United States Congress passed a law on April 22 , 1864 prohibiting the issue of any one or two @-@ cent coins , tokens or devices for use as currency . On June 8 , 1864 an additional law was passed that forbade all private coinage .
Civil War tokens are divided into three types — store cards , patriotic tokens , and sutler tokens . All three types were utilized as currency , and are differentiated by their designs . The collectible value of the tokens is determined chiefly by their rarity .
= = History = =
By 1862 , the second year of the Civil War , government @-@ issued coinage began vanishing from circulation . American citizens hoarded all coins with gold and silver , and eventually began hoarding copper @-@ nickel cents as well . This made it extremely difficult for businesses to conduct transactions . In response , many merchants turned to private minters to fill the void left by the hoarded coins . The first of these privately minted tokens appeared in the autumn of 1862 , by H. A. Ratterman , in Cincinnati , Ohio . New York issues followed in the spring of 1863 , first with Lindenmueller currency store card tokens issued by New York barkeep Gustavus Lindenmueller and then with Knickerbocker currency patriotic tokens issued by William H. Bridgens . It is estimated that by 1864 , there were 25 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Civil War tokens ( nearly all redeemable for one cent ) in circulation , consisting of approximately 7 @,@ 000 – 8 @,@ 000 varieties .
Lindenmueller currency , or " Lindenmueller tokens , " are one of the best @-@ known and commonly struck types were store cards . Lindenmueller had more than one million of his one @-@ cent tokens struck and placed into circulation in 1863 . One of the common uses for the token was for streetcar fare . The Third Avenue Railroad company of New York , which had willingly accepted a large quantity of the Lindenmueller tokens in lieu of actual currency , asked Lindenmueller to redeem them . He refused , and the railroad had no legal recourse . Incidents such as these eventually forced the government to intervene .
On April 22 , 1864 , Congress enacted the Coinage Act of 1864 . While the act is most remembered for the introduction of the phrase " In God We Trust " on the newly created two @-@ cent piece , it also effectively ended the usage of Civil War tokens . In addition to authorizing the minting of the two @-@ cent piece , the act changed the composition of the one @-@ cent piece from a copper @-@ nickel alloy ( weighing 4 @.@ 67 grams ) to a lighter , less thick piece composed of 95 % copper ( weighing 3 @.@ 11 grams ) . The new one @-@ cent piece was much closer in weight to the Civil War tokens , and found greater acceptance among the public .
While the Coinage Act made Civil War tokens impractical , the issue of their legality was decided on June 8 , 1864 , when Congress enacted 18 U.S.C. § 486 , which made the minting and usage of non @-@ government issued coins punishable by a fine of up to $ 2 @,@ 000 , a prison term of up to five years , or both . ( Chapter 25 of Title 18 deals specifically with counterfeit and forgery ) . It did not make it illegal to own Civil War tokens , however , and evidence exists that the tokens were viewed as collectibles as early as 1863 , when the first known listings of Civil War tokens were published .
= = Types = =
= = = Patriotic tokens = = =
Patriotic Civil War tokens typically displayed a patriotic slogan or image on one or both sides . Since the majority of these tokens were minted in Union states , the slogans and images were decidedly pro @-@ Union . Some common examples of slogans found on patriotic tokens are " The Union Must and Shall Be Preserved , " " Union For Ever , " and " Old Glory " . Some of the images found on patriotic tokens were the flag of the United States , a 19th @-@ century cannon , and the USS Monitor .
Among the best @-@ known varieties of patriotic tokens are the so @-@ called " Dix tokens . " They are named for John Adams Dix , who served as Secretary of the Treasury in 1861 . In a letter from Dix to a revenue cutter captain , Lieutenant Caldwell , he orders Caldwell to relieve another cutter captain of his command for refusing an order to transfer from New Orleans to New York . The letter ends with the following sentence : " If any one attempts to haul down the American flag , shoot him on the spot . " The quote found its way to a number of patriotic tokens , albeit with a slightly modified wording ( " haul down " is usually replaced by " tear it down " ) .
= = = Store cards = = =
Civil War store cards differ from patriotic tokens in that one or both sides displays the name and / or location of a privately owned business . Businesses that could afford it had two custom dies made , with both advertising the business . Otherwise , only one side displayed the business 's information .
= = = Sutler tokens = = =
Sutler tokens are similar to store cards . Rather than listing the name of a private business , however , these tokens bore the name of a particular army unit ( usually a regiment ) and the name of the sutler who conducted transactions with the regiment . Of the three types of Civil War tokens , sutler tokens are by far the rarest .
= = Collectible value = =
There are several factors that determine the collectible value of Civil War tokens . The main factor is rarity , which is measured on a scale from 1 to 10 ( 1 being the most common type ) . The scale was developed by noted numismatic dealer and writer George Fuld .
The material used to mint Civil War tokens can also affect collectibility . Civil war tokens were minted using a variety of materials , copper being a common choice ( often actually bronze ) . Other materials used for minting were nickel , tin , German silver , white metal , and silver . Examples of tokens minted using rubber are also known to exist .
= = = Fuld rarity scale = = =
R @-@ 1 : Greater than 5 @,@ 000
R @-@ 2 : Between 2 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000
R @-@ 3 : Between 500 and 2 @,@ 000
R @-@ 4 : Between 200 and 500
R @-@ 5 : Between 76 and 200
R @-@ 6 : Between 21 and 75
R @-@ 7 : Between 11 and 20
R @-@ 8 : Between 5 and 10
R @-@ 9 : Between 2 and 4
R @-@ 10 : Unique ( one known example )
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= Gulf Oil =
Gulf Oil was a major global oil company from the 1900s to the 1980s . The eighth @-@ largest American manufacturing company in 1941 and the ninth @-@ largest in 1979 , Gulf Oil was one of the so @-@ called Seven Sisters oil companies . Prior to its merger with Standard Oil of California , Gulf was one of the chief instruments of the Mellon family fortune ; both Gulf and Mellon Financial had their headquarters in Pittsburgh .
Gulf 's former headquarters , originally referred to as " the Gulf Building " ( now the Gulf Tower office condos ) , is an art @-@ deco skyscraper . The tallest building in Pittsburgh until 1970 , when it was eclipsed by the U.S. Steel Tower , it is capped by a step pyramid structure several stories high . Until the late 1970s , the entire top was illuminated , changing color with changes in barometric pressure to provide a weather indicator that could be seen for many miles .
Gulf Oil Corporation ( GOC ) ceased to exist as an independent company in 1985 , when it merged with Standard Oil of California ( SOCAL ) , with both re @-@ branding as Chevron in the United States . Gulf Canada , Gulf 's main Canadian subsidiary , was sold the same year with retail outlets to Ultramar and Petro Canada and what became Gulf Canada Resources to Olympia & York . However , the Gulf brand name and a number of the constituent business divisions of GOC survived . Gulf has experienced a significant revival since 1990 , emerging as a flexible network of allied business interests based on partnerships , franchises and agencies .
Gulf , in its present incarnation , is a " new economy " business . It employs very few people directly and its assets are mainly in the form of intellectual property : brands , product specifications and scientific expertise . The rights to the brand in the United States are owned by Gulf Oil Limited Partnership ( GOLC ) , which operates over 2 @,@ 100 service stations and several petroleum terminals ; it is headquartered in Framingham , Massachusetts . The corporate vehicle at the center of the Gulf network outside the United States , Spain and Portugal is Gulf Oil International , a company owned by the Hinduja Group . The company 's focus is primarily in the provision of downstream products and services to a mass market through joint ventures , strategic alliances , licensing agreements , and distribution arrangements . Gulf Oil International has its head office in the City of Westminster , London .
= = History = =
= = = 1901 – 82 = = =
The business that became Gulf Oil started in 1901 with the discovery of oil at Spindletop near Beaumont , Texas . A group of investors came together to promote the development of a modern refinery at nearby Port Arthur to process the oil . The largest investor was William Larimer Mellon of the Pittsburgh Mellon banking family . Other investors included many of Mellon 's Pennsylvania clients as well as some Texas wildcatters . Mellon Bank and Gulf Oil remained closely associated thereafter . The Gulf Oil Corporation itself was formed in 1907 through the amalgamation of a number of oil businesses , principally the J.M. Guffey Petroleum and Gulf Refining companies of Texas . The name of the company refers to the Gulf of Mexico where Beaumont lies .
Output from Spindletop peaked at around 100 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 16 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) just after it was discovered and then started to decline . Later discoveries made 1927 the peak year of Spindletop production , but Spindletop 's early decline forced Gulf to seek alternative sources of supply to sustain its substantial investment in refining capacity . This was achieved by constructing the 400 @-@ mile ( 640 @-@ km ) Glenn Pool pipeline connecting oilfields in Oklahoma with Gulf 's refinery at Port Arthur . The pipeline opened in September 1907 . Gulf later built a network of pipelines and refineries in the eastern and southern United States , requiring heavy capital investment . Thus , Gulf Oil provided Mellon Bank with a secure vehicle for investing in the oil sector .
Gulf promoted the concept of branded product sales by selling gasoline in containers and from pumps marked with a distinctive orange disc logo . A customer buying Gulf @-@ branded gasoline could be assured of its quality and consistent standard . ( In the early 20th century , non @-@ branded gasoline in the United States was often contaminated or of unreliable quality ) .
Gulf Oil grew steadily in the inter @-@ war years , with its activities mainly confined to the United States . The company was characterized by its vertically integrated business activities , and was active across the whole spectrum of the oil industry : exploration , production , transport , refining and marketing . It also involved itself in associated industries such as petrochemicals and automobile component manufacturing . It introduced significant commercial and technical innovations , including the first drive @-@ in service station ( 1913 ) , complimentary road maps , drilling over water at Ferry Lake , and the catalytic cracking refining process ( Gulf installed the world 's first commercial catalytic cracking unit at its Port Arthur , Texas , refinery complex in 1951 ) . Gulf also established the model for the integrated , international " oil major , " which refers to one of a group of very large companies that assumed influential and sensitive positions in the countries in which they operated .
In Colombia , Gulf purchased the Barco oil concession in 1926 . The government of Colombia revoked the concession the same year , but after much negotiation Gulf won it back in 1931 . However , during a period of over @-@ capacity , Gulf was more interested in holding the reserve than developing it . In 1936 Gulf sold Barco to the Texas Corporation , now Texaco .
Gulf had extensive exploration and production operations in the Gulf of Mexico , Canada , and Kuwait . The company played a major role in the early development of oil production in Kuwait , and through the 1950s and ' 60s apparently enjoyed a " special relationship " with the Kuwaiti government . This special relationship attracted unfavourable attention since it was associated with " political contributions " ( see below ) and support for anti @-@ democratic politics , as evidenced by papers taken from the body of a Gulf executive killed in the crash of a TWA aircraft at Cairo in 1950 .
In 1934 , the Kuwait Oil Company ( KOC ) was formed as a joint venture by British Petroleum and Gulf . Both British Petroleum and Gulf held equal shares in the venture . KOC pioneered the exploration for oil in Kuwait during the late 1930s . Oil was discovered at Burgan in 1938 but it was not until 1946 that the first crude oil was shipped . Oil production started from Rawdhatain in 1955 and Minagish in 1959 . KOC started gas production in 1964 . It was the cheap oil and gas being shipped from Kuwait that formed the economic basis for Gulf 's diverse petroleum sector operations in Europe , the Mediterranean , Africa , and the Indian subcontinent . These last operations were coordinated by Gulf Oil Company , Eastern Hemisphere Ltd ( GOCEH ) from their offices at 2 Portman Street in London W1 .
Gulf expanded on a worldwide basis from the end of the Second World War . The company leveraged its international drilling experience to other areas of the world , and by mid @-@ 1943 had established a presence in the oil fields of Venezuela as Mene Grande Oil Company . Much of the company 's retail sales expansion was through the acquisition of privately owned chains of filling stations in various countries , allowing Gulf outlets to sell product ( sometimes through ' matching ' arrangements ) from the oil that it was " lifting " in Canada , the Gulf of Mexico , Kuwait , and Venezuela . Some of these acquisitions were to prove less than resilient in the face of economic and political developments from the 1970s on . Gulf invested heavily in product technology and developed many speciality products , particularly for application in the maritime and aviation engineering sectors . It was particularly noted for its range of lubricants and greases .
Gulf Oil reached the peak of its development around 1970 . In that year , the company processed 1 @.@ 3 million barrels ( 210 @,@ 000 m3 ) of crude daily , held assets worth $ 6 @.@ 5 billion ( $ 39 @.@ 61 billion today ) , employed 58 @,@ 000 employees worldwide , and was owned by 163 @,@ 000 shareholders . In addition to its petroleum marketing interests , Gulf was a major producer of petrochemicals , plastics , and agricultural chemicals . Through its subsidiary , Gulf General Atomic Inc . , it was also active in the nuclear energy sector . Gulf abandoned its involvement in the nuclear sector after a failed deal to build atomic power plants in Romania in the mid @-@ 1970s .
In 1974 , the Kuwait National Assembly took a 60 percent stake in the equity of KOC with the remaining 40 percent divided equally between BP and Gulf . The Kuwaitis took over the rest of the equity in 1975 , giving them full ownership of KOC . This meant that Gulf ( EH ) had to start supplying its downstream operations in Europe with crude bought on the world market at commercial prices . The whole GOC ( EH ) edifice now became highly marginal in an economic sense . Many of the marketing companies that Gulf had established in Europe were never truly viable on a stand @-@ alone basis .
Gulf was at the forefront of various projects in the late 1960s intended to adjust the world oil industry to developments of the time including closure of the Suez Canal after the 1967 war . In particular , Gulf undertook the construction of deep water terminals at Bantry Bay in Ireland and Okinawa in Japan capable of handling Ultra Large Crude Carrier ( ULCC ) vessels serving the European and Asian markets respectively . In 1968 , the Universe Ireland was added to Gulf 's tanker fleet . At 312 @,@ 000 long tons deadweight ( DWT ) , this was the largest vessel in the world and incapable of berthing at most normal ports .
Gulf also participated in a partnership with other majors , including Texaco , to build the Pembroke Catalytic Cracker refinery at Milford Haven and the associated Mainline Pipelines fuel distribution network . The eventual reopening of the Suez canal and upgrading of the older European oil terminals ( Europoort and Marchwood ) meant that the financial return from these projects was not all that had been hoped for . The Bantry terminal was devastated by the explosion of a Total tanker , the Betelgeuse , in January 1979 ( Whiddy Island Disaster ) and it was never fully reopened . The Irish government took over ownership of the terminal in 1986 and held its strategic oil reserve there .
In the 1970s , Gulf participated in the development of new oilfields in the UK North Sea and in Cabinda , although these were high @-@ cost operations that never compensated for the loss of Gulf 's interest in Kuwait . A mercenary army had to be raised to protect the oil installations in Cabinda during the Angolan civil war . The Angolan connection was another " special relationship " that attracted comment . In the late 1970s , Gulf was effectively funding a Soviet bloc regime in Africa while the US government was attempting to overthrow that regime by supporting the UNITA rebels led by Jonas Savimbi .
In 1975 , several senior Gulf executives , including chairman Bob Dorsey , were implicated in the making of illegal " political contributions " and were forced to step down from their positions . This loss of senior personnel at a critical time in Gulf 's fortunes may have had a bearing on the events that followed .
Gulf 's operations worldwide were struggling financially in the recession of the early 1980s , so Gulf 's management devised the " Big Jobber " strategic realignment in 1981 ( along with a program of selective divestments ) to maintain viability . The Big Jobber strategy recognized that the day of the integrated , multi @-@ national oil major might be over , since it involved concentrating on those parts of the supply chain where Gulf had a competitive advantage .
= = = Marketing and promotions = = =
In the late 1930s , Gulf 's aviation manager , Maj. Alford J. Williams , had the Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation construct two modified biplanes , cleaned @-@ up versions of the Grumman F3F Navy fighter , for promotional use by the company . Wearing Gulf Oil company colors and logos , the Grumman G @-@ 22 " Gulfhawk II " , registered NR1050 , was delivered in December 1936 , and in 1938 Maj. Williams flew it on a tour of Europe . A second scavenger pump and five drain lines were added to the engine installation that allowed the aircraft to be flown inverted for up to thirty minutes . This aircraft is now preserved in the National Air and Space Museum in Washington , D.C. A second airplane , the Grumman G @-@ 32 " Gulfhawk III " , registered NC1051 , was delivered on May 6 , 1938 . Impressed by the Army Air Force in November 1942 for use as a VIP transport and designated a UC @-@ 103 , it crashed in the southern Florida Everglades in early 1943 .
Gulf Oil was the primary sponsor for NBC News special events coverage in the 1960s , notably for coverage of the U.S. space program . The company used the connection to its advantage by offering giveaway or promotional items at its stations , including sticker sheets of space mission logos , a paper punch @-@ out lunar module model kit , and a book titled " We Came in Peace , " containing pictures of the Apollo 11 moon landing . Gulf was also a major sponsor of Walt Disney 's Wonderful World of Color , which also aired on NBC . Disney magazines and activity books were often given away with a gas fill @-@ up . Gulf was also noted for its " Tourgide " road maps .
One particularly memorable Gulf advertisement carried by NBC during their coverage of the Apollo missions showed aerial and onboard views of the Universe Ireland with Tommy Makem and the Clancy Brothers singing " Bringin ' Home the Oil " – a tribute to the opening of Gulf 's operations in Bantry Bay .
Gulf Oil was most synonymous for its association with auto racing , as it famously sponsored the John Wyer Automotive team in the 1960s and early ' 70s . The signature light blue and orange color scheme associated with its Ford GT40 and Porsche 917 is one of the most famous corporate racing colors and has been replicated by other racing teams sponsored by Gulf . Much of its popularity is attributed to the fact that in the 1971 film Le Mans , Steve McQueen 's character , Michael Delaney , drives for the Gulf team . As a result of McQueen 's increasing popularity following his death and the increasing popularity of the Heuer Monaco which he wore in the film , TAG Heuer released a limited edition of the watch with the Gulf logo and trademark color scheme . In the same era , Gulf Oil also sponsored Team McLaren during the Bruce McLaren days , which used a papaya orange color scheme with Gulf blue for lettering .
From 1963 to 1980 , Gulf Oil had a formal agreement with Holiday Inn , the world 's largest lodging chain , for which Holiday Inns in the U.S. and Canada would accept Gulf credit cards for food and lodging . In return , Gulf placed service stations on the premises of many Holiday Inn properties along major U.S. highways to provide one @-@ stop availability for gasoline , auto service , food and lodging . Many older Holiday Inns still have those original Gulf stations on their properties , some in operation and some closed , but few operate today as Gulf stations .
Gulf No @-@ Nox gasoline was promoted with a bucking horse leaving an imprint of two horseshoes . Several promotions centered on the two horseshoes . In 1966 bright orange 3 @-@ D plastic self @-@ adhesive horseshoes for car bumpers were given away . Another popular giveaway was during the 1968 election season , gold horseshoe lapel pins featuring either a Democratic donkey or a Republican elephant .
= = Demise = =
By 1980 , Gulf exhibited many of the characteristics of a giant corporation that had lost its way . It had a huge but poorly performing asset portfolio , associated with a depressed share price . The stock market value of Gulf started to drop below the break @-@ up value of its assets . Such a situation was bound to attract the interest of corporate raiders , although a corporation in the top 100 of the Fortune 500 was in the early 1980s thought immune to takeover risk .
Its undoing as an independent company began in 1982 when T. Boone Pickens , an Amarillo , Texas oilman and corporate raider ( or greenmailer ) , and owner of Mesa Petroleum , made an offer for the comparatively larger ( but still considered " non @-@ major " oil company ) Cities Service Company ( more generally known by the name Citgo ) from Tulsa , Oklahoma , which was then trading in the low 20s . Pickens first privately offered $ 45 a share for a friendly takeover and then later made a $ 50 a share public offer when Cities ' CEO rejected the friendly offer . Gulf forestalled Mesa 's takeover attempt by offering $ 63 a share in a friendly offer which Cities ( by then trading at $ 37 ) accepted . Cities then bought out Pickens for $ 55 a share . Once Pickens was gone , Gulf reneged on its buyout offer , supposedly over a dispute regarding accuracy of Cities Service 's reserves , and the stock price of Cities plunged , triggering stockholder lawsuits as well as distrust for Gulf 's management on Wall Street and among financing investment banks who bet big in assisting Gulf to defeat Mesa only to be left broke when Gulf backed out . Cities Service was ultimately sold to Occidental Petroleum , and the retail operations were resold to Southland Corporation , the operators of 7 @-@ Eleven stores . Gulf 's termination of the Cities Service acquisition resulted in more than 15 years of shareholder litigation against Gulf ( and later Chevron ) .
With declining margins in the industry and left without Citgo 's reserves , Mesa and its investor partners kept hunting for a takeover target , only to discover while fighting Gulf for Citgo how increasingly top @-@ heavy its portfolio and declining reserves were undervaluing its overall assets . They subtly but quickly acquired 4 @.@ 9 percent of Gulf Oil 's stock by early fall 1983 , just shy of having to declare themselves and their intent at 5 percent to the SEC . In the ten days allowed to prepare the SEC filing , Mesa and its investor partners accelerated buying to 11 percent of the company 's stock , larger than the founding Mellon family 's share , by October 1983 . Gulf responded to Mesa 's interest by calling a shareholders ' meeting for late November 1983 and subsequently engaged in a proxy war on changing the corporation 's by @-@ laws to minimize arbitrage . Pickens made loud criticisms of the existing Gulf management and offered an alternative business plan intended to release shareholder value through a royalty trust that management argued would " slim down " Gulf 's market share . Pickens had acquired the reputation of being a corporate raider whose skill lay in making profits out of bidding for companies but without actually acquiring them . During the early 1980s alone , he made failed bids for Cities Service , General American Oil , Gulf , Phillips Petroleum and Unocal . The process of making such bids would promote a frenzy of asset divestiture and debt reduction in the target companies . This is a standard defensive tactic calculated to boost the current share price , although possibly at the expense of long @-@ term strategic advantage . The target shares would rise sharply in price , at which point Pickens would dispose of his interest at a substantial profit .
Gulf management and directors took the view that the Mesa bid represented an undervaluation of the Gulf business as a long @-@ term going concern and that it was not in the interest of Gulf shareholders . James Lee , Gulf 's CEO and chairman , even claimed during the November 1983 shareholders meeting to address the Mesa ownership that Pickens ' royalty trust idea was nothing more than a " get @-@ rich @-@ quick scheme " that would undermine the corporation 's profit potential in the coming decades . Gulf , therefore , sought to resist Pickens by various means , including refiling as a Delaware corporation , voiding the ability of shareholders to cumulatively vote ( fearing that Pickens would use his shares to gain control of the board ) and listening to offers from Ashland Oil ( which would double Gulf 's price from its pre @-@ Mesa level ) , General Electric ( two years before it took over the media company NBC / RKO ) and finally Chevron to act as its white knight in late 1984 . Gulf divested many of its worldwide operating subsidiaries and then merged with Chevron by the spring of 1985 . The Mesa group of investors was reported to have made a profit of $ 760 million ( $ 1 @,@ 672 @.@ 1 million today ) when it assigned its Gulf shares to Chevron . Pickens has claimed that after realizing a more than doubling of stock appreciation for Gulf shareholders ( as well as its management that fought him at every turn ) , Mesa 's shares were the last to be paid out by Chevron .
The forced merger of Gulf and Chevron was controversial , with the U.S. Senate considering legislation to freeze oil industry mergers for a year — before the Reagan administration made it known it opposed government intervention in the matter and would veto any bill . However , Pickens and Lee ( Gulf 's CEO ) were summoned to testify before the Senate months before the merger was hammered out and the matter was referred to the Federal Trade Commission ( FTC ) . The FTC only approved the deal subject to strict conditions . Never before had a " small operator " successfully taken apart a Fortune 500 corporation , or in Gulf 's case a " Fortune 10 " corporation . The merger sent even deeper shock waves through the long @-@ time exclusive " Seven Sisters " club of major integrated oil companies that defined themselves as elevated from the " non @-@ major independents " . A board member of Exxon even admitted in the mid @-@ 1980s that " mostly all we talk about in board meetings anymore is T. Boone Pickens " . Chevron , to settle with the government antitrust requirements , sold some Gulf stations and a refinery in the eastern United States to British Petroleum ( BP ) and Cumberland Farms in 1985 as well as some of the international operations .
The effect on the Pittsburgh area was severe as close to 900 PhD and research jobs and 600 headquarters ( accounting , law , clerical ) jobs were transferred to California or cut , a payroll of $ 54 million ( $ 123 million today ) and corporate charity to 50 Western Pennsylvania organizations worth $ 2 million / year ( $ 4 @.@ 6 million / year today ) . These losses were mitigated some with the donation of Gulf Labs in suburban north Pittsburgh to the University of Pittsburgh to be used as a research business incubator along with $ 5 million ( $ 11 million today ) in maintenance and seed money . The " Gulf Labs " research complex consisted of 55 multi @-@ story buildings with 800 @,@ 000 square feet ( 74 @,@ 000 m2 ) on 85 acres ( 34 ha ) and including several chemical labs , petroleum production and refining areas and even a nuclear laboratory complete with reactor in 1985 and employed close to 2 @,@ 000 engineers and scientists operating with a $ 100 million budget ( $ 227 @.@ 8 million today ) from Gulf / Chevron . After its donation , it was renamed the University of Pittsburgh Applied Research Center or U @-@ PARC and opened to small technology , computer and engineering firms as well as graduate level research .
= = Aftermath = =
BP , Chevron , Cumberland Farms and other companies that acquired former Gulf operations continued to use the Gulf name through the early 1990s . This caused consumer confusion in the US retail market as the parent companies would not accept each other 's credit cards . All former Gulf stations franchised by BP and Chevron in the United States have since been converted to those names . Gulf Oil Limited Partnership ( GOLP ) , based in Framingham , Massachusetts , has bought a license for North American rights to the Gulf brand from Chevron . Chevron still owned the Gulf brand , but was making almost no direct use of it . In January 2010 , GOLP bought the entire brand from Chevron and began a nationwide expansion campaign . GOLP operates a distribution network reaching from Maine to Ohio . Most Gulf @-@ branded filling stations in North America are owned by Cumberland Farms of Framingham , which owns a two @-@ thirds interest in GOLP . In addition there are some independently owned franchises still operating under the Gulf brand within North America , such as the American Refining Group , which is licensed by Chevron to blend and distribute Gulf @-@ branded lubricants .
Gulf Oil International ( GOI ) : [ 1 ] owns the rights to the Gulf brand outside the United States , Spain & Portugal . It is now owned by the Hinduja Group . After they acquired a large share from the Taher family , a major Saudi Arabian family lead by Dr. Abdulhadi H. Taher ( former governor of the Saudi Petroleum and Mineral organization and board member of Aramco ) . GOI trades mainly in lubricants , oils , and greases . GOI is also involved in franchising the Gulf brand to operators in the petroleum and automotive sectors ; Gulf @-@ branded filling stations can be found in several countries including the UK , Belgium , Germany , Ireland , the Slovak & Czech Republics , the Netherlands , Jordan , Finland and Turkey . GOI has direct and indirect interests in a number of businesses that use the Gulf brand under license .
The Canadian exploration , production , and distribution arm of Gulf Oil was sold to Olympia and York in 1985 . From 1992 it continued as an independent oil company ( Gulf Canada Resources ) until its acquisition by Conoco in 2002 .
Most Gulf downstream operations in Europe were sold to the Kuwait Petroleum Corporation in early 1983 . The associated Gulf filling stations were converted to trade under the Q8 brand by 1988 . However , attempts to sell Gulf Oil ( Great Britain ) to KPC failed because of irrevocable GOC guarantees given earlier in regard to bonds issued to finance the construction of refinery facilities in the UK . GO ( GB ) was taken over by Chevron and its stations continued to use the Gulf brand name and insignia until 1997 when the network was sold to Shell , although by this stage a fairly large proportion of Gulf stations were supplied by jobbers rather than Gulf Oil ( GB ) . Gulf completely withdrew from the UK in 1997 . This represented the end of the last major " downstream " use of the Gulf brand by Chevron .
= = Revival = =
GOI and GOLP continue to sell Gulf @-@ branded lubricants worldwide through a network of official licensed companies , joint ventures and wholly owned subsidiary companies . Many of these official Gulf distributors carry out local marketing and sponsorship which help to raise the profile of the brand . Of these wholly owned subsidiaries Gulf Oil Corporation India has raised the market profile of the Gulf brand in the Middle East . GOCL have emerged as one of leading lubricants brands in India and run many marketing sponsorships targeted at the ever @-@ growing youth sector in the country .
GOI licenses the Gulf brand and logo in the UK to the Bayford group , one of the largest independent fuel distributors . Starting in 2001 , a new Gulf network of independent stations is slowly reappearing across the UK . At present , many of these stations are notable for offering genuine leaded four @-@ star petrol , for which Bayford has a special dispensation to sell . At the same time , Gulf Lubricants ( UK ) Ltd was set up to market Gulf products ( mostly manufactured by the Gulf Netherlands operation ) in the UK . This return by Gulf to the UK after a four @-@ year absence used the slogan " The Return of the Legend . " The post @-@ 2001 Gulf presence in the UK is a wholly network @-@ based operation . It involves almost no direct Gulf investment in fixed assets , corporate infrastructure , or manufacturing capability . This is a complete contrast to the pre @-@ 1997 presence .
In January 2010 , after using the name since 1986 , GOLP acquired all right , title and interest in the Gulf brand name in the United States and announced plans to expand the use of the Gulf brand beyond its parent company 's Northeastern United States base . Its promotions have included sponsorship of major sporting events in the area with advertisements for Gulf in New York City , Boston , Philadelphia , and Pittsburgh . To take one case as an illustrative example of the Gulf revival , after Texaco 's 2001 merger with Chevron , many former Texaco stations in Pittsburgh switched to Gulf since Chevron does not service the Greater Pittsburgh area . As a result , the Texaco brand name disappeared from the area in June 2004 when the nonexclusive rights agreement with Shell expired , with Shell itself expanding in the area by means other than Texaco but , on June 2006 Chevron gave exclusive rights to the Texaco brand name in the U.S. and sold some BP gas stations in the southeast which were Gulf gas stations . In New England , former Exxon stations have been rebranded as Gulf , in accordance with the consent decree that allowed the merger of Exxon and Mobil . Many of the former Exxon stations feature a rectangular logo that fit into the existing sign standards used by Exxon . Gulf refers to the look as its " sunrise " imaging .
The Gulf logo is still used around the world by various businesses . GOI uses it for their marketing activities to focus on the sponsorship of Le Mans race teams ( with the current team being Aston Martin Racing team ) This sponsorship is used across the world by Gulf distributors , alongside local activity demonstrating the GOI company ethos of " your local global brand " . In 2009 , the clothing store chain Old Navy began selling T @-@ shirts bearing the old Gulf logo , along with the former logos of Standard Oil and Chevron .
Between 1980 and 2000 , Gulf moved from being a monolithic , vertically integrated multinational corporation to being more of a network of allied business interests . This has given the entire Gulf enterprise a high degree of strategic and operational flexibility . It is a move that reflects fundamental change in the economics of international business .
Alliances represent yet another shift in the organization of economic transactions from organizational hierarchies to networks ; from mass to flexible production ; from large , vertically integrated organizations to disintegration and horizontal networks of economic units ; from " Fordist " to " post @-@ Fordist " companies .
In March 2016 Gulf MX Announced that will put their own Filling Stations in Mexico , its planned to begin operations on July of the Same Year to Compete with the Local company ( PEMEX ) ( as a Result of the Recent changes in the local laws in matter of Energy and Oil resources ) As said by Sergio De La Vega ( CEO of Gulf Mexico ) in order to improve a better service Gulf will make fidelity programs and dedicated Smartphone Apps. for customers ( improving fuel payment into the same , Fuel Administration and better experience with fidelity programs as another additional benefits benefits ) adding to modern Service Stations with more quality added services .
Adding to that , Gulf will offer franchises to the existing filling station owners to convert them into Gulf Trademark .
= = Case studies in current use of the Gulf brand = =
= = = Independent filling stations in the UK = = =
In 1970 , there were nearly 25 @,@ 000 filling stations in the UK , of which 10 @,@ 000 were ' independents ' ( typically , privately owned and supplied by a major or jobber while using a brand under license ) . By the end of 1999 , the number of filling stations had dropped to 13 @,@ 700 and to 9 @,@ 700 at the end of 2005 . In recent years , filling stations have been closing at a rate of 50 per month . Many of the smaller and independent stations have succumbed to competition from out @-@ of @-@ town supermarkets that undercut local enterprises through sheer volume of sales and shared overheads .
The Gulf brand in the UK is licensed by GOI to the Bayford group which specializes in operating service stations on minor trunk roads in rural areas . Bayford supplies about 185 Gulf @-@ branded filling stations in the UK , all of which are independently owned . The Gulf filling stations provide outlets for Gulf @-@ branded oils and lubricants .
The illustration shows a typical Bayford / Gulf filling station in the UK , still associated with a service garage , restaurant and retailing facilities . It is in an isolated location , five miles ( 8 km ) south of Wooler in the Cheviot Hills , catering to both local residents and passing tourist traffic . It is not vulnerable to competition from supermarkets and provides something of a local community center .
= = = Pennsylvania Turnpike = = =
For decades , Gulf operated filling stations on the Pennsylvania Turnpike toll highway system alongside the Howard Johnson 's restaurants at the Turnpike 's travel plazas ( which correspond to European motorway service areas ) . This began in 1950 with the opening of the Philadelphia Extension , and Gulf added more filling stations as the system was extended . The Standard Oil Company of Pennsylvania ( now part of Exxon ) had exclusive rights to provide filling station services on the sections of the system that opened prior to 1950 , principally the Irwin @-@ to @-@ Carlisle section .
In the 1980s , Sunoco was awarded the franchise to operate the filling stations at the Sideling Hill and now @-@ closed Hempfield travel plazas . This led to a bidding war among three of Pennsylvania 's most recognizable gasoline brands each time a travel plaza franchise came up for renewal .
Gulf had the opportunity to become the exclusive provider of filling stations at travel plazas along the Pennsylvania Turnpike after Exxon withdrew from the Turnpike in 1990 . Cumberland Farms ( owner of the Gulf brand in the northeastern U.S. ) was awarded a new contract with the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission , but the contract was sold to Sunoco two years later as part of the company 's bankruptcy proceedings . In June 1992 , all of the former Gulf filling stations on the Turnpike ( as with the Exxon ones before it ) converted to Sunoco . All of the travel plazas continue to sell Sunoco fuel today .
= = Gulf products = =
Most filling stations in Europe sell three types of fuel : unleaded , LRP , and diesel . Although these products lack any real brand differentiation , this has not always been the case . Until well into the 1970s , Gulf ( in common with other oil companies ) sold distinctive brands of petrol / gasoline including subregular Gulftane , Good Gulf regular , Gulf No @-@ Nox premium , and Gulf Super Unleaded ( aka Gulfcrest ) . Gulf petrol was sold using the slogans " Good Gulf Gasoline , " and " Gulf – the Gas with Guts . " Gulf service stations often supplied customers with pens and key rings bearing these slogans . For a few years , beginning in 1966 , Gulf stations in the U.S. gave away orange plastic " Extra Kick Horseshoes " to customers who filled their tanks with Gulf 's No @-@ Nox premium gasoline ( the novelty items were commonly mounted on bumpers ) .
GOI still produces and sells a wide range of branded oil based products including lubricants and greases of all kinds . These include products for a variety of applications ranging from metal working oils to refrigeration oils . Car engine oils include the Gulf Formula , Gulf MAX , and Gulf TEC ranges . Heavy duty diesel engine lubricants include the Gulf Supreme and Gulf Superfleet ranges .
In the Summer of 2013 , Gulf Oil licensed the " Gulf " name for racing fuels in a return to the American racing scene for the 2014 competition season . [ 2 ] The fuels were announced at the Performance Racing Industry Show in Indianapolis , Indiana in December 2013 . The racing fuels support the World Racing League and the Formula Atlantic Championship in the United States .
= = CEOs = =
S.A. Swensrud 1953 ?
Robert Rawls Dorsey 1969 ? -January 14 , 1976 ( resigned with 3 years on his contract )
Jerry McAfee January 14 , 1976 – December 1 , 1981
James E. Lee December 1 , 1981 – 1985
Sahibzada Muhammad Farooq Nizami December 21 , 2014 – present ( Yanbu , KSA )
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= ILoo =
The iLoo ( short for Internet loo ) was a cancelled Microsoft project to develop a Wi @-@ Fi Internet @-@ enabled portable toilet . The iLoo , which was to debut at British summer festivals , was described as being a portable toilet with wireless broadband Internet , an adjustable plasma screen , a membrane wireless keyboard , a six @-@ channel speaker system , and toilet paper embossed with popular web site addresses . The iLoo was also to have an extra screen and keyboard on the outside , and was to be guarded . It was intended as the next in a series of successful initiatives by MSN UK which sought to introduce the internet in unusual locations , including MSN Street , MSN Park Bench and MSN Deckchair .
The project was announced by MSN UK on April 30 , 2003 , and was widely ridiculed before being declared a hoax by Microsoft on May 12 . On May 13 , another Microsoft press release stated that although the project had not been a hoax , it had been cancelled because it would do little to promote the MSN brand . There has since been speculation as to whether the project was cancelled for fear of being sued by Andrew Cubitt , who had invented the similarly named product " i @-@ Loo " . The iLoo was described as a public relations " debacle " by Online Journalism Review .
= = Description = =
The iLoo was designed to be a Wi @-@ Fi Internet @-@ enabled portable toilet that would allow users to surf the internet while using the loo . Internally , the facility would have a broadband connection via wireless 802.11b , a wireless waterproof keyboard , a swivel plasma screen running Windows XP Professional , a 6 @-@ channel surround @-@ sound system beneath the sink , toilet paper embossed with popular URLs , and a suction toilet . Externally , the facility would feature an MSN logo and have a " Hotmail station " with an additional plasma screen and keyboard for waiting consumers . A security guard was to be stationed near the unit to ensure that it was being properly used and to prevent the unit from being stolen . The iLoo was to debut " at a majority of the summer season festivals " . The iLoo was to be deployed only in Britain .
= = Public relations timeline = =
The project was announced on April 30 , 2003 in press release by MSN UK , MSN 's British subsidiary , as part of a " series of MSN.co.uk initiatives which look at the changing nature of how we use the web as it constantly evolves " . The press release stated that :
The UK ’ s most popular website msn.co.uk is creating the world ’ s first ‘ Internet Loo ’ . The iLoo will be mobile and is part of MSN ’ s mission to allow instant logging on ‘ anytime and any place ’ . In time for the summer festival season , MSN is in the process of converting a portable loo to create a unique experience for surfers looking for an alternative to the bog @-@ standard festival loo experience . Users will be able to sit down , undock a wireless keyboard and conveniently access the first ever WWW.C.
The press release also stated that " MSN is also in talks with toilet paper manufacturers to produce special web paper for those in need of URL inspiration " .
News of the iLoo was widely circulated amongst mainstream media . The story became the most @-@ emailed story on Yahoo ! News on May 1 , 2003 , being emailed over 4000 times . The iLoo was widely derided and press coverage subjected MSN and Microsoft to heavy criticism . On May 10 , The Inquirer published a story in which Andrew Cubitt alleged that " Microsoft stole his iLoo idea " from his i @-@ Loo invention . On May 12 , Microsoft announced that the iLoo was a " hoax perpetrated by its British division " calling it an " April Fool 's joke " and issued an apology for the confusion . The Associated Press , however , stated that they had previously received confirmation of the project from two of Microsoft 's PR firms : Waggener Edstrom Worldwide and Red Consultancy . The Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer also stated that it received confirmation from Waggener Edstrom and was even provided with a schematic drawing . Furthermore , April Fools was almost a month before , and Microsoft had never before released a fake press release .
On May 13 , 2003 , Microsoft retracted the denial , stating that the iLoo had been a legitimate demonstration project that was to be released in Britain for summer music festivals , but had been terminated by Microsoft executives in Redmond , Washington who believed the iLoo was inappropriate with the final decision made by MSN senior vice president David Cole . MSN product manager Lisa Gurry stated that the project " didn 't really map to our global branding objectives " . Microsoft again apologized for the miscommunication stating " the confusion over the legitimacy of this effort was caused by people moving too quickly and who misspoke before gathering all of the relevant information " . Prior to the cancellation , an iLoo prototype was in the " early stages of construction " . MSN allows regional units to design their own marketing campaigns , and the UK division had developed a reputation for innovative campaigns , in this case involving British toilet humour . The iLoo which was designed for the UK as part of a " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek marketing initiative " was " intended to be the next in line of a number of clever initiatives in the UK involving introducing the internet in interesting locations , including MSN Street , MSN Park Bench and MSN Deckchair " . The previous initiatives were well received . Microsoft stated that no employees were disciplined as a result of the debacle , although the company stated that it would conduct " internal discussions " .
= = Reaction = =
Although the product was not publicly released , many questioned whether " Microsoft had lost its senses " and the product was widely derided . Critics contended that the product was a waste of money and doomed to fail . Concerns were raised about how the iLoo would serve to extend waiting lines , how hygienic it would be to share keyboards in a public loo , and what would happen if the keyboard were to be urinated upon . Critics also questioned whether users would spend enough time in the loo to make use of the internet facilities , noting that " most port @-@ a @-@ potty users stay only long enough to relieve themselves without having to inhale . "
The iLoo , given its toiletry @-@ related nature , subjected MSN and Microsoft to puns and jokes especially since Microsoft 's marketing slogan at the time was " where do you want to go today ? " with the PC being dubbed Pee @-@ C. The Herald Sun wrote that the " iLoo is , unquestionably , very good news – mainly to journalists with a bottomless pit of laboured bum jokes " while the Seattle Times wrote " now the company has a credibility problem as well as a red face . " Other newspapers issued humorous headlines : Microsoft technology headed for toilet from the San Francisco Chronicle , Toilet mixes zeroes with ones and twos from the Washington Post , and Microsoft 's Gone Potty from The Daily Mirror .
The product has since been studied as an example of a public relations disaster and an example of an internet hoax . Microsoft 's public relations response to the debacle is also considered to be one of the poorest in the company 's history , given Microsoft 's reputation for micro @-@ managing news releases , interviews and promotional events .
The iLoo 's negative publicity drowned out the launch of MSN Radio Plus on May 12 , 2003 . It has since inspired a number of spoofs .
= = i @-@ Loo controversy = =
After reading an article about the iLoo , Andrew Cubitt , inventor of the similarly named i @-@ Loo , wrote to The Inquirer stating that iLoo " sounds remarkably similar ... it now seems that the clever people at Microsoft have cottoned onto the idea and even call it the i @-@ Loo , the same as mine ! " Cubitt went on to say that " mine did everything that the Microsoft one is meant to do , but additionally printed information on toilet paper and didn 't use a keyboard for the interface due to hygiene reasons " . The i @-@ Loo was prototyped by Cubitt as part of his thesis for his 2001 university degree in Product Design and Engineering at Brunel University . In an interview with The Inquirer , he noted " As it was designed at the university , they own the partial rights to the product so they will be watching the Microsoft ' invention ' very closely . "
Microsoft never formally commented on Cubitt 's allegations and instead initially stated the iLoo was an April 's fool joke . As a result , Cubitt questioned whether this was " a very calculated ploy to destroy competition in its early stages , or is admitting they don 't even know what time of the month it is less embarrassing and ridding them of a potentially expensive situation ! " Cubitt went on to state that " as they have now discredited my idea as a joke , I will never be able to produce the idea " and as such was " consulting my law books now on defamatory statements " . Neither Cubitt , nor Brunel University have taken public legal action against Microsoft pertaining to the i @-@ Loo .
The i @-@ Loo was described as :
The i @-@ Loo internet toilet roll browser is a novel and unique product designed to make best use of the time you spend on the loo ! The product allows you to search the internet whilst sitting on the toilet and print out any web pages you are interested in on your toilet paper. i @-@ Loo brings a whole new meaning to the word downloading . The unit is fixed in front of a toilet on the cubical [ sic ] wall . The product provides up to date information about new products , daily news and lottery results through an easy to navigate software package . Normal operation of the toilet and paper dispenser is evident .
The i @-@ Loo internet toilet roll browser was featured at the 2003 Daily Mail Ideal Home Show as part of the Future Concepts exhibition in Earls Court , London , where it was nominated for the MFI Bright Sparks 2003 awards . The i @-@ Loo , which was sponsored by Epson Printers , received significant press coverage , and was featured on GMTV as well as various radio shows .
= = Annotations = =
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= William C. Chase =
Major General William Curtis Chase ( 9 March 1895 – 21 August 1986 ) was an American soldier and General in the first half of the 20th century . He is best known for his service in the South West Pacific Area during World War II and in the Occupation of Japan .
A graduate of Brown University , Chase enlisted in the Rhode Island National Guard in 1913 and served on the Mexican Border . Commissioned as a second lieutenant in the cavalry in January 1917 , he served on the Western Front in World War I and in the Occupation of the Rhineland . Between the wars , he attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth , later returning as an instructor .
Chase was promoted to Brigadier General in March 1943 on assuming command of the 1st Brigade , 1st Cavalry Division . He was chosen to lead the assault on the Admiralty Islands in February 1944 . He resisted the temptation to swiftly overrun the island , and thereby overextend his forces , and formed a defensive perimeter that made good use of the terrain . From this position , he was able to defeat a series of counterattacks by the numerically superior Japanese garrison .
In February 1945 , Chase 's columns pushed into the northern outskirts of Manila , liberating some 3 @,@ 700 internees at the University of Santo Tomas which had been turned into an internment camp . He took over command of the 38th Infantry Division , which was confronted by enemy fortifications at Zig @-@ Zag Pass on the Bataan Peninsula that took a week of hard fighting to reduce . Chase assumed command of the 1st Cavalry Division on 1 August 1945 . He remained with it in the Occupation of Japan until he returned to the United States in January 1949 . Later , he was chief of staff of the Third Army at Fort McPherson and head of the Military Assistance Advisory Group in Taiwan . Retiring from the Army , he earned a Master of Arts degree in history from Trinity University and taught political science at the University of Houston .
= = Education and early life = =
William Curtis Chase was born in Providence , Rhode Island , on 9 March 1896 , the son of William Beecher Chase and his wife , Doris Evelyn née Curtis . He attended Brown University , graduating with a Bachelor of Arts with a Phi Beta Kappa Society key in 1916 . While at Brown , Chase enlisted in Battery A , 1st Rhode Island Volunteer Artillery of the Rhode Island National Guard ( later Battery A , 103rd Field Artillery ) in 1913 .
= = World War I = =
On the afternoon of his graduation from Brown in 1916 , Chase , now a sergeant , joined A Battery at Quonset Point , Rhode Island , where it was mobilised for duty on the Mexican Border . The unit remained in the El Paso , Texas , area for a time , but saw no action . While there , Chase passed an examination for commissions in Regular Army . Chase was posted to Fort Leavenworth in January 1917 for a three month course for newly commissioned officers before being commissioned as a second lieutenant in the cavalry .
Chase was assigned to the 3rd Cavalry , then based at Fort Sam Houston . Shortly after the United States declared war on Germany , he was promoted to first lieutenant and posted to the 6th Cavalry on the Mexican frontier .
Chase attended a machine gun course at Fort Sill , after which he was posted to the 11th Machine Gun Battalion , part of the 4th Division , in April 1918 . He served on the Western Front with the 4th Division , participating in the Battle of Saint @-@ Mihiel , but came down with jaundice and missed all but the last days of the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive . He participated in the Occupation of the Rhineland before the 4th Division returned to the United States in July 1919 .
= = Inter @-@ war years = =
On return , Chase was posted to the 16th Cavalry , then in the Rio Grande Valley , although it soon returned to Fort Sam Houston . In 1921 he was posted to Michigan State College for duty with the Reserve Officers ' Training Corps . There he met Dorothea Marie Wetherbee . They were married in 1921 . They never had children .
Chase attended the United States Army Cavalry School and United States Army Infantry School , followed by duty with the 14th Cavalry at Fort Sheridan , Illinois , from 1927 to 1929 . He then attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth . From 1931 to 1934 he served overseas with the 26th Cavalry ( Philippine Scouts ) at Fort Stotsenburg in the Philippines . Returning to the United States , he was posted as an Instructor in Tactics , first at the Cavalry School at Fort Riley and then , from 1938 to 1940 , at the Command and General Staff College .
= = World War II = =
In 1941 Chase , now a lieutenant colonel , was posted to VIII Corps , then commanded by Major General Walter Krueger . As such , he participated in the Louisiana Maneuvers . In December 1941 , he was posted to the Amphibious Force , Atlantic Fleet , then under the command of Major General Holland Smith . Based at Marine Corps Base Quantico , the Amphibious Force practiced Amphibious warfare tactics on Chesapeake Bay .
In 1942 , Chase assumed command of the 113th Cavalry , an Iowa National Guard unit . Initially a horse @-@ mechanized unit , the 113th Cavalry soon became fully mechanized . It moved from its original station at Fort Clark , Texas , to Camp Bowie and then to Fort Hood , where it provided school troops for the Tank Destroyer Center .
Chase was promoted to Brigadier General in March 1943 on assuming command of the 1st Brigade , 1st Cavalry Division . The division was then stationed at Fort Bliss but was already preparing to move to the South West Pacific . The 1st Cavalry Division had therefore been dismounted , but the division and brigade commanders and their staffs were still on horseback . The 1st Cavalry Division staged at Camp Stoneman . Chase departed from San Francisco on 3 July on the transport USAT George Washington .
The 1st Cavalry Division arrived in Australia and continued its training at Strathpine , Queensland . Training there was more vigorous than at Fort Bliss , and Chase broke his heel bone in a training accident . In December 1943 , the 1st Cavalry Division sailed for Oro Bay , where it staged for its next operation , the Admiralty Islands campaign . Chase was chosen to lead the assault . Here , his tactical expertise came to the fore . He resisted the temptation to overrun the island of Los Negros , and thereby overextend his forces , and instead formed a defensive perimeter that made good use of the terrain . From this position , he was able to defeat a series of counterattacks by the numerically superior Japanese garrison . The crisis passed , Chase 's force was reinforced by the rest of the division , and the 1st Cavalry Division was then able to overrun the islands . Chase was awarded the Bronze Star for his role in the campaign .
The 1st Cavalry Division remained in the Admiralty Islands until October , when it boarded ships there for the invasion of Leyte , which it assaulted on 20 October 1944 . Chase 's 1st Brigade 's initial mission was to reconnoiter the hills on the west side of the Tacloban Valley and establish observation posts from which it could command the entrances to the valley . In November , he was ordered to cover the flank of X Corps ' advance up the Leyte Valley , and later into the Ormoc Valley . Chase had to move his brigade across mountainous , roadless , uncharted jungle in frequently appalling wet weather . The advance made slow progress against Japanese troops that fought tenaciously all the way .
The 1st Cavalry Division was down to half strength when it was withdrawn from the front line on Leyte for a brief rest in January 1945 , but few reinforcements arrived before it was ordered to move to Luzon , where it disembarked over the beaches at San Fabian on 27 January 1945 . General of the Army Douglas MacArthur ordered the 1st Cavalry Division 's commander , Major General Vern D. Mudge , to conduct a rapid advance on Manila . For this , Mudge formed three flying columns . Initially , Chase 's 1st Brigade 's mission was to follow one of the columns but on 1 February he was relieved of responsibility for the main body of the 1st Brigade and placed in command of all three flying columns .
On 3 February , Chase 's columns pushed into the northern outskirts of Manila and seized a vital bridge over the Tuliahan River , which separated them from the city proper . Chase , controlling his columns by radio , suffered slight burns to his hands when a Japanese truck exploded . A squadron of the 8th Cavalry , guided by two Filipino guerrillas reached the sprawling campus of the University of Santo Tomas which had been turned into an internment camp , liberating some 3 @,@ 700 internees .
A Japanese raiding party destroyed the bridge over Tuliahan River ; Chase 's security was not good enough . This prevented the main body of the 1st Cavalry Division from linking up with Chase 's force in Manila . Supplies were dispatched through the 37th Infantry Division 's zone until engineers could build a new bridge . For his advance on Manila , Chase was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross . He was also awarded the Purple Heart for the burns to his hands .
On 7 February 1945 , Chase took over command of the 38th Infantry Division , which was then confronted by enemy fortifications at Zig @-@ Zag Pass on the Bataan Peninsula . It took Chase a week of hard fighting to reduce this position . A battalion of the 151st Infantry under Chase 's personal command landed at Mariveles on the southern tip of Bataan on 14 February . The 38th Infantry Division participated in the final actions on Corregidor . Units of the 38th Infantry Division assaulted and captured Caballo Island on 27 March , Fort Drum on El Fraile Island on 13 April , and Carabao Island on 16 April . Meanwhile , other elements of the 38th Infantry Division engaged enemy forces in the mountainous Fort Stotsenburg area . In the midst of these operations , Chase was promoted to Major General in March .
In late April 1945 , the 38th Infantry Division moved to the area east of Manila where it relieved the 6th Infantry Division . On 1 May , it began a series of probing attacks prior to an attack on 4 May aimed at capturing the Wawa Dam , an important part of Manila 's water supply . Chase had to reduce a series of strongly held Japanese positions . By the end of the month , the dam was secure and the Japanese Kobayashi Force was broken .
Chase assumed command of the 1st Cavalry Division on 1 August 1945 . At this time , the division was in the Lucena City area but slated for Operation Downfall , in which it would assault Ariake , Kagoshima . The end of the war precluded this . Instead , the 1st Cavalry Division participated in the Occupation of Japan . It embarked from Batangas on 25 August and disembarked in Tokyo Bay on 2 September , becoming the first US division in Tokyo .
= = Later life = =
Chase remained with the 1st Cavalry Division on occupation duties until December 1948 , when he temporarily assumed command of IX Corps . He finally returned to the United States in January 1949 , and became chief of staff of the Third Army at Fort McPherson in April 1949 . From 1951 to 1955 he headed the Military Assistance Advisory Group in Taiwan . He retired from the Army on 31 July 1955 .
Chase earned a Master of Arts degree in history from Trinity University . From 1957 to 1965 , he taught political science at the University of Houston . His wife Dorothea died in 1957 . In 1961 he married Mrs Hallie Barlow Olcott . Chase retired in 1965 , having reached the state of Texas ' mandatory retirement age . In 1974 , Chase joined a party of retired generals associated with General MacArthur on a visit to Australia as guests of Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring and Dame Mary Herring . In addition to Chase , Leif J. Sverdrup , Hugh John Casey , and LeGrande A. Diller and their wives also made the trip . Chase published his memoirs , entitled Front Line General : The Commands of Maj. Gen. Wm . C. Chase , in 1975 . He died on 21 August 1986 and was buried at Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery .
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= Tracheobronchial injury =
Tracheobronchial injury ( TBI ) is damage to the tracheobronchial tree ( the airway structure involving the trachea and bronchi ) . It can result from blunt or penetrating trauma to the neck or chest , inhalation of harmful fumes or smoke , or aspiration of liquids or objects .
Though rare , TBI is a serious condition ; it may cause obstruction of the airway with resulting life @-@ threatening respiratory insufficiency . Other injuries accompany TBI in about half of cases . Of those people with TBI who die , most do so before receiving emergency care , either from airway obstruction , exsanguination , or from injuries to other vital organs . Of those who do reach a hospital , the mortality rate may be as high as 30 % .
TBI is frequently difficult to diagnose and treat . Early diagnosis is important to prevent complications , which include stenosis ( narrowing ) of the airway , respiratory tract infection , and damage to the lung tissue . Diagnosis involves procedures such as bronchoscopy , radiography , and x @-@ ray computed tomography to visualize the tracheobronchial tree . Signs and symptoms vary based on the location and severity of the injury ; they commonly include dyspnea ( difficulty breathing ) , dysphonia ( a condition where the voice can be hoarse , weak , or excessively breathy ) , coughing , and abnormal breath sounds . In the emergency setting , tracheal intubation can be used to ensure that the airway remains open . In severe cases , surgery may be necessary to repair a TBI .
= = Anatomy = =
The trachea and bronchi form the tracheobronchial tree . The trachea is situated between the lower end of the larynx and the center of the chest , where it splits into the two bronchi at a ridge called the carina . The trachea is stabilized and kept open by rings made of cartilage that surround the front and sides of the structure ; these rings are not closed and do not surround the back , which is made of membrane . The bronchi split into smaller branches and then to bronchioles that supply air to the alveoli , the tiny air @-@ filled sacs in the lungs responsible for absorbing oxygen . An arbitrary division can be made between the intrathoracic and cervical trachea at the thoracic inlet , an opening at the top of the thoracic cavity . Anatomical structures that surround and protect the tracheobronchial tree include the lungs , the esophagus , large blood vessels , the rib cage , the thoracic spine , and the sternum . Children have softer tracheas and a more elastic tracheobronchial trees than adults ; this elasticity , which helps protect the structures from injury when they are compressed , may contribute to the lower incidence of TBI in children .
= = Classification = =
Lesions can be transverse , occurring between the rings of the trachea , longitudinal or spiral . They may occur along the membranous part of the trachea , the main bronchi , or both . In 8 % of ruptures , lesions are complex , occurring in more than one location , with more than one type of lesion , or on both of the main bronchi and the trachea . Transverse tears are more common than longitudinal or complex ones . The laceration may completely transect the airway or it may go only partway around . Partial tears that do not go all the way around the circumference of the airway do not allow a lacerated airway to become completely detached ; tears that encircle the whole airway can allow separation to occur . Lacerations may also be classified as complete or incomplete . In an incomplete lesion , a layer of tissue surrounding the bronchus remains intact and can keep the air in the airway , preventing it from leaking into the areas surrounding the airways . Incomplete lacerations may require closer scrutiny to detect and may not be diagnosed right away .
Bronchial injuries are divided into those that are accompanied by a disruption of the pleura and those that are not ; in the former , air can leak from the hole in the airway and a pneumothorax can form . The latter type is associated with more minor signs ; pneumothorax is small if it occurs at all , and although function is lost in the part of the lung supplied by the injured bronchus , unaffected parts of the lungs may be able to compensate .
Most TBI that results from blunt trauma occurs within the chest . The most common tracheal injury is a tear near the carina or in the membranous wall of the trachea . In blunt chest trauma , TBI occurs within 2 @.@ 5 cm of the carina 40 – 80 % of the time . The injury is more common in the right main bronchus than the left , possibly because the former is near vertebrae , which may injure it . Also , the aorta and other tissues in the mid chest that surround the left main bronchus may protect it . Another possibility is that people with left main bronchus injuries are more likely to also have other deadly injuries and therefore die before reaching hospital , making them less likely to be included in studies that determine rates of injuries .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Signs and symptoms vary depending on what part of the tracheobronchial tree is injured and how severely it is damaged . There are no direct signs of TBI , but certain signs suggest the injury and raise a clinician 's suspicion that it has occurred . Many of the signs and symptoms are also present in injuries with similar injury mechanisms such as pneumothorax . Dyspnea and respiratory distress are found in 76 – 100 % of people with TBI , and coughing up blood has been found in up to 25 % . However , isolated TBI does not usually cause profuse bleeding ; if such bleeding is observed it is likely to be due to another injury such as a ruptured large blood vessel . The patient may exhibit dysphonia or have diminished breath sounds , and rapid breathing is common . Coughing may be present , and stridor , an abnormal , high @-@ pitched breath sound indicating obstruction of the upper airway can also occur .
Damage to the airways can cause subcutaneous emphysema ( air trapped in the subcutaneous tissue of the skin ) in the abdomen , chest , neck , and head . Subcutaneous emphysema , present in up to 85 % of people with TBI , is particularly indicative of the injury when it is only in the neck . Air is trapped in the chest cavity outside the lungs ( pneumothorax ) in about 70 % of TBI . Especially strong evidence that TBI has occurred is failure of a pneumothorax to resolve even when a chest tube is placed to rid the chest cavity of the air ; it shows that air is continually leaking into the chest cavity from the site of the tear . Air can also be trapped in the mediastinum , the center of the chest cavity ( pneumomediastinum ) . If air escapes from a penetrating injury to the neck , a definite diagnosis of TBI can be made . Hamman 's sign , a sound of crackling that occurs in time with the heartbeat , may also accompany TBI .
= = Causes = =
Injuries to the tracheobronchial tree within the chest may occur due to penetrating forces such as gunshot wounds , but are more often the result of blunt trauma . TBI due blunt forces usually results from high @-@ energy impacts such as falls from height and motor vehicle accidents ; the injury is rare in low @-@ impact mechanisms . Injuries of the trachea cause about 1 % of traffic @-@ related deaths . Other potential causes are falls from high places and injuries in which the chest is crushed . Explosions are another cause .
Gunshot wounds are the commonest form of penetrating trauma that cause TBI . Less commonly , knife wounds and shrapnel from motor vehicle accidents can also penetrate the airways . Most injuries to the trachea occur in the neck , because the airways within the chest are deep and therefore well protected ; however , up to a quarter of TBI resulting from penetrating trauma occurs within the chest . Injury to the cervical trachea usually affects the anterior ( front ) part of the trachea .
Certain medical procedures can also injure the airways ; these include tracheal intubation , bronchoscopy , and tracheotomy . The back of the trachea may be damaged during tracheotomy . TBI resulting from tracheal intubation ( insertion of a tube into the trachea ) is rare , and the mechanism by which it occurs is unclear . However , one likely mechanism involves an endotracheal tube catching in a fold of membrane and tearing it as it is advanced downward through the airway . When an endotracheal tube tears the trachea , it typically does so at the posterior ( back ) membranous wall . Unlike TBI that results from blunt trauma , most iatrogenic injuries to the airway involve longitudinal tears to the back of the trachea or tears on the side that pull the membranous part of the trachea away from the cartilage . Excessive pressure from the cuff of an endotracheal tube can reduce blood supply to the tissues of the trachea , leading to ischemia and potentially causing it to become ulcerated , infected , and , later , narrowed .
The mucosal lining of the trachea may also be injured by inhalation of hot gases or harmful fumes such as chlorine gas . This can lead to edema ( swelling ) , necrosis ( death of the tissue ) , scar formation , and ultimately stenosis . However , TBI due to inhalation , foreign body aspiration , and medical procedures is uncommon .
= = Mechanism = =
The structures in the tracheobronchial tree are well protected , so it normally takes a large amount of force to injure them . In blunt trauma , TBI is usually the result of violent compression of the chest . Rapid hyperextension of the neck , usually resulting from vehicle crashes , can also injure the trachea , and trauma to the neck can crush the trachea against the vertebrae . A crush injury of the larynx or cervical trachea can occur in head @-@ on collisions when the neck is hyperextended and strikes the steering wheel or dashboard ; this has been called a " dashboard injury " . The larynx and cervical trachea may also be injured in front @-@ on collisions by the seat belt .
Although the mechanism is not well understood , TBI due to blunt trauma is widely thought to be caused by any combination of three possible mechanisms : an increase in pressure within the airways , shearing , and pulling apart . The first type of injury , sometimes called an " explosive rupture " , may occur when the chest is violently compressed , for example when a driver strikes the steering wheel in a vehicle accident or when the chest is crushed . The pressure in the airways , especially the larger airways ( the trachea and bronchi ) , quickly rises as a result of the compression , because the glottis reflexively closes off the airways . When this pressure exceeds the elasticity of the tissues , they burst ; thus the membranous part of the trachea is more commonly affected by this mechanism of injury than cartilaginous portions .
The second mechanism may occur when the chest is suddenly decelerated , as occurs in vehicle accidents , producing a shearing force . The lungs are mobile in the chest cavity but their movement is more restricted near the hilum . Areas near the cricoid cartilage and carina are fixed to the thyroid cartilage and the pericardium respectively ; thus if the airways move , they can tear at these points of fixation .
The third mechanism occurs when the chest is compressed from front to back , causing it to widen from side to side . The lungs adhere to the chest wall because of the negative pressure between them and the pleural membranes lining the inside of the chest cavity ; thus when the chest widens , they are pulled apart . This creates tension at the carina ; the airway tears if this tensile force exceeds its elasticity . This mechanism may be the cause of injury when the chest is crushed . Most TBI are probably due to a combination of these three mechanisms .
When airways are damaged , air can escape from them and be trapped in the surrounding tissues in the neck ( subcutaneous emphysema ) and mediastinum ( pneumomediastinum ) ; if it builds up to high enough pressures there , it can compress the airways . Massive air leaks from a ruptured airway can also compromise the circulation by preventing blood from returning to the heart from the head and lower body ; this causes a potentially deadly reduction in the amount of blood the heart is able to pump out . Blood and other fluids can build up in the airways , and the injury can interfere with the patency of the airway and interfere with its continuity . However , even if the trachea is completely transected , the tissues surrounding it may hold it together enough for adequate air exchange to occur , at least at first .
= = Diagnosis = =
Rapid diagnosis and treatment are important in the care of TBI ; if the injury is not diagnosed shortly after the injury , the risk of complications is higher . Bronchoscopy is the most effective method to diagnose , locate , and determine the severity of TBI , and it is usually the only method that allows a definitive diagnosis . Diagnosis with a flexible bronchoscope , which allows the injury to be visualized directly , is the fastest and most reliable technique . In people with TBI , bronchoscopy may reveal that the airway is torn , or that the airways are blocked by blood , or that a bronchus has collapsed , obscuring more distal ( lower ) bronchi from view .
Chest x @-@ ray is the initial imaging technique used to diagnose TBI . The film may not have any signs in an otherwise asymptomatic patient . Indications of TBI seen on radiographs include deformity in the trachea or a defect in the tracheal wall . Radiography may also show cervical emphysema , air in the tissues of the neck . X @-@ rays may also show accompanying injuries and signs such as fractures and subcutaneous emphysema . If subcutaneous emphysema occurs and the hyoid bone appears in an X @-@ ray to be sitting unusually high in the throat , it may be an indication that the trachea has been severed . TBI is also suspected if an endotracheal tube appears in an X @-@ ray to be out of place , or if its cuff appears to be more full than normal or to protrude through a tear in the airway . If a bronchus is torn all the way around , the lung may collapse outward toward the chest wall ( rather than inward , as it usually does in pneumothorax ) because it loses the attachment to the bronchus which normally holds it toward the center . In a person lying face @-@ up , the lung collapses toward the diaphragm and the back . This sign , described in 1969 , is called fallen lung sign and is pathognomonic of TBI ( that is , it is diagnostic for TBI because it does not occur in other conditions ) ; however it occurs only rarely . In as many as one in five cases , people with blunt trauma and TBI have no signs of the injury on chest X @-@ ray . CT scanning detects over 90 % of TBI resulting from blunt trauma , but neither X @-@ ray nor CT are a replacement for bronchoscopy .
At least 30 % of TBI are not discovered at first ; this number may be as high as 50 % . In about 10 % of cases , TBI has no specific signs either clinically or on chest radiography , and its detection may be further complicated by concurrent injuries , since TBI tends to occur after high @-@ energy accidents . Weeks or months may go by before the injury is diagnosed , even though the injury is better known than it was in the past .
= = Prevention = =
Vehicle occupants who wear seat belts have a lower incidence of TBI after a motor vehicle accident . However , if the strap is situated across the front of the neck ( instead of the chest ) , this increases the risk of tracheal injury . Design of medical instruments can be modified to prevent iatrogenic TBI , and medical practitioners can use techniques that reduce the risk of injury with procedures such as tracheotomy .
= = Treatment = =
Treatment of TBI varies based on the location and severity of injury and whether the patient is stable or having trouble breathing , but ensuring that the airway is patent so that the patient can breathe is always of paramount importance . Ensuring an open airway and adequate ventilation may be difficult in people with TBI . Intubation , one method to secure the airway , may be used to bypass a disruption in the airway in order to send air to the lungs . If necessary , a tube can be placed into the uninjured bronchus , and a single lung can be ventilated . If there is a penetrating injury to the neck through which air is escaping , the trachea may be intubated through the wound . Multiple unsuccessful attempts at conventional ( direct ) laryngoscopy may threaten the airway , so alternative techniques to visualize the airway , such as fiberoptic or video laryngoscopy , may be employed to facilitate tracheal intubation . If the upper trachea is injured , an incision can be made in the trachea ( tracheotomy ) or the cricothyroid membrane ( cricothyrotomy , or cricothyroidotomy ) in order to ensure an open airway . However , cricothyrotomy may not be useful if the trachea is lacerated below the site of the artificial airway . Tracheotomy is used sparingly because it can cause complications such as infections and narrowing of the trachea and larynx . When it is impossible to establish a sufficient airway , or when complicated surgery must be performed , cardiopulmonary bypass may be used — blood is pumped out of the body , oxygenated by a machine , and pumped back in . If a pneumothorax occurs , a chest tube may be inserted into the pleural cavity to remove the air .
People with TBI are provided with supplemental oxygen and may need mechanical ventilation . Employment of certain measures such as Positive end @-@ expiratory pressure ( PEEP ) and ventilation at higher @-@ than @-@ normal pressures may be helpful in maintaining adequate oxygenation . However , such measures can also increase leakage of air through a tear , and can stress the sutures in a tear that has been surgically repaired ; therefore the lowest possible airway pressures that still maintain oxygenation are typically used . Mechanical ventilation can also cause pulmonary barotrauma when high pressure is required to ventilate the lungs . Techniques such as pulmonary toilet ( removal of secretions ) , fluid management , and treatment of pneumonia are employed to improve pulmonary compliance ( the elasticity of the lungs ) .
While TBI may be managed without surgery , surgical repair of the tear is considered standard in the treatment of most TBI . It is required if a tear interferes with ventilation ; if mediastinitis ( inflammation of the tissues in the mid @-@ chest ) occurs ; or if subcutaneous or mediastinal emphysema progresses rapidly ; or if air leak or large pneumothorax is persistent despite chest tube placement . Other indications for surgery are a tear more than one third the circumference of the airway , tears with loss of tissue , and a need for positive pressure ventilation . Damaged tissue around a rupture ( e.g. torn or scarred tissue ) may be removed in order to obtain clean edges that can be surgically repaired . Debridement of damaged tissue can shorten the trachea by as much as 50 % . Repair of extensive tears can include sewing a flap of tissue taken from the membranes surrounding the heart or lungs ( the pericardium and pleura , respectively ) over the sutures to protect them . When lung tissue is destroyed as a result of TBI complications , pneumonectomy or lobectomy ( removal of a lung or of one lobe , respectively ) may be required . Pneumonectomy is avoided whenever possible due to the high rate of death associated with the procedure . Surgery to repair a tear in the tracheobronchial tree can be successful even when it is performed months after the trauma , as can occur if the diagnosis of TBI is delayed . When airway stenosis results after delayed diagnosis , surgery is similar to that performed after early diagnosis : the stenotic section is removed and the cut airway is repaired .
= = Prognosis and complications = =
Most people with TBI who die do so within minutes of the injury , due to complications such as pneumothorax and insufficient airway and to other injuries that occurred at the same time . Most late deaths that occur in TBI are attributed to sepsis or multiple organ dysfunction syndrome ( MODS ) . If the condition is not recognized and treated early , serious complications are more likely to occur ; for example , pneumonia and bronchiectasis may occur as late complications . Years can pass before the condition is recognized . Some TBI are so small that they do not have significant clinical manifestations ; they may never be noticed or diagnosed and may heal without intervention .
If granulation tissue grows over the injured site , it can cause stenosis of the airway , after a week to a month . The granulation tissue must be surgically excised . Delayed diagnosis of a bronchial rupture increases risk of infection and lengthens hospital stay . People with a narrowed airway may suffer dyspnea , coughing , wheezing , respiratory tract infection , and difficulty with clearing secretions . If the bronchiole is completely obstructed , atelectasis occurs : the alveoli of the lung collapse . Lung tissue distal to a completely obstructed bronchiole often does not become infected . Because it is filled with mucus , this tissue remains functional . When the secretions are removed , the affected portion of the lung is commonly able to function almost normally . However , infection is common in lungs distal to a partially obstructed bronchiole . Infected lung tissue distal to a stricture can be damaged , and wheezing and coughing may develop due to the narrowing . In addition to pneumonia , the stenosis may cause bronchiectasis , in which bronchi are dilated , to develop . Even after an airway with a stricture is restored to normal , the resulting loss of lung function may be permanent .
Complications may also occur with treatment ; for example a granuloma can form at the suture site . Also , the sutured wound can tear again , as occurs when there is excessive pressure in the airways from ventilation . However , for people who do receive surgery soon after the injury to repair the lesion , outcome is usually good ; the long @-@ term outcome is good for over 90 % of people who have TBI surgically repaired early in treatment . Even when surgery is performed years after the injury , the outlook is good , with low rates of death and disability and good chances of preserving lung function .
= = Epidemiology = =
Rupture of the trachea or bronchus is the most common type of blunt injury to the airway . It is difficult to determine the incidence of TBI : in as many as 30 – 80 % of cases , death occurs before the person reaches a hospital , and these people may not be included in studies . On the other hand , some TBI are so small that they do not cause significant symptoms and are therefore never noticed . In addition , the injury sometimes is not associated with symptoms until complications develop later , further hindering estimation of the true incidence . However , autopsy studies have revealed TBI in 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 2 % of people who died after trauma . Of all neck and chest traumas , including people that died immediately , TBI is estimated to occur in 0 @.@ 5 – 2 % . An estimated 0 @.@ 5 % of polytrauma patients treated in trauma centers have TBI . The incidence is estimated at 2 % in blunt chest and neck trauma and 1 – 2 % in penetrating chest trauma . Laryngotracheal injuries occur in 8 % of patients with penetrating injury to the neck , and TBI occurs in 2 @.@ 8 % of blunt chest trauma deaths . In people with blunt trauma who do reach a hospital alive , reports have found incidences of 2 @.@ 1 % and 5 @.@ 3 % . Another study of blunt chest trauma revealed an incidence of only 0 @.@ 3 % , but a mortality rate of 67 % ( possibly due in part to associated injuries ) . The incidence of iatrogenic TBI ( that caused by medical procedures ) is rising , and the risk may be higher for women and the elderly . TBI results about once every 20 @,@ 000 times someone is intubated through the mouth , but when intubation is performed emergently , the incidence may be as high as 15 % .
The mortality rate for people who reach a hospital alive was estimated at 30 % in 1966 ; more recent estimates place this number at 9 % . The number of people reaching a hospital alive has increased , perhaps due to improved prehospital care or specialized treatment centers . Of those who reach the hospital alive but then die , most do so within the first two hours of arrival . The sooner a TBI is diagnosed , the higher the mortality rate ; this is likely due to other accompanying injuries that prove fatal .
Accompanying injuries often play a key role in the outcome . Injuries that may accompany TBI include pulmonary contusion and laceration ; and fractures of the sternum , ribs and clavicles . Spinal cord injury , facial trauma , traumatic aortic rupture , injuries to the abdomen , lung , and head are present in 40 – 100 % . The most common accompanying injury is esophageal perforation or rupture ( known as Boerhaave syndrome ) , which occurs in as many as 43 % of the penetrating injuries to the neck that cause tracheal injury .
= = History = =
Throughout most of history the mortality rate of TBI was thought to be 100 % . However , in 1871 a healed TBI was noted in a duck that had been killed by a hunter , thus demonstrating that the injury could be survived , at least in the general sense . This report , made by Winslow , was the first record in the medical literature of a bronchus injury . In 1873 , Seuvre made one of the earliest reports of TBI in the medical literature : a 74 @-@ year @-@ old woman whose chest was crushed by a wagon wheel was found on autopsy to have an avulsion of the right bronchus . Long @-@ term survival of the injury was unknown in humans until a report was made of a person who survived in 1927 . In 1931 , a report made by Nissen described successful removal of a lung in a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl who had had narrowing of the bronchus due to the injury . Repair of TBI was probably first attempted in 1945 , when the first documented case of a successful suturing of a lacerated bronchus was made . Prior to 1950 , the mortality rate was 36 % ; it had fallen to 9 % by 2001 ; this improvement was likely due to improvements in treatments and surgical techniques , including those for injuries commonly associated with TBI .
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= Word of God Speak =
" Word of God Speak " is a song by Christian rock band MercyMe . Written by Bart Millard and Pete Kipley , " Word of God Speak " uses sparse instrumentation , featuring only piano and strings to accompany Millard 's vocals . The lyrics to " Word of God Speak " reflect on the idea that it is impossible to speak of an infinite God with a limited vocabulary .
Released as the second single from MercyMe 's 2002 album Spoken For , Billboard magazine ranked the song at the top spot on their 2000s decade @-@ end Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts . " Word of God Speak " spent 23 weeks atop the Billboard Christian Songs chart , a record for that chart ; it spent a total of 76 weeks on that chart altogether . It also topped the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart and the Radio & Records Christian AC and INSPO charts , and peaked at No. 25 on the Christian CHR chart . " Word of God Speak " also won the Dove Awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Song of the Year at the 35th GMA Dove Awards .
= = Background = =
MercyMe 's lead singer Bart Millard wrote " Word of God Speak " while touring in support of their single " I Can Only Imagine " . The travel was exhausting , and Millard commented in an interview that , on one of the nights on tour , he " went to bed just really frustrated ... It started feeling like everything I was saying was the same . I just thought , I have nothing else to say . So I went to bed with that on my mind " . After falling asleep , Millard woke up early in the morning and wrote several lines to the song in his journal before going back to sleep . Several weeks later , he was searching through his journal and found the notes again ; when he went to the band 's studio , he showed the notes to his producer , Pete Kipley . The two finished the lyrics to the song in less than thirty minutes , and recorded the piano track the same night ; they also brought in someone to compose a string track for the song . Millard wanted " Word of God Speak " to contain only piano , avoiding the big production that could assure the song success on the radio , as he felt the simple production would mirror the lyrics .
" Word of God Speak " was written by Bart Millard and Pete Kipley ; it was also produced by Kipley . It was recorded at several locations ; Luminous Sound in Dallas , Texas , The Sound Kitchen in Franklin , Tennessee , Indigo Room in Franklin , Tennessee , HydeAway Sound Lab in Jeckyll Island , Georgia , The Scwoodio in Greenville , Texas , Mountain View Recorders in Glorieta , New Mexico , and Playground Recording in Wylie , Texas . It was mastered by Richard Dodd at Vital Recordings , and mixed by Salvo at Salvo Mix .
= = Composition = =
" Word of God Speak " is a contemporary Christian song with a length of three minutes and seven seconds . It is set in the key of C major and has a tempo of 69 beats per minute , with Millard 's vocal range spanning from C4 @-@ F5 .
The music to " Word of God Speak " is stripped down , featuring piano and vocals ; a string track is also present . The simple production was intended to mirror the lyrics of the song , which reflect on the concept that it is impossible to speak of an infinite God with the limited vocabulary of humanity . A critic , Russ Breimier , also noted the song reminds that " prayer and worship are not flowery orations " .
= = Critical reception = =
On his review of Spoken For , Russ Breimeier commented that " I particularly liked the brief " Word of God Speak , " which simply reminds us that prayer and worship aren 't about flowery orations ... This song is to prayer what " Heart of Worship " is to worship " .
" Word of God Speak " won the awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Song of the Year at the 35th GMA Dove Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
" Word of God Speak " peaked at number one on the Billboard Christian Songs chart , and spent a record 23 weeks at the top of the chart , and a total of 76 weeks on the chart . On the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart , the song spent 21 weeks atop the chart , and spent 61 weeks on it in total . On the Radio & Records Christian AC chart , " Word of God Speak " spent 10 weeks at the top , and stayed on the chart for 46 weeks in total ; on the Radio & Records INSPO chart , the song spent nine weeks atop the chart , and spent 21 weeks on it in total . Additionally , the song peaked at No. 25 on the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart , and spent 12 weeks on that chart in total .
" Word of God Speak " ranked at No. 5 on the 2004 year @-@ end Billboard Hot Christian Singles & Tracks Titles chart , and at No. 9 on the 2004 year @-@ end Billboard Hot Christian Adult Contemporary Titles chart . It ranked at No. 1 on both the 2000s decade @-@ end Christian Songs chart and the 2000s decade @-@ end Hot Christian AC chart .
= = Cover versions = =
" Word of God Speak " has been covered by several artists . In 2005 , actress Kristin Chenoweth covered the song on her album As I Am , and Christian rock band Kutless recorded a version of the song on their 2005 album Strong Tower . In 2004 , contemporary Christian band Big Daddy Weave recorded a version of the song that was included on the compilation album WOW Worship : Red .
= = Track listing = =
CD release
" I Can Only Imagine " – 4 : 08 ( Bart Millard )
" Word of God Speak " – 3 : 07 ( Peter Kipley , Millard )
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
( Credits lifted from the album liner notes )
MercyMe
Bart Millard – lead vocals
Jim Bryson – keys , recording
Additional performers
Roy G. Biv String Vibe - strings
Technical / Misc .
Csaba Petozz - recording
J. R. McNeely - recording
Lee Bridges - recording
Richard Dodd - mastering
Salvo - mixing
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= James Bowie =
James " Jim " Bowie ( pronounced / ˈbuːiː / BOO @-@ ee ) ( c . 1796 – March 6 , 1836 ) was a 19th @-@ century American pioneer , who played a prominent role in the Texas Revolution , culminating in his death at the Battle of the Alamo . Stories of him as a fighter and frontiersman , both real and fictitious , have made him a legendary figure in Texas history and a folk hero of American culture .
Born in Kentucky , Bowie spent most of his life in Louisiana , where he was raised and where he later worked as a land speculator . His rise to fame began in 1827 on reports of the Sandbar Fight . What began as a duel between two other men deteriorated into a melée in which Bowie , having been shot and stabbed , killed the sheriff of Rapides Parish with a large knife . This , and other stories of Bowie 's prowess with a knife , led to the widespread popularity of the Bowie knife .
Bowie 's reputation was cemented by his role in the Texas Revolution . After moving to Texas in 1830 , Bowie became a Mexican citizen and married Ursula Veramendi , the daughter of the Mexican vice governor of the province . His fame in Texas grew following his failed expedition to find the lost San Saba mine , during which his small party repelled an attack by a large Indian raiding party . At the outbreak of the Texas Revolution , Bowie joined the Texas militia , leading forces at the Battle of Concepción and the Grass Fight . In January 1836 , he arrived at the Alamo , where he commanded the volunteer forces until an illness left him bedridden . Bowie died with the other Alamo defenders on March 6 . Despite conflicting accounts of the manner of his death , the " most popular , and probably the most accurate " accounts maintain that he died in his bed after emptying his pistols into several Mexican soldiers .
= = Early years = =
According to his older brother John , James Bowie was born in Logan County , Kentucky , on March 10 , 1796 ( Historical marker : 36 ° 46 ' 25 " N 86 ° 42 ' 10 " W ) . Historian Raymond Thorp gave his birth date as April 10 , but Thorp did not provide any documentation for that date . Bowie 's surname was pronounced to rhyme with the French " Louis " ( / ˈbuːiː / BOO @-@ ee ) . ( Although some works refer to the alternate pronunciation / ˈboʊ.i / BO @-@ ee . )
Bowie was the ninth of ten children born to Elve Ap @-@ Catesby Jones and John Bowie . His father had been wounded while fighting in the American Revolution , and in 1782 married the young woman who had nursed him back to health . The Bowies moved frequently , first settling in Georgia , before moving to Kentucky . At the time of Bowie 's birth , his father owned eight slaves , eleven head of cattle , seven horses , and one stud horse . The following year the family acquired 200 acres ( 80 ha ) along the Red River . They sold that property in 1800 and relocated to Missouri , before moving to Spanish Louisiana in 1802 , where they settled on Bushley Bayou in Rapides Parish .
The family moved again in 1809 , settling on Bayou Teche in Louisiana before finding a permanent home in Opelousas in 1812 . The Bowie children were raised on the frontier and even as small children were expected to help clear the land and plant crops . All the children learned to read and write in English , but James and his elder brother Rezin could also read , write , and speak Spanish and French fluently . The children learned to survive on the frontier and how to fish and run a farm and plantation . James Bowie became proficient with pistol , rifle , and knife , and had a reputation for fearlessness . When he was a boy , one of his Indian friends even taught him to rope alligators .
In response to Andrew Jackson 's plea for volunteers to fight the British in the War of 1812 , James and Rezin enlisted in the Louisiana militia in late 1814 . The Bowie brothers arrived in New Orleans too late to participate in the fighting . After mustering out of the militia , Bowie settled in Rapides Parish , where he supported himself by sawing planks and lumber and floating them down the bayou for sale . In June 1819 , he joined the Long expedition , an effort to liberate Texas from Spanish rule . The group encountered little resistance and , after capturing Nacogdoches , declared Texas an independent republic . The extent of Bowie 's participation is unclear , but he returned to Louisiana before the invasion was repelled by Spanish troops .
= = Land speculator = =
Shortly before the senior Bowie died in 1818 or 1819 , he gave ten slaves as well as horses and cattle to both James and Rezin . For the next seven years , the brothers worked together to develop several large estates in Lafourche Parish and Opelousas . Louisiana 's population was growing rapidly , and the brothers hoped to take advantage of its rising land prices through speculation . Without the capital required to buy large tracts , they entered into a partnership with pirate Jean Lafitte in 1818 to raise money . By then , the United States had outlawed the importation of slaves , and most southern states allowed anyone who informed on a slave trader to receive half of what the imported slaves would earn at auction as a reward . Bowie made three trips to Lafitte 's compound on Galveston Island . On each occasion , he bought smuggled slaves and took them directly to a customhouse to inform on his own actions . When the customs officers offered the slaves for auction , Bowie purchased them and received back half the price he had paid , as allowed by the state laws . He then could legally transport the slaves and resell them at a greater market value in New Orleans or areas farther up the Mississippi River . Using this scheme , the brothers collected $ 65 @,@ 000 to be used for their land speculation .
In 1825 , the two brothers joined with their younger brother Stephen to buy Acadia , a plantation near Alexandria . Within two years , they had established the first steam mill in Louisiana to be used for grinding sugar cane . The plantation became known as a model estate , but on February 12 , 1831 , they sold it and 65 slaves for $ 90 @,@ 000 . With their profits , James and Rezin bought a plantation in Arkansas .
Bowie and his brother John were involved in a major court case in the late 1820s over land speculation . When the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory in 1803 , it promised to honor all former land grant claims , and for the next 20 years efforts were made to establish who owned what land . In May 1824 , Congress authorized the superior courts of each territory to hear suits from those who claimed they had been overlooked . The Arkansas Superior Court received 126 claims in late 1827 from residents who claimed to have purchased land in former Spanish grants from the Bowie brothers . Although the Superior Court originally confirmed most of those claims , the decisions were reversed in February 1831 after further research showed that the land had never belonged to the Bowies and that the original land grant documentation had been forged . The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the reversal in 1833 . When the disgruntled purchasers considered suing the Bowies , they discovered that the documents in the case had been removed from the court ; left without evidence , they declined to pursue a case .
= = Bowie knife = =
Bowie became internationally famous as a result of a feud with Norris Wright , the sheriff of Rapides Parish . Bowie had supported Wright 's opponent in the race for sheriff , and Wright , a bank director , had been instrumental in turning down a Bowie loan application . After a confrontation in Alexandria one afternoon , Wright fired a shot at Bowie , after which Bowie resolved to carry his hunting knife at all times . The knife he carried had a blade that was 9 @.@ 25 inches ( 23 @.@ 5 cm ) long and 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 cm ) wide .
The following year , on September 19 , 1827 , Bowie and Wright attended a duel on a sandbar outside of Natchez , Mississippi . Bowie supported duellist Samuel Levi Wells III , while Wright supported Wells 's opponent , Dr. Thomas Harris Maddox . The duellists each fired two shots and , as neither man had been injured , resolved their duel with a handshake . Other members of the groups , who had various reasons for disliking each other , began fighting . Bowie was shot in the hip ; after regaining his feet he drew a knife , described as a butcher knife , and charged his attacker , who hit Bowie over the head with his empty pistol , breaking the pistol and knocking Bowie to the ground . Wright shot at and missed the prone Bowie , who returned fire and possibly hit Wright . Wright then drew his sword cane and impaled Bowie . When Wright attempted to retrieve his blade by placing his foot on Bowie 's chest and tugging , Bowie pulled him down and disemboweled Wright with his large knife . Wright died instantly , and Bowie , with Wright 's sword still protruding from his chest , was shot again and stabbed by another member of the group . The doctors who had been present for the duel removed the bullets and patched Bowie 's other wounds .
Newspapers picked up the story , which became known as the Sandbar Fight , and described in detail Bowie 's fighting prowess and his unusual knife . Witness accounts agreed that Bowie did not attack first , and the others had focused their attack on Bowie because " they considered him the most dangerous man among their opposition . " The incident cemented Bowie 's reputation across the South as a superb knife fighter .
There is disagreement among scholars as to whether the knife used in this fight was the same as what is now known as a Bowie knife , also called an Arkansas Toothpick . Multiple accounts exist of who designed and built the first Bowie knife . Some claim that Bowie designed it , while others attribute the design to noted knife makers of the time . In a letter to The Planter 's Advocate , Rezin Bowie claimed to have invented the knife , however , and many Bowie family members as well as " most authorities on the Bowie knife tend to believe it was invented by " Rezin . Rezin Bowie 's grandchildren , however , claimed that Rezin merely supervised his blacksmith , who was the creator of the knife .
After the Sandbar Fight and subsequent battles in which Bowie used his knife to defend himself , the Bowie knife became very popular . Many craftsmen and manufacturers made their own versions , and major cities of the Old Southwest had " Bowie knife schools " that taught " the art of cut , thrust , and parry . " His fame , and that of his knife , spread to England , and by the early 1830s many British manufacturers were producing Bowie knives for shipment to the United States . The design of the knife continued to evolve , but today a Bowie knife generally is considered to have a blade 8 @.@ 25 inches ( 21 @.@ 0 cm ) long and 1 @.@ 25 inches ( 3 @.@ 2 cm ) wide , with a curved point , a " sharp false edge cut from both sides " , and a cross @-@ guard to protect the user 's hands .
= = Establishment in Texas = =
In 1828 , after recovering from wounds suffered in the Sandbar Fight , Bowie decided to move to Coahuila y Texas , at that time a state in the Mexican federation . The 1824 Constitution of Mexico banned religions other than Roman Catholicism and gave preference to Mexican citizens in receiving land . Bowie was baptized into the Roman Catholic faith in San Antonio on April 28 , 1828 , sponsored by the alcalde ( chief administrator ) of the town , Juan Martín de Veramendi , and the wife of the administrator , Josefa Navarro . For the next 18 months , Bowie traveled through Louisiana and Mississippi . In 1829 , he became engaged to Cecilia Wells , who died in Alexandria , on September 29 , two weeks before they were to be married .
On January 1 , 1830 , Bowie left Louisiana for permanent residency in Texas . He stopped at Nacogdoches , at Jared E. Groce 's farm on the Brazos River , and in San Felipe , where Bowie presented a letter of introduction to Stephen F. Austin from Thomas F. McKinney , one of the Old Three Hundred colonists . On February 20 , Bowie took an oath of allegiance to Mexico and then proceeded to San Antonio de Bexar . At the time , the city was known as Bexar and had a population of 2500 , mostly of Mexican descent , and Bowie 's fluency in Spanish helped him establish himself in the area . Bowie was elected a commander , with the rank of colonel , of the Texas Rangers later that year . Although the Rangers would not be organized officially until 1835 , Stephen F. Austin had founded the group by employing 30 men to keep the peace and protect the colonists from attacks by hostile Indians . Other areas assembled similar volunteer militias , and Bowie commanded a group of the volunteers .
Bowie renounced his American citizenship and became a Mexican citizen on September 30 , 1830 , after promising to establish textile mills in the state of Coahuila y Tejas . To fulfill his promise , Bowie entered into partnership with Veramendi to build cotton and wool mills in Saltillo . With his citizenship assured , Bowie now had the right to buy up to 11 leagues of public land . He convinced 14 or 15 other citizens to apply for land in order to turn it over to him , giving him 700 @,@ 000 acres ( 280 @,@ 000 ha ) for speculation . Bowie may have been the first to induce settlers to apply for empresario grants , which could then be sold in bulk to speculators as Bowie had . The Mexican government passed laws in 1834 and 1835 that stopped much of the land speculation .
On April 25 , 1831 , Bowie married nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Maria Ursula de Veramendi , the daughter of his business partner , who had become the vice governor of the province . Several days before the ceremony , he signed a dowry contract promising to pay his new bride 15 @,@ 000 pesos ( approximately $ 15 @,@ 000 then , or $ 333 @,@ 000 today ) in cash or property within two years of the marriage . At the time , Bowie claimed to have a net worth of $ 223 @,@ 000 ( $ 4 @,@ 960 @,@ 000 today ) , mostly in land of questionable title . Bowie also lied about his age , claiming to be 30 rather than 35 . The couple built a house in San Antonio on land Veramendi had given them near the San José Mission . After a short time , however , they moved into the Veramendi Palace , living with Ursula 's parents , who supplied them with spending money . The couple had two children , Marie Elve ( b . March 20 , 1832 ) and James Veramendi ( b . July 18 , 1833 ) .
Maria Ursula , her parents , and both children died in September 1833 from cholera .
= = Los Almagres Mine = =
Shortly after his marriage Bowie became fascinated with the story of the " lost " Los Almagres Mine ( also known as the lost San Saba Mine and the lost Bowie Mine ) , said to be northwest of San Antonio near the ruin of the Spanish Mission Santa Cruz de San Saba . According to legend , the mine had been operated by local Indians before being seized by the Spanish . After Mexico won independence from Spain , government interest in the mining potential waned . A number of native groups roamed the area , including Comanche , Lipan Apache , Tawakoni , and Tonkawa . Without government troops to keep hostile natives at bay , mining and mineral exploration were impossible . Some believed that after the Mexican citizens left the area , the Lipan took over the mine .
After obtaining permission from the Mexican government to mount an expedition into Indian territory to search for the legendary silver mine , Bowie , his brother Rezin , and ten others set out for San Saba on November 2 , 1831 . Six miles ( 10 km ) from their goal , the group stopped to negotiate with a large raiding party of Indians — reportedly more than 120 Tawakoni and Waco , plus another 40 Caddo . The attempts at parley failed and Bowie and his group fought for their lives for the next 13 hours . When the Indians finally retreated , Bowie reportedly had lost only one man , while more than 40 Indians had been killed and 30 were wounded . In the meantime , a party of friendly Comanche rode into San Antonio bringing word of the raiding party , which outnumbered the Bowie expedition by 14 to 1 . The citizens of San Antonio believed the members of the Bowie expedition must have perished , and Ursula Bowie began wearing widow 's weeds .
To the surprise of the town , the surviving members of the group returned to San Antonio on December 6 . Bowie 's report of the expedition , written in Spanish , was printed in several newspapers , further establishing his reputation . He set out again with a larger force the following month , but returned home empty @-@ handed after two and a half months of searching .
Bowie never talked of his exploits despite his increasing fame . Captain William Y. Lacey , who spent eight months living in the wilderness with Bowie , described him as a humble man who never used profanity or vulgarities .
= = Texas Revolution = =
= = = Texan rumblings = = =
Between 1830 and 1832 the Mexican Congress passed a series of laws that seemed to discriminate against Anglo colonists in the province of Coahuila y Tejas , increasing tension between the Anglo citizenry and Mexican officials . In response to the rumblings , Mexican troops established military posts in several locations within the province , including San Antonio de Béxar . Although much of the military supported the administration of President Anastasio Bustamante , Antonio López de Santa Anna led an insurrection against him in 1832 . Anglo colonists in Texas supported Santa Anna and General José Antonio Mexía , who led soldiers into Texas to oust commanders loyal to Bustamante .
After hearing that the Mexican army commander in Nacogdoches , José de las Piedras , had demanded that all residents in his area surrender their arms , Bowie cut short a visit to Natchez in July 1832 to return to Texas . On August 2 , 1832 , he joined a group of other Texans and marched into Nacogdoches to " present their demands " to Piedras . Before the group reached the building housing the town officials , they were attacked by a force of 100 Mexican cavalry . The Texans returned fire and the Battle of Nacogdoches began . After the cavalry retreated , they initiated a siege of the garrison . After a second battle , in which Piedras lost 33 men , the Mexican army evacuated during the night . Bowie and 18 companions ambushed the fleeing army and , after Piedras fled , marched the soldiers back to Nacogdoches . Bowie later served as a delegate to the Convention of 1833 , which formally requested that Texas become its own state within the Mexican federation .
Several months later , a cholera epidemic struck Texas . Fearing the disease would reach San Antonio , Bowie sent his pregnant wife and their daughter to the family estate in Monclova in the company of her parents and brother . The cholera epidemic instead struck Monclova , and between September 6 and September 14 , Ursula , their children , her brother , and her parents all died of the disease . Bowie , on business in Natchez , heard of his family 's deaths in November . From then on , he drank heavily and became " careless in his dress . "
The following year , the Mexican government passed new laws allowing land sale in Texas , and Bowie returned to land speculation . He was appointed a land commissioner and tasked with promoting settlement in the area purchased by John T. Mason . His appointment ended in May 1835 when President Antonio López de Santa Anna abolished the Coahuila y Tejas government and ordered the arrest of all Texans ( including Bowie ) doing business in Monclova . Bowie was forced to flee Monclova and return to the Anglo areas of Texas .
The Anglos in Texas began agitating for war against Santa Anna , and Bowie worked with William B. Travis , the leader of the War Party , to gain support . Bowie visited several Indian villages in East Texas in an attempt to persuade the reluctant tribes to fight against the Mexican government . Santa Anna responded to the rumblings by ordering large numbers of Mexican troops to Texas .
= = = Battle of Concepción = = =
The Texas Revolution began on October 2 , 1835 , with the Battle of Gonzales . Stephen F. Austin formed an army of 500 men to march on the Mexican forces in San Antonio with the cannon that had precipitated the fight . The name " Texian Army " sometimes is applied to this militia . On October 22 , Austin asked Bowie , now a colonel in the volunteer militia , and James W. Fannin to scout the area around the missions of San Francisco de la Espada and San José y San Miguel de Aguayo to find supplies for the volunteer forces . The scouting party left with 92 men , many of them members of the New Orleans Grays who had just arrived in Texas . After discovering a good defensive position near Mission Concepción , the group requested that Austin 's army join them .
On the foggy morning of October 28 , Mexican General Domingo Ugartechea led a force of 300 infantry and cavalry soldiers and two small cannons against the Texian forces . Although the Mexican army was able to get within 200 yards ( 183 m ) , the Texian defensive position protected them from fire . As the Mexicans stopped to reload their cannon , the Texians climbed a bluff and picked off some of the soldiers . The stalemate ended shortly after Bowie led a charge to seize one of the Mexican cannons , at that time only 80 yards ( 73 m ) away . Ugartechea retreated with his troops , ending the Battle of Concepción . One Texian and ten Mexican troops had been killed . One of the men under Bowie 's command during the battle later praised him " as a born leader , never needlessly spending a bullet or imperiling a life , who repeatedly admonished ... Keep under cover boys , and reserve your fire ; we haven 't a man to spare . "
= = = Grass Fight and commission difficulties = = =
An hour after the battle ended , Austin arrived with the rest of the Texian army to begin a siege of San Antonio de Béxar , where General Martín Perfecto de Cós , the overall commander of Mexican forces in Texas , and his troops were garrisoned . Two days later , Bowie resigned from Austin 's army because he did not have an official commission in the army , and he disliked the " minor tasks of scouting and spying " .
On November 3 , 1835 , Texas declared itself an independent state , and a provisional government was formed with Henry Smith of Brazoria elected provisional governor . Austin requested to be relieved of his command of the army , and Sam Houston was named army chief . Edward Burleson was chosen as temporary commander of the troops in San Antonio . Bowie appeared before the council at some point and spoke for an hour , asking for a commission . The council refused Bowie 's request , likely because of lingering animosity over his land dealings .
Houston offered Bowie a commission as an officer on his staff , but Bowie rejected the opportunity , explaining that he wanted to be in the midst of the fighting . Instead , Bowie enlisted in the army as a private under Fannin . He distinguished himself again in the Grass Fight on November 26 . Cós had sent approximately 187 men to cut grass for his horses . As they returned to San Antonio , Bowie took 60 mounted men to intercept the party , which they believed carried valuable cargo . The Mexican troops quickened their pace in the hopes of reaching the safety of the city , but Bowie and his cavalry chased them . At the end of the fight , the Texians had two wounded men , but had captured many horses and mules .
Shortly after Bowie left San Antonio , Ben Milam led an assault on the city . In the ensuing fighting , the Texians suffered only a few casualties , while the Mexican army lost many troops to death and desertion . Cós surrendered and returned to Mexico , taking with him the last Mexican troops in Texas . Believing the war was over , many of the Texian volunteers left the army and returned to their families . In early January 1836 , Bowie went to San Felipe and asked the council to allow him to recruit a regiment . He again was turned down as he " was not an officer of the government nor army . "
= = = Battle at the Alamo = = =
After Houston received word that Santa Anna was leading a large force to San Antonio , Bowie offered to lead volunteers to defend the Alamo from the expected attack . He arrived with 30 men on January 19 , where they found a force of 104 men with a few weapons and a few cannons , but not many supplies and little gunpowder . Houston knew that there were not enough men to hold the fort in an attack and had given Bowie authority to remove the artillery and blow up the fortification . Bowie and the Alamo commander , James C. Neill , decided they did not have enough oxen to move the artillery , and they did not want to destroy the fortress . On January 26 , one of Bowie 's men , James Bonham , organized a rally which passed a resolution in favor of holding the Alamo . Bonham signed the resolution first , with Bowie 's signature second .
Through Bowie 's connections because of his marriage and his fluency in Spanish , the predominantly Mexican population of San Antonio often furnished him with information about the movements of the Mexican army . After learning that Santa Anna had 4 @,@ 500 troops and was heading for the city , Bowie wrote several letters to the provisional government asking for help in defending the Alamo , especially " men , money , rifles , and cannon powder " . In another letter , to Governor Smith , he reiterated his view that " the salvation of Texas depends in great measure on keeping Béxar out of the hands of the enemy . It serves as the frontier picquet guard , and if it were in the possession of Santa Anna , there is no stronghold from which to repel him in his march toward the Sabine . " The letter to Smith ended , " Colonel Neill and myself have come to the solemn resolution that we will rather die in these ditches than give it up to the enemy . "
On February 3 , Davy Crockett appeared with thirty Tennesseans . Neill went on furlough on February 11 to visit his sick family , leaving Travis , a member of the regular army , in command . Bowie was older than Travis with a better reputation and considered himself a colonel , thus outranking Travis , a lieutenant colonel . He refused to answer to Travis , who called an election for the men to choose their own commander . They chose Bowie , infuriating Travis . Bowie celebrated his appointment by getting very drunk and causing havoc in San Antonio , releasing all prisoners in the local jails and harassing citizens . Travis was disgusted , but two days later the men agreed to a joint command ; Bowie would command the volunteers , and Travis would command the regular army and the volunteer cavalry .
On February 23 , the bells of San Fernando sounded the alarm of the approach of the Mexicans . Travis ordered all the Texan forces into the Alamo . James Bowie hurried to gather provisions and herd cattle into the Alamo compound . Fearing for the safety of his wife 's relatives in San Antonio , Bowie invited her cousins Getrudis Navarro and Juana Navarro Alsbury , as well as Alsbury 's 18 @-@ month @-@ old son , Alijo Perez Jr . , to stay inside the walls of the Alamo . Bowie also brought several black servants , some of whom worked at the Veramendi Palace , into the security of the Alamo fortress . Bowie had been ill , and two doctors , including the fort surgeon , were unable to diagnose his illness . Travis became the sole commander of the forces when Bowie was confined to bed . Santa Anna and his army began a siege of the Alamo on February 24 . The Mexican army raised a red flag to warn the defenders that no quarter would be given .
Bowie and Travis began sending out couriers with pleas for provisions and assistance . Travis sent Juan Seguin on Bowie 's horse , to recruit reinforcements on February 25 , and 32 additional men arrived . On February 26 , David Crockett reported that Bowie , though suffering from his affliction , continued to crawl from his bed around noon every day and presented himself to the Alamo 's inhabitants , which much boosted the morale of his comrades . Thirty @-@ five years after the Alamo fell , a reporter identified Louis " Moses " Rose as the only man to have " deserted " the Texian forces at the Alamo . According to the reporter 's version of Rose 's account , when Travis realized that the Mexican army would likely prevail , he drew a line in the sand and asked those willing to die for the cause to cross the line . At Bowie 's request Crockett and several others carried the cot over the line , leaving Rose alone on the other side . After its publication , several other eyewitnesses confirmed the account , but as Rose was deceased the story can only be authenticated by the word of the reporter , who admitted to embellishing other articles , " and thus many historians refuse to believe it . "
Bowie perished with the rest of the Alamo defenders on March 6 , when the Mexicans attacked . Most of the noncombatants in the fort , including Bowie 's relatives , survived . Santa Anna ordered the alcalde of San Antonio , Francisco Antonio Ruiz , to confirm the identities of Bowie , Travis , and Crockett . After first ordering that Bowie be buried , as he was too brave a man to be burned like a dog , Santa Anna later had Bowie 's body placed with those of the other Texians on the funeral pyre .
When Bowie 's mother was informed of his death , she calmly stated , " I 'll wager no wounds were found in his back . " Various eyewitnesses to the battle gave conflicting accounts of Bowie 's death . A newspaper article claimed that a Mexican soldier saw Bowie carried from his room on his cot , alive , after the conclusion of the battle . The soldier maintained that Bowie verbally castigated a Mexican officer in fluent Spanish , and the officer ordered Bowie 's tongue cut out and his still @-@ breathing body thrown onto the funeral pyre . This account has been disputed by numerous other witnesses , and it is thought to have been invented by the reporter . Other witnesses maintained that they saw several Mexican soldiers enter Bowie 's room , bayonet him , and carry him , alive , from the room . Various other stories circulated , with some witnesses claiming that Bowie shot himself and others saying he was killed by soldiers while too weak to lift his head . Alcalde Ruiz said that Bowie was found " dead in his bed . " According to Wallace O Chariton , The " most popular , and probably the most accurate " version is that Bowie died on his cot , " back braced against the wall , and using his pistols and his famous knife . " One year after the battle , Juan Seguin returned to the Alamo and gathered the remaining ashes from the funeral pyre . He placed these in a coffin inscribed with the names of Bowie , Travis , and Crockett . The ashes were interred at the Cathedral of San Fernando .
= = Legacy = =
Despite his continual pronouncements of wealth , Bowie 's estate was found to be very small . His possessions were auctioned for only $ 99 @.@ 50 . His larger legacy is his position as " one of the legendary characters of the American frontier . " Bowie left a " frustratingly sparse paper trail " of his life , and for many " where history failed , the legends prevailed . " Although Bowie 's name and knife were well known during his lifetime , his legend grew after October 1852 , when DeBow 's Review published an article written by his brother John Jones Bowie called , " Early Life in the Southwest — The Bowies . " The article focused primarily on the exploits of Jim Bowie . Beginning with that article , " romanticized stories " about Bowie began appearing in national press . In many cases , " these stories were pure melodrama , with Bowie rescuing some naïve planter 's son or damsel in distress . "
Jim Bowie was inducted posthumously into the Blade Magazine Cutlery Hall of Fame at the 1988 Blade Show in Atlanta , Georgia , in recognition of the impact that his eponymous design made upon generations of knife makers and cutlery companies .
A number of films have depicted the events of the Battle of the Alamo , and Bowie has appeared as a character in each .
From 1956 to 1958 , Bowie was the subject of a CBS television series , The Adventures of Jim Bowie , which was primarily set in 1830s Louisiana , although later episodes ventured into the Mexican province of Texas . The show , which starred Scott Forbes as Jim Bowie , was based on the 1946 novel Tempered Blade .
Bowie also is the namesake of rock star David Bowie , who was born David Robert Hayward @-@ Jones . Jones changed his name in the 1960s because he feared his name was too similar to Davy Jones , a member of the already famous The Monkees . He chose the surname Bowie because he admired James Bowie and the Bowie knife , although his pronunciation uses the BO @-@ ee ( / ˈboʊ.i / ) variant .
Bowie County in northeast Texas , and the city of Bowie in Montague County , Texas , were both named in honor of James Bowie .
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= Hygrophorus agathosmus =
Hygrophorus agathosmus , commonly known as the gray almond waxy cap or the almond woodwax , is a species of fungus in the Hygrophoraceae family . It was first described by Elias Magnus Fries in 1815 ; Fries gave it its current name in 1838 . A widespread species , it is distributed in the United States , Europe , Africa , and India , and can be found growing under spruce and pine in mixed forests . The fruit bodies are characterized by a light grayish cap that measures up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter , waxy gills , a dry stem , and the distinct odor of bitter almonds . An edible but bland @-@ tasting mushroom , extracts of the fruit bodies have been shown in laboratory tests to have antimicrobial activity against various bacteria that are pathogenic to humans .
= = Taxonomy , classification , and naming = =
The species was originally named Agaricus agathosmus by Swedish mycologist Elias Fries in 1815 ; he later moved it into the genus Hygrophorus in 1838 . In the interim , English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley named the species Agaricus cerasinus in 1836 , although he too would later transfer the species to Hygrophorus in 1860 . In 1948 , Richard Dennis examined the type material , and concluded that the two names referred to the same species . Additional historical synonyms include Limacium pustulatum var. agathosmum ( Kummer , 1871 ) , and Limacium agathosmum ( Wünsch , 1877 ) .
In their 1963 monograph of the Hygrophorus of North America , American mycologists Lexemuel Ray Hesler and Alexander H. Smith classified H. agathosmus in the subsection Camarophylli , a grouping of related species characterized by a dry stem , and the absence of a gelatinous outer veil .
The specific epithet agathosmus is derived from the Greek word agathos meaning “ good ” , and osme meaning “ scent ” . Hygrophorus agathosmus is commonly known as the gray almond waxy cap , or the almond woodwax .
= = Description = =
The cap is 4 – 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter , and initially convex with the edges rolled inwards . As it ages and the cap expands , it becomes flat , sometimes with the center slightly depressed , or sometimes with a slight central elevation . The color is a dull ashy gray , and when moist , the cap surface is sticky or tacky to the touch . It is smooth , although the edges can have a layer of minute , soft hairs . The flesh is soft , and whitish or watery gray . Hygrophorus agathosmus has a pronounced fragrant odor resembling cherry pits or bitter almonds ( occasionally the odor is weak ) .
The gills have an adnate attachment to the stem , but in maturity the attachment becomes adnate @-@ decurrent , meaning the gills start to extend down the length of the stem . The gills are white , but become grayish in maturity , close to distant ( 40 – 50 reach the stem ) , moderately narrow , rather thin . The stem is 4 – 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) long by 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick , whitish at first , and colored pale ashy in age . It is the same thickness throughout or somewhat narrowed toward the base . It is solid , dry or moist but has no gelatinous universal veil present . When young , the stem surface is evenly covered with tiny fibrils and a fine whitish powder ; over time it loses the hairs and the powder and becomes smooth .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
When viewed in mass , such as with a spore print , the spores appear to be white . Viewed with a light microscope , the basidiospores are 8 – 10 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 µm , ellipsoid , smooth , and yellowish in Melzer 's reagent . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are four @-@ spored and measure 48 – 65 long by 6 – 8 µm thick . Pleurocystidia and cheilocystidia ( specialized cystidia found on the gill faces and edges , respectively ) are absent in this species . The pileipellis ( cap cuticle ) is made of a broad ( 175 – 350 µm ) gelatinous zone , composed of loosely interwoven , slender ( 1 @.@ 5 – 4 µm ) hyphae ; the surface hyphae are a fuscous — a dark brownish @-@ gray color . This hyphal arrangement is called an ixocutis , in which the hyphal walls swell up and gelatinize , giving a translucence to the layer that stands out in contrast to the underlying flesh . The layer of gelatizined hyphae is tenacious , and may be peeled off the cap as a film . Although clamp connections are found on the hyphae that make up the flesh of the gill , none are found in the cap flesh nor in the pileipellis .
= = = Edibility and antimicrobial activity = = =
Hygrophorus agathosmus is edible , but considered bland . A study of the antioxidant capacity of the mushroom was composed of at least five organic acids : oxalic , citric , malic , quinic , and fumaric acids . Using a standard laboratory test to determine antimicrobial activity , Hygrophorus agathosmus was shown to inhibit the growth of various pathogenic bacteria , including Escherichia coli , Enterobacter aerogenes , Salmonella typhimurium , Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Staphylococcus aureus , Staphylococcus epidermidis , and Bacillus subtilis ; it also inhibits the growth of the yeast Candida albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae .
= = = Similar species = = =
Hygrophorus pustulatus resembles H. agathosmus and has a similar almond odor . However , the fruit bodies of H. pustulatus are smaller , and it produces larger spores ( 11 – 14 µm long ) . Hygrophorus occidentalis , which grows under conifers or oak , has a sticky stem and less pronounced almond odor . Hygrophorus marzuolus is also similar in appearance , but it lacks a distinctive odor , and has smaller spores than H. agathamosus .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Hygrophorus agathosmus is an ectomycorrhizal fungus , and it has been isolated , cultivated , and maintained as pure cultures of vegetative fungal inocula for artificial mycorrhization of planting stock in forest nurseries . Fruiting bodies are found scattered under spruce and pine and in mixed woods in the United States . The fungus is also found in Europe ( Czech Republic , Poland , Russia , Turkey , and the United Kingdom ) , Africa , and India .
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= Could 've Been You =
" Could 've Been You " is a rock song first performed by American rock singer Bob Halligan and later popularized by American singer @-@ actress Cher . The song was written by Halligan and Arnie Roman for Halligan 's 1991 album , Window In The Wall . Cher 's cover version was produced by Peter Asher and released exclusively for the European market in early 1992 as the fourth single from Cher 's twenty @-@ first studio album , Love Hurts . Lyrically , " Could 've Been You " is a message from the song 's protagonist to his or her ex .
Cher 's version of " Could 've Been You " received positive reviews from critics and peaked at number thirty @-@ one on the UK Singles Chart . Cher promoted the song through appearances at Top of the Pops and Aspel and Company .
= = Background = =
In 1991 , Bob Halligan released his album Window In The Wall under Atco Records . The only single released from the album was its lead track , " Could 've Been You " , which Halligan had co @-@ written with Arnie Roman . According to Halligan , Atco Records had been going through a " political upheaval " that year and his record " was one of several recordings that was allowed to slip gently into the night " . Halligan " dryly notes , ' [ " Could 've Been You " ] lasted three weeks at radio . It came out to the sound of one hand clapping ' " .
Later the same year , Cher covered " Could 've Been You " for her album Love Hurts . Her version was produced by Peter Asher , who had previously worked with Cher on her 1991 UK number one hit " The Shoop Shoop Song ( It 's in His Kiss ) " . The B @-@ side of the first UK 7 " single release was " One Small Step " , a duet with American singer @-@ songwriter Richard Page , while the B @-@ side of the second UK 7 " single was " Love and Understanding " . The second UK 7 " single and the Germany Maxi @-@ single were both released with the same cover , an image of Cher in a baby doll dress , while the first UK 7 " was released with the same photo cut to show only Cher 's legs . The whole photo was later reused for the cover of the Love Hurts tourbook . The UK 12 " single was the last released ; its cover has a transparent vinyl and shows Cher in a long , smooth black wig . In 1993 , " Could 've Been You " was rereleased as the B @-@ side of Cher 's " Whenever You 're Near " UK 7 " single .
Cher promoted " Could 've Been You " with a live performance on Top of the Pops on April 9 , 1992 , six days before the beginning of her first European tour , the Love Hurts Tour in Berlin , Germany . For the performance Cher wore a curly red wig and a suit with the jacket open to show a leather bra . On April 11 , 1992 , Cher appeared on the Aspel and Company show to perform the song and be interviewed by Michael Aspel .
= = Critical reception = =
" Could 've Been You " received positive reviews from critics . Rock critic Jim Farber of Entertainment Weekly said of the album that " [ i ] t 's that much more fun in numbers like ' Could 've Been You ' , in which , seeking revenge , she gets to reach between the jerk 's legs and squeeze . " David Wild of the Guilford County , North Carolina News & Record called " Love and Understanding " , " Save Up All Your Tears " and " Could 've Been You " " strong tracks " that " show that she is still an effective pop singer " . The review of the Worcester , Massachusetts Telegram & Gazette newspaper noted " Cher attempts to display her sexual prowess on the song , ... a great vehicle for her , an ' in @-@ your @-@ face ' song directed to a former lover " .
= = Chart performance = =
The song debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number thirty @-@ two on the week of April 18 , 1992 . In its second week it peaked at number thirty @-@ one , dropping the next week to number forty @-@ three and then to number sixty in its fourth and final week on the chart . The song also entered the German Singles Chart in late May 1992 , spending seven weeks on the chart and peaked at number seventy @-@ five .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Artwork – Kevin Reagan
Management – Bill Sammeth , John Kalodner
Photography – Herb Ritts
Producer – Peter Asher
Recorded and mixed by – Frank Wolf
= = Charts = =
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= Battle of Kalavrye =
The Battle of Kalavrye ( also Kalavryai or Kalavryta ) was fought in 1078 between the Byzantine imperial forces of general ( and future emperor ) Alexios Komnenos and the rebellious governor of Dyrrhachium , Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder . Bryennios had rebelled against Michael VII Doukas ( r . 1071 – 78 ) and had won over the allegiance of the Byzantine army 's regular regiments in the Balkans . Even after Doukas 's overthrow by Nikephoros III Botaneiates ( r . 1078 – 81 ) , Bryennios continued his revolt , and threatened Constantinople . After failed negotiations , Botaneiates sent the young general Alexios Komnenos with whatever forces he could gather to confront him .
The two armies clashed at Kalavrye on the Halmyros river in what is now European Turkey . Alexios Komnenos , whose army was considerably smaller and far less experienced , tried to ambush Bryennios 's army . The ambush failed , and the wings of his own army were driven back by the rebels . Alexios barely managed to break through with his personal retinue , but succeeded in regrouping his scattered men . At the same time , and despite having seemingly won the battle , Bryennios 's army fell into disorder after its own Pecheneg allies attacked its camp . Reinforced by Turkish mercenaries , Alexios lured the troops of Bryennios into another ambush through a feigned retreat . The rebel army broke and Bryennios was captured .
The battle is known through two detailed accounts , Anna Komnene 's Alexiad , and her husband Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger 's Material for History , on which Anna 's own account relies to a large degree . It is one of the few Byzantine battles described in detail , and hence a valuable source for studying the tactics of the Byzantine army of the late 11th century .
= = Background = =
After the defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 against the Seljuk Turks and the overthrow of Romanos IV Diogenes ( r . 1068 – 71 ) , the Byzantine Empire experienced a decade of near @-@ continuous internal turmoil and rebellions . The constant warfare depleted the Empire 's armies , devastated Asia Minor and left it defenceless against the increasing encroachment of the Turks . In the Balkans , invasions by the Pechenegs and the Cumans devastated Bulgaria , and the Serbian princes renounced their allegiance to the Empire .
The government of Michael VII Doukas ( r . 1071 – 78 ) failed to deal with the situation effectively , and rapidly lost support among the military aristocracy . In late 1077 , two of the Empire 's leading generals , Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder , the doux of Dyrrhachium in the western Balkans , and Nikephoros Botaneiates , the strategos of the Anatolic Theme in central Asia Minor , were proclaimed emperors by their troops . Bryennios set out from Dyrrhachium towards the imperial capital Constantinople , winning widespread support along the way and the loyalty of most of the Empire 's Balkan field army . He preferred to negotiate at first , but his offers were rebuffed by Michael VII . Bryennios then sent his brother John to lay siege to Constantinople . Unable to overcome its fortifications , the rebel forces soon retired . This failure led the capital 's nobility to turn to Botaneiates instead : in March 1078 Michael VII was forced to abdicate and retire as a monk , and Nikephoros Botaneiates was accepted into the city as emperor .
At first , Botaneiates lacked enough troops to oppose Bryennios , who in the meantime had consolidated his control over his native Thrace , effectively isolating the capital from the remaining imperial territory in the Balkans . Botaneiates sent an embassy under the proedros Constantine Choirosphaktes , a veteran diplomat , to conduct negotiations with Bryennios . At the same time he appointed the young Alexios Komnenos as his Domestic of the Schools ( commander @-@ in @-@ chief ) , and sought aid from the Seljuk Sultan Suleyman , who sent 2 @,@ 000 warriors and promised even more . In his message to Bryennios , the aged Botaneiates ( 76 years old at his accession ) offered him the rank of Caesar and his nomination as heir to the throne . Bryennios agreed in principle , but added a few conditions of his own , and sent the ambassadors back to Constantinople for confirmation . Botaneiates , who likely had initiated negotiations only to gain time , rejected Bryennios 's conditions , and ordered Alexios Komnenos to campaign against the rebel .
= = Prelude = =
Bryennios had camped at the plain of Kedoktos ( a name deriving from the Latin aquaeductus ) on the road to Constantinople . His army comprised 12 @,@ 000 mostly seasoned men from the regiments ( tagmata ) of Thessaly , Macedonia and Thrace , as well as Frankish mercenaries and the elite tagma of the Hetaireia . Alexios 's forces included 2 @,@ 000 Turkish horse @-@ archers , 2 @,@ 000 Chomatenoi from Asia Minor , a few hundred Frankish knights from Italy , and the newly raised regiment of the Immortals , which had been created by Michael VII 's chief minister Nikephoritzes and was intended to form the nucleus of a new army . Estimates of Alexios 's total force vary from 5 @,@ 500 – 6 @,@ 500 ( Haldon ) to some 8 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 ( Birkenmeier ) , but it is clear that he was at a considerable disadvantage against Bryennios ; not only was his force considerably smaller , but also far less experienced than Bryennios 's veterans .
Alexios 's forces set forth from Constantinople and camped on the shore of the river Halmyros — a small stream between Herakleia ( modern Marmara Ereğlisi ) and Selymbria ( modern Silivri ) , modern Kalivri Dere — near the fort of Kalavrye ( Greek : Καλαβρύη , modern Yolçatı ) . Curiously , and against established practice , he did not fortify his camp , perhaps so as not to fatigue or dishearten his men with an implicit admission of weakness . He then sent his Turkish allies to scout out Bryennios 's disposition , strength and intentions . Alexios 's spies easily accomplished their tasks , but on the eve of the battle some were captured and Bryennios too was informed of Alexios 's strength .
= = Battle = =
= = = Initial dispositions and plans = = =
Bryennios arranged his army in the typical three divisions , each in two lines , as prescribed by the Byzantine military manuals . The right wing , under his brother John , was 5 @,@ 000 strong and comprised his Frankish mercenaries , Thessalian cavalry , the Hetaireia , and the Maniakatai regiment ( descendants of the veterans of George Maniakes 's campaign in Sicily and Italy ) . His left wing , 3 @,@ 000 men from Thrace and Macedonia , was placed under Katakalon Tarchaneiotes , and the centre , under Bryennios himself , comprised 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 men from Thessaly , Thrace and Macedonia . Again , according to standard doctrine , on his far left , about half a kilometer ( " two stadia " ) from the main force , he had stationed an outflanking detachment ( hyperkerastai ) of Pechenegs .
Alexios deployed his smaller army in waiting near Bryennios 's camp , and divided it in two commands . The left , which confronted Bryennios 's strongest division , was commanded by himself and contained the Frankish knights to the right and the Immortals to the Franks ' left . The right command was under Constantine Katakalon , and comprised the Chomatenoi and the Turks . The latter , according to the Alexiad , were given the role of flank guard ( plagiophylakes ) and tasked with observing and countering the Pechenegs . Conversely , on the extreme left Alexios formed his own flanking detachment ( apparently drawn from among the Immortals ) , concealed from enemy view inside a hollow . Given his inferiority , Alexios was forced to remain on the defensive . His only chance at success was that his out @-@ flankers , concealed by the broken terrain , would surprise and create enough confusion among Bryennios 's men for him and his strong left wing to break through their lines .
= = = Alexios 's army collapses = = =
As the rebel forces advanced towards his enemy 's line , Alexios 's flankers sprung their ambush . Their attack did indeed cause some initial confusion , but Bryennios ( or , according to the Alexiad , his brother John , who commanded the right wing ) rallied his men and led forth the second line . This counter @-@ attack broke Alexios 's flankers ; as they retreated in panic , they fell upon the Immortals , who also panicked and fled , abandoning their posts . Although they suffered some casualties from Bryennios 's pursuing men , most managed to escape well to the rear of Alexios 's army .
Alexios , who was fighting with his retinue alongside the Franks , did not immediately realize that his left wing had collapsed . In the meantime , on his right wing , the Chomatenoi , engaged with Tarchaneiotes 's men , were outflanked and attacked in the rear by the Pechenegs , who had somehow evaded Alexios 's Turkish flank @-@ guards . The Chomatenoi too broke and fled , and Alexios 's fate seemed sealed . At this point the Pechenegs failed to follow up their success , and instead turned back and began looting Bryennios 's own camp . After gathering what plunder they could , they left the battle and made for their homes .
Nevertheless , Bryennios 's victory seemed certain , for his wings began to envelop Alexios 's Franks in the centre . Realizing his position and despairing in the face of defeat ( and , as Bryennios the Younger records , because he had disobeyed imperial orders to wait for more Turkish reinforcements and feared punishment from Botaneiates ) , Alexios at first resolved to attempt an all @-@ or @-@ nothing attack on Bryennios himself to decapitate the enemy army , but was dissuaded by his servant . With only six of his men around him , he then managed to break through the surrounding enemy soldiers . Confusion reigned behind their lines as a result of the Pecheneg attack on the rebel camp , and in this tumult Alexios saw Bryennios 's imperial parade horse , with his two swords of state , being driven away to safety . Alexios and his men charged the escort , seized the horse , and rode away with it from the battlefield .
Having reached a hill behind his army 's original position , Alexios began to regroup his army from the units that had broken . He sent out messengers to rally his scattered men with news that Bryennios had been killed , showing his parade horse as evidence . At the same time , the promised Turkish reinforcements began arriving at the scene , lifting his men 's morale . All the while , on the battlefield , Bryennios 's army had closed around Alexios 's Franks , who dismounted and offered to surrender . In the process the rebel army had become totally disordered , with units mixed and their formations disordered . Bryennios 's reserves had been thrown in confusion by the Pecheneg attack , while his front lines relaxed , thinking that the battle was over .
= = = Alexios 's counter @-@ attack = = =
Having restored his surviving forces to order , and aware of the confusion in Bryennios 's forces , Alexios decided to counter @-@ attack . The plan he laid out made far greater use of the particular skills of his Turkish horse @-@ archers . He divided his force into three commands , of which two were left behind in ambush . The other , formed from the Immortals and the Chomatenoi under Alexios 's own command , was not arrayed in one continuous line , but broken up in small groups , intermingled with other groups of Turkish horse @-@ archers . This command would advance on the rebels , attack them , then feign retreat and draw them into the ambush .
The attack of Alexios 's division initially caught Bryennios 's men off guard , but , being veteran troops , they soon recovered and once again began to push it back . Retreating , Alexios 's troops , and especially the Turks , employed skirmishing tactics , attacking the enemy line and then withdrawing swiftly , thus keeping their opponents at bay and weakening the coherence of their line . Some among Alexios 's men chose to attack Bryennios , and the rebel general had to defend against several attacks himself .
When the battle reached the place of the ambush , Alexios 's wings , likened in the Alexiad to a " swarm of wasps " , attacked the rebel army on the flanks firing arrows and shouting loudly , spreading panic and confusion among Bryennios 's men . Despite the attempts of Bryennios and his brother John to rally them , their army broke and fled , and other units , which were following behind , did likewise . The two brothers tried to put up a rear @-@ guard defence , but they were overcome and captured .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle marked the end of Bryennios 's revolt , although Nikephoros Basilakes gathered up much of Bryennios 's defeated army and attempted to claim the throne for himself . He too was defeated by Alexios Komnenos , who then proceeded to expel the Pechenegs from Thrace . The elder Bryennios was blinded on Botaneiates 's orders , but the emperor later took pity on him and restored him his titles and his fortune . After Alexios Komnenos seized the throne himself in 1081 , Bryennios was further honoured with high dignities . He even held command during Alexios 's campaigns against the Pechenegs , and defended Adrianople from a rebel attack in 1095 . His son or grandson , Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger , was married to Alexios 's daughter Anna Komnene . He became a prominent general of Alexios 's reign , eventually raised to the rank of Caesar , and a historian .
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= Down to Earth ( Justin Bieber song ) =
" Down to Earth " is a song by Canadian recording artist Justin Bieber , included as a track on his debut release , My World , released on November 17 , 2009 . It was written by Bieber , who was assisted by Carlos and Steven Battey of The Jackie Boyz , as well as the song 's producers , Mason " MdL " Levy , and Kevin Risto and Waynne Nugent of Midi Mafia . " Down to Earth " is a teen pop song , with lyrics that were inspired by the divorce of Bieber 's parents . It also contains lyrical content about growing up . The song received positive reviews from critics , who embraced the song as a shift in the puppy love content of the album . After the release of My World , due to digital sales , the song charted in the lower regions of charts in the United States , Canada , and the United Kingdom .
= = Background and composition = =
" Down to Earth " was written by Bieber , Mason " MdL " Levy , Carlos and Steven Battey of The Jackie Boyz , and Kevin Risto and Waynne Nugent of Midi Mafia . It was recorded at Icon Studios in Atlanta , Georgia , and it was mixed at Larrabee Studios in North Hollywood , California . The track was one of three songs on the standard edition of My World that Bieber co @-@ wrote . In an interview in the November 14 , 2009 issue of Billboard , Bieber explained the meaning behind the song stating ,
" It 's a ballad about the feelings I had when my parents split up and how I helped my family get through it . I think a lot of kids have had their parents split up , and they should know that it wasn 't because of something they did . I hope people can relate to it . "
" Down to Earth " is a down @-@ tempo pop song with a length of four minutes and five seconds , which includes influences of teen pop . Written in common time , with a tempo of 80 beats per minute , the song is composed in the key of D major . Bieber 's vocals span from the low note of B3 to the high note of D5 . It follows a simple chord progression of G @-@ D @-@ A @-@ Bm . Monica Herrera of Billboard noted that lines such as " So we fight through the hurt , and we cry and cry and cry and cry / Then we live and we learn , and we try " revealed a " deeper side " to the singer . Bieber performed the song while accompanying Taylor Swift on the United Kingdom leg of the Fearless Tour , as well as his own My World Tour . During the latter performance , Bieber sits on a stool , accompanied by only a piano background .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Mark Hirsh of The Boston Globe noted " Down to Earth " was the essential track from My World . Allison Stewart of the Washington Post listed the song was one of her recommended tracks from the album . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said that " Down to Earth " and " One Less Lonely Girl " were " uncomplicately beautiful and earnest . " Although Ashante Infantry of Toronto Star said a turn @-@ off of the song was the " Mafia " tag by the production team , Midi Mafia , at the beginning of the song , she called " Down to Earth " one of the best tracks on the album . After praising Bieber 's delivery of " poignant lines " in the song , Monica Herrera of Billboard said " it 's hardly a stretch to imagine Bieber racking up more hits in the next decade to come . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
On the week ending December 5 , 2009 , due to digital sales after the release of My World , " Down to Earth " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian Hot 100 . The song debuted at number forty @-@ three on the Hot Digital Songs chart in the US , and therefore consecutively appeared at number seventy @-@ nine on the Hot 100 . In Canada , it debuted at number sixty @-@ one . It dropped off both charts the following week . In both territories it was also the highest non @-@ previously released song from My World to appear on the charts . In the United Kingdom , after the release of My World , " Down to Earth " appeared at number 149 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting - Justin Bieber , Kevin Risto , Waynne Nugent , Mason Levy , Carlos Battey , Steven Battey
Production - Midi Mafia , MdL
Vocal recording - Chris Krauss
Vocal production - Kevin Risto
Guitar - Tim Stewart
Mixing - Jaycen @-@ Joshua Fowler and Dave Pensado , assisted by Giancarlo Lino .
Source
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on @-@ demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads .
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= Paddy Moran ( ice hockey ) =
Patrick Joseph Alexander " Paddy " Moran ( March 11 , 1877 – January 14 , 1966 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender . Moran played all but one of his 16 seasons for the Quebec Hockey Club , from 1901 to 1917 ; in the 1909 – 10 season , Moran played for the All @-@ Montreal and the Haileybury Comets . Moran was noted for protecting the area in front of his net by aggressively using his stick , and expectorating at opposing players while chewing tobacco . He won two Stanley Cups with Quebec in 1912 and 1913 . Moran was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1958 .
= = Early life = =
Moran began playing ice hockey at the age of 15 , with a local Quebec team . At age 17 , Moran changed schools as his school was one of the few in Quebec City not to have an ice hockey team . At the age of 19 , Moran helped his new club , the Crescents , win the Intermediate Championship .
= = Playing career = =
Moran began his playing career with the Quebec Hockey Club in the Canadian Amateur Hockey League ( CAHL ) . Over four seasons , Moran appeared in 30 games , winning 19 of them . For the 1905 – 06 season , the Quebec Hockey Club joined the Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association ( ECAHA ) . Over the next four years , Moran appeared in 38 games , but won only 11 of them , while his lowest goals @-@ against average in a season during that span was 6 @.@ 79 . In the 1909 – 10 season , Moran joined the Montreal All @-@ Stars from the Canadian Hockey Association ( CHA ) and as the league folded , he then joined the Haileybury Comets of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) . In his only season with the Comets , Moran posted a 3 – 8 record over 11 games , letting in 79 goals .
For the 1910 – 11 season , Moran rejoined Quebec . That year , Quebec finished last in the league , winning only four games , and letting in 97 goals against . In the 1911 – 12 season , Moran went 10 – 8 over 18 games , with a 4 @.@ 26 goals @-@ against average . They won the O 'Brien Cup and the Stanley Cup after finishing with the best record in the league . In the Stanley Cup challenge against the Moncton Victorias of the Maritime Professional Hockey League ( MPHL ) , Quebec won the first game 9 – 3 , and the second game 8 – 0 . Moran finished with a 1 @.@ 50 goals @-@ against average , while Jack McDonald and Joe Malone combined for 14 out of the 17 Quebec goals as Quebec won the Stanley Cup .
The next season , Moran went 16 – 4 in the regular season in 20 games , with one shutout and a 3 @.@ 70 goals @-@ against average . Quebec repeated as O 'Brien Cup winners , and had a Stanley Cup challenge once more , playing against the Sydney Miners of the MPHL . Quebec repeated as champions , winning the three @-@ game series 2 – 0 . In the first game , Quebec won 14 – 3 , as Malone scored nine goals , while in the second one , Quebec emerged with a slimmer margin of victory , winning 6 – 2 .
Moran finished his career with the Bulldogs , retiring after the NHA 's last season . He played four more seasons , during which he played 69 games , winning 34 of them . Over his career , Moran 's teams often had losing records , or they had a winning percentage barely over 50 % . Some hockey legends often recalls that he was the best goaltender of them all . He was elected to the Hall of Fame in 1958 , with the help of Senator Chubby Power , once a teammate . He is still the earliest goaltender in HHOF , starting his senior hockey venture in 1901 .
= = Playing style = =
Moran was a stand @-@ up style goaltender . At 5 ft 11 in ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) and 180 lb ( 82 kg / 12 st 12 lb ) , he was considered a big goaltender for his era . In Moran 's era , goaltenders were not allowed to drop down to the ice to make saves , so his style suited him well . Moran was especially noted for his aggressive defense of the area in front of his net . He used his stick to slash opposing players within reach . Moran often chewed tobacco while on the ice , and another favorite tactic of his was to expectorate at opposing players . Moran 's stick work was described as attempts to " slash [ other players ' ] heads off with lightning strokes of his blade " . Moran often wore oversized sweaters , claiming that they kept him warm in the cold arenas ; however , he kept it unbuttoned , and often used it to catch shots .
= = Post @-@ retirement = =
Moran retired after the 1916 – 17 season , at the age of 39 . He was proud to have built his own house with his ice hockey earnings , which cost CAN $ 4 @,@ 000 . In 1919 , Moran became a custom house builder , and continued in this career for at least 35 years . In 1944 at age 66 , Moran was interviewed about his playing days , along with contemporary goaltender Percy LeSueur , who is noted for his Stanley Cup wins in 1909 and 1911 with the Ottawa Senators . Later in his life , Moran became an avid follower of the Quebec Aces . He was inducted into the Quebec Hockey Hall of Fame . In 1958 , Moran was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . He died on January 14 , 1966 .
= = Statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Stanley Cup Finals = = =
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= Typhoon Halong ( 2002 ) =
Typhoon Halong , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Inday , passed just south of Guam one week after Typhoon Chataan struck the island and left heavy damage . The seventh named storm of the season , Halong developed near the same location as Chataan on July 5 near the Marshall Islands . For much of its duration , the storm moved toward the northwest , gradually intensifying . Early on July 10 , Halong passed just south of Guam as a tropical storm , producing high waves and gusty winds on the island . The storm disrupted relief efforts from Chataan , causing additional power outages but little damage .
After affecting Guam , Halong quickly strengthened and reached its peak winds on July 12 . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , while the Japan Meteorological Agency estimated 10 ‑ minute winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) . Subsequently , the typhoon weakened greatly while curving to the northeast , although it still passed near Okinawa with strong winds that left widespread power outages . Halong struck southeastern Japan , dropping heavy rainfall and producing strong winds that left $ 89 @.@ 8 million ( ¥ 10 @.@ 3 billion 2002 JPY ) in damage . There was one death in the country and nine injuries . Halong became extratropical on July 16 and dissipated the next day . The typhoon influenced the monsoon trough in the Philippines , contributing to flooding and deaths in the country .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early July , a circulation with an area of convection developed along the monsoon trough near Enewetak Atoll . The system remained nearly stationary , tracking slowly to the southwest . Gradually organizing , the system developed into a tropical depression on July 6 over the Marshall Islands . Without having issued a tropical cyclone formation alert , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 10W at 0000 UTC on July 7 . Late that day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Halong near the island of Chuuk in the Federated States of Micronesia . By that time , the storm was moving west @-@ northwestward , steered by a ridge to the north . Halong slowly intensified , although it continued to develop deep convection that wrapped into the center . Early on July 9 , the JMA upgraded the storm to a severe tropical storm . At 1200 UTC that day , the JTWC upgraded Halong to typhoon status about 405 km ( 250 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Guam .
While moving toward Guam , Halong became better organized , developing an eye and well @-@ defined rainbands . After a brief turn more toward the west , the storm passed about 140 km ( 85 mi ) south of the southern tip of Guam at 0200 UTC on July 10 ; at the time , the JTWC estimated 1 ‑ minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) , although the JMA had maintained Halong as a tropical storm until upgrading to a typhoon at 1800 UTC that day . An approaching trough increased shear over Halong , and a weak ridge to the north restricted outflow ; this briefly prevented significant intensification after the convection decreased . Late on July 11 , the thunderstorms increased , and restrengthening resumed . Late on July 12 , the JMA assessed Halong as reaching peak 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) . Around that time , the typhoon entered the area of the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) , which gave it the local name Typhoon Inday . Early on July 13 , the JTWC upgraded Halong to a super typhoon after the storm developed a well @-@ defined eye 63 km ( 39 mi ) in diameter . Shortly thereafter , the agency estimated peak 1 ‑ minute sustained winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) .
At its peak intensity , Typhoon Halong had gale @-@ force winds that extended 415 km ( 260 mi ) northeast of the center . It was continuing to the northwest toward Okinawa , and threatened to strike the island at near peak intensity . However , the typhoon began rapidly weakening due to increasing wind shear , and the eye quickly deteriorated . At around 1200 UTC on July 14 , Halong made landfall on Okinawa with 10 ‑ minute winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . Around that time , the typhoon moved through a weakness in the ridge , turning to the north and later accelerating to the northeast . The combination of cool , dry air , and the persistent wind shear removed the convection from the center by early on July 15 , weakening Halong to tropical storm status . Later that day , the JTWC discontinued advisories while the storm was approaching Japan , and the agency classified Halong as extratropical . The JMA continued tracking the storm , and Halong struck both the Izu and Bōsō peninsulas along Honshu . Late on July 16 , the JMA classified Halong as extratropical , and shortly thereafter the storm dissipated over the Kuril Islands . The extratropical remnants of Halong moved out of the basin late on July 19 , just prior dissipating .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Only a week after Typhoon Chataan struck Guam and left $ 60 million in damage , Typhoon Halong also threatened the island , although it veered to the south in the day before it would have struck . Due to the storm , all flights were canceled in Guam and the Northern Marianas Islands , and officials advised residents in low @-@ lying areas to evacuate . While passing to the south , Halong produced waves as high as 6 m ( 20 ft ) in Inarajan . The waves left beach erosion along Guam 's southern coast , and were higher than during Chataan 's passage . The typhoon produced peak sustained winds of 69 km / h ( 43 mph ) , with gusts to 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) ; both observations were recorded at Guam 's National Weather Service . Damage on the island was estimated at $ 40 @,@ 000 . The storm disrupted work to repair damage from Chataan . Portions of the island , including Guam Memorial Hospital , had their power restored after Chataan , only to lose electricity during Halong . The additional damage caused by Halong contributed to Governor Carl T.C. Gutierrez declaring the island as a state of emergency on July 22 , which activated the Guam National Guard .
While passing northeast of the Philippines , Halong enhanced the monsoon , and combined with the effects from previous typhoons Rammasun and Chataan , as well as Severe Tropical Storm Nakri , there were 85 deaths , with 45 people injured in the Philippines . About ten of the deaths were estimated to have been caused by Halong . The combined damage in the country totaled $ 10 @.@ 3 million ( ₱ 522 million 2002 PHP ) .
In Japan , Halong dropped heavy rainfall that peaked at 362 mm ( 14 @.@ 3 in ) in Nagano Prefecture . The highest rainfall in Okinawa was 258 mm ( 10 @.@ 2 in ) . Near Tokyo , a station recorded winds of 112 km / h ( 69 mph ) , although winds gusted to 183 km / h ( 114 mph ) at Kadena Air Base on Okinawa . In the Ryukyu Islands of Japan , including Okinawa , Halong left more than 48 @,@ 800 houses without power due to the strong winds . Officials canceled bus service in Naze , Kagoshima during the storm . Throughout the country , the typhoon destroyed six houses and damaged 223 others to varying degrees . Halong also flooded 301 houses , forcing about 4 @,@ 000 people to evacuate their homes , many along rivers . Officials canceled 54 airline flights , 10 of them international , and due to the storm , 171 schools were closed . In Sendai , Halong damaged roads in 550 locations and railroads in seven locations . Nine levees were breached , and there were at least 270 landslides . Damage totaled $ 89 @.@ 8 million ( ¥ 10 @.@ 3 billion 2002 JPY ) across the country , mostly from agriculture . During its passage , the typhoon injured nine people , one of them severely , and there was one death .
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= Typhoon Nancy ( 1982 ) =
Typhoon Nancy , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Weling , was a destructive typhoon that moved through Vietnam and the Philippines during October 1982 . The typhoon originated from an area of convection and was first classified as a tropical cyclone on October 10 . The system attained gale @-@ force winds the next day , and slowly deepened thereafter . Although Nancy initially moved west , the system maintained a general westward course for much of its duration , striking Luzon on October 14 at peak intensity of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . It weakened to tropical storm strength overland , but re @-@ intensified to typhoon intensity over the South China Sea . Nancy hit northern Vietnam on the October 18 , and weakened almost immediately thereafter , before dissipating on October 20 inland over Vietnam .
In the Philippines , damage was the worst in Cagayan and Isabela . In the former , 4 @,@ 378 homes were destroyed while 2 @,@ 250 houses were destroyed in the latter . Nationwide , 96 people were killed and 30 others were listed as missing . Additionally , 186 were injured . A total of 12 @,@ 464 homes were destroyed while 34 @,@ 111 others were damaged . Moreover , 301 @,@ 431 persons were " affected " by the storm , or 51 @,@ 532 families . Damage totaled to $ 56 million ( 1982 USD ) , including $ 18 million from infrastructure and $ 26 million from agriculture . While strking Vietnam , the typhoon killed 30 people . Around 72 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed , leaving 125 @,@ 000 people homeless . Throughout the country , 450 @,@ 000 acres ( 182 @,@ 110 ha ) of rice were destroyed .
= = Meteorological history = =
Typhoon Nancy originated from a large area of convection situated in the middle of the Pacific Ocean , which began to consolidate on October 8 within a favorable environment aloft . The convection separated from an upper @-@ level low embedded within a tropical upper @-@ tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) . Later that day , the area of convection degenerated into a " random area of cloudiness . " The TUTT drifted west while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) reported that a tropical depression formed within the area of convection that was now located south of the TUTT . Early on October 10 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) started watching the system . At 0730 UTC , a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert was issued by the JTWC while located 370 km ( 230 mi ) north of Guam .
Following an increase in reorganization , a Hurricane Hunter flight indicated winds of 50 km / h ( 30 mph ) early on October 11 . Later that morning , the JMA upgraded the cyclone into a tropical storm . Following Hurricane Hunter reports , which indicated winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Based on this , the JTWC upgraded the depression into a tropical storm and named it Nancy . Initially , the JTWC expected the system to track northwards and eventually re @-@ curve , but this did not occur . Nancy maintained its intensity for 24 hours while tracking westward before rapidly turning west due to a change in steering patterns . Meanwhile , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Weling . Midday on October 12 , the JMA upgraded Nancy into a severe tropical storm . At 0000 UTC on October 13 , the same agency classified Nancy into a typhoon . Later that day , the JTWC followed suit . By midday on October 14 , the JTWC predicted Nancy to turn northwest into China due to the anticipation of a mid @-@ latitude trough south of South Korea deepening . At 0600 UTC , the JMA reported that Nancy reached its peak intensity of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) and a minimum pressure of 935 mbar ( 27 @.@ 6 inHg ) . Meanwhile , the JTWC reported peak intensity of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) , a Category 4 hurricane equivalent on the United States @-@ based Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ( SSHWS ) . Six hours later , Typhoon Nancy moved ashore in northern Luzon while still at peak intensity .
The storm rapidly weakened over land . Although the JTWC downgraded Nancy to a tropical storm , the JMA kept the storm at typhoon intensity throughout landfall . After entering the South China Sea , the JTWC upped Nancy to typhoon status as it entered an area with favorable mid- to upper @-@ level winds . Continuing to gain strength , the JMA raised the intensity of Nancy to 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) on October 16 . Shortly thereafter , Nancy crossed Hainan Island . After weakening slightly overland , the storm resumed strengthening once offshore . According to the JMA , Nancy attained a secondary peak , with winds of 135 km / h ( 85 mph ) at 0600 UTC on October 17 . The tropical cyclone moved on a slow northwesterly track along the southern periphery of the ridge . While passing slightly north of the Paracel Islands , the JTWC estimated winds of 145 km / h ( 90 mph ) , equivalent to a high @-@ end Category 1 hurricane on the SSHWS . Late on October 18 , Nancy made landfall along the coast of Vietnam , just north of Vinh . At the time of landfall , both agencies estimated that Nancy was a typhoon . Within hours , the convection ceased , though the JMA kept monitoring the system until October 20 , when it finally dissipated .
= = Impact = =
= = = Philippines = = =
Prior to the arrival of Nancy , typhoon warnings were issued for much of Luzon . Many residents left for shelter prior to landfall . Typhoon Nancy passed through 10 provinces in the Philippines , resulting in widespread destruction . Damage was the worst in Cagayan and Isabela , where 56 people were hurt . In the former , 4 @,@ 378 dwellings were destroyed . In Isabela , 2 @,@ 250 houses were destroyed , displacing 35 @,@ 744 residents . Along a river in Isabela , ten bodies were found . Elsewhere , 800 homes were destroyed in Tuguegarao , leaving 1 @,@ 000 homeless and two injured . In Kalinga @-@ Apayao , four fatalities occurred . Throughout the nation , many roads were closed due to mudslides . Mass destruction was reported in rice fields , as well as tobacco and cotton plantations . However , this total was later revised upwards to $ 56 million ( 1982 USD ) , which includes $ 18 million from infrastructure and $ 26 million from agriculture . A total of 96 people died ; 81 of the fatalities were from just three provinces . Most of the deaths were by drowning . Thirty others were rendered as missing and 186 people were injured . A total of 12 @,@ 464 dwellings were destroyed while 34 @,@ 111 others were damaged . Furthermore , 301 @,@ 431 people were " affected " by the storm , or 51 @,@ 532 families .
= = = Vietnam = = =
While making landfall in central Vietnam , winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) were measured due to the typhoon . A total of 30 persons perished . Around 72 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed . Moreover , 125 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in Vinh . In all , 450 @,@ 000 acres ( 182 @,@ 110 ha ) of rice were destroyed ; approximately 150 @,@ 000 acres ( 60 @,@ 705 ha ) of rice were submerged in the Thanh Hóa province alone . In addition , many houses were submerged in Nghe Tinhe . Bình Trị Thiên was also affected by Nancy , but no casualties occurred there .
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= RAF Uxbridge =
RAF Uxbridge was a Royal Air Force ( RAF ) station in Uxbridge , within the London Borough of Hillingdon , occupying a 44 @.@ 6 @-@ hectare ( 110 @-@ acre ) site that originally belonged to the Hillingdon House estate . The British Government purchased the estate in 1915 , three years before the founding of the RAF . Until the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 , the station was open to the public .
The station is best known as the headquarters of No. 11 Group RAF , which was responsible for the aerial defence of London and the south @-@ east of England during the Battle of Britain . Hillingdon House served as the group 's headquarters . A bunker , subsequently known as the Battle of Britain Bunker , was built nearby to house the 11 Group Operations Room , which controlled fighter squadrons operating within the group . The Operations Room was also responsible for providing air support during the evacuation of Dunkirk in May 1940 ( Operation Dynamo ) and the D @-@ Day landings ( Operation Overlord ) . It was here that Winston Churchill first said , " Never was so much owed by so many to so few " , which he repeated in a speech to Parliament four days later .
RAF Uxbridge closed on 31 March 2010 as part of a reduction in the number of Ministry of Defence properties in the Greater London area . Many of its remaining military units were relocated to nearby RAF Northolt the following day . Plans for redevelopment , consisting of a mixture of new residential and commercial properties and the retention of all listed buildings , were approved in January 2011 . A small part of the station incorporating the Battle of Britain Bunker retains the RAF Uxbridge name and is maintained by RAF Northolt .
The River Pinn runs through the site from north to south , passing Hillingdon House and the Battle of Britain Bunker . The land around the river is mainly wooded and designated as greenbelt , and Hillingdon Golf Course borders the south of the station . A footpath through the site that had closed in 1988 was reopened in 2011 .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
The area that became RAF Uxbridge was originally part of the estate of Hillingdon House , built as a hunting lodge in 1717 by the Duke of Schomberg , who staged regular hunts in the grounds . He was a German @-@ born general serving under William of Orange ( later King William III ) , knighted for his part in the 1690 Battle of the Boyne .
The Marchioness of Rockingham , widow of Prime Minister Charles Watson @-@ Wentworth , 2nd Marquess of Rockingham , bought the house in 1786 for £ 9 @,@ 000 following her husband 's death and lived there until her own death in 1804 . She left the estate to her stepsister Elizabeth , widow of William Weddell MP , who sold it to Josias Du Pré Porcher in 1805 .
In 1810 the estate was sold to Richard Henry Cox , grandson of Richard Cox , founder of the travel company Cox & Kings . Cox & Co , as the company was then known , was formed after Richard Cox was appointed agent to the Foot Guards ( later the Grenadier Guards ) , and provided banking services for many regiments of the British Army by the end of the 18th century . The mansion was completely rebuilt after it burnt down in 1844 and later received a Grade II listing .
= = = First World War = = =
In 1914 the mansion was put on the market by the estate of Frederick Cox , Richard Henry Cox 's grandson . It was described as " a brick and stone building , partly stuccoed , with extensive outbuildings and ornamental gardens . " The house and gardens , together with the surrounding parkland and an artificial lake created by damming a section of the River Pinn , amounted to over 81 ha ( 200 acres ) .
The British Government purchased the estate in 1915 , with the intention of establishing a prisoner of war camp . The local population strongly opposed the plan , causing the government to relent , and the site instead became the Canadian Convalescent Hospital to care for troops evacuated from the front line during the First World War . The hospital opened on 20 September 1915 and was joined on 19 November 1917 by the Royal Flying Corps Armament School which moved into Hillingdon House with 114 officers and 1156 men , making a donation of £ 2289 , 12s and 9d to the Canadian Red Cross . The RFC used parts of the estate not required by the Canadians , and established firing ranges for the training of recruits in ground gunnery . A total of eight of these ranges were built along the River Pinn ; one remains today . The hospital closed on 12 December 1917 .
On 1 April 1918 , the Uxbridge site came under control of the Royal Air Force , which had been formed that day by the amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service . The following month it became the first RAF station to receive a royal visit , from King George V.
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
The Recruits Training Depot and a detachment of the RAF Depot from RAF Halton arrived in August 1919 , merging to form No. 1 Depot , RAF Uxbridge . The station itself was designated RAF Central Depot , Uxbridge . The site was then split to form two new RAF stations , the area to the east of the River Pinn heading uphill to Hillingdon House becoming RAF Hillingdon and the remainder RAF Uxbridge . That year , the building that became the station cinema was opened , designed by Lieutenant J.G.N. Clift of the Royal Engineers , and served as a lecture hall for new recruits . The RAF School of Music moved to RAF Uxbridge from Hampstead in September 1919 . Headquarters Southern Area , Southern Area Medical Headquarters , Southern Area Barrack Stores , and the Southern Area and South Eastern Area Headquarters of the Air Construction Service moved into Hillingdon House in October 1919 . T. E. Lawrence , better known as " Lawrence of Arabia " , underwent initial training at the Uxbridge Depot in 1922 after enlisting in the RAF under the assumed name John Hume @-@ Ross . He recounted his experiences in The Mint .
Uxbridge Football Club was provided with the use of the station stadium from 1923 and played evening matches there . Ten barrack blocks designed by A. Gilpin were built around the parade ground in 1925 , as was the RAF officers ' hospital and the original Operations Room , controlled by the Fighting Area of Air Defence of Great Britain ( ADGB ) . The Air Ministry chose RAF Uxbridge as the new base for ADGB on 14 January 1926 owing to its proximity to Whitehall . The site had the added advantage of lying on the fringes of London and therefore difficult for an enemy to locate and bomb . Having also housed a gymnasium , the lecture hall building became the station cinema in 1927 , initially for the use of station personnel only but soon opened to the general public . On 1 March 1929 , the headquarters of the Royal Observer Corps ( ROC ) was established at Hillingdon House ; Air Commodore Edward Masterman was appointed as its first commandant . The Observer Corps remained at RAF Uxbridge until 1 March 1936 , when it transferred to RAF Bentley Priory .
Owing to its wooden construction the original Operations Room could only be used during the summer months ; maintenance of the signalling and communications equipment became difficult under damp winter conditions . A memo dated 16 January 1933 , sent to the senior Air Staff Officer , Wing Commander Modin , stated :
Uxbridge Royal Air Force buildings would provide an easy bombing target from all points of view , I feel that our Operations Room at least must go underground ... and the sooner it is put there the better , as not only will the re @-@ installation of communications and apparatus generally take time , but if that machinery is to function smoothly in a sudden emergency , installation must have been completed and the whole layout repeatedly worked and tried out before the danger of such emergency arises .
Douglas Bader arrived at the military hospital in 1932 to recover from the amputation of his legs following an air crash . During his stay Bader met the Desoutter brothers , who were beginning to make lightweight artificial legs from aluminium . Once fitted with artificial legs , Bader fought hard to regain his former abilities and in time his efforts paid off . He was able to drive a specially modified car , play golf and even dance . During his convalescence , Bader met his future wife Thelma Edwards , a waitress at a nearby pub called the Pantiles .
Formed on 1 May 1936 , No. 11 Group RAF was headquartered at RAF Uxbridge under the command of Air Vice Marshal Philip Joubert de la Ferté , who was succeeded by Sir Ernest Gossage in January 1937 . The ADGB was reorganised on 13 July 1936 , with control of fighter aircraft passing to the newly established RAF Fighter Command , which moved to RAF Bentley Priory . The following day the remaining elements of ADGB became RAF Bomber Command , headquartered in Hillingdon House .
Planning for the new No. 11 Group Operations Room ( within what became known as the Battle of Britain Bunker ) began in August 1937 . Initially it was to be buried 66 feet ( 20 m ) below ground , but problems with the local London Clay on the site meant it was eventually built by Sir Robert McAlpine at a depth of 60 feet ( 18 m ) , although it was still able to withstand being hit by a 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb . The bunker was designed by Bob Creer of the Air Ministry . Work began in February 1939 and finished in August , ten days before the outbreak of the Second World War . The original Operations Room on the surface remained as a back @-@ up , but was not required for that purpose and was subsequently renamed Building 76 . Also in August 1939 , Bomber Command moved to Iver and on 2 September the new Operations Room and RAF Uxbridge reached operational war readiness . The station closed to the public on the outbreak of war , and the football club was required to suspend its use of the stadium .
= = = Second World War = = =
During the war RAF Uxbridge was tasked with despatching personnel to and from training and operational units in Northern France . It also housed the RAF Uxbridge Language School , where Polish Air Force pilots were taught key RAF codewords . Pilots practised formation flying on the station football pitch , using tricycles fitted with radios , compasses and speed indicators . British Expeditionary Force troops returning from Dunkirk were processed at Uxbridge . In mid @-@ 1940 , staff at the station processed an average of 2 @,@ 500 recruits and experienced troops per week .
During the Battle of Britain , between July and October 1940 , RAF Fighter Command at RAF Bentley Priory received air threat warnings that it filtered to remove duplication , doubt and confusion . These were then forwarded to the Operations Room at RAF Uxbridge , which allocated appropriate defence resources and passed orders on to No. 11 Group sector airfields . No. 11 Group personnel doubled to 20 @,@ 000 between April and November 1940 . The RAF officers ' hospital was converted to the Women 's Auxiliary Air Force ( WAAF ) hospital early in 1940 .
While overseeing the operations at RAF Uxbridge , Air Vice Marshal Park stayed in a house opposite the entrance to the bunker . He used a small door to reach the bunker from the house each day . The house , named after the war in Park 's honour , was demolished in 1996 to make way for newly constructed married quarters ; only the garden wall and door were retained . Wing Commander Willoughby de Broke received the Air Force Cross on 11 July 1940 for his service as a Senior Operations Officer for No. 11 Group , working within the Operations Room . Prime Minister Winston Churchill visited the station on 16 August 1940 , to monitor the battle from the Operations Room . He subsequently made his well @-@ known comment , " Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few " to General Ismay as they got into their car to leave . Churchill repeated the quote in a speech to Parliament four days later . King George VI and Queen Elizabeth visited the station on 6 September . Churchill was again present at RAF Uxbridge on the fiercest day of fighting of the entire battle : Battle of Britain Day , 15 September 1940 . As the last squadrons were sent into battle , Churchill asked Air Vice Marshal Sir Keith Park , " How many reserves have we ? " Park answered " There are none " .
A delayed @-@ action landmine fell on the station on 26 September 1940 , between the police school and WAAF Quarters , where it remained until it was defused the following day . On 28 September a bomb fell into a tree 50 yards ( 46 m ) from the Operations Room and was later defused in Harefield . A Junkers Ju 88 attacked the station on 6 October 1940 , dropping a bomb beside the Navy , Army and Air Force Institutes ( NAAFI ) grocery shop . The device damaged water and gas mains but caused no casualties . Few bombs fell on the station ; Luftwaffe pilots may have mistaken the glass greenhouses at the Lowe & Shawyer plant nursery west of the station for a large body of water not on their maps .
The king and queen returned on 1 November 1941 , by which time a " Royal Box " had been installed in the Operations Room to allow them to observe the plotting activities . During 1942 , General Charles de Gaulle , Sir Anthony Eden and Lord Mountbatten all visited the 11 Group Operations Room . The actors Rex Harrison ( then a squadron leader liaising with Bomber Command ) , Cyril Raymond and Ronald Adam all served within the Operations Room during the war .
In 1941 , a division of the Meteorological Office was established at RAF Uxbridge as part of the Intelligence Branch . On 1 July that year the station Sick Quarters were merged with the WAAF hospital to create the RAF Station Hospital . No. 11 Group was involved in providing air support for the Dieppe Raid ( Operation Jubilee ) on 19 August 1942 . Air Marshal Trafford Leigh @-@ Mallory commanded participating Allied air forces from the 11 Group Operation Room . The air operations section of Operation Overlord , the 6 June 1944 Normandy landings ( D @-@ Day ) , was also controlled from RAF Uxbridge . Orders from the station were the only ones issued to Allied air units on the day . The headquarters of the 2nd Tactical Air Force and 9th Tactical Air Force of the USAAF were stationed at Uxbridge while preparations were made for the invasion . On D @-@ Day , the 11 Group Controller was responsible for ensuring sufficient air patrols of the United Kingdom , the main shipping routes , and the beach landing areas .
= = = Post @-@ war years = = =
RAF Uxbridge served as an athlete 's village for the male competitors in the 1948 Summer Olympics . Swimmers trained at nearby Uxbridge Lido , and female athletes were housed at RAF West Drayton . Personnel from RAF Uxbridge were moved out to RAF Stanmore Park and transported back to the station daily for their shifts . In 1949 , the RAF Cricket Association opened on Vine Lane on the western boundary of the station . Also moving into the stations grounds in October of that year were the 14F squadron or the Air Training Corps , their access also being via Vine Lane.The station 's crest was approved in April 1953 , incorporating a drill sergeant 's pace stick to symbolise the training of recruits , and a bugle to represent the Central Band of the RAF ; Uxbridge was the first RAF station in Middlesex to have a crest approved .
The ceremonial entrance to the north @-@ west of the station , St Andrew 's Gate , was officially opened on 16 December 1957 to mark the link between Uxbridge and the Royal Air Force . A memorial to the personnel of No. 11 Group , made of Cornish granite , was placed in the ground above the Operations Room in 1957 . No. 11 Group moved to RAF Martlesham Heath on 14 April 1958 and the room was soon sealed in its original condition . The memorial was unveiled by Air Chief Marshal Lord Dowding on 23 April 1958 in a ceremony attended by Group Captain Douglas Bader and Wing Commander Lord Willoughby de Broke , among others , and marked by a flypast of the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight . Control of RAF Hillingdon passed from Fighter Command to Technical Training Command that year , at which time the entire site became known as RAF Uxbridge . The RAF School of Education moved into Hillingdon House from RAF Spitalgate on 10 November 1958 , and the station was subsequently merged with No. 22 Group RAF .
The station was granted the Freedom of the London Borough of Hillingdon on 19 March 1960 , an honour allowing the station 's personnel to march throughout the borough in uniform . On 1 November that year , the Queen 's Colour Squadron of the RAF Regiment moved to Uxbridge and the Southern Region Air Traffic Services headquarters moved into Hillingdon House . After the war , the station was already home to the London Area Control Centre , renamed the London Air Traffic Control Centre in 1948 and the Uxbridge Air Traffic Control Centre in 1957 . This eventually transferred to RAF West Drayton but remained under the parentage of RAF Uxbridge .
The 11 Group Operations Room was extensively surveyed in order for a replica to be built at Pinewood Studios for the 1969 film Battle of Britain . Scenes for the 1996 television miniseries Over Here and an episode of Richard Holmes ' War Walks were filmed in the Operations Room itself . The reinforced Uniter building was built on the site in the 1970s to house communications equipment . Although no longer used for this purpose , the building contains two fuel storage tanks . The main entrance to the station was moved in 1972 from beside the station cinema to its present location roughly 50 yards ( 46 m ) south .
Over nine months in 1975 , the 11 Group Operations Room was restored by No. 9 Signals Unit . The original map was repaired and returned to the table by the RAF Cartography unit , and the board detailing the readiness and activities of each sector squadron was rebuilt to resemble its status on 15 September 1940 . In 1985 a museum was created within the bunker by Warrant Officer " Chris " Wren and the Operations Room opened for group visits .
In January 1981 , the Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) planted a bomb in the Suvla barrack block at RAF Uxbridge . The device was discovered and the 35 RAF musicians and 15 airmen living there were evacuated before it exploded . Following the incident , an enquiry began and security at all RAF stations was reviewed . The following year , many RAF personnel from the station were deployed during the Falklands War . The station went on to celebrate its 70th anniversary in 1987 by staging several events that raised £ 30 @,@ 000 for the RAF Benevolent Fund .
RAF Uxbridge also became involved in Operation Granby following the Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 . Personnel at Uxbridge were prepared for service in the Gulf at that time , and deployed that year in December . During the aerial assault on Iraq in January 1991 , support group meetings began at the station for the families of service personnel serving during the Gulf War . Prince Edward , Earl of Wessex , visited one of these groups in February 1991 .
The station church , St Luke 's , became structurally unsound on 21 November 1990 after the foundations failed . The building dated back to 1933 and had been constructed of wood ; the walls were pushed out and the floor rose by 4 inches ( 100 mm ) . In March 1993 , the Leigh @-@ Mallory bridge was opened across the River Pinn , and the church moved into a new permanent home , Building 231 , in March 1995 . Jim Bolger , then Prime Minister of New Zealand , visited the station in May , and in October , the station 's new sports centre opened .
RAF Uxbridge personnel were once more prepared for action in the Gulf in 2003 in readiness for Operation Telic in Iraq . A support network for the families of service personnel sent into action was again established at the station . In March 2003 the Under @-@ Secretary of State for Defence was briefed at Uxbridge as part of preparations for a visit to the Gulf .
Personnel paraded through Uxbridge town centre on 28 November 2007 , exercising the freedom of the borough granted to the station in 1960 . RAF Uxbridge became a satellite station of RAF Northolt on 1 April 2008 , in preparation for the eventual closure . In the final years of RAF ownership , the Service Prosecuting Authority and Civil Aviation Authority 's UK Airprox Board ( investigating air proximity incidents ) was based in Hillingdon House . The final of the national Carnegie Champions schools rugby tournament was held at the station in August 2008 . The link between RAF Uxbridge and the Royal Observer Corps was renewed in 2008 with the closure of RAF Bentley Priory and the relocation to Uxbridge of ROC memorabilia from the Priory Officers ' Mess for safekeeping and display . The Royal Observer Corps had been stood down from operational duties in December 1995 .
The Queen 's Colour Squadron returned from a six @-@ month tour of duty in Afghanistan in 2009 , marked by a homecoming parade through Uxbridge town centre held on 5 August 2009 . More than 20 @,@ 000 people watched the parade , which started from Uxbridge Magistrates Court , passing along the town 's High Street to the RAF station .
= = RAF units = =
Sources : RAF Uxbridge 90th Anniversary 1917 – 2007 , RAF Uxbridge – A Fond Farewell , and Ministry of Defence .
= = Closure and redevelopment = =
Prior to the closure of RAF Uxbridge , Queen Elizabeth II sent a message to the station in February 2010 , via her equerry , Wing Commander A.D. Calame , who had served as Officer Commanding the Queen 's Colour Squadron between 10 August 2005 and 16 July 2007 :
Her Majesty was interested to hear that , in this anniversary year , the historic Number 11 Group Operations Rooms Bunker has been listed and will be preserved as a Royal Air Force asset . Hopefully , the facility will continue as a permanent reminder of those who fought and won the Battle of Britain .
Her Majesty hopes that the relocation to Royal Air Force Northolt will continue to progress well , and wishes all personnel at Uxbridge best wishes for the future .
The station closed on 31 March 2010 as part of the Ministry of Defence 's Project MoDEL , a programme to reduce the number of defence sites in Greater London in favour of a core site at RAF Northolt . The closure ceremony was overseen by the Mayor of Hillingdon and included parades and the final lowering of the Royal Air Force Ensign over the parade ground . A Supermarine Spitfire conducted a flypast of the station . The final units marched to their new station at RAF Northolt the following day . The station , which had received the Freedom of the Borough of Hillingdon , returned the award to the London Borough of Hillingdon as part of the ceremony , though this was returned on 4 September to be stored in the museum of the Battle of Britain Bunker . A commemorative blue plaque dedicated to Douglas Bader was unveiled by the Mayor of Hillingdon at the entrance to the Officers ' Mess .
The Middlesex Wing Headquarters of the Air Training Corps ( ATC ) had been based at the station together with No. 1083 Squadron ATC , which met on Mondays and Thursdays for parade nights . As part of the closing ceremony , personnel of No. 1083 Squadron were presented with the station crest to adopt as their own . The squadron continued to meet at the station until July 2010 , when a newly refurbished building at the TA Centre on Honeycroft Hill became available .
The Grade I listed Battle of Britain Bunker is now preserved as a museum open to the public , while the Grade II listed Hillingdon House will be partially converted into a restaurant . The station cinema is also Grade II listed . The Battle of Britain War Memorial is a scheduled protected monument . Although not listed , several other buildings on the site were identified within the plans for possible retention : the Sick Quarters , the Officers ' Mess , the original gymnasium , the carpenters ' block in the grounds of Hillingdon House and a building near the Battle of Britain Bunker . St. Andrew 's Gate will be retained , as will the Mons barrack block adjacent to the parade ground .
Plans to develop the remaining 44 @.@ 6 hectares ( 110 acres ) of the site were approved by the London Borough of Hillingdon in January 2011 for 1 @,@ 340 homes , shops , a theatre and a primary school to be built over 10 years . The council intends the development to become an extension of Uxbridge town centre . Early suggestions from the Leader of Hillingdon Council included a theatre with a statue of T.E. Lawrence outside , and a new museum built around the Battle of Britain Bunker . MP for Uxbridge John Randall called in 2009 for Hillingdon Hospital to be relocated to the site as an alternative to a planned rebuilding project on its existing site . The hospital trust ruled out such a move due to the projected costs .
The area around the Battle of Britain Bunker , including the No. 11 Group memorial , will retain the RAF Uxbridge name and be maintained by RAF Northolt as an exclave . The Royal Air Force Ensign was moved to the area , together with the Supermarine Spitfire gate guardian , a fibreglass replica of aircraft BR600 . The Spitfire was refurbished and painted in the D @-@ Day invasion colours of No. 33 Squadron as aircraft BS239 , funded by the London Borough of Hillingdon . Uxbridge 's first gate guardian was a real Supermarine Spitfire which was unveiled on 23 May 1973 . This was sold to a collector for restoration and replaced by the current guardian in 1988 . At a service commemorating the Battle of Britain in September 2010 , a new Hawker Hurricane gate guardian in the markings of No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron was unveiled , also near the bunker . The guardian is a fibreglass replica of the aircraft flown by Witold Urbanowicz during the Battle of Britain .
The South Hillingdon branch of the St. John Ambulance service was based at RAF Uxbridge until the closure in 2010 led to a period of uncertainty over its relocation . Eventually , RAF Northolt provided the charity with new premises , which were available from January 2011 .
In June 2011 , it was announced that the public right of way from St Andrew 's Gate in the north @-@ west to Vine Lane in the north @-@ east would be reopened , after work to fence off the pathway was completed . The path , 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) long , was the subject of a petition submitted to Hillingdon Council in 2010 and had been closed since 1988 . The path was reopened in early August 2011 .
Since closing , the site has been used extensively for filming . Most recently , scenes for the television drama Endeavour , set in the 1960s , were filmed there .
In April 2012 , VSM Estates announced it would be completing the purchase of the site from the MoD , with a view to commencing building work by the end of the year . VSM were provided with a £ 60 million five @-@ year loan by HSBC , together with funding from joint parent companies , St. Modwen Properties and Vinci plc . Persimmon will develop 8 @.@ 9 hectares ( 22 acres ) of the site with 500 homes under an existing joint venture agreement with St Modwen . Demolition of the site in phases began in October 2012 . The site will be developed under the St Andrew 's Park name .
A wood commemorating the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II was planted within the site in May 2012 . Each school in the London Borough of Hillingdon was invited to plant a tree , and the Station Commander of RAF Northolt , Group Captain Tim O 'Brien , also planted one on behalf of the RAF . The wood was officially dedicated by the London Borough of Hillingdon 's Representative Deputy Lieutenant , Wing Commander Edna Partridge , on 19 July 2012 .
A ground @-@ breaking ceremony was held on 2 July 2013 on the site , attended by the Mayor of Hillingdon and cabinet members of Hillingdon Council . The development is due to be completed within seven years .
A new primary school , built on the site of the former sports ground and gym , opened in September 2014 . Named the John Locke Academy , the school will have 630 primary places and 90 nursery places when fully subscribed .
An additional planning application for the construction of office buildings was submitted by St. Modwen in June 2015 .
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= Audrey Pauley =
" Audrey Pauley " is the eleventh episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It originally aired on the Fox network on March 17 , 2002 . It was written by Steven Maeda and directed by Kim Manners . The episode is a " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the mythology , or overarching fictional history , of The X @-@ Files . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 4 @.@ 8 , being watched by 8 million viewers . It has generally received positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , after being in a car accident , Reyes awakens in a surreal hospital . Doggett and a comatose Reyes struggle to prevent her organ donor card from being acted upon . The two , however , soon discover a unique woman , Audrey Pauley , who has the ability to communicate with both those conscious and unconscious .
" Audrey Pauley " guest starred Tracey Ellis as the title character ; she had previously appeared as a major character in the third season episode " Oubliette " . Gish has called the episode one of her favorites to film . In addition , it contained several elaborate stunts and effect sequences , many of which were created in unique manners .
= = Plot = =
After driving home from work , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) is struck by a drunk driver and transported to a hospital , where she is examined by Dr. Preijers ( Jack Blessing ) and Nurse Edwards ; she soon slips into a coma . Reyes , however , wakes up moments later in the same room all alone . Running to the door , she discovers that the hospital is floating in a dark void . She soon finds two other patients , Stephen Murdoch ( Stan Shaw ) , and Mr. Barreiro ( Del Zamora ) . They assume that they are dead . Reyes , however , maintains that they are still alive .
Meanwhile , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) tells John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) that Reyes is braindead , a fact that Doggett refuses to believe . Preijers informs Doggett and Scully that , since Reyes was an organ donor , in a few days her life @-@ support will be pulled and the hospital will harvest her remains . In the floating hospital , Reyes sees a woman ( Tracey Ellis ) standing in the hallway , but she disappears . At that moment , Barreiro begins screaming and is engulfed in blue electricity before disappearing . In the real world , it is revealed that Barreiro , a fellow comatose patient , has had his life support removed by Preijers . Nearby stands the mystery woman that Reyes encountered : Audrey Pauley .
Doggett begins looking into ways to save Reyes , noting an anomaly in her electrocardiograph that suggests stifled brain activity . While visiting her room , Doggett runs into Audrey who tells her that Reyes ' soul is not gone yet . Audrey walks to her room in the basement , where a model of the hospital has been built . By concentrating her mind , she is able to move into the floating hospital where Reyes is trapped . Once there , she finds Reyes and asks her to tell Doggett that he 's a " dog person " , a reference to a conversation the two had before Reyes ' crash . After relaying the message , Doggett is determined that Reyes is not gone and , following Audrey , learns about her hospital model .
Meanwhile , Nurse Edwards ( Vernee Watson @-@ Johnson ) confronts Preijers about an injection she saw him give Reyes ; he kills Edwards to cover his tracks . Later , in the floating hospital , Stephen collapses and disappears when he too is pulled off of life support . After Doggett is spotted with Audrey in the basement by Preijers , he begins to worry that she could expose what he is doing . He injects the same drug he used to kill Edwards , but Audrey is able to concentrate and move into the floating hospital one last time . She informs Reyes that her only way out is to jump into the void . Reyes does so and wakes up in her hospital bed moments before her organs are to be harvested . Doggett runs down to Audrey 's room only to find that Preijers has killed her . Doggett manages to capture Preijers before he can escape .
= = Production = =
" Audrey Pauley " was written by Steven Maeda and directed by Kim Manners . The entry was Maeda 's second ninth season entry after " 4 @-@ D " . The episode features guest star Tracey Ellis as the titular Audrey Pauley . Ellis had previously appeared as a major character in the third season episode " Oubliette " . Annabeth Gish later noted that the episode , along with " 4 @-@ D " , were her " two favorite episodes " because they " are stand @-@ alone episodes about Reyes and Doggett . Wonderful acting challenges , and the stories were fantastic . " Robert Patrick , whose friend Ted Demme had recently died , was worried about bringing too much emotion onto the set . He later noted , " I was kind of raw . I remember being a little worried about bringing too much emotion to it . I felt safe with Kim ; he knew I was going through a tough time . "
The episode contained several elaborate stunts and effect sequences . Gish performed all of her stunts in the episode , including one shot when she jumped from a thirty foot descender . She later called the sequence " the biggest stunt of my career . " For several of the special effect shots , Manners was forced to compromise on his original decision . One specific shot , wherein Audrey Pauley had to disappear after appearing in front of Gish , was originally going to be done via CGI . Eventually , Manners decided to " tie the two actresses [ Gish and Ellis ] together [ ... ] and then you [ cut ] to Annabeth and in her face there 's an ' oh shit ' reaction , and then [ pan ] straight up on a crane , all right , and see that she 's completely alone . " He called effects like these " creative ways to trim [ the ] budget . " To create the floating hospital scene , a small door set was merged with a CGI hospital . Initially , the scene used a straight flat " piece of cement " as the bottom of the building . The effects team tried adding a " big piece of earth " under the building , but Paul Rabwin felt it looked too much like The Little Prince , so the piece of earth was removed . The final result also removed the cement @-@ like base .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Audrey Pauley " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 17 , 2002 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on January 26 , 2003 . The episode 's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 5 @.@ 1 million households , 8 million viewers , and ranked as the sixty @-@ eighth most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending March 17 . " Audrey Pauley " earned a Nielsen household rating of 4 @.@ 8 , meaning that roughly 4 @.@ 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , were tuned in to the episode .
The episode has generally received positive reviews from television critics . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , gave the episode a glowing review and rated it five stars out of five . The two noted that " this is what The X @-@ Files should be doing now " and that " this would have been the template on which to have built a series starring Doggett and Reyes . " Furthermore , they noted that the script was " written and directed with so much restraint " , that is makes many of the emotional scenes " more affecting " . Shearman and Pearson ultimately called the end result " clever , thoughtful , [ … ] very moving " and " beautiful " . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it an 8 out of 10 . He wrote , " Overall , this was a strong episode , with a lot of wonderful character exploration and an interesting concept . However , there were some weaknesses throughout , typical of Steve Maeda ’ s episodes , and that detracted from the episode in some places . Still , another winner in this underrated final season . " Lionel Green from Sand Mountain Reporter named the episode one of his " 13 all @-@ time favorite episodes " of The X @-@ Files , ranking it at number three . He wrote that the episode was " powerful " due to its themes of " faith , love and sacrifice . " He concluded that it was " the best one starring the new agents , Doggett and Reyes . " M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , praised the performances of Robert Patrick and Annabeth Gish while stating that the visuals in the dream sequences were " pitch @-@ perfect " .
Jessica Morgan , however , from Television Without Pity , gave the episode a more mixed review . She criticized the character of Monica Reyes and called her " Moronica " . She ultimately gave the episode a C + grade . Jeffrey Robinson from DVD Talk called the entry " borderline weird " and used it as evidence that " the ninth season [ is ] arguably the worst season of the series . " The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen was generally unenthused writing " It ’ s not a bad episode , exactly , but there doesn ’ t seem to be a lot of point to it . ... it makes for a forgettable hour . "
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= Pedra Branca dispute =
The Pedra Branca dispute [ 2008 ] ICJ 2 was a territorial dispute between Singapore and Malaysia over several islets at the eastern entrance to the Singapore Strait , namely Pedra Branca ( previously called Pulau Batu Puteh and now Batu Puteh by Malaysia ) , Middle Rocks and South Ledge . The dispute began in 1979 and was largely resolved by the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) in 2008 , which opined that Pedra Branca belonged to Singapore and Middle Rocks belonged to Malaysia .
In early 1980 , Singapore lodged a formal protest with Malaysia in response to a map published by Malaysia in 1979 claiming Pedra Branca . In 1989 Singapore proposed submitting the dispute to the ICJ . Malaysia agreed to this in 1994 . In 1993 , Singapore also claimed the nearby islets Middle Rocks and South Ledge . In 1998 the two countries agreed on the text of a Special Agreement that was needed to submit the dispute to the ICJ . The Special Agreement was signed in February 2003 , and the ICJ formally notified of the Agreement in July that year . The hearing before the ICJ was held over three weeks in November 2007 under the name Sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh , Middle Rocks and South Ledge ( Malaysia v. Singapore ) .
Singapore argued that Pedra Branca was terra nullius , and that there was no evidence the island had ever been under the sovereignty of the Johor Sultanate . In the event the Court did not accept this argument , Singapore contended that sovereignty over the island had passed to Singapore due to the consistent exercise of authority over the island by Singapore and its predecessor , the United Kingdom . The actions taken included selecting Pedra Branca as the site for Horsburgh Lighthouse and constructing the lighthouse , requiring Malaysian officials wishing to visit the island to obtain permits , installing a military rebroadcast station on the island , and studying the feasibility of reclaiming land around the island . Malaysia had remained silent in the face of these activities . In addition , it had confirmed in a 1953 letter that Johor did not claim ownership of the island , and had published official reports and maps indicating that it regarded Pedra Branca as Singapore territory . Middle Rocks and South Ledge should be regarded as dependencies of Pedra Branca .
Malaysia 's case was that Johor had original title to Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge . Johor had not ceded Pedra Branca to the United Kingdom , but had merely granted permission for the lighthouse to be built and maintained on it . The actions of the United Kingdom and Singapore in respect of the Horsburgh Lighthouse and the waters surrounding the island were not actions of the island 's sovereign . Further , the 1953 letter had been unauthorised and the official reports and maps it had issued were either irrelevant or inconclusive .
On 23 May 2008 , the Court ruled that Pedra Branca is under Singapore 's sovereignty , while Middle Rocks belongs to Malaysia . As regards South Ledge , the Court noted that it falls within the apparently overlapping territorial waters generated by mainland Malaysia , Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks . As it is a maritime feature visible only at low tide , it belongs to the state in the territorial waters of which it is located . Malaysia and Singapore have established what they have named the Joint Technical Committee to delimit the maritime boundary in the area around Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks , and to determine the ownership of South Ledge .
= = Dispute = =
Pedra Branca is a small granite outcrop located 25 nautical miles ( 46 km ; 29 mi ) east of Singapore and 7 @.@ 7 nautical miles ( 14 @.@ 3 km ; 8 @.@ 9 mi ) south of Johor , Malaysia , where the Singapore Strait meets the South China Sea . There are two maritime features near the island : Middle Rocks , 0 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ; 0 @.@ 69 mi ) south of Pedra Branca , which consists of two clusters of small rocks about 250 metres ( 820 ft ) apart ; and South Ledge , 2 @.@ 2 nautical miles ( 4 @.@ 1 km ; 2 @.@ 5 mi ) south @-@ south @-@ west of Pedra Branca , which is visible only at low tide .
Singapore has been administering Pedra Branca since Horsburgh Lighthouse was built on the island by its predecessor , the United Kingdom , between 1850 and 1851 . Singapore was ceded by Sultan Hussein Shah and Temenggung Abdul Rahman Sri Maharajah of Johor to the British East India Company under a Treaty of Friendship and Alliance of 2 August 1824 ( the Crawfurd Treaty ) , and became part of the Straits Settlements in 1826 . At the time when the lighthouse on the island was constructed , the Straits Settlements were under British rule through the Government of India .
On 21 December 1979 , the Director of National Mapping of Malaysia published a map entitled Territorial Waters and Continental Shelf Boundaries of Malaysia showing Pedra Branca to be within its territorial waters . Singapore rejected this " claim " in a diplomatic note of 14 February 1980 and asked for the map to be corrected . In the late 1980s , Attorney @-@ General of Singapore Tan Boon Teik was despatched by the Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Kuan Yew to disclose the documentary evidence which Singapore had to the Malaysian Attorney @-@ General , to demonstrate the strength of Singapore 's case . However , the dispute was not resolved by an exchange of correspondence and intergovernmental talks in 1993 and 1994 . In the first round of talks in February 1993 the issue of sovereignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge was also raised . Malaysia and Singapore therefore agreed to submit the dispute to the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) .
= = Procedural matters = =
Singapore first suggested submitting the territorial dispute to the ICJ in 1989 . The suggestion was accepted by Malaysia in 1994 . In 1998 , the text of a Special Agreement to bring the matter before the ICJ was agreed , and the Agreement was signed by the two countries at Putrajaya , Malaysia , on 6 February 2003 . It was notified to the Court in July 2003 . The case was assigned the name Sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh , Middle Rocks and South Ledge ( Malaysia v. Singapore ) .
Following directions issued by the Court , the parties exchanged memorials on 25 March 2004 , counter @-@ memorials on 25 January 2005 , and replies on 25 November 2005 . As the parties informed the Court by a letter dated 23 January 2006 that rejoinders were unnecessary , the written proceedings were closed . The Court determined by drawing lots that Singapore would present its case first . Public hearings were held between 6 and 23 November 2007 , with Singapore presenting its case from 6 to 9 November , and Malaysia doing the same from 13 to 16 November 2007 . Each country was then given two days to respond , with 19 and 20 November allocated to Singapore , and 22 and 23 November allocated to Malaysia . The persons who spoke for the parties were :
For Singapore : Tommy Koh , Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large , Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( Singapore ) ; Professor of Law at the National University of Singapore ( acting as Singapore 's Agent ) ;
Chao Hick Tin , Attorney @-@ General of Singapore ( Counsel and Advocate ) ;
Chan Sek Keong , Chief Justice of Singapore ( Counsel and Advocate ) ;
Alain Pellet , Professor at the Paris X University Nanterre ; member and former Chairman of the United Nations International Law Commission ; associate member of the Institut de Droit International ( Counsel and Advocate ) ;
Ian Brownlie , C.B.E. , Q.C. , F.B.A. ; member of the English Bar ; Chairman of the UN International Law Commission ; Emeritus Chichele Professor of Public International Law , University of Oxford ; member of the Institut de Droit International ; Distinguished Fellow , All Souls College , Oxford ( Counsel and Advocate ) ;
Rodman R. Bundy , avocat à la Cour d 'Appel de Paris ; member of the New York State Bar Association ; Frere Cholmeley / Eversheds , Paris ( Counsel and Advocate ) ;
Loretta Malintoppi , avocat à la Cour d 'Appel de Paris ; member of the Rome Bar ; Frere Cholmeley / Eversheds , Paris ( Counsel and Advocate ) ; and
S. Jayakumar , Deputy Prime Minister ; Co @-@ ordinating Minister for National Security and Minister for Law ; Professor of Law at the National University of Singapore ( Counsel and Advocate ) .
For Malaysia : Abdul Kadir Mohamad , Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large , Ministry of Foreign Affairs , Malaysia ; Adviser for Foreign Affairs to the Prime Minister ( Malaysia 's Agent ) ;
Farida Ariffin , Ambassador of Malaysia to the Netherlands ( Co @-@ Agent ) ;
Abdul Gani Patail , Attorney @-@ General of Malaysia ( Counsel ) ;
Elihu Lauterpacht , C.B.E. , Q.C. , Honorary Professor of International Law , University of Cambridge ; member of the Institut de Droit International ; member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration ( Counsel ) ;
James Crawford , S.C. , F.B.A. , Whewell Professor of International Law , University of Cambridge ; member of the Institut de Droit International ( Counsel ) ;
Nicolaas Jan Schrijver , Professor of Public International Law , Leiden University ; associate member of the Institut de Droit International ( Counsel ) ;
Marcelo G. Kohen , Professor of International Law , Graduate Institute of International Studies , Geneva ; associate member of the Institut de Droit International ( Counsel ) ; and
Penelope Nevill , college lecturer , Downing College , Cambridge .
The case was presided over by ICJ Vice @-@ President Judge Awn Shawkat Al @-@ Khasawneh , alongside 13 other judges and two ad hoc judges appointed by the two countries . The judges were Raymond Ranjeva from Madagascar , Shi Jiuyong from the People 's Republic of China , Abdul G. Koroma from Sierra Leone , Gonzalo Parra Aranguren from Venezuela , Thomas Buergenthal from the United States , Hisashi Owada from Japan , Bruno Simma from Germany , Peter Tomka from Slovakia , Ronny Abraham from France , Kenneth Keith from New Zealand , Bernardo Sepúlveda Amor from Mexico , Mohamed Bennouna from Morocco and Leonid Skotnikov from Russia . As the Bench of the Court did not include any judges of the nationality of either party , the parties exercised their right to choose judges ad hoc to sit in the case . Singapore appointed Pemmaraju Sreenivasa Rao from India , and Malaysia Christopher John Robert Dugard from South Africa .
= = Singapore 's case = =
= = = Pedra Branca terra nullius = = =
Singapore argued that in 1847 Pedra Branca was terra nullius ( Latin for " land belonging to no one " ) as it had never been the subject of a prior claim or manifestation of sovereignty by any sovereign entity . It denied Malaysia 's claim that the island had been under Johor 's sovereignty . It contended there was no evidence that the Johor Sultanate had claimed or exercised authority over Pedra Branca between 1512 and 1641 . This period began with the fall of the Malacca Sultanate to the Portuguese in 1512 , who continued to harass the Johor Sultanate during this time , as did the Aceh Sultanate . Similarly , there was no evidence of Johor 's sovereignty over Pedra Branca between 1641 and 1699 , when Johor 's power and influence were at their height ; between 1699 and 1784 when the death of Sultan Mahmud Shah II in 1699 without a clear heir led to instability , during which many vassals broke away from the Sultanate ; and between 1784 and 1824 when , according to a 1949 annual report of the Johor government , the Sultanate was in a " state of dissolution " by the beginning of the 19th century .
To support its assertion that the Sultan of Johor did not have sovereignty over Pedra Branca , Singapore contended that the traditional Malay concept of sovereignty was based mainly on control over people and not over territory . Thus , the only reliable way to determine whether a particular territory belonged to a ruler was to find out whether the inhabitants pledged allegiance to that ruler . This was difficult to do with respect to Pedra Branca since it was isolated and uninhabited , and Malaysia had not provided clear evidence of a direct claim to or actual exercise of sovereign authority over the island .
In addition , Singapore claimed that the old Johor Sultanate , which controlled a maritime Malay empire from a capital on the Johor River , was not the same as the new Johor Sultanate occupying only the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula that came into existence after the signing of the Anglo – Dutch Treaty of 1824 between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands . In its view , the Anglo – Dutch Treaty did not divide up the Singapore Strait , in which Pedra Branca is situated , between the new Johor Sultanate under the British sphere of influence and the Riau @-@ Lingga Sultanate under Dutch influence . Instead , both Britain and the Netherlands could access the Strait freely . Therefore , there was a legal vacuum with regard to sovereignty over the island , enabling the British to lawfully take possession of it between 1847 and 1851 .
Following the death of Sultan Mahmud Shah III of Johor in 1812 , his two sons Hussein and Abdul Rahman vied for the throne of the Johor Sultanate . The United Kingdom recognised the elder son Hussein , who was based in Singapore , as the rightful heir , while the Netherlands recognised the younger son Abdul Rahman who was based in Riau ( now Bintan , Indonesia ) . A year after the Anglo – Dutch Treaty , Abdul Rahman sent a letter dated 25 June 1825 to Hussein . In it he stated that , " in complete agreement with the spirit and the content of the treaty concluded between their Majesties , the Kings of the Netherlands and Great Britain " , he donated to his older brother " [ t ] he part of the lands assigned to [ Great Britain ] " :
Your territory , thus , extends over Johor and Pahang on the mainland or on the Malay Peninsula . The territory of Your Brother [ Abdul Rahman ] extends out over the islands of Lingga , Bintan , Galang , Bulan , Karimon and all other islands . Whatsoever may be in the sea , this is the territory of Your Brother , and whatever is situated on the mainland is yours .
On the basis of this letter , Singapore argued that Abdul Rahman had only donated the mainland territories to Hussein and had retained sovereignty over all the islands in the sea . Pedra Branca therefore never became a part of Johor .
= = = Lawful taking of ownership = = =
In the event that the Court rejected the argument that Pedra Branca was terra nullius in 1847 , Singapore contended that the selection of Pedra Branca as the site for Horsburgh Lighthouse and the construction of the lighthouse between 1847 and 1851 constituted a taking of possession of the island à titre de souverain ( with the title of a sovereign ) . The British Crown obtained title over the island in accordance with legal principles governing the acquisition of territory at that time . This title was maintained by the United Kingdom and its lawful successor , the Republic of Singapore .
Singapore claimed that it and its predecessor the United Kingdom had demonstrated a consistent exercise of authority over the island through various acts since 1847 . For instance , during the ceremony for the laying of the foundation stone of the lighthouse on 24 May 1850 , Pedra Branca was described as a " dependency of Singapore " in the presence of the Governor of the Straits Settlements – the most senior British official in Singapore – and other British and foreign officials . The attribution of sovereignty was widely reported in local newspapers , but drew no response from the Johor authorities . Other significant acts included the following :
Singapore had investigated shipwrecks in the waters around the island between 1920 and 1979 .
It had exercised exclusive control over the use of the island and visits to the island , including requiring Malaysian officials wishing to visit the island for scientific surveys to obtain permits .
It had displayed British and Singapore ensigns from Horsburgh Lighthouse . Furthermore , it had acceded to a request by Malaysia in 1968 to remove the Singapore flag from another island , Pulau Pisang , which is under Malaysian sovereignty . Malaysia had made no such request in respect of Pedra Branca .
On 30 May 1977 , the Port of Singapore Authority ( PSA ) allowed the Republic of Singapore Navy to install a military rebroadcast station on the island .
On the direction of the Government of Singapore , in 1972 , 1973 , 1974 and 1978 the PSA studied the feasibility of reclaiming 5 @,@ 000 square metres ( 54 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of land around the island . Tenders for the project were sought through newspaper advertisements , though eventually the project was not proceeded with .
In addition , Singapore had on two occasions claimed the sea around Pedra Branca as its territorial waters . The first occasion was in July 1952 when the Chief Surveyor expressed the opinion that Singapore should claim a 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) limit around the island . Subsequently in 1967 , the Singapore Government 's Marine Department also stated in an official memorandum to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( Singapore ) that the waters within three miles of Pedra Branca might be considered Singapore territorial waters .
= = = Malaysia 's inaction and acceptance of Singapore 's sovereignty = = =
It was also Singapore 's case that for over 130 years since 1847 , Malaysia had been silent over Singapore 's activities and exercise of sovereignty over Pedra Branca . No other state had challenged Singapore 's claims , and she had done so without having to seek approval from any other state . During the hearing , Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large Tommy Koh highlighted this by saying :
A key feature of this case is the constant stream of Singapore 's acts of administration in relation to Pedra Branca , contrasted with the complete absence of Malaysian activities on Pedra Branca or within its territorial waters , and with Malaysia 's silence in the face of all these state activities of Singapore ... Such silence on Malaysia 's part is significant and must be taken to mean that Malaysia never regarded Pedra Branca as her territory .
On 12 June 1953 , when Singapore was a Crown Colony , its Colonial Secretary J. D. Higham wrote to the British Adviser to the Sultan of Johor to clarify the status of Pedra Branca . He noted that the rock was outside the limits ceded by Sultan Hussein Shah and the Temenggung with the island of Singapore under the 1824 Crawfurd Treaty they had entered into with the East India Company . However , the Colonial Government had been maintaining the lighthouse built on it , and " [ t ] his by international usage no doubt confers some rights and obligations on the Colony " . He therefore asked if " there is any document showing a lease or grant of the rock or whether it has been ceded by the Government of the State of Johore or in any other way disposed of " . The Acting State Secretary of Johor , M. Seth bin Saaid , replied on 21 September that " the Johore Government does not claim ownership of Pedra Branca " . Singapore contended that this reply confirmed Singapore 's sovereignty over the island and that Johor had no title , historic or otherwise , to it .
The Colony of Singapore became a self @-@ governing state in 1959 , and left the British Empire to join the Federation of Malaysia in 1963 . Two years later , in 1965 , Singapore became a fully independent republic . In 1959 , in an official publication regarding meteorological information collected on Pedra Branca , Malaya listed Horsburgh Lighthouse as a " Singapore " station together with the Sultan Shoal and Raffles Lighthouses . The lighthouse on Pedra Branca was described in the same way in a joint Malaysian and Singaporean publication in 1966 , the year after Singapore left the Federation . In 1967 , when the two countries began reporting meteorological information separately , Malaysia ceased referring to Horsburgh Lighthouse . In maps published by the Malayan and Malaysian Surveyor General and Director of General Mapping in 1962 , 1965 , 1970 , 1974 and 1975 , the island was indicated with the word " ( SINGAPORE ) " or " ( SINGAPURA ) " under it . The same designation was used for an island that was unquestionably under Singapore 's sovereignty . On the other hand , the designation was not used for Pulau Pisang , an island under Malaysian sovereignty on which Singapore operated a lighthouse .
At a news conference in May 1980 attended by Malaysia 's former Prime Minister Tun Hussein Onn and Singapore 's then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew , the Malaysian leader admitted that the question of sovereignty over Pedra Branca was " not very clear " to Malaysia .
On 19 November 2007 , Singapore Deputy Prime Minister S. Jayakumar refuted Malaysia 's claim that Singapore was attempting to subvert the status quo by claiming sovereignty of Pedra Branca . He said Singapore was " an honest , law @-@ abiding state that has never and will never do anything to endanger navigational safety , security arrangements or the Singapore Strait 's environment " . Rather , it was Malaysia that had sought to alter the status quo by publishing a map in 1979 that altered maritime boundaries with seven neighbouring countries . This was evidenced by a telegram that the Malaysian Government had sent to its overseas missions in December 1979 , notifying them that the map would " affect " Brunei , China , Indonesia , the Philippines , Thailand , Singapore and Vietnam .
= = = Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge one entity = = =
Singapore took the position that Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge should be considered a single group of maritime features as Middle Rocks and South Ledge were dependencies of Pedra Branca . It relied , among others , on the Island of Palmas Case ( 1932 ) : " As regards a group of islands , it is possible that a group may under certain circumstances be regarded as in law a unit , and that the fate of the principal part may involve the rest . " It argued that the three maritime features were geomorphologically the same , as rock samples showed that they were all composed of a light , coarse @-@ grained biotite granite . Additionally , Malaysia had not shown any exercise of sovereignty over the uninhabited reefs of Middle Rocks and South Ledge while Singapore had consistently exercised sovereign authority in the surrounding waters . Since sovereignty over Pedra Branca belonged to Singapore , so did sovereignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge as they were within Pedra Branca 's territorial waters .
= = Malaysia 's case = =
= = = Pedra Branca not terra nullius = = =
Malaysia 's case was that it had original title to Pedra Branca " from time immemorial " . The island could not at any relevant time have been terra nullius as it is and had always been part of Johor , which is now a state of Malaysia . Nothing that the United Kingdom or Singapore had done had displaced its sovereignty over it . Contrary to what Singapore had claimed , there had been no break between the old Sultanate of Johor and the new Johor Sultanate ruled by Sultan Hussein that came into existence after the signing of the 1824 Anglo – Dutch Treaty . The Treaty had the effect of leaving the islands south of the Singapore Strait within the Dutch sphere of influence ( the Riau – Lingga Sultanate ) , while the territory and islands in the Strait and to its north were within the British sphere of influence ( the new Johor Sultanate ) . A few months after the conclusion of the Anglo – Dutch Treaty , the Sultan and the Temenggung of Johor entered into the Crawfurd Treaty with the East India Company on 2 August 1824 . Article II of the Crawfurd Treaty stated :
Their Highnesses the Sultan Hussein Mahomed Shah and Datu Tumungong Abdul Rahman Sri Maharajah hereby cede in full sovereignty and property to the Honourable the English East India Company , their heirs and successors for ever , the Island of Singapore situated in the Straits of Malacca , together with the adjacent seas , straits , and islets , to the extent of ten geographical miles , from the coast of the said main island of Singapore .
Since Johor could not have ceded Singapore island and the islets in its vicinity to the British if it lacked title to them , this was evidence that the United Kingdom recognised the prior and continuing sovereignty of the Johor Sultanate over all islands in and around the Singapore Strait .
Malaysia challenged Singapore 's contention that Pedra Branca never became part of the new Johor Sultanate because 25 June 1825 letter from Sultan Abdul Rahman of Riau – Lingga to Sultan Hussain showed that Abdul Rahman had only donated territories on the mainland of the Malay Peninsula to Hussein and had retained sovereignty over all the islands in the sea . Malaysia submitted Abdul Rahman 's statement that his territory " extends out over the islands of Lingga , Bintan , Galang , Bulan , Karimon and all other islands " had to be read in the context of Article XII of the 1824 Anglo – Dutch Treaty , which guaranteed that no " British Establishment " would be made " on the Carimon Isles , or on the Island of Bantam , Bintang , Lingin , or on any of the other Islands South of the Straits of Singapore " . Three of the islands mentioned by Abdul Rahman – Bintan , Karimun and Lingga – were islands that the British had agreed were not within their sphere of influence , while the other two – Bulan and Galang – lay south of the Singapore Strait . Therefore , the phrase " all other islands " in Abdul Rahman 's letter referred only to islands lying within the Dutch sphere of influence . The letter was simply formal recognition that Abdul Rahman did not claim sovereignty over Johor .
The Johor Sultanate 's title to the island was also confirmed by ties of loyalty that existed between the Sultanate and the Orang Laut , a nomadic sea people who in the past had inhabited the maritime areas of the Singapore Strait , carrying out fishing and piracy , and had visited Pedra Branca quite frequently . This was evidenced by three 19th @-@ century letters written by British officials , including one dated November 1850 by John Turnbull Thomson , the Government Surveyor of Singapore , which had reported on the need to exclude the Orang Laut from Pedra Branca where Horsburgh Lighthouse was being built . Thomson noted that they " frequently visit the rock so their visits should never be encouraged nor any trust put in them ... In the straits and islets of the neighbouring shores and islands many lives are taken by these people . "
Malaysia rejected Singapore 's argument that the traditional Malay concept of sovereignty was based mainly on control over people and not over territory . It stated that authority in states throughout the world is based on a combination of control over people and territory , and that this applies to the Malay States as it does to any other state . Since the Johor Sultanate was established in the 16th century , it always had rulers who were recognised as such and who thus commanded people 's allegiance and therefore controlled the territory where those people lived .
= = = Actions of United Kingdom and Singapore those of lighthouse operator = = =
Malaysia averred that the actions of the United Kingdom and its successor Singapore in constructing and maintaining Horsburgh Lighthouse on Pedra Branca were actions of the operator of the lighthouse and not the sovereign of the island . Johor had at no time ceded the island to the United Kingdom , but instead had merely granted permission for the lighthouse to be built and maintained on it .
Captain James Horsburgh , a Scottish hydrographer to the British East India Company who had prepared many charts and sailing instructions for the East Indies , China , New Holland , the Cape of Good Hope and other intermediate ports , died in May 1836 . Merchants and mariners felt that the building of one or more lighthouses would be a fitting tribute to him , and in as early as November 1836 Pedra Branca was proposed as one of the preferred sites . By 1844 , preference had been expressed for Romania Outer Island , or Peak Rock . Some time in November 1844 , the Governor of the Straits Settlements , William John Butterworth , wrote to the Sultan and the Temenggung of Johor regarding the matter . His letters have not been found , but English translations of the replies , dated 25 November 1844 , exist . The Sultan said :
I have received my friend 's letter , and in reply desire to acquaint my friend , that I perfectly understand his wishes , and I am exceedingly pleased at the intention expressed therein , as it ( a Light House ) will enable Traders and others to enter and leave this Port with greater Confidence .
The Temenggung responded thus :
I have duly received my friend 's communication , and understand the contents . My friend is desirous of erecting a Light House near Point Romania . I can have no possible objection to such a measure , indeed I am much pleased that such an undertaking is in contemplation . I wish to be guided in all matters by the Government , so much so , that the [ East India ] company are at full liberty to put up a Light House there , or any spot deemed eligible .
Myself and family for many years have derived support from Singapore , our dependence is wholly on the English Government , and we hope to merit the protection of , and be favoured by the Company on all occasions consistent with propriety .
Three days later , on 28 November 1844 , the Governor wrote to the Secretary of the Government in India to recommend that the lighthouse be sited on Peak Rock . Among other things , he said that " [ t ] his Rock is part of the Territories of the Rajah of Johore , who with the Tamongong ... have willingly consented to cede it gratuitously to the East India Company " , and enclosed the replies received from the Sultan and Temenggung . Nonetheless , Malaysia argued that the Sultan and Temenggung 's letters amounted to no more than permission to the United Kingdom to build and operate a lighthouse on Peak Rock or some other suitable location .
On 13 November , Malaysia 's Agent , Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large Abdul Kadir Mohamad , alleged that Singapore was trying to " subvert " a 150 @-@ year @-@ old arrangement under which Singapore operated Horsburgh Lighthouse on Pedra Branca , which was Malaysia 's territory . He also suggested that if permitted to do so , Singapore would upset the peace and stability of the area where the island is located . He said that if Singapore reclaimed land around Pedra Branca , " [ q ] uite apart from the possible effects on the environment and navigation in the Strait , this could lead to potentially serious changes to the security arrangements in the eastern entrance of the Strait " . According to Malaysian Attorney @-@ General Abdul Gani Patail , Singapore had first raised the issue of sovereignty over Pedra Branca on 13 April 1978 during a meeting between officials , saying it had " incontrovertible legal evidence " of its sovereignty over the island though it had never produced any documents in support . Prior to that , the sovereignty of the island had never been disputed . The 1980 statement by the then Malaysian Prime Minister Tun Hussein Onn concerning the " unclear " position of the island had also been premised on these documents which former Singapore Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew had claimed were in Singapore 's possession . The statement was therefore merely a friendly and respectful statement of a visiting prime minister at a press conference which had no probative value in court . All Hussein Onn had meant was that the matter required further discussion between the two countries .
= = = = 1953 letter by Acting State Secretary of Johor unauthorised = = = =
Concerning the letter of 21 September 1953 in which the Acting State Secretary of Johor informed the Colonial Secretary of Singapore that " the Johore Government does not claim ownership of Pedra Branca " , Malaysia submitted that the Colonial Secretary 's enquiry of 12 June 1953 about the status of Pedra Branca showed that the Singapore authorities had no conviction that the island was part of its territory .
Further , the Acting State Secretary " was definitely not authorized " and did not have " the legal capacity to write the 1953 letter , or to renounce , disclaim , or confirm title of any part of the territories of Johor " . Under two treaties of 21 January 1948 , the Johor Agreement between the British Crown and the Sultan of Johor and the Federation of Malaya Agreement between the British Crown and nine Malay States including Johor , Johor transferred all its rights , power and jurisdiction on matters relating to defence and external affairs to the United Kingdom . These powers were exercisable by the Federal High Commissioner appointed by the United Kingdom and not by the Johor State Secretary . The Acting State Secretary had improperly taken it upon himself to reply to the Colonial Secretary 's letter and had not submitted a copy of it to the Chief Secretary of Johor . There was no evidence that the Chief Secretary or the High Commissioner was aware of its contents .
= = = = Singapore 's actions in respect of Pedra Branca not as sovereign = = = =
Regarding Singapore 's contentions that it had exercised sovereign authority over Pedra Branca in various ways , Malaysia responded as indicated below :
Investigation of shipwrecks in vicinity of Pedra Branca . Singapore had duties to investigate hazards to navigational safety and to publish information about such hazards in its capacity as a lighthouse operator , and under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Convention on the Safety of Life at Sea . Therefore , by investigating and reporting on shipwrecks and maritime hazards within Pedra Branca 's territorial waters Singapore had acted in accordance with best practice and not à titre de souverain . The circumstances of the particular investigations also meant that Singapore 's ability to carry them out was not based on its sovereignty over the island .
Display of British and Singapore ensigns on island . Ensigns , associated with maritime matters , are marks of nationality and not sovereignty . Singapore had also not demonstrated any sovereign intent in the flying of the British and Singapore ensigns from Horsburgh Lighthouse . The Pulau Pisang incident was not an acknowledgement by Malaysia of Singapore 's sovereignty over Pedra Branca ; it had been a matter of domestic political sensibility – Pulau Pisang is much larger than Pedra Branca and has a small local population .
Installation of military communications equipment and plans to reclaim land . Malaysia alleged that Singapore 's installation of military communications equipment on Pedra Branca was done secretly , and that it had only learned about this when it received Singapore 's memorial in the case . As regards Singapore 's plans to reclaim land around the island , Malaysia said it could not have reacted to some of the documents as they had been secret .
= = = = Meteorological reports irrelevant ; maps inconclusive = = = =
In response to Singapore 's contention in respect of meteorological reports published by Malaysia that had indicated Pedra Branca as a Singapore station , Malaysia said the fact that it recognised Horsburgh Lighthouse as a Singapore rainfall station did not amount an acknowledgement of sovereignty . The six maps that it had published between 1962 and 1975 which had printed the word " ( SINGAPORE ) " or " ( SINGAPURA ) " beneath the island were inconclusive . This was because the annotating could be assessed differently , the maps contained disclaimers stating they could not be considered an authority on the delimitation of international or other boundaries , and maps do not create title and cannot amount to admissions unless incorporated into treaties or used in inter @-@ state negotiations .
= = = Middle Rocks and South Ledge belong to Malaysia = = =
Malaysia contended that Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge were not a single identifiable entity . The historical record showed that the three maritime features were never formally described as a single island with appurtenant islands , or as a group of islands . Middle Rocks and South Ledge were therefore under Johor sovereignty at the time of the 1824 Anglo – Dutch Treaty and fell within the British sphere of influence under the Treaty . Malaysia had exercised consistent acts of sovereignty over them within the limits of their character . For instance , in 1968 the Malaysian Government used and granted petroleum concessions which extended to the area of Middle Rocks and South Ledge . Also , an internal confidential document dated 16 July 1968 entitled " Letter of Promulgation " by the Chief of the Royal Malaysian Navy included charts showing that Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge were within Malaysia 's territorial waters , and the features were included within Malaysian fisheries waters in the Fisheries Act 1985 . Singapore had neither protested against these manifestations of sovereignty , nor advanced any claims over Middle Rocks and South Ledge in 1980 when it began claiming that Pedra Branca belonged to it .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Reliability of Malaysia 's photograph of Pedra Branca = = =
In the course of the hearing , to demonstrate Pedra Branca 's proximity to the Johor mainland , Malaysia produced a photograph taken of Pedra Branca with Point Romania and a hill named Mount Berbukit , both in Johor , in the background . However , on 19 November 2007 Singapore produced another photograph taken using a camera that approximated what the human eye sees , and pointed out that in it Mount Berbukit appeared much smaller . It alleged that Malaysia 's photograph had been taken using a telephoto lens , which had exaggerated the height of Mount Berbukit by about seven times . Singapore 's then Attorney @-@ General Chao Hick Tin said that the photograph had been " an attempt to convey a subliminal message of proximity between Pedra Branca and the coast of Johor " , but it was not an accurate reflection of what visitors to Pedra Branca would see if they were looking towards Johor .
Malaysia claimed its photograph was obtained from an online blog , Singapore called the blog " most unusual " , noting that it had been created only a month earlier ; that the photograph had only been uploaded on 2 November , four days before the oral proceedings in the case had commenced ; and that there was no information on the blogger 's identity .
In its rebuttal on 24 November , Malaysia said that the difference between the photographs was " all a question of perspective " and that the matter was not worth discussing .
= = = Missing 1844 letters = = =
A key thrust of Malaysia 's case was that the British had received explicit permission from Johor to build a lighthouse on Pedra Branca , which proved that the British had recognised Johor 's sovereignty over the island . It submitted that this was evidenced by the November 1844 letters that Governor Butterworth had written to the Sultan and Temenggung of Johor regarding the construction of the lighthouse . Malaysia said it had written to Singapore asking for copies of the letters , because if the letters still existed they were probably in Singapore 's archives in a file entitled " Letters to Native Rulers " . However , Singapore had never replied .
Singapore 's response was that it did not have copies of the letters . Its archives were incomplete , and searches for them in other archives had been in vain . Furthermore , the letters were more likely to be in Malaysia 's possession as the Governor had sent them to the Johor rulers . In his rebuttal of Malaysia 's case on 19 November 2007 , Singapore 's Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Law S. Jayakumar expressed disappointment with Malaysia 's insinuation that Singapore had concealed the letters from the Court , which he termed " most disturbing " , " baseless " and " distracting " .
Malaysia did not mention the matter further in its rebuttal on 24 November .
= = ICJ decision = =
The ICJ rendered its decision on 23 May 2008 . It held by 12 votes to four that sovereignty over Pedra Branca belongs to Singapore . It further held , by 15 votes to one , that sovereignty over Middle Rocks belongs to Malaysia , and sovereignty over South Ledge belongs to the state in the territorial waters of which it is located .
= = = Pedra Branca originally under sovereignty of Johor Sultanate = = =
The Court agreed with Malaysia that the Johor Sultanate had original title to Pedra Branca , rejecting Singapore 's argument that the island was terra nullius . It found it was not disputed that Johor had established itself as a sovereign state with a certain territorial domain in Southeast Asia since it came into existence in 1512 . As Pedra Branca had always been known as a navigational hazard in the Singapore Strait , which was a vital channel for international navigation in east @-@ west trade between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea , it was inconceivable that the island had remained undiscovered by the local community . It was therefore reasonable to infer that Pedra Branca lay within the general geographical scope of the Johor Sultanate . Further , during the existence of the old Johor Sultanate , there was no evidence of any competing claims over the islands in the Singapore Strait . It also agreed with Malaysia 's submission that descriptions of the relationship between the Sultan of Johor and the Orang Laut in 19th @-@ century official British reports proved that the Sultan exercised sovereign authority over the Orang Laut . Since the Orang Laut made the islands in the Singapore Strait their habitat , this confirmed the " ancient original title " of the Johor Sultanate to those islands , including Pedra Branca . As regards Singapore 's argument that the traditional concept of Malay sovereignty was based on control over people rather than territory , the Court observed that sovereignty comprises control over both persons and territory . However , it was not necessary to deal with the point further as it had already found that Johor had territorial sovereignty over Pedra Branca .
The purpose of the 1824 Anglo – Dutch Treaty was to finally settle the disputes that had arisen between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands relating to their territorial possessions and commercial interests in the East Indies . It was thus most unlikely that the parties had left the maritime features in the Singapore Straits outside their spheres of influence , as Singapore had contended . Under Article XII of the Treaty , Britain had agreed that " no British Establishment shall be made on the Carimon Isles , or on the Island of Bantam , Bintang , Lingin , or on any of the other Islands South of the Straits of Singapore ... " The islands and islets within the Straits therefore fell within the British sphere of influence . This included Pedra Branca , which remained part of the territorial domain of the new Johor Sultanate . That this was the British understanding of the Treaty was confirmed by a letter dated 4 March 1825 from the Government of India to John Crawfurd , the British Resident in Singapore , which read : " [ O ] ur acquisition of these Islets [ under the Crawfurd Treaty ] is not at variance with the obligations of the Treaty concluded at London in March last [ the 1824 Anglo – Dutch Treaty ] as they are all situated North of the Southern limits of the Straights of Singapore ... " [ Emphasis added . ] Therefore , Britain 's position was that every island north of the southern limits of the Singapore Strait fell within its sphere of influence . The Court 's reading of the Anglo – Dutch Treaty was reinforced by letter of 25 June 1825 from Sultan Abdul Rahman to his brother Sultan Hussain , which did not have the effect Singapore attributed to it .
Contrary to Malaysia 's submission , the Court found that the Crawfurd Treaty did not show that Britain recognised Johor 's sovereignty over all the islands in and around the Singapore Strait . Article II only referred to the cession by the Sultan and Temenggung of Johor of " the Island of Singapore ... together with the adjacent seas , straits , and islets to the extent of ten geographical miles " to the British , and could not be read as an acknowledgement by the United Kingdom that Johor sovereignty over any other territory .
= = = Sovereignty over Pedra Branca passed to Singapore = = =
The ICJ noted that under certain circumstances , sovereignty over territory may pass due to the failure of the state which has sovereignty to respond to the other state 's conduct à titre de souverain , that is , concrete manifestations of the display of territorial sovereignty by the other state .
Because there was no written agreement relating to Horsburgh Lighthouse and Pedra Branca , the Court was unable to determine whether the November 1844 replies by the Sultan and Temenggung of Johor to Governor Butterworth 's query amounted to a cession of the place that would be chosen for the site of the lighthouse or was merely a permission to build , maintain and operate a lighthouse there . Although the Governor had indicated in his 28 November 1844 letter to the Secretary of the Government in India to recommend that the replies amounted to a gratuitous cession to the East India Company , this understanding was not communicated to the Sultan and Temenggung . Similarly , the fact that Britain had not informed Johor about its decision to site the lighthouse on Pedra Branca might be seen either as recognition that Britain only had consent to build and operate it , or that Johor no longer had rights over the island . On the evidence adduced , the Court was unable to reach a conclusion on the issue . It also did not draw any conclusions about the construction and commissioning of the lighthouse , stating only that it saw the events as " bearing on the issue of the evolving views of the authorities in Johor and Singapore about sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh " . It noted , though , that apart from a two @-@ day visit by the Temenggung and his followers to the island in early June 1850 , Johor had no involvement in the project .
The Court declined to accept Malaysia 's argument that the Singapore Colonial Secretary 's query about the status of Pedra Branca in 1953 indicated that the United Kingdom had no conviction that the island was part of its territory . It felt the letter of inquiry showed the Singapore authorities were not clear about events that had occurred over a century earlier and that they were unsure their records were complete , which was understandable in the circumstances . It also disagreed that the Acting State Secretary of Johor , who had stated in his letter of reply that Johor did not claim ownership of the island , had acted without authority . The Johor Agreement was irrelevant – as the Colonial Secretary was a representative of the United Kingdom government which was not a foreign state in relation to Johor at the time , there was no question of the United Kingdom having to consent to Johor issuing the reply . The Federation of Malaya Agreement also did not assist Malaysia because the action of responding to a request for information was not an " exercise " of " executive authority " . Further , since Malaysia had not invoked this argument in its negotiations with Singapore and in the ICJ proceedings until late in the oral phase , Singapore was entitled to presume that the Acting State Secretary had acted within his authority . The meaning of the reply was clear – as of 1953 , Johor understood it did not have sovereignty over Pedra Branca , and thus the Singapore authorities had no reason to doubt that the island belonged to the United Kingdom .
The Court regarded as conduct à titre de souverain Singapore 's investigation of six shipwrecks in the vicinity of Pedra Branca between 1920 and 1993 , its exclusive control over visits to the island , the installation of the military rebroadcast station on the island in 1977 , and the proposed reclamation of land around it . Malaysia was correct in asserting that the flying of an ensign was not normally a manifestation of sovereignty , and that the difference in size between Pulau Pisang and Pedra Branca had to be recognised . Nonetheless , some weight could be given to the fact that Malaysia had not requested for the Singapore ensign flying at Horsburgh Lighthouse to be taken down . The fact that Malaysia had referred to the lighthouse as a Singapore station in the 1959 and 1966 meteorological reports and had omitted it from the 1967 Malaysian report favoured Singapore 's case .
The maps published by Malaysia between 1962 and 1975 tended to confirm that it considered Pedra Branca to fall under Singapore sovereignty . The " ( SINGAPORE ) " or " ( SINGAPURA ) " annotations on the maps in respect of the island were clear and supported Singapore 's case . The maps gave a good indication of Malaysia 's official position on the matter , and could amount to an admission . Finally , Malaysia could not rely on the disclaimers on the maps as the present matter did not concern a boundary but a distinct island . In any case , the maps were statements of geographical fact , particularly since Malaysia had itself produced and disseminated it against its own interest .
In view of the above , the Court held that by 1980 sovereignty over Pedra Branca had passed from Malaysia to Singapore .
= = = Sovereignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge = = =
None of the conduct by the United Kingdom and Singapore that led to the ICJ to conclude that Singapore had gained sovereignty over Pedra Branca applied to Middle Rocks . Since Johor held the ancient original title to Middle Rocks , the Court held that this title remains with Malaysia as the successor to the Johor Sultanate .
South Ledge falls within the apparently overlapping territorial waters generated by the mainland of Malaysia , Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks . Although in the Special Agreement and in their final submissions Malaysia and Singapore had asked the Court to decide which state had sovereignty over Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge , the Court had not been mandated to delimit the extent of the territorial waters of the two states in the area in question . Therefore , it simply held that South Ledge , as a low @-@ tide elevation , belongs to the state in the territorial waters of which it is located .
= = Reactions and further developments = =
= = = Reactions = = =
On 23 May 2008 , Malaysian Foreign Minister Rais Yatim described the ICJ decision as creating a " win @-@ win " situation and that both countries would " forge ahead " in their bilateral relationship . Deputy Prime Minister Najib Tun Razak called the judgment a " balanced decision " as Malaysia had been " partly successful " in its territorial claims . Interviewed by journalists at The Hague , Singapore Deputy Prime Minister S. Jayakumar said : " We are pleased with the judgment because the court has awarded sovereignty over Pedra Branca , which is the main feature in dispute , to Singapore . " Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Hsien Loong said he was pleased with the result , and commented that bringing the dispute to the ICJ was " a good way for [ Malaysia and Singapore ] to resolve disagreements or problems while maintaining good relations with each other " .
= = = = Malaysia = = = =
On the day the ICJ released its judgment , Rais Yatim asserted that since South Ledge was within the territorial waters of Middle Rocks , " Malaysia appears to be the sovereign holder " . A week later , the Foreign Ministry of Malaysia asked the Malaysian media to cease using the Malay word Pulau ( " Island " ) for Pedra Branca and to refer to it as " Batu Puteh " or " Pedra Branca " .
The ICJ 's decision is final and not subject to appeal . Nevertheless , in June 2008 Rais Yatim stated that Malaysia had renewed its search for the letter written by Governor Butterworth to the Sultan and Temenggung of Johor seeking permission to build Horsburgh Lighthouse on Pedra Branca . He noted that the rules of the ICJ allowed a case to be reviewed within ten years if new evidence was adduced . In response , Singapore 's Law Minister K. Shanmugam said that the city @-@ state would wait to see what new evidence the Malaysian government could come up with .
Several Malaysian Members of Parliament have urged the Federal Government to assert sovereignty over Pulau Pisang which also has a lighthouse on it that is operated by Singapore , or to take over administration of the lighthouse . Concerns were also expressed for Pulau Merambong near the western boundary of Malaysia and Singapore . The Menteri Besar of Johor , Abdul Ghani Othman , assured the public that Pulau Pisang belongs to Johor under a 1900 agreement between Sultan Ibrahim of Johor and British administrators in colonial Singapore . Nonetheless , Malaysian agencies have taken up efforts to stake claims over a hundred islands , reefs , rocks and other features in the South China Sea , Malacca Straits , and off Sabahan waters that Malaysia could lose to China , Indonesia and Vietnam . Two of these islands are Pulau Unarang off eastern Sabah near the Indonesian border , and Pulau Perak to the west of Penang .
At the opening of Johor 's 12th State Assembly in June 2008 , Sultan Iskandar of Johor pledged to reclaim the island " whatever it takes " . Speaking impromptu at the end of a prepared speech , the Sultan said in Malay : " Let us be reminded that I do not forget Pulau Batu Puteh . Pulau Batu Puteh is not Singapore 's , but it belongs to Johor . It does not matter how long it may take , I will find the way to get back the island , which belongs to Johor . " The Menteri Besar of Johor said the state government had " clearly heard " what the Sultan said , but did not elaborate .
On 3 September 2008 , Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah , a Kelantan prince and MP from the state , sent a letter to Rais Yatim claiming that Johor 's interests had not been raised before the ICJ . He alleged that the seas surrounding Pedra Branca had always been in Johor 's hands and had never been surrendered to the British or to Singapore , and by accepting the ICJ decision and participating in technical discussions with Singapore the Malaysian government had infringed Johor 's constitutional rights . Responding , Rais said the letter seemed designed for " political mileage " and that Johor had been fully involved in the proceedings . He told the Straits Times , " Everybody has his opinion on such matters but I , as Foreign Minister , have to abide by the dictate of the law . I have to see the letter first but it 's rather late in the day to express disappointment . "
= = = = Singapore = = = =
On 21 July 2008 , in response to questions from Singapore Members of Parliament about Pedra Branca , the Senior Minister of State for Foreign Affairs Balaji Sadasivan stated that the maritime territory around the island included a territorial sea of up to 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ; 14 mi ) and an Exclusive Economic Zone . This was condemned by Malaysia 's Foreign Minister Rais Yatim as " against the spirit of Asean and the legal structure " as the claim was " unacceptable and unreasonable and contradicts the principles of international law " . In response , a Singapore Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesman said that Singapore first stated its claim to a territorial sea and Exclusive Economic Zone on 15 September 1980 , and reiterated this claim on 23 May 2008 following the ICJ 's judgment . Both statements had made clear that if the limits of Singapore 's territorial sea or Exclusive Economic Zone overlapped with the claims of neighbouring countries , Singapore would negotiate with those countries to arrive at agreed delimitations in accordance with international law . In August 2008 , Rais said Malaysia took the view that Singapore was not entitled to claim an Exclusive Economic Zone around Pedra Branca as it considered that the maritime feature did not meet internationally recognised criteria for an island , that is , land inhabited by humans that had economic activity .
At the launch of S. Jayakumar and Tommy Koh 's book Pedra Branca : The Road to the World Court on 19 December 2008 , Chief Justice Chan Sek Keong commented : " The Pedra Branca case is likely to be a unique event in the history of Singapore as it is unlikely that Singapore will ever again need to seek confirmation of her title to territory under international law . "
= = = Resolution of outstanding issues = = =
Malaysia and Singapore have established what they have named the Joint Technical Committee to delimit the maritime boundary in the area around Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks , and to determine the ownership of South Ledge . Following a meeting on 3 June 2008 , the Committee agreed that a technical sub @-@ committee would be established to oversee the conduct of joint survey works to prepare the way for talks on maritime issues in and around the area . If any incident occurred in and around the waters of Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge , either side would provide humanitarian assistance to the vessels involved . Finally , both Malaysian and Singaporean fishermen could continue traditional fishing activities in those waters . In September 2008 , the Joint Technical Committee reported that its Sub @-@ Committee on Joint Survey Works was finalising technical preparations for a hydrographic survey that would provide data for future delimitation discussions . A Sub @-@ Committee on Maritime and Airspace Management and Fisheries had also been formed , and after a meeting on 20 August 2008 it decided that traditional fishing activities by both countries should continue in waters beyond 0 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 0 @.@ 9 km ; 0 @.@ 6 mi ) off Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge .
= = = Articles = = =
Abdul Ghafur Hamid ( Khin Maung Sein ) ( 2011 ) , " Case Concerning Sovereignty over Pulau Batu Puteh : A Critical Analysis of its Legal Implications " , Malayan Law Journal 3 : 30 – 61 .
Abdul Ghafur Hamid ( Khin Maung Sein ) ( 2011 ) , " Pedra Branca Judgment and Beyond : Issues and Challenges in its Implementation by Malaysia and Singapore " , International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 26 ( 2 ) : 335 – 342 .
Beckman , Robert ; Schofield , Clive ( 2009 ) , " Moving beyond Disputes over Island Sovereignty : ICJ Decision Sets Stage for Maritime Boundary Delimitation in the Singapore Strait " , Ocean Development & International Law 40 ( 1 ) : 1 – 35 , doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 00908320802631551 .
Colson , David A. ; Vohrer , Brian J. ( 2008 ) , " International Court of Justice : Sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh , Middle Rocks and South Ledge ( Malaysia / Singapore ) – Introductory Note " , International Legal Materials ( 5 ) : 833 – 835 .
Kopela , Sophia ( 2010 ) , " Case Concerning Sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh , Middle Rocks and South Ledge ( Malaysia v. Singapore ) , Judgment of 23 May 2008 " , International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 25 ( 1 ) : 93 – 113 , doi : 10 @.@ 1163 / 157180810X487811 .
Lathrop , Coalter G. ( 2008 ) , " Sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh , Middle Rocks and South Ledge ( Malaysia / Singapore ) " , American Journal of International Law 102 ( 4 ) : 828 – 834 , doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 20456682 , JSTOR 20456682 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 21 July 2009 .
Li , Chenyang ; Shao , Jianping ( 2009 ) , 论白礁岛主权争端及其对新马关系和东盟发展的影响 [ Study on the Pedra Branca Dispute and Its Influence on Relations between Singapore and Malaysia and ASEAN 's Development ] ( PDF ) , Southeast Asian Studies ( in Chinese ) ( 1 ) : 1 – 12 .
Mills , Alex ( 2008 ) , " The Formalism of State Sovereignty in Territorial and Maritime Disputes " , Cambridge Law Journal 67 ( 3 ) : 443 – 447 , doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0008197308000639 .
Mohamed Faizal ; Quek , Evangeline ( 2004 ) , " The Repercussions of the Similarities between Sipadan / Litigan and Pedra Branca Disputes " , Singapore Law Review 24 : 52 – 65 .
O 'Keefe , Roger ( 2011 ) , " Legal Title versus Effectivités : Prescription and the Promise and Problems of Private Law Analogies " , International Community Law Review 13 ( 1 – 2 ) : 147 – 188 , doi : 10 @.@ 1163 / 187197311X555223 .
Tan , Hsien @-@ Li ( 2008 ) , " Case Concerning Sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh , Middle Rocks and South Ledge ( Malaysia / Singapore ) " , Singapore Year Book of International Law 12 : 257 – 262 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 14 April 2010 .
Tanaka , Yoshifumi ( 2008 ) , Passing of Sovereignty : The Malaysia / Singapore Territorial Dispute before the ICJ , The Hague Justice Portal , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 21 January 2012 .
Wan Siti Adibah Wan Dahalan ; Adina Kamarudin ; Mahmud Zuhdi Mohd Nor ( 2009 ) , " Article 121 of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention and the Maritime Delimitation in the Straits of Singapore " , Jurnal Undang @-@ undang dan Masyarakat : 13 .
Wang , Xiumei ( 2009 ) , 白礁岛 、 中岩礁和南礁案的国际法解读 [ An Interpretation of the Case of Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge from the Perspective of International Law ] ( PDF ) , Southeast Asian Studies ( in Chinese ) ( 1 ) : 19 – 25 .
Wang , Zichang ( 2009 ) , 新马岛屿争端之判决 : 依据与启示 [ The Judgment of the International Court of Justice on Territorial Disputes between Singapore and Malaysia and Its Inspirations ] ( PDF ) , Southeast Asian Studies ( in Chinese ) ( 1 ) : 13 – 18 .
= = = News reports = = =
" KL 's claim of original title a mirage : Jaya " , The Straits Times ( reproduced on the Malaysian Bar website ) , 10 November 2007 , archived from the original on 10 January 2008 , retrieved 30 September 2008 .
" All the pieces in Singapore 's case ' fit perfectly together ' " , The Straits Times ( reproduced on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( Singapore ) website ) , 21 November 2007 , retrieved 30 September 2008 .
Andy Ho ( 28 November 2007 ) , " The evidence of words : The Pedra Branca case may really just turn on two treaties of 1824 " , The Straits Times .
Jessica Cheam ( 24 May 2008 ) , " A good ruling , for both [ editorial ] " , The Straits Times ( reproduced at AsiaOne ) .
Zakir Hussain ( 20 December 2008 ) , " Pedra Branca story told in a book : Jayakumar and Tommy Koh give behind @-@ the @-@ scenes account of 30 @-@ year saga " , The Straits Times ( reproduced on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs website ) , p . A4 .
= = = Books = = =
Haller @-@ Trost , Renate ( 1993 ) , Historical Legal Claims : A Study of Disputed Sovereignty over Pulau Batu Puteh ( Pedra Branca ) [ Maritime briefing ; vol . 1 , no . 1 ] , Durham : International Boundaries Research Unit , Department of Geography , University of Durham , pp. 1 – 36 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 897643 @-@ 04 @-@ 4 .
Jayakumar , S. ; Koh , Tommy ( 2008 ) , Pedra Branca : The Road to the World Court , Singapore : NUS Press in association with MFA Diplomatic Academy , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 69 @-@ 474 @-@ 6 ( hbk . ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 69 @-@ 457 @-@ 9 ( pbk . ) .
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= 1994 Fairchild Air Force Base B @-@ 52 crash =
On Friday , 24 June 1994 , a United States Air Force ( USAF ) Boeing B @-@ 52 Stratofortress crashed at Fairchild Air Force Base , Washington , United States , after the pilot , Lt Col Arthur " Bud " Holland , maneuvered the bomber beyond its operational limits and lost control . The aircraft stalled , fell to the ground and exploded , killing Holland and the other three USAF officers aboard . The crash was captured on video and was shown repeatedly on news broadcasts throughout the world .
The subsequent investigation concluded that the crash was attributable primarily to three factors : Holland 's personality and behavior , USAF leaders ' delayed or inadequate reactions to earlier incidents involving Holland , and the sequence of events during the aircraft 's final flight . The crash is now used in military and civilian aviation environments as a case study in teaching crew resource management . It is also often used by the U.S. Armed Forces during aviation safety training as an example of the importance of compliance with safety regulations and correcting the behavior of anyone who violates safety procedures .
= = Crash = =
At 07 : 30 local time ( Pacific Time Zone ) on 24 June 1994 , a USAF B @-@ 52H bomber crew stationed at Fairchild Air Force Base prepared to practice an aircraft demonstration flight for an airshow . The crew consisted of pilots Lt Col Arthur " Bud " Holland ( 46 years old ) , Lt Col Mark McGeehan ( 38 ) , Col Robert Wolff ( 46 ) , and weapon systems officer / radar navigator Lt Col Ken Huston ( 41 ) . Holland was the designated command pilot for the flight , with McGeehan as the copilot and Wolff as a safety observer . Holland was the chief of the 92nd Bomb Wing 's Standardization and Evaluation branch , McGeehan was the commander of the 325th Bomb Squadron , Wolff was the vice commander of the 92nd Bomb Wing , and Huston was the 325th Bomb Squadron 's operations officer .
The mission plan for the flight called for a demanding series of low @-@ altitude passes , 60 ° banked turns , a steep climb , and a touch @-@ and @-@ go landing on Fairchild 's runway 23 . The flight was also Wolff 's " fini flight " – a common tradition in which a retiring USAF aircrew member is met shortly after landing on his or her final flight at the airfield by relatives , friends and coworkers , and doused with water . Thus , Wolff 's wife and many of his close friends were at the airfield to watch the flight and participate in the post @-@ flight ceremony . McGeehan 's wife and two youngest sons watched the flight from the backyard of McGeehan 's living quarters , located nearby .
The B @-@ 52 aircraft , callsign Czar 52 , took off at 13 : 58 and completed most of the mission 's elements without incident . Upon preparing to execute the touch @-@ and @-@ go on Runway 23 at the end of the practice profile , the aircraft was instructed to go around because a KC @-@ 135 aircraft had just landed and was on the runway . Maintaining an altitude of about 250 feet ( 75 m ) above ground level ( AGL ) , Holland radioed the control tower and asked for permission to execute a 360 ° left turn , which was immediately granted by the tower controller . The B @-@ 52 then began the 360 ° left turn around the tower starting from about the midfield point of the runway . Located just behind the tower was an area of restricted airspace , reportedly because of a nuclear weapons storage facility . Apparently to avoid flying through the restricted airspace , Holland flew the aircraft in an extremely tight , steeply banked turn while maintaining the low , 250 @-@ foot ( 75 m ) AGL altitude . Approximately three @-@ quarters of the way around the turn , at 14 : 16 , the aircraft banked past 90 ° , descended rapidly , clipped power lines and hit the ground , exploding and killing the four crew members . McGeehan was seated in an ejection seat , but according to the medical statement , he had only " partially ejected at the time of impact " ; it does not state whether or not he cleared the aircraft . Huston was also seated in an ejection seat and the medical statement indicated that he had not initiated the ejection sequence . Wolff 's seat was not ejection @-@ capable . No one on the ground was injured .
= = Investigation = =
The USAF immediately convened a safety investigation under the direction of the USAF 's Chief of Safety , Brigadier General Orin L. Godsey . The safety investigation board released the report of its investigation into the crash on 10 August 1994 . A final evaluation of the safety investigation was released on 31 January 1995 . The USAF safety report was distributed only to U.S. Department of Defense personnel and not to the general public . An accident investigation board , called an " AFR 110 @-@ 14 Investigation , " released a separate report in 1995 . Unlike the USAF safety investigation , the AFR 110 @-@ 14 report was released to the general public .
The AFR 110 @-@ 14 investigation identified several factors which contributed to the crash , including the actual crash sequence , the personality and earlier behavior of Bud Holland , previous supervision and lack of corrective action exercised by USAF officers over Bud Holland , mission planning and execution , and other environmental and human factors .
= = = Crash sequence = = =
The investigation found that as the B @-@ 52 entered its final turn sequence around the tower , its indicated airspeed ( IAS ) was 182 knots ( 337 km / h ; 209 mph ) . Although Holland increased the engine power after starting the turn , his input came too late to maintain the aircraft 's airspeed , as the B @-@ 52 turbofan engines take up to eight seconds to respond to throttle commands . Even though the airspeed indicator was available to all four aircrew members , the aircraft 's airspeed was allowed to continue to decrease . Eight seconds before impact , the aircraft 's IAS had deteriorated to 145 knots ( 269 km / h ; 167 mph ) and the aircraft 's bank angle increased past 60 ° . At this time Holland or McGeehan applied full right spoiler , right rudder , and nose @-@ up elevator , and the aircraft entered a turning flight stall ( also called accelerated stall ) . This phenomenon is a stall that occurs at a higher airspeed than the design stall speed – which always refers to straight and level flight – because of the fact that the aircraft is turning . Due to the bank of 60 ° or more , the stall speed for the aircraft at that moment was 147 knots ( 272 km / h ; 169 mph ) . Thus , flying 2 knots slower , the aircraft stalled , without having sufficient altitude to recover before striking the ground .
= = = Holland 's previous behavior and USAF leaders ' reactions = = =
The accident board stated that Bud Holland 's personality significantly influenced the crash sequence . USAF personnel testified that Holland had developed a reputation as an aggressive pilot who often broke flight safety and other rules . The rule @-@ breaking included flying below minimum clearance altitudes and exceeding bank angle limitations and climb rates .
An earlier incident occurred in 1991 when a B @-@ 52 piloted by Holland performed a circle above a softball game in which Holland 's daughter was participating . Beginning at 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) AGL , Holland 's aircraft executed the circle at 65 ° of bank . In a maneuver described by one witness as a " death spiral , " the nose of the aircraft continued to drop and the bank angle increased to 80 ° . After losing 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of altitude , Holland was able to regain control of the aircraft .
During a 19 May 1991 air show at Fairchild , Holland was the command pilot of the B @-@ 52 aerial demonstration flight . During the demonstration , Holland 's aircraft violated several safety regulations , including exceeding bank and pitch limits , flying directly over the air show spectators , and possibly violating altitude restrictions . The base and wing commander , Colonel Arne Weinman , along with his staff , observed the demonstration , but apparently took no action .
On 12 July 1991 , Holland commanded a B @-@ 52 for a " flyover " during a change of command ceremony for the 325th Bomb Squadron at Fairchild . During both the practice and the actual flyover , Holland 's aircraft flew at altitudes below 100 feet ( 30 m ) – well below the established minimum altitude – flew steeply banked turns in excess of 45 ° , exceeded pitch angle limits and executed a wingover . The wingover was not specifically prohibited but was not recommended because it could damage the aircraft . After witnessing the flyover , Colonel Weinman and his deputy commander for operations ( DO ) , Colonel Julich , orally reprimanded Holland , but took no formal action .
During the 17 May 1992 Fairchild air show , Holland was again the command pilot of the B @-@ 52 aerial demonstration flight . During the demonstration , Holland 's aircraft again violated several safety regulations , including several low altitude steep turns in excess of 45 ° of bank and a high pitch angle climb , estimated at over 60 ° nose high which Holland finished with a wingover maneuver . The new wing commander , Colonel Michael G. Ruotsala , apparently took no action . One week later , the new DO , Colonel Capotosti , on his own initiative warned Holland that if he violated any more safety regulations , Capotosti would ground him ( remove him from flying status ) . Capotosti did not document his warning to Holland or take any other kind of formal action .
On 14 and 15 April 1993 , Holland was the mission commander of a two @-@ ship training mission to a bombing range near Guam in the Pacific Ocean . During the mission , Holland flew his B @-@ 52 closer to the other B @-@ 52 than regulations allowed . Holland also asked his navigator to videotape the bombs falling from the aircraft from inside the bomb bay , also against regulations . Holland 's navigator later brought the video to the attention of three Fairchild USAF officers . The first , Lieutenant Colonel Bullock , the current 325th Bomb Squadron commander , did not do anything about it and may have even tried to use the videotape as leverage to coerce the navigator into accepting a position as mission scheduler for the wing . The second , the deputy operations group commander , Lieutenant Colonel Harper , told the crew member to conceal the evidence . The third , the DO , allegedly responded to reports of the video by stating , " Okay , I don 't want to know anything about that video — I don 't care . "
At the 8 August 1993 Fairchild air show , Holland once again commanded the B @-@ 52 demonstration flight . The demonstration profile once again included bank angles greater than 45 ° , low altitude passes , and another high pitch climbing maneuver , this time in excess of 80 ° nose high . The climb was so steep that fuel flowed out of the vent holes from the aircraft 's wing tanks . The new wing commander , Brigadier General James M. Richards , and the new DO , Colonel William E. Pellerin , both witnessed the demonstration , but neither took any action .
On 10 March 1994 , Holland commanded a single @-@ aircraft training mission to the Yakima Bombing Range to provide an authorized photographer an opportunity to document the aircraft as it dropped training munitions . The minimum aircraft altitude permitted for that area was 500 feet ( 150 m ) AGL . During the mission , Holland 's aircraft was filmed crossing one ridgeline about 30 feet ( 10 m ) above the ground . Fearing for their safety , the photography crew ceased filming and took cover as Holland 's aircraft again passed low over the ground , this time estimated as clearing the ridgeline by only three feet ( 1 m ) . The co @-@ pilot on Holland 's aircraft testified that he grabbed the controls to prevent Holland from flying the aircraft into the ridge while the aircraft 's other two aircrew members repeatedly screamed at Holland : " Climb ! Climb ! " Holland responded by laughing and calling one of the crew members " a pussy " .
After that mission , the crew decided that they would never again fly with Holland and reported the incident to the bomb squadron leadership . The squadron commander , Lieutenant Colonel Mark McGeehan , reported the incident to Pellerin and recommended that Holland be removed from flying duty . Pellerin consulted with Holland and gave him an oral reprimand and warning not to repeat the behavior , but refused to take him off flying duty . Pellerin also did not document the incident or the reprimand or notify his superiors , who remained unaware of the incident . McGeehan then decided that in order to protect his aircrews , he ( McGeehan ) would be the co @-@ pilot on any future missions in which Holland was the command pilot . Evidence suggests that after this incident , " considerable animosity " existed between Holland and McGeehan .
In preparation for the 1994 Fairchild air show , Holland was again selected as the command pilot for the B @-@ 52 demonstration flight . On 15 June 1994 , Holland briefed the new wing commander , Colonel William Brooks , on the proposed flight plan . The demonstration profile as briefed by Holland included numerous violations of regulations , including steep bank angles , low altitude passes , and steep pitch attitudes . Brooks ordered Holland not to exceed 45 ° bank angles or 25 ° pitch attitude during the demonstration . During the first practice session , on 17 June , Holland repeatedly violated these orders . Brooks witnessed this , but took no action . Pellerin flew with Holland on that flight and reported to Brooks that , " the profile looks good to him ; looks very safe , well within parameters . " The next practice flight on 24 June ended with the crash .
= = = Other factors = = =
The demonstration profile as designed by Holland included a 360 ° turn around Fairchild 's air traffic control tower . Holland had not attempted this maneuver in previous air show demonstrations . During the final flight , Holland performed a series of 60 ° banked turns and a 68 ° pitch climb in violation of Brooks ' orders . No evidence exists that McGeehan or Wolff attempted to intervene as Holland executed the maneuvers .
Pellerin was originally scheduled to fly in this mission , as he had done on the 17 June flight . Pellerin was unavailable for the flight on 24 June and Wolff was selected as the replacement aircrew member . Due to the short notice of his assignment to the mission , Wolff did not participate in the pre @-@ flight briefing and boarded the aircraft after the engines were started . Thus , Wolff was not aware of the planned mission profile and did not have an opportunity to raise any objections before take @-@ off .
All of the aircrew involved in the crash had only limited flying time in the months before the crash . The B @-@ 52 's aircrew were apparently unaware that the aircraft had stalled until shortly before impact , indicated by a failure to apply standard recovery techniques to the aircraft once it entered the stall . The investigation reported that , even if the proper stall recovery techniques had been applied , the aircraft was likely too low to recover before hitting the ground .
Four days before the accident , on 20 June , Dean Mellberg , an emotionally disturbed ex @-@ USAF serviceman , entered Fairchild 's hospital and shot and killed five people and wounded many more before being killed by an Air Force Security Policeman . The crime was a major distraction for personnel stationed at Fairchild for some time afterwards .
= = = Conclusions = = =
The accident investigation concluded that the crash was primarily attributable to Holland 's personality and behavior , USAF leaders ' inadequate reactions to the previous incidents involving Holland , and the sequence of events and aircrew response during the final flight of the aircraft . Holland 's disregard for procedures governing the safe operation of the B @-@ 52 aircraft that he commanded and the absence of firm and consistent corrective action by his superior officers allowed Holland to believe that he could conduct his flight in an unsafe manner , culminating with the slow , steeply banked , 360 ° turn around the control tower .
The other environmental factors involved , including the addition of a new maneuver ( the 360 ° turn around the tower ) , inadequate pre @-@ flight involvement of Colonel Wolff , and the distractions from the base shooting four days prior , combined with Holland 's unsafe and risk @-@ taking piloting behavior to produce conditions favorable for the crash to occur . The final factor , according to the USAF investigation report , was the 10 @-@ knot ( 19 km / h ) wind and its effect on the maneuvers required to achieve the intended flightpath in relation to the ground .
= = Aftermath = =
On 19 May 1995 , Pellerin pleaded guilty at a USAF court @-@ martial proceeding to two counts of dereliction of duty for his actions , or lack thereof , that contributed to the crash . He was sentenced to forfeit $ 1 @,@ 500 of salary a month for five months and received a written reprimand . The USAF did not reveal whether any other officer involved in the chain of events leading to the crash received any type of administrative or disciplinary action . Critics of USAF 's safety record stated that this crash was an example of a pattern of problems related to enforcement of safety procedures within USAF .
Although the accident investigation found that procedures and policies were supposedly already in place to prevent such a crash from occurring again , the fact that this crash occurred showed that in at least one instance , the existing safety policies and their enforcement had been grievously inadequate . To re @-@ emphasize the importance of adherence to existing safety policies and correcting the actions of anyone violating them at any time , the USAF quickly distributed the findings of the accident investigation throughout the service . These measures failed to prevent – sixteen years later – the occurrence in almost identical circumstances of another accident , when a C @-@ 17 transport aircraft crashed shortly after taking off from Elmendorf Air Force Base , Alaska , on an aerial display practice flight .
Today , the Fairchild crash is used in both military and civilian aviation environments as a training aid in teaching crew resource management and to show the importance of enforcing safety regulations .
Footage of the Fairchild crash was used in the making of the 2015 film Project Almanac , depicting an airline accident , which sparked public anger among relatives of Wolff and McGeehan . After an initial claim by Paramount Pictures that the video in question was of a 2009 Tokyo crash , producer Michael Bay issued an apology to the families , and the footage was removed from the film 's theatrical release and associated trailers at Bay 's request .
= = = Printed media = = =
Diehl , Alan E. ( 2003 ) . Silent Knights : Blowing the Whistle on Military Accidents and Their Cover @-@ Ups . Potomac Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 57488 @-@ 544 @-@ 8 .
Kern , Tony T. ( 1999 ) . Darker Shades of Blue : The Rogue Pilot . McGraw @-@ Hill Professional Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 07 @-@ 034927 @-@ 4 .
Piper , Joan L. ( 2001 ) . Chain of Events : The Government Cover @-@ up of the Black Hawk Incident and the Friendly @-@ fire Death of Lt. Laura Piper . Brassey 's . ISBN 1 @-@ 57488 @-@ 344 @-@ 5 .
United States Air Force ( USAF ) ( 1994 ) . Summary of AFR 110 @-@ 14 USAF Accident Investigation Board Report .
= = = Web = = =
" Brigadier General Orin L. Godsey " . Air Force Link . 1996 . Archived from the original on 15 February 2007 . Retrieved 16 February 2007 . – Biography of the USAF Chief of Safety who led the initial investigation into the mishap .
" Brigadier General James M. Richards " . Air Force Link . 1996 . Archived from the original on 15 February 2007 . Retrieved 16 February 2007 . – Biography of the Commander , 92nd Bomb Wing , Fairchild Air Force Base from August 1992 – August 1993
" The Crash of ' Czar 52 ' " . Check @-@ Six.com. Archived from the original on 13 May 2007 . Retrieved 30 June 2013 . – Contains video footage of the crash .
Kern , Tony ( 1995 ) . " Darker Shades of Blue : A Case Study of Failed Leadership " . Neil Krey 's CRM Developers Forum . Archived from the original on 16 February 2007 . Retrieved 1 March 2007 .
" Lt. Col. Mark C. McGeehan " . Lou Holtz / Upper Ohio Valley Hall of Fame . 2000 . Archived from the original on 12 March 2007 . Retrieved 1 March 2007 .
Thompson , Mark ( 29 May 1995 ) . " Way , Way Off in the Wild Blue Yonder " . Time . Retrieved 1 March 2007 .
" B @-@ 52 Bomber Crash Fairchild Air Force Base " . 24 June 1994 . Retrieved 15 June 2015 . – Video of the crash
" Nuclear Storage Site Linked to Plane Crash " . The New York Times . 27 April 1995 . Retrieved 7 January 2008 .
" B @-@ 52crash.kml " . 5 January 2008 . Retrieved 30 January 2014 . - KML file of Czar 52 flight path just before crash
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= Miles Fisher =
James Leslie Miles Fisher ( born June 23 , 1983 ) is an American film and television actor and musician .
He had a role in the 1997 CBS adaptation of the book True Women and had a starring role in the 2000 film Lone Star Struck . In 2001 , he won Best Actor at the International Teen Movie Festival ( ITMF ) in Vaughan , Ontario , Canada for his role in his short film Head Shot . He also received praise in 2001 in an article in Newsday , and this helped further his career . He appeared as a member of the First Regiment of Virginia Volunteers in the 2003 Civil War film Gods and Generals , which starred Robert Duvall . Fisher parodied actor Tom Cruise in the 2008 film Superhero Movie ; a clip of Fisher from the film became popular on the Internet . He had a recurring role as a rookie police officer in 2008 on the television series The Cleaner on A & E Network . Fisher appeared in 2009 on Gossip Girl . On the third season of the television series Mad Men , Fisher portrayed a friend of character Paul Kinsey .
= = Family and education = =
Miles Fisher is the son of Richard W. Fisher , who was formerly the President of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas . His mother , Nancy , serves on the national board of the American Film Institute ( AFI ) . His maternal grandfather was Representative James Collins . He was raised in Dallas , Texas , where he attended the St. Mark 's School of Texas . After his family moved to Washington , D.C. , he attended the St. Albans School .
Fisher graduated from Harvard University , where he was an English major . At Harvard , he was a member of the Porcellian Club , the Hasty Pudding Club and the a cappella singing group the Krokodiloes . Fisher served as the Krokodiloes tour manager , and planned events for the group in 24 countries . He was one of the two students chosen to deliver a Harvard Oration at the 2006 Harvard graduation ceremony . His undergraduate thesis , which won the LeBaron Russell Briggs prize at Harvard , was a " screenplay about a Harvard graduate who avoided the Vietnam draft by teaching in a military prep school " . Fisher has described film as his passion and said that after graduation he intended to move to Los Angeles to pursue a career in the film industry . In 2009 Fisher resided in Los Angeles , California .
He married Lucette Blodgett , daughter of late actor and writer , Michael Blodgett , on June 28 , 2014 . They were introduced by Willow Bay .
= = Acting career = =
= = = 1997 – 2008 = = =
Fisher appeared in the 1997 CBS television movie adaptation of the book True Women as " Travis " , and had a starring role in the 2000 film Lone Star Struck . He received the Best Actor award at the 2001 International Teen Movie Festival ( ITMF ) in Vaughan , Ontario , Canada , for his own short film titled : Head Shot , which was among 10 @,@ 000 other entries at the festival .
In a 2001 article in Newsday titled : " Miles Fisher , ' It ' Boy " , columnist Liz Smith referred to Fisher as " wunderkind " and " the next Tom Cruise " . Smith 's comparison of Fisher to Tom Cruise led to meetings with influential managers and agents , and he signed with the talent agency Endeavor Talent Agency in 2002 . Fisher appeared in the 2003 Civil War film Gods and Generals with Robert Duvall . Director Ron Maxwell picked Fisher to portray a heroic member of the First Regiment of Virginia Volunteers in the film ; Duvall played Robert E. Lee .
He parodied actor Tom Cruise in the 2008 film Superhero Movie . Fisher 's role in the film was popularized on the Internet on sites including Defamer , as well as on television on Entertainment Tonight and the CNN program Showbiz Tonight . The clip of Fisher was viewed on the Internet over 10 million times . A critic for The Baltimore Sun commented that Fisher 's appearance in Superhero Movie was the highlight of the film , and wrote : " Actor Miles Fisher replicates Tom Cruise 's ' I am the Way , the Thetan , the Light ' Scientology recruiting video of last year to hilarious effect . " He had a recurring role on A & E Network 's television series The Cleaner , portraying a rookie police officer named Kenneth Herman .
= = = 2009 – present = = =
Fisher wrote and produced a short film called Heatshot in 2009 with Evan Nichols ; the film was selected to be screened at the AFI Dallas International Film Festival . Alan Peppard of The Dallas Morning News reported in March 2009 that Fisher had been cast in the pilot of a television show set in 1983 in Southern California ; a spinoff of Gossip Girl . He portrayed a " sleazy " coke dealer on the television series of the same name .
On the third season of the television series Mad Men , Fisher portrayed Geoff Graves , a friend of character Paul Kinsey . Jessica Gelt of the Los Angeles Times described his character as a " preppy drug dealer " . In 2010 , Fisher was cast in the film Final Destination 5 . In an interview with Collider.com , Fisher revealed that the film was set in a workplace environment , and was a 3 @-@ D film . Fisher appeared in Clint Eastwood 's J. Edgar Hoover biopic , J. Edgar , playing Agent Garrison , an FBI employee who interviews Leonardo DiCaprio 's Hoover throughout the film .
= = Music career = =
In July 2009 , Fisher released an independently produced self @-@ titled EP , Miles Fisher , as well as a music video for his cover of the Talking Heads song " This Must Be The Place . " The video is an homage to the 2000 film American Psycho , with Fisher imitating Christian Bale 's performance as Patrick Bateman . Students from the American Film Institute helped film the video , which was shot in Los Angeles . The video was posted on YouTube and various other web sites , and received 200 @,@ 000 hits on Break.com alone within the first 24 hours . Darrell Hartman of Interview called the usage of the Talking Heads song with the American Psycho theme " a brilliant combo " , and noted that Fisher " created a viral hit " . Fisher released the song " New Romance " in video and MP3 form on iTunes and on his personal website on July 19 , 2011 . The video parodies the Final Destination series and Saved By the Bell . On May 22 , 2013 , a music video for " Finish What We Started " through AboveAverageNetwork on YouTube was posted . The music video featuring Lance Bass has yet to release a single for the song , and a subsequent album has been released , dubbed " Video Music . " The music video has been posted to Fisher 's personal website .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
Video Music ( 2013 )
= = = EPs = = =
Miles Fisher ( 2009 )
= = = Singles = = =
" This Must Be the Place ( Naive Melody ) " ( 2009 ) ( cover of the Talking Heads song )
" New Romance " ( 2011 )
" Don 't Let Go " ( 2011 )
" Finish What We Started " ( 2013 ) ( written by Miles Fisher , Robert Schwartzman , Joe Jonas , John Lloyd Taylor )
" Finish What We Started ( Andrew Maury Remix ) " ( feat . Joe Jonas ) ( 2013 ) ( written by Miles Fisher , Robert Schwartzman , Joe Jonas and John Lloyd Taylor )
= = = Music videos = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Pilot ( Once Upon a Time ) =
" Pilot " is the series premiere of the American Fairy Tale / Drama television series Once Upon a Time . It introduces each of the main characters , as well as establishes the basic premises of the series , which details the beginnings of a curse placed upon the Enchanted Forest and the start of a destiny for its only survivor , a present @-@ day woman who can break the curse .
The episode was co @-@ written by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz , and was directed by Mark Mylod . Kitsis and Horowitz sought to write new perspectives of familiar characters , and featured the themes of hope , family , and motherhood . " Pilot " sets the template for the rest of the series , as it jumps between their curses selves in Storybrooke , Maine and their original lives in the Enchanted Forest . Every actor first approached for the series accepted after being sent a script ; this included Ginnifer Goodwin as Snow White and Jennifer Morrison as Emma Swan .
Before it made its debut , ABC allowed viewers in the United States to see the pilot on the Internet Movie Database 's website several days before it aired . It premiered in the United States on ABC on October 23 , 2011 . In Canada , CTV broadcast the series an hour ahead of ABC 's debut , airing it at 7 pm in most regions . The episode received mostly positive reviews and was watched by 12 @.@ 93 million viewers , scoring a 4 @.@ 0 rating / 11 % share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , ranking first in its timeslot . It was ABC 's most watched pilot since the first episode of Ugly Betty .
= = Plot = =
= = = In the Characters ' Past = = =
Prince Charming ( Joshua Dallas ) rides to the rescue of Snow White ( Ginnifer Goodwin ) , who is comatose after eating a poisoned apple that was given to her by the Evil Queen ( Lana Parrilla ) . Doc informs Charming that he is too late , but Charming kisses Snow regardless , breaking the curse . On the wedding day of Snow White and Prince Charming , the Evil Queen arrives and delivers an ominous threat about a powerful curse she intends to release upon them . Some time later , a pregnant Snow White is worried about the curse and visits Rumplestiltskin ( Robert Carlyle ) , who issues a prophecy that the Queen 's curse will take them all someplace terrible where there will be no happy endings . He also reveals that Snow White 's unborn daughter , Emma Swan ( Jennifer Morrison ) , will return when she is 28 years old to rescue them , thus beginning a crucial battle with the Queen . Following the Blue Fairy 's ( Keegan Connor Tracy ) advice , Geppetto ( Tony Amendola ) and Pinocchio ( Jakob Davies ) fashion a wardrobe from a magical tree which will allow one person to escape the Queen 's curse . On the day Snow White gives birth to her daughter , the Queen 's curse strikes . Prince Charming places their daughter in the magic wardrobe , but is mortally wounded battling the Queen 's henchmen . The Queen stands triumphantly over Snow White and Prince Charming , as the Curse takes them " somewhere horrible . "
= = = In Storybrooke = = =
In Present @-@ day Boston , Emma Swan ( Morrison ) lives a lonely existence working as a bail bondsman and bounty hunter . She is approached by a ten @-@ year @-@ old boy , Henry ( Jared S. Gilmore ) , who identifies himself as her son , whom she had given up for adoption as a teenager . Not wanting a relationship with him , Emma agrees to drive him back to his home in Storybrooke , Maine . Along the way , Henry shows her a large book of fairy tales he has , insisting that all of the stories in it are real . When they arrive in Storybrooke , Henry informs her that everyone in town is in reality a fairy tale character , exiled by the curse and with no memory of their real identities . This includes his therapist Archie Hopper ( Raphael Sbarge ) , who is really Jiminy Cricket , and his teacher Mary Margaret Blanchard ( Goodwin ) , who is really Snow White . Henry claims that time is frozen in Storybrooke and the people are unable to leave , but that the curse will be broken by Emma . A skeptical Emma returns Henry to his adopted mother , the town Mayor , Regina ( Parrilla ) , who is really the Evil Queen . Emma attempts to leave but after having drunk apple cider given to her by the Mayor and nearly hitting a wolf she has a car accident where she is knocked out . She is arrested and taken to Storybrooke Jail . When Henry runs away again , Emma makes a deal with the Mayor and Sheriff Graham ( Jamie Dornan ) : if they release her , she will find him . After exhausting all possibilities she speaks with Mary Margaret , who tells Emma to " Check his castle . " After finding Henry at a wooden jungle gym ( which bears a resemblance to Prince Charming 's castle ) , they talk and Emma decides to stay in Storybrooke temporarily , especially after Regina warns her to leave town . This leads Emma to be suspicious of the mayor 's motives .
Shortly after her conversation with Emma , Mary Margaret Blanchard volunteers at Storybrooke Hospital , placing flowers at the bedside of patients . She stops in the ICU where a John Doe ( Dallas ) , Prince Charming , is sleeping in a coma . Mary Margaret is unaware of who he is . Meanwhile , at the Mayor 's home , Regina takes the book from Henry 's room and goes downstairs to look at her mirror , with an expression that seems to acknowledge she is aware of her fairy tale existence .
As Emma arrives at Granny 's Bed & Breakfast , she is given a key to her room by the elderly proprietor ( Beverley Elliot ) , who is actually Granny from Little Red Riding Hood . She comes downstairs after yelling at Ruby ( Meghan Ory ) , her granddaughter , followed by a man who came to collect money : Mr. Gold ( Carlyle ) , Rumpelstiltskin who also helped build and owns the entire town . When Emma mentions her name , Mr. Gold pauses as if he knew something about her . Emma 's decision to stay in Storybrooke causes the hands of the town clock , previously frozen at 8 : 15 , to begin moving again .
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
On February 1 , 2011 , ABC ordered six new pilots for their 2011 – 2012 television schedule , which included Once Upon a Time . The premiere episode was co @-@ written by series co @-@ creators Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz , and was directed by Mark Mylod . Mylod , a veteran of the Showtime drama Shameless , signed on to direct in mid @-@ February 2011 . The network picked up Once Upon a Time and six other drama series on May 13 , 2011 .
= = = Writing = = =
Eight years previous to the Once Upon a Time pilot ( the two had just completed their work on Felicity , in 2002 ) , Kitsis and Horowitz became inspired to write fairytales out of a love of " mystery and excitement of exploring lots of different worlds . " They presented the premise to networks , but were refused because of its fantastical nature . The two learned from their time on Lost to look at the story in a different way , that " character has to trump mythology " ; they expanded , " as people , you 've got to see what the void in their heart or in their lives is to care about them ... For us , this was as much about the character journeys and seeing what was ripped from them in coming to Storybrooke – going at it that way as opposed to making it the ' break @-@ the @-@ curse show . ' " Despite the comparisons and similarities to Lost , the writers intend them to be very different shows . To them , Lost concerned itself with redemption , while Once Upon a Time is about " hope " . Lost co @-@ creator Damon Lindelof aided in the development of the series as a consultant , but had no official credit for the pilot .
To differentiate the storytelling from what the audience already knew , the writing staff decided to begin the pilot with the end of the typical Snow White fairytale . Themes concerning family and motherhood were emphasized , in contrast to the focus on fatherhood in Lost . Kitsis and Horowitz sought to write strong female characters , rather than the classic damsel in distress . Horowitz stated their desire to approach each character the same way , asking themselves , " How do we make these icons real , make them relatable ? "
The pilot is meant to be the " template of the series " . Kitsis confirmed that every week will contain flashbacks between both worlds , as they " love the idea of going back and forth and informing what the character is missing in their life . " The writers ' desire to present a " mash up " of many small characters can be seen in a scene of the pilot , in which there is a war council featuring Geppetto , Pinocchio , and Grumpy . Horowitz elaborated , " One of the fun things for us coming up with these stories is thinking of ways these different characters can interact in ways they never have before . "
= = = Casting = = =
Horowitz stated that everyone they initially wanted cast in the series accepted their offered role after being sent a script . Ginnifer Goodwin was cast as Snow White , who appreciated that she would be playing a strong character that was fleshed out for the audience . The actress had just completed her work on the series Big Love , and was looking for a new project ; she turned to television after film scripts failed to interest her . Having said previously in interviews that she would love to play Snow White , Goodwin called her acceptance of the role " a no @-@ brainer . " Both Kitsis and Horowitz are self @-@ described big fans of Big Love , and wrote the part of Snow White with Goodwin in mind .
Joshua Dallas , who plays Prince Charming , was pleased the writers took " some dramatic license " with his character , believing the prince had become more real . He explained , " Prince Charming just happens to be a name . He 's still a man with the same emotions as any other man . He 's a Prince , but he 's a Prince of the people . He gets his hands dirty . He 's got a kingdom to run . He has a family to protect . He has an epic , epic love for Snow White . He 's like everybody else . He 's human . " Jennifer Morrison was hired for the part of Emma Swan . The actress explained her character as someone who " help [ s ] this kid who seems like he 's a little bit emotionally dysfunctional , " but noted that Emma does not yet believe there is a fairytale universe . Ten @-@ year @-@ old Jared Gilmore , known for his work on Mad Men , took the role of her son , Henry .
The role of the Evil Queen / Regina went to Lana Parrilla . She explained the character , " There 's always two stories being told when playing Regina . There 's the threat of her knowing she 's an evil queen and then there 's just the pure simple fact that the biological mother has stepped into her world and the threat of losing her son is just enormous . That 's a fear that I think any adopted mother would have . I think that 's going to really help the audience relate to Regina in some level . " The role of Rumpelstiltskin was given to Robert Carlyle ; it was written with Carlyle in mind , though the writers initially thought he would never accept the part . Horowitz recalled Carlyle 's prison sequence , which was the actor 's first day on the set as " mind @-@ blowing ... You could see Ginny actually jump , the first time he did that character . It was fantastic ! " The writers offered the part of the Blue Fairy to recording artist Lady Gaga , but never heard back from her management staff .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Executive producer Steve Pearlman referred to Once Upon a Time as " an effects @-@ heavy show , " but in ways that are not meant to be obvious to viewers . Zoic Studios provided the visual effects seen in the pilot , building virtual sets for the fairy tale sequences and using F / X for action scenes . Production and visual effects staff collaborated under a difficult schedule and limited budget . The studio has used the technology Zoic 's Environmental Unification System ( Z.E.U.S. ) for real time camera tracking , allowing for creative flexibility among the cast and crew , who work on a green screen stage . Andrew Orloff , Zoic 's Executive Creative Director , commented " Once Upon A Time is an amazing creative opportunity for Zoic . The highly detailed environments and imaginative characters of the series ' fairy tale world have challenged us to expand and fine @-@ tune both our Z.E.U.S. and animation pipelines for television . "
Zoic Studios digitally reproduced the war room and ballroom castle interiors based on concept designs created by Art Director Mark Worthington . For the wedding scene , Zoic staff extended columns , added stained glass windows , and completed the wedding party with additions of digital guests . The effect of the Evil Queen disappearing from Charming 's flying sword cost ABC a reported $ 12 @,@ 000 . Kitsis has commented that because the network has been very supportive , they are not worried about losing the " fantastical feel " of the series ' flashback sequences . He explained , " We can ’ t show this pilot and then have a cheap show after it , so it ’ s our goal to maintain this level of production values throughout . " Zoic visual effects will continue to be used for future episodes .
= = = Marketing = = =
On October 14 , 2011 – nine days before the national broadcast date – Kitsis and Horowitz presented an early screening of the pilot episode at a New York Comic Con panel and answered questions from fans . Later , viewers were able to stream the entire pilot episode from the Internet Movie Database in advance of its broadcast .
The pilot episode aired in October rather than September , which was a month after new fall season shows normally premiered . Pearlman was pleased with the later broadcast date , believing that " it creates a second wave of anticipation for an audience , too . I work in the business and I couldn 't even tell you the names of a third of the new shows this season because we were bombarded with all the messaging . "
The episode was included in Reawakened : A Once Upon a Time Tale – a novelization of the first season – which was published by Hyperion Books in 2013 .
= = Cultural references = =
The pilot contained a number of popular culture references noted by viewers and television critics . There were several references to Lost , another series scripted by episode writers Kitsis and Horowitz . The street address of Regina 's home is 108 , the town clock is stuck at 8 : 15 ( the same number as the doomed airline flight in the aforementioned series ) , there is a Geranimo Jackson bumper sticker on Emma 's car , the smoke monster engulfing the Enchanted Forest , and Emma 's eye @-@ opening after she wakes up . Kitsis noted of the references , " [ Lost co @-@ creator ] Damon [ Lindelof ] has been a godfather to us . His name is not on the show , but he is in the DNA of it . " Horowitz also stated their intention to continue making Lost references in the future .
Snow White and Prince Charming use a powerfully magical wardrobe to transport their new @-@ born baby to a different universe ( our own " real world " ) . In The Lion , The Witch and The Wardrobe , the first volume of C. S. Lewis 's Narnia series , a similarly powerful magical wardrobe transports the main characters between the real world and the magical universe of Narnia .
Another cultural reference appeared in a scene when Emma hears Leroy ( who is actually Grumpy ) whistling Whistle While You Work ( the song used in the 1937 film version of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ) , indicating its acknowledged ties to Disney , whose subsidiary ABC Studios also happens to be the production company behind Once Upon a Time , since Disney has allowed them access to their fairy tale characters and properties for use in the series . " They 've given us license , " Kitsis said . " I could be wrong , but I think this is the first time anyone 's shown Snow White with a sword , or pregnant . " Other Disney references include the blue star candle Emma wishes on , nodding to the scene in the 1940 film version of Pinocchio where Pinocchio wishes on a blue star and his wish is granted by the Blue Fairy ( both of whom also make a brief appearance alongside Jiminy Cricket in this episode ) .
The Black Keys ' song " Howlin ' for You " is featured in Emma 's introduction scene .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Premiering out of its 8 : 00 pm timeslot after America 's Funniest Videos , the pilot was viewed by an estimated 12 @.@ 93 million viewers and received a 4 @.@ 0 rating / 11 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . As a result , It was the season 's highest rated drama debut among adults 18 @-@ 49 and ABC 's biggest debut in five years . It competed against The World Series Pre @-@ Game on FOX , Football Night In America on NBC and The Amazing Race on CBS . It also competed against some of Sunday Night Football . Including DVR ratings , the episode totaled 15 @.@ 48 million viewers and a 5 @.@ 2 18 @-@ 49 rating .
In Canada , CTV debuted the series an hour ahead of ABC 's debut , airing it at 7 pm in all regions except in Saskatchewan and Winnipeg , where it debuted at 10 pm . The pilot was watched by 1 @.@ 764 million viewers , placing 14th for the week . In the UK , the pilot aired on Channel 5 on a 9 pm slot and pulled in 2 @.@ 36 million viewers , the highest throughout the week of April 9 , 2012 for the channel .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Pilot " received mostly positive reviews from television critics .
In a review from Zap2it , Rick Porter gave the pilot praise for bringing together the central theme , saying " No other new show this fall is attempting to tell a bigger story , and we 're hoping the rough patches smooth out and it fulfills the potential that 's there in its very strong cast and premise . " It also cited Jennifer Morrison and Jared Gilmore 's performances when they appear in scenes together : " As such it falls to Morrison to move the story along in this world , and fortunately for the audience she 's able to pull it off . She gives a confident , grounded performance that helps keep the show from feeling too fantastical , and her rapport with Gilmore is a big plus too . " He also notes the writers and producers have put together a great premise and expects they 'll have more as the series progresses : " Given the cast and the people involved behind the scenes ... we 're more optimistic than not that Once Upon a Time will find its way . But if it doesn 't , at least it will go down swinging . "
The New York Times writer Mike Hale compared Once Upon a Time with the similarly premised series Grimm , believing that the former has a " richer premise and more interesting characters . " Hale in particular praised Goodwin and Morrison 's performances , but concluded , " Watching the pilot again , though , it became harder to ignore the soap opera underpinnings and the twee sentimentality . " IGN 's Amy Ratcliffe gave the episode an 8 @.@ 0 / 10 rating , praising the casting , acting , and writing . While acknowledging there were " a few cheesy " moments , she expressed hope that the series would remain focused on its story rather than on too many special effects .
TV Fanatic 's Christine Orlando gave the episode 4 @.@ 4 out of 5 stars , calling it " a beautiful , stunning , magical journey " and saying that she was " hooked from the opening scene . " She complimented the whole cast , but especially Robert Carlyle , saying that he made " a perfectly creepy Rumpelstiltskin . " She praised the character of Henry , saying , " He 's spunky , intelligent and has just the right amount of persistence , and faith in fantasy to make you want to believe . " She concluded by simply stating that it was " very , very good . "
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= Paul Butterfield =
Paul Vaughn Butterfield ( December 17 , 1942 – May 4 , 1987 ) was an American blues harmonica player and singer . After early training as a classical flautist , he developed an interest in blues harmonica . He explored the blues scene in his native Chicago , where he met Muddy Waters and other blues greats , who provided encouragement and opportunities for him to join in jam sessions . He soon began performing with fellow blues enthusiasts Nick Gravenites and Elvin Bishop .
In 1963 , he formed the Paul Butterfield Blues Band , which recorded several successful albums and were popular on the late @-@ 1960s concert and festival circuit , with performances at the Fillmore West , in San Francisco ; the Fillmore East , in New York City ; the Monterey Pop Festival ; and Woodstock . The band was known for combining electric Chicago blues with a rock urgency and for their pioneering jazz fusion performances and recordings . After the breakup of the group in 1971 , Butterfield continued to tour and record with the band Paul Butterfield 's Better Days , with his mentor Muddy Waters , and with members of the roots @-@ rock group the Band . While still recording and performing , Butterfield died in 1987 at age 44 of a heroin overdose .
Music critics have acknowledged his development of an original approach that places him among the best @-@ known blues harp players . In 2006 , he was inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame . Butterfield and the early members of the Paul Butterfield Blues Band were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2015 . Both panels noted his harmonica skills and his contributions to bringing blues music to a younger and broader audience .
= = Career = =
Butterfield was born in Chicago and raised in the city 's Hyde Park neighborhood . The son of a lawyer and a painter , he attended the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools , a private school associated with the University of Chicago . Exposed to music at an early age , he studied classical flute with Walfrid Kujala , of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra . Butterfield was also athletic and was offered a track scholarship to Brown University . However , a knee injury and a growing interest in blues music sent him in a different direction . He developed a love for blues harmonica and a friendship with guitarist and singer @-@ songwriter Nick Gravenites , who shared an interest in authentic blues music . By the late 1950s , they were visiting blues clubs in Chicago , where they met musicians such as Muddy Waters , Howlin ' Wolf , Little Walter , and Otis Rush , who encouraged them and occasionally let them sit in on jam sessions . The pair were soon performing as Nick and Paul in college @-@ area coffee houses .
In the early 1960s , Butterfield attended the University of Chicago , where he met aspiring blues guitarist Elvin Bishop . Both began devoting more time to music than studies and soon became full @-@ time musicians . Eventually , Butterfield , who sang and played harmonica , and Bishop , accompanying him on guitar , were offered a regular gig at Big John 's , a folk club in the Old Town district on Chicago 's North Side . With this booking , they persuaded bassist Jerome Arnold and drummer Sam Lay ( both from Howlin ' Wolf 's touring band ) to form a group with them in 1963 . Their engagement at the club was highly successful and brought the group to the attention of record producer Paul A. Rothchild .
= = = Butterfield Blues Band with Bloomfield = = =
During their engagement at Big John 's , Butterfield met and occasionally sat in with guitarist Mike Bloomfield , who was also playing at the club . By chance , producer Rothchild witnessed one of their performances and was impressed by the chemistry between the two . He persuaded Butterfield to bring Bloomfield into the band , and they were signed to Elektra Records . Their first attempt to record an album , in December 1964 , did not meet Rothchild 's expectations , although an early version of " Born in Chicago " , written by Gravenites , was included on the 1965 Elektra sampler Folksong ' 65 and created interest in the band ( additional early recordings were released on the Elektra compilation What 's Shakin ' in 1966 and The Original Lost Elektra Sessions in 1995 ) . In order to better capture their sound , Rothchild convinced Elektra president Jac Holzman to record a live album . In the spring of 1965 , the Butterfield Blues Band was recorded at the Cafe Au Go Go in New York City . These recordings also failed to satisfy Rothchild , but the group 's appearances at the club brought them to the attention of the East Coast music community . Rothchild persuaded Holzman to agree to a third attempt at recording an album .
In these recording sessions , Rothchild had assumed the role of group manager and used his folk contacts to secure the band more and more engagements outside of Chicago . At the last minute , the band was booked to perform at the Newport Folk Festival in July 1965 . They were scheduled as the opening act the first night when the gates opened and again the next afternoon in an urban blues workshop at the festival . Despite limited exposure on the first night and a dismissive introduction the following day by the folklorist and blues researcher Alan Lomax , the band was able to attract an unusually large audience for a workshop performance . Maria Muldaur , with her husband , Geoff , who later toured and recorded with Butterfield , recalled the group 's performance as stunning – it was the first time that many of the mostly folk @-@ music fans had heard a high @-@ powered electric blues combo . Among those who took notice was festival regular Bob Dylan , who invited the band to back him for his first live electric performance . With little rehearsal , Dylan performed a short , four @-@ song set the next day with Bloomfield , Arnold , and Lay ( along with Al Kooper and Barry Goldberg ) . The performance was not well received by some and generated a controversy , but it was a watershed event and brought the band to the attention of a much larger audience .
The band added keyboardist Mark Naftalin , and its debut album , The Paul Butterfield Blues Band , was finally successfully recorded in mid @-@ 1965 and released later that year . The opening song , a newer recording of the previously released " Born in Chicago " , is an upbeat blues rocker and set the tone for the album , which included a mix of blues standards , such as " Shake Your Moneymaker " , " Blues with a Feeling " , and " Look Over Yonders Wall " , and compositions by the band . The album , described as a " hard @-@ driving blues album that , in a word , rocked " , reached number 123 in the Billboard 200 album chart in 1966 , but its influence was felt beyond its sales figures .
Jazz drummer Billy Davenport was invited to replace Lay , who was ailing . In July 1966 , the sextet recorded their second album , East @-@ West , which was released a month later . The album consists of more varied material , with the band 's interpretations of blues ( Robert Johnson 's " Walkin ' Blues " ) , rock ( Michael Nesmith 's " Mary , Mary " ) , R & B ( Allen Toussaint 's " Get Out of My Life , Woman " ) , and jazz selections ( Nat Adderley 's " Work Song " ) . East @-@ West reached number 65 in the album chart .
The thirteen @-@ minute instrumental track " East @-@ West " incorporates Indian raga influences and some of the earliest jazz @-@ fusion and blues rock excursions , with extended solos by Butterfield and guitarists Mike Bloomfield and Elvin Bishop . It has been described as " the first of its kind and ... the root from which the acid rock tradition emerged " . Live versions of the song sometimes lasted nearly an hour , and performances at the San Francisco Fillmore Auditorium " were a huge influence on the city 's jam bands " . Bishop recalled , " Quicksilver , Big Brother , and the Dead – those guys were just chopping chords . They had been folk musicians and weren 't particularly proficient playing electric guitar – [ Bloomfield ] could play all these scales and arpeggios and fast time @-@ signatures ... He just destroyed them . " Several live versions of " East @-@ West " from this period were later released on East @-@ West Live in 1996 .
In England in November 1966 , Butterfield recorded several songs with John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers , who had recently finished the album A Hard Road . Butterfield and Mayall contributed vocals , and Butterfield 's Chicago @-@ style blues harp was featured . Four songs were released in the UK on a 45 @-@ rpm EP , John Mayall 's Bluesbreakers with Paul Butterfield , in January 1967 .
= = = Later Butterfield Blues Band = = =
In spite of its success , the Butterfield Blues Band soon changed its lineup . Arnold and Davenport left the band , and Bloomfield went on to form his own group , Electric Flag . With Bishop and Naftalin remaining on guitar and keyboards , the band added bassist Bugsy Maugh , drummer Phillip Wilson , and saxophonists David Sanborn and Gene Dinwiddie . This lineup recorded the band 's third album , The Resurrection of Pigboy Crabshaw , in 1967 . The album cut back on extended instrumental jams and went in a more rhythm and blues @-@ influenced horn @-@ driven direction , with songs such as Charles Brown 's " Driftin ' Blues " ( retitled " Driftin ' and Driftin ' " ) , Otis Rush 's " Double Trouble " , and Junior Parker 's " Driving Wheel " . The Resurrection of Pigboy Crabshaw was Butterfield 's highest @-@ charting album , reaching number 52 on the album chart . Most of this lineup performed at the seminal Monterey Pop Festival on June 17 , 1967 .
On its next album , In My Own Dream , released in 1968 , the band continued to move away from its roots in Chicago blues towards a more soul @-@ influenced , horn @-@ based sound . With Butterfield singing only three songs , the album featured more band contributions It reached number 79 in the Billboard album chart . By the end of 1968 , both Bishop and Naftalin had left the band . In April 1969 , Butterfield took part in a concert at Chicago 's Auditorium Theater and a subsequent recording session organized by record producer Norman Dayron , featuring Muddy Waters backed by Otis Spann , Mike Bloomfield , Sam Lay , Donald " Duck " Dunn , and Buddy Miles . Such Waters warhorses as " Forty Days and Forty Nights " , " I 'm Ready " , " Baby , Please Don 't Go " , and " Got My Mojo Working " were recorded and later released on the album Fathers and Sons . Waters commented , " We did a lot of the things over we did with Little Walter and Jimmy Rogers and Elgin [ Evans ] on drums [ an early configuration of Waters 's band ] ... It 's about as close as I 've been [ to that feel ] since I first recorded it " . To one reviewer , these recordings represent Paul Butterfield 's best performances .
The Butterfield Blues Band was invited to perform at the Woodstock Festival on August 18 , 1969 . The band performed seven songs , and although its performance did not appear in the film Woodstock , one song , " Love March " , was included on the album Woodstock : Music from the Original Soundtrack and More , released in 1970 . In 2009 , Butterfield was included in the expanded 40th Anniversary Edition Woodstock video , and an additional two songs appeared on the box set Woodstock : 40 Years On : Back to Yasgur 's Farm .
The album Keep On Moving , with only Butterfield remaining from the original lineup , was released in 1969 . It was produced by veteran R & B producer and songwriter Jerry Ragovoy , reportedly brought in by Elektra to turn out a " breakout commercial hit " . The album was not embraced by critics or long @-@ time fans ; however , it reached number 102 in the Billboard album chart .
A live double album by the Butterfield Blues Band , Live , was recorded March 21 – 22 , 1970 , at the The Troubadour , in West Hollywood , California . By this time , the band included a four @-@ piece horn section in what has been described as a " big @-@ band Chicago blues with a jazz base " . Live provides perhaps the best showcase for this unique " blues @-@ jazz @-@ rock @-@ R & B hybrid sound " . After the release of another soul @-@ influenced album , Sometimes I Just Feel Like Smilin ' in 1971 , the Paul Butterfield Blues Band disbanded . In 1972 , a retrospective or their career , Golden Butter : The Best of the Paul Butterfield Blues Band , was released by Elektra .
= = = Better Days and solo = = =
After the breakup of the Butterfield Blues Band and no longer under contract with Elektra , Butterfield retreated to Woodstock , New York , where he eventually formed his next band , Paul Butterfield 's Better Days , with drummer Chris Parker , guitarist Amos Garrett , singer Geoff Muldaur , pianist Ronnie Barron and bassist Billy Rich . In 1972 – 1973 , the group recorded the albums Paul Butterfield 's Better Days and It All Comes Back , released by Albert Grossman 's Bearsville Records . The albums reflected the influence of the participants and explored more roots- and folk @-@ based styles . Although without an easily defined commercial style , both reached the album chart . The band did not last to record a third studio album , but its album Live at Winterland Ballroom , recorded in 1973 , was released in 1999 .
Butterfield next pursued a solo career and appeared as a sideman in several different musical settings . In 1975 , he again joined Muddy Waters to record Waters 's last album for Chess Records , The Muddy Waters Woodstock Album . The album was recorded at Levon Helm 's Woodstock studio with Garth Hudson and members of Waters 's touring band . In 1976 , Butterfield performed at the Band 's final concert , " The Last Waltz " , accompanying the Band on the song " Mystery Train " and backing Muddy Waters on " Mannish Boy " . Butterfield kept up his association with former members of the Band , touring and recording with Levon Helm and the RCO All Stars in 1977 and touring with Rick Danko in 1979 . A 1984 live performance with Danko and Richard Manuel was recorded and released as Live at the Lonestar in 2011 .
As a solo act with backing musicians , Butterfield continued to tour and recorded the misguided and overproduced Put It in Your Ear in 1976 and North South in 1981 , with strings , synthesizers , and pale funk arrangements . In 1986 , he released his final studio album , The Legendary Paul Butterfield Rides Again , which again was a poor attempt at a comeback with an updated rock sound . On April 15 , 1987 , he participated in the concert " B.B. King & Friends " , with Eric Clapton , Etta James , Albert King , Stevie Ray Vaughan , and others .
= = Legacy = =
Aside from " rank [ ing ] among the most influential harp players in the Blues " , Butterfield has also been seen as pointing blues @-@ based music in new , innovative directions . AllMusic critic Steve Huey commented ,
It 's impossible to overestimate the importance of the doors Butterfield opened : before he came to prominence , white American musicians treated the blues with cautious respect , afraid of coming off as inauthentic . Not only did Butterfield clear the way for white musicians to build upon blues tradition ( instead of merely replicating it ) , but his storming sound was a major catalyst in bringing electric Chicago blues to white audiences who 'd previously considered acoustic Delta blues the only really genuine article .
In 2006 , Butterfield was inducted into the Blues Foundation 's Blues Hall of Fame , which noted that " the albums released by the Butterfield Blues Band brought Chicago Blues to a generation of Rock fans during the 1960s and paved the way for late 1960s electric groups like Cream " . The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inducted the Paul Butterfield Blues Band in 2015 . The induction biography commented that " the Butterfield Band converted the country @-@ blues purists and turned on the Fillmore generation to the pleasures of Muddy Waters , Howlin ' Wolf , Little Walter , Willie Dixon and Elmore James " .
= = Harmonica style = =
Like many Chicago blues harp players , Butterfield approached the instrument like a horn , preferring single notes to chords , and used it for soloing . His style has been described as " always intense , understated , concise , and serious " , and he was " known for purity and intensity of his tone , his sustained breath control , and his unique ability to bend notes to his will " . In his choice of notes he has been compared to Big Walter Horton , but he was never seen as an imitator of any particular harp player . Rather , he developed " a style original and powerful enough to place him in the pantheon of true blues greats " .
Butterfield played Hohner harmonicas ( and endorsed them ) . He preferred the diatonic ten @-@ hole Marine Band model . He wrote a harmonica instruction book , Paul Butterfield Teaches Blues Harmonica Master Class , a few years before his death ( it was not published until 1997 ) . In it , he explains various techniques , demonstrated on an accompanying CD . Butterfield played mainly in cross @-@ harp , or second position . He occasionally used a chromatic harmonica . Reportedly left @-@ handed , he held the harmonica in a manner opposite that of a right @-@ handed player , i.e. , in his right hand , upside down ( with the low notes to the right ) , using his left hand for muting effects .
Also like other electric Chicago blues harp players , Butterfield frequently used amplification to achieve his sound . Producer Rothchild noted that Butterfield favored an Altec harp microphone run through an early model Fender tweed amplifier . Beginning with album The Resurrection of Pigboy Crabshaw , he began using an acoustic harmonica style , following his shift to a more R & B @-@ based approach .
= = Personal life = =
By all accounts , Paul Butterfield was absorbed in his music . According to his brother Peter ,
He listened to records and went places , but he also spent an awful lot of time , by himself , playing [ harmonica ] . He 'd play outdoors . There 's a place called the Point in Hyde Park [ Chicago ] , a promontory of land that sticks out into Lake Michigan , and I can remember him out there for hours playing . He was just playing all the time ... It was a very solitary effort . It was all internal , like he had a particular sound he wanted to get and he just worked to get it .
Producer Norman Dayron recalled the young Butterfield as " very quiet and defensive and hard @-@ edged . He was this tough Irish Catholic , kind of a hard guy . He would walk around in black shirts and sunglasses , dark shades and dark jackets ... Paul was hard to be friends with . " Although they later became close , Michael Bloomfield commented on his first impressions of Butterfield : " He was a bad guy . He carried pistols . He was down there on the South Side , holding his own . I was scared to death of that cat " . Writer and AllMusic founder Michael Erlewine , who knew Butterfield early in his recording career , described him as " always intense , somewhat remote , and even , on occasion , downright unfriendly " . He remembered Butterfield as " not much interested in other people " .
Paul married his first wife ( and high school friend of many years ) , Virginia McEwan , at Chicago City Hall on November 16 , 1964 . Together , they had Paul 's first son , Gabriel Butterfield , born September , 1965 . The couple remained married until 1969 . It was also Virginia McEwan who wrote and delivered the eulogy at Paul 's funeral .
By 1971 , Butterfield had purchased his first house , in rural Woodstock , New York , and began enjoying family life with his second wife , Kathy , and their infant son , Lee . According to Maria Muldaur , she and her husband were frequent dinner guests , which usually involved sitting around a piano and singing songs . She doubted her abilities , but " it was Butter that first encouraged me to let loose and just sing the blues [ and ] not to worry about singing pretty or hitting all the right notes ... He loosened all the levels of self @-@ consciousness and doubt out of me ... And he 'll forever live in my heart for that and for respecting me as a fellow musician . "
= = Death = =
Beginning in 1980 , Paul Butterfield underwent several surgical procedures to relieve his peritonitis , a serious and painful inflammation of the intestines . Although he had been opposed to hard drugs as a bandleader , he began using painkillers , including heroin , which led to an addiction . These problems and the drug @-@ related death of his friend and one @-@ time musical partner Mike Bloomfield weighed heavily on him . On May 4 , 1987 at age 44 , Paul Butterfield died at his apartment in the North Hollywood district of Los Angeles . An autopsy by the county coroner concluded that he was the victim of an accidental drug overdose , with " significant levels of morphine ( heroin ) " .
By the time of his death , Paul Butterfield was out of the commercial mainstream . Although for some , he was very much the bluesman , Maria Muldaur commented " he had the whole sensibility and musicality and approach down pat ... He just went for it and took it all in , and he embodied the essence of what the blues was all about . Unfortunately , he lived that way a little too much " .
= = Discography = =
In 1964 , Butterfield began his association with Elektra Records and eventually recorded seven albums for the label . After the breakup of the Butterfield Blues Band in 1971 , he recorded four albums for manager Albert Grossman 's Bearsville Records – two with Paul Butterfield 's Better Days and two solo . His last solo album was released by Amherst Records .
After his death in 1987 , his former record companies released a number of live albums and compilations . Except where noted , the following albums are listed as " The Paul Butterfield Blues Band " .
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = = The Butterfield Blues Band = = = =
The Paul Butterfield Blues Band ( 1965 )
East @-@ West ( 1966 )
The Resurrection of Pigboy Crabshaw ( 1967 )
In My Own Dream ( 1968 )
Keep On Moving ( 1969 )
Sometimes I Just Feel Like Smilin ' ( 1971 )
= = = = Paul Butterfield = = = =
Better Days ( 1973 ) ( by Paul Butterfield 's Better Days )
It All Comes Back ( 1973 ) ( by Paul Butterfield 's Better Days )
Put It in Your Ear ( 1976 )
North @-@ South ( 1981 )
The Legendary Paul Butterfield Rides Again ( 1986 )
= = = Live albums = = =
Live ( 1970 , reissued 2005 with bonus tracks )
Strawberry Jam ( 1996 , recorded 1966 – 1968 )
East @-@ West Live ( 1996 , recorded 1966 – 1967 )
Live at Unicorn Coffee House ( released with several titles and dates , bootleg recorded 1966 )
Live at Winterland Ballroom , Paul Butterfield 's Better Days ( 1999 , recorded 1973 )
Rockpalast : Blues Rock Legends , Vol . 2 , Paul Butterfield Band ( 2008 , recorded 1978 )
Live at the Lone Star , Rick Danko , Richard Manuel & Paul Butterfield ( 2011 , recorded 1984 )
= = = Butterfield compilation albums = = =
Golden Butter : The Best of the Butterfield Blues Band ( 1972 )
The Original Lost Elektra Sessions ( 1995 , recorded 1964 )
An Anthology : The Elektra Years ( 2 CDs , 1997 )
Paul Butterfield 's Better Days : Bearsville Anthology , Paul Butterfield 's Better Days ( 2000 )
Hi @-@ Five : The Paul Butterfield Blues Band ( EP , 2006 )
= = = Compilation albums and videos with various artists = = =
Folksongs ' 65 ( 1965 )
What 's Shakin ' ( 1966 )
Festival ( 1967 film , including 1965 appearance with Dylan )
You Are What You Eat ( 1968 film soundtrack )
Woodstock : Music from the Original Soundtrack and More ( 1970 , recorded 1969 )
Woodstock 2 ( 1971 , recorded 1969 )
An Offer You Can 't Refuse ( 1972 , recorded 1963 )
Woodstock ' 79 ( 1991 video , filmed 1979 )
Woodstock : Three Days of Peace and Music ( 1994 , recorded 1969 )
The Monterey International Pop Festival June 16 – 17 – 18 30th Anniversary Box Set ( 1997 , recorded 1967 )
The Complete Monterey Pop Festival ( 2002 video , filmed 1967 )
Woodstock : 40 Years On : Back to Yasgur 's Farm ( 2009 , recorded 1969 )
Woodstock : 40th Anniversary Ultimate Collector 's Edition ( 2009 video , filmed 1969 )
= = = As accompanist = = =
John Mayall 's Bluesbreakers with Paul Butterfield , John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers ( EP , 1967 )
Blues at Midnight ( released with several titles and dates ) , Jimi Hendrix , B.B. King , and others ( bootleg of jam recorded 1968 )
Fathers and Sons , Muddy Waters ( 1969 , reissued 2001 with bonus tracks )
Give It Up , Bonnie Raitt ( 1972 )
Steelyard Blues , Mike Bloomfield , Nick Gravenites , Maria Muldaur , and others ( 1973 film soundtrack )
That 's Enough for Me , Peter Yarrow ( 1973 )
Woodstock Album , Muddy Waters ( 1975 )
Levon Helm & the RCO All @-@ Stars ( 1977 )
The Last Waltz , the Band ( 1978 )
Elizabeth Barraclough , Elizabeth Barraclough ( 1978 )
Hi ! , Elizabeth Barraclough ( 1979 )
B.B. King & Friends ( released with various titles and dates ) , B.B King , Eric Clapton , Stevie Ray Vaughan , and others ( bootleg video of television special filmed 1987 )
Heart Attack , Little Mike & the Tornados ( 1990 , recorded 1986 )
= = = Tribute albums = = =
A Tribute to Paul Butterfield ' , Robben Ford and the Ford Blues Band ( 2001 )
The Butterfield / Bloomfield Concert , the Ford Blues Band , with Robben Ford and Chris Cain ( 2006 )
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= Timothy Everest =
Timothy Everest , MBE ( born 1961 ) is a Welsh bespoke tailor and designer who has , according to Vogue , " dressed some of the world 's most famous people " . Born in Haverfordwest , Wales , he moved to London in his early twenties to work with innovative Savile Row tailor Tommy Nutter , where he learned the art of bespoke . Everest was one of the leaders of the New Bespoke Movement , which brought designer attitudes to the traditional skills of Savile Row tailoring .
Everest has been running his own tailoring business in the East End of London since 1989 . Based at his Spitalfields atelier since 1993 , he opened a West End store off Bond Street , near Savile Row , in 2008 . As well as collaborating on projects with designers and brands such as Brooks England , DAKS , Kim Jones , Levi 's , Rapha and Rocawear , as costume designer Everest has dressed the stars of films including Mission Impossible ( One and M : i @-@ 2 ) , Eyes Wide Shut , Atonement and Mamma Mia ! . He has been associated with the British high street retailer Marks and Spencer since 1999 , and has been a contributor to men 's magazine The Rake since 2008 . Everest is at the forefront of the bespoke casual movement .
= = Early life = =
Everest was born and brought up in Haverfordwest , Pembrokeshire , west Wales ; most of his family remain in the area . His parents were restaurateurs . He had aspired to become a racing driver . But , his ambition unfulfilled , he took a job with his uncle when he was 17 , working as a sales assistant at Hepworths , Milford Haven ; a high street tailor that would form the foundation of the Next retail empire . In the early 1980s , he became interested in the club scene , often driving to London , where he mixed with New Romantics such as Boy George at The Blitz ; a trendy London nightclub run by Steve Strange of the group Visage .
Determined to become part of the fashion industry , but unable to make a breakthrough , Everest decided to use his knowledge of tailoring . He answered an advertisement placed in the London Evening Standard , in 1982 , by Tommy Nutter ; ' Boy wanted in Savile Row ' . He pestered Nutter for weeks , until he was given the job . Nutter 's client base included rock stars , celebrities , politicians and businessmen ; he famously dressed The Beatles and The Stones . Everest also mixed with future celebrities of the fashion world . John Galliano , who had been studying at the Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design , passed on some design skills to Everest , while on work placement with Nutter . Everest met his future wife Catherine ( now an actress and film producer ) at this time , while she was also working with Nutter . The couple have two daughters . Everest 's time under Nutter , a Savile Row revolutionary in the 1960s , inspired him to experiment with tone and pattern in his own designs . In 1986 , after nearly five years as Nutter 's apprentice , Everest was persuaded to move on to work for Malcolm Levene . He had become disillusioned with Savile Row , particularly with their lack of appreciation for Nutter 's more modern approach . Everest found that working with Levene , a small menswear retailer based away from Savile Row , on Chiltern Street , provided a welcome change . During Everest 's first year there , Levene 's turnover doubled .
= = Career = =
= = = Setting out on his own = = =
Leaving Levene in the late 1980s to become a freelance stylist in television advertising , MTV and film , Everest began styling bands and pop stars such as George Michael . He recognised a shift in perception of the male fashion industry ; men had become more label conscious . This had coincided with the increased awareness of top @-@ end fashion designers , like Hugo Boss and Armani , highlighted by men 's lifestyle magazines ; such as Arena and The Face . He said , " I thought that if we could demystify bespoke tailoring and make it more accessible , as well as really understanding what was going on in ready @-@ to @-@ wear fashion and being directional with it , there was possibly a market there . " Having decided to create the Timothy Everest brand as an alternative to ' designer ' ready @-@ to @-@ wear , he searched for a suitable location away from " the stuffiness of Savile Row " . Everest opened his first premises in 1989 ; in Princelet Street , Spitalfields , just outside the City of London , in the East End . He said , " We started in one room of a house . We had one rail with four garments on and a telephone , no chairs , no furniture . " To begin with , business was slow . Moving premises in 1993 , he chose a three @-@ storey , early Georgian townhouse ( built in 1724 ) , just north of Old Spitalfields Market in nearby Elder Street – the former home of artist Mark Gertler ( 1891 – 1939 ) – converting it to an atelier over seven weeks . He dressed Tom Cruise for the 1996 film Mission : Impossible . Cruise liked the suits so much that he kept them , and commissioned Everest to make him some more .
= = = New Bespoke Movement = = =
Everest became one of the " Cool Britannia " tailoring generation of the mid @-@ 1990s , identified by James Sherwood ( author of Savile Row : The Master Tailors of British Bespoke ) as having begun with the publication of Vanity Fair 's " Cool Britania " issue in 1997 . Sensing a change in consumer attitudes , away from the more traditional styling of Savile Row , he sought to revitalise bespoke suiting , which he believed had been in danger of disappearing . With contemporaries Ozwald Boateng and Richard James , he launched the New Bespoke Movement , which brought a fashion designer approach to Savile Row craftsmanship . He launched the brand 's first ready @-@ to @-@ wear collection in 1999 . His long @-@ standing association with Marks and Spencer began that year . He dressed Tom Cruise again , for his reprised role in the 2000 film Mission : Impossible II , and at the Oscars that year , when he also dressed Robin Williams and Burt Bacharach . By 2000 , he had 3 @,@ 500 bespoke clients . Everest joined DAKS Simpson as design consultant in May 2000 . He was appointed to the board as Group Creative Director in 2002 , leaving in 2003 . One of the lines he designed for DAKS was an affordable suiting range aimed at teenagers , launched in August 2001 ; called DAKS E1 , after the postal district of his atelier .
= = = Bespoke casual = = =
Everest is at the forefront of the bespoke casual movement which , as the name suggests , provides individually tailored casual clothing of Savile Row quality , including : casual shirts ; smart @-@ casual jackets ; T @-@ shirts ; and jeans . In collaboration with Levi 's in 2004 , he designed a tailored @-@ denim suit , sold in Japanese retailer Oki @-@ Ni 's stores . Expanding the bespoke casual concept , he offered a bespoke denim tailoring service dressing celebrities from sports , Hollywood and rock music , such as David Beckham , Kevin Bacon and Ricky Wilson of the Kaiser Chiefs . Everest designed a suit collection in 2004 / 05 in collaboration with Rocawear , the fashion clothing company founded by American hip hop artists Damon Dash and Jay @-@ Z. The advertising campaign was fronted by Dash 's friends Kevin Bacon and Naomi Campbell . He teamed up with British casual and sportswear designer Kim Jones during 2005 and 2006 . The collaboration produced tailoring collections for four seasons that were shown on the catwalk at Paris fashion week . For his next collaboration , in 2006 Everest showed a limited collection of menswear with New York hair salon Bumble and bumble , including a fully bespoke denim line , which retailed at around US $ 1 @,@ 000 . Marketed as a ' destination location ' , the retail space on the store 's 8th floor , in the fashionable Meatpacking District of Manhattan , also featured a barbershop , a café and a teahouse . In autumn 2007 , the Timothy Everest ready @-@ to @-@ wear collection was available in shops for the first time , including Flannels , Liberty and John Lewis . The range included suits , shirts and trousers . He was costume designer for the 2008 film Mamma Mia ! , dressing its stars , including Pierce Brosnan and Colin Firth . He opened a West End store in 2008 , at Bruton Street , Mayfair , off Bond Street ; less than five minutes walk from Savile Row . He has been a creative contributor and Sartorial Advisor to men 's magazine The Rake since 2008 .
= = = Bespoke active wear = = =
A keen cyclist , in 2009 Everest collaborated with cyclewear brand Rapha to develop a bespoke suit that could be worn while cycling ; what he called " bespoke active wear " . Priced at £ 3 @,@ 500 , the three @-@ piece suit was made of blended wool , using nanotechnology to repel water and dirt . It combined the functionality of classic cycling clothing with the elegance of bespoke tailoring . Its features included a high button fastening to keep the jacket closely fitted to the body , a lapel pocket for an MP3 player and pleats at the shoulders and center back to allow extra fabric when the rider was bent over the bicycle . The jacket design was incorporated into Rapha 's ready @-@ to @-@ wear collection in 2010 . In collaboration with bicycle saddle manufacturer Brooks England during 2010 , he developed a cycling jacket ; under Brooks ' John Boultbee clothing label . The resulting ' Criterion Mk.1 cycling jacket ' , which used water and sweat @-@ resistant materials , was shown at the Bread and Butter street and urban fashion fair , Berlin , in January 2011 .
Everest received an MBE in the 2010 New Year 's Honours list for his " services to the British fashion industry " . Having receiving the award from Queen Elizabeth at Buckingham Palace on Saint David 's Day 2010 , with his wife and two daughters watching , he described the award as a " great honour , not only for me but my business and all who have been involved " . He is quoted as saying that he would like " to be remembered as someone who made people take British clothing seriously " .
= = = The brand = = =
The Timothy Everest brand has three levels of tailoring . ' Bespoke ' is aimed at young professionals with the means to purchase bespoke tailoring , but not necessarily the desire to visit Savile Row . Each customer is measured for an individual pattern to be hand @-@ cut , from which their chosen cloth is cut and sewn by hand . Although still hand made , ' Made @-@ to @-@ measure ' garments use existing ' house ' patterns , adapted to the customer 's measurements . The ' Ready @-@ to @-@ wear ' collection is sold in @-@ house , at Everest 's Mayfair branch , and in Japan . Emphasising his Savile Row background , Everest said , " We are tailors who design , not designers who discovered tailoring " .
= = Marks and Spencer = =
UK department store retailer Debenhams ' collaboration with designers , launched in 1993 under their Designers at Debenhams range , was a success . Hoping to recapture some of their lost market share , Marks and Spencer ( M & S ) asked Everest to review their menswear range . As Creative Consultant , he designed the Sartorial suiting line for their menswear collection . In October 2000 , he designed the Autograph suiting line . Noting that the M & S range consisted of Italian @-@ style suiting , he aimed to achieve a more ' British ' look from the cut , fit and styling and by using different fabrics and colours . He also has responsibility for their Luxury collection . During M & S advertising campaigns , his designs for the Autograph range have been modelled by several British celebrities , including David Beckham , Bryan Ferry , Jimmy Carr , Martin Freeman , Bob Mortimer and Take That . In 2007 , M & S were selected by The Football Association as ' Official Tailor to the England football team ' and Everest designed the team 's official suits for the 2010 World Cup in South Africa .
= = Clientele = =
Everest has , according to Vogue , dressed " some of the world 's most famous people " . He has clients worldwide and travels regularly for fittings in New York , Los Angeles and Japan . Closer to home , Everest 's bespoke atelier in Spitalfields has a diverse client base that includes politicians ( including British Prime Ministers past and present ) , and sports and Hollywood personalities . Of his suit worn to the Oscars , Tom Cruise commented : " Of course it fits ; it 's a Timothy Everest " .
He has been costume designer on several films , including Mission Impossible ( One and M : i @-@ 2 ) , Tube Tales , Eyes Wide Shut , Appaloosa , Atonement , The Accidental Husband and Mamma Mia ! . Among his celebrity clients are : Kevin Bacon ; David Beckham ; Matthew Broderick ; Gordon Brown ; Pierce Brosnan ; David Cameron ; Jarvis Cocker ; Jeremy Irons ; Jay @-@ Z ; Mick Jagger ; and James McAvoy .
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= Symphony in White , No. 3 =
Symphony in White , No. 3 , is a painting by James Abbott McNeill Whistler . The work shows two women dressed in white , one sitting on a sofa and the other resting on the floor . The model on the sofa is Joanna Heffernan , the artist 's mistress . By calling the painting Symphony in White , No. 3 , Whistler intended to emphasise his artistic philosophy of corresponding arts , inspired by the poet Charles Baudelaire . The presence of a fan on the floor shows the influence of Japonisme , which was a popular artistic trend in European art at the time . Whistler was also greatly influenced by his colleague and friend Albert Joseph Moore , and their works show considerable similarities .
Though Whistler started on the painting in 1865 , he was not ready to exhibit it publicly until 1867 , when it went on display at the Royal Academy . His colleagues were impressed by the painting , but not all critics fully understood the connection between the painting and its title . One review in particular questioned the presence of other colours in addition to white , a criticism which prompted Whistler to respond with a scathing and sarcastic letter . Years later , Whistler 's former student Walter Sickert criticized the painting as " the low @-@ water mark of the old manner , before the birth of the new . "
= = Background = =
James Abbott McNeill Whistler was born in the United States in 1834 , the son of George Washington Whistler , a railway engineer . In 1843 , his father relocated the family to Saint Petersburg , Russia , where James received training in painting . After a stay in England , he returned to America to attend the US Military Academy at West Point in 1851 . In 1855 , he made his way back to Europe , determined to dedicate himself to painting . Here he settled in Paris at first , but in 1859 moved to London , where he would spend most of the remainder of his life . There he met Dante Gabriel Rossetti and other members of the Pre @-@ Raphaelite Brotherhood , who would have a profound influence on Whistler .
It was also in London that Whistler met Joanna Heffernan , the model who would become his lover . By 1865 , Whistler had already used her as a model for other paintings , among these Symphony in White , No. 1 and Symphony in White , No. 2 . Heffernan supposedly had a strong influence over Whistler ; his brother @-@ in @-@ law Francis Seymour Haden refused a dinner invitation in the winter of 1863 – 64 due to her dominant presence in the household . In January 1864 , Whistler 's mother Anna – later depicted in the painting Arrangement in Grey and Black – arrived to stay with her son in London . As a result , Heffernan had to move out of the apartment , and only visited as a model . Still , Heffernan 's presence displeased Whistler 's mother , and his relationship with both women became strained .
= = Creation and reception = =
Whistler started on Symphony in White , No. 3 perhaps as early as July 1865 . It was the last of his paintings for which Heffernan was a model . He used Milly Jones , the wife of an actor friend , as the second model for the painting . By the middle of August , he had a complete sketch ready , and he continued work on the painting into September . Whistler kept reworking it , however , and it was not until 1867 that he considered it finished . He painted over the final " 5 " in the date , and replaced it with a " 7 " , to mark the changes it had undergone . In March 1867 , William Michael Rossetti wrote of seeing the painting in Whistler 's studio , and mentioned that it was previously called The Two Little White Girls . It then went on display at the Royal Academy .
The work was greatly admired by Whistler 's colleagues , including Henri Fantin @-@ Latour , Alfred Stevens , James Tissot and Edgar Degas . For Degas , the painting served as an inspiration for his own portrait of Eugénie Fiocre in the ballet La Source . Some critics , however , were confused by the title . Philip Hamerton , writing for the Saturday Review on 1 June 1867 , remarked :
In the " Symphony in White No . III . " by Mr. Whistler there are many dainty varieties of tint , but it is not precisely a symphony in white . One lady has a yellowish dress and brown hair and a bit of blue ribbon , the other has a red fan , and there are flowers and green leaves . There is a girl in white on a white sofa , but even this girl has reddish hair ; and of course there is the flesh colour of the complexions .
Whistler was always belligerent in his response to critics . He wrote a letter to the editor that the newspaper would not print , but was later reprinted by Whistler himself in his book The Gentle Art of Making Enemies :
How pleasing that such profound prattle should inevitably find its place in print ! ... Bon Dieu ! did this wise person expect white hair and chalked faces ? And does he then , in his astounding consequence , believe that a symphony in F contains no other note , but shall be a continued repetition of F , F , F ? . . . Fool !
The painting was originally bought by the wealthy art collector Louis Huth , who later also commissioned Whistler to paint a portrait of his wife . It is currently in the ownership of the Barber Institute of Fine Arts , in Birmingham , England .
= = Composition and interpretation = =
Symphony in White , No. 3 shows Heffernan reclining on a sofa with her head rested on her hand , while Jones is seated on the floor , leaning against the sofa . There is a fan on the floor , and a plant bearing white flowers on the right . The fan is an oriental element , and an expression of the artistic trend known as Japonisme which was then prevalent in European art . At the time , Whistler was greatly influenced by his friend and colleague Albert Joseph Moore . The painting bears close resemblances to Moore 's roughly contemporary painting A Musician , though at the time the two were working so closely together that it is hard to ascertain exactly who influenced whom .
The painter Walter Sickert – a student of Whistler – later described the painting in unflattering terms . In December 1908 , five years after Whistler 's death , he wrote in the Fortnightly Review :
In ' Symphony in White , No. 3 , ' we get the culbute . A bad picture , lâchons le mot , badly composed , badly drawn , badly painted , the low @-@ water mark of the old manner , before the birth of the new . Folds of drapery are expressed by ribbons of paint in the direction of the folds themselves , with hard edges to them . Only painters can quite understand the depth of technical infamy confessed in this last description . It means that the drapery is no longer painted , but intended .
To Whistler himself , however , the painting was not old @-@ fashioned , but rather an expression of something new and innovative . By naming it Symphony in White , No. 3 , Whistler highlighted his emphasis on composition , rather than subject matter . The use of a musical title was also an expression of the theory of corresponding arts , which was an idea developed by the French poet Charles Baudelaire . These tendencies became more and more dominant in Whistler 's art over time . His two earlier paintings Symphony in White , No. 1 and Symphony in White , No. 2 had originally been titled The White Girl and The Little White Girl respectively , and later been renamed by the artist . Whistler had originally intended to call this work Two Little White Girls , but the development of his artistic philosophy made him change his mind , and from the time of its first exhibition it has been called by its musical title .
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= 2 Become 1 =
" 2 Become 1 " is a song by the English girl group the Spice Girls . Written by the group members , Matt Rowe and Richard Stannard during the group 's first professional songwriting session , it was produced by Rowe and Stannard for the group 's debut album Spice ( 1996 ) . It was inspired by the special relationship that was developing between Geri Halliwell and Rowe during the writing session .
" 2 Become 1 " is a Pop , Pop rock , Soft rock , Easy listening , and Romance ( music ) song that features instrumentation from a guitar , an electronic keyboard , and string instruments . The lyrics focus on the bonding of two lovers , and also address the importance of contraception . Its Big TV ! -directed music video , which features the group performing against time @-@ lapse footage of Times Square in New York City , was completely shot against a green screen at a studio in London . The backdrop was later superimposed .
Released as the group 's third single on 16 December 1996 , it was generally well received by music critics and was a commercial success . It topped the UK Singles Chart for three weeks , becoming the group 's third consecutive chart @-@ topper , their second million @-@ selling single , and their first Christmas number @-@ one single in the United Kingdom . In July 1997 , the song was released in the United States , peaking at No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and receiving a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . It performed similarly internationally , peaking inside the top ten on the majority of the charts that it entered .
= = Background = =
In December 1994 , the Spice Girls persuaded their former managers — father @-@ and @-@ son team Bob and Chris Herbert — to set up a showcase in front of industry writers , producers and A & R men at the Nomis Studios in Shepherd 's Bush , London . Producer Richard Stannard was originally at the studio to meet pop star Jason Donovan , but he ended up in the showcase after hearing Melanie Brown , as she went charging across the corridor . Stannard recalls :
More than anything , they just made me laugh . I couldn 't believe I 'd walked into this situation . You didn 't care if they were in time with the dance steps or whether one was overweight or one wasn 't as good as the others . It was something more . It just made you feel happy . Like great pop records .
Stannard stayed after everyone had left the showcase to talk to the group , he then reported back to his songwriter partner Matt Rowe , that he had found the pop group of their dreams . In January 1995 , Chris Herbert booked the group 's first professional songwriting session with the producers at the Strongroom in Curtain Road , East London . Rowe remember feeling similarly to Stannard when he first met the group , " I love them . Immediately . [ ... ] They were like no one I 'd met before , really . " The session was productive as the duo seemed to get along with the group , together they discussed about the songwriting process and what they wanted to do with the record . In her autobiography , Brown recalled that the duo instinctively understood their point of view and knew how to incorporate " the spirit of five loud girls into great pop music " .
= = Writing and inspiration = =
" 2 Become 1 " was co @-@ written by the Spice Girls along with partners Richard Stannard and Matthew Rowe . Stannard and Rowe also co @-@ produced the track . After writing more uptempo dance @-@ based songs , such as " Wannabe " , the group and the two producers decided to write a slow ballad . But as the group were writing the song , they realised that it was a bit too slushy , so it was decided to address the importance of contraception with the lyrics : " Be a little bit wiser baby . Put it on , put it on " .
The song was inspired by the special relationship that was developing between Geri Halliwell and Rowe . Brown hinted at this development in her autobiography commenting : " When he [ Rowe ] and Geri started making eyes at each other I knew what was going on , even though they denied it . I knew them both too well for it to be a secret for me . " Stannard commented about the fondness between Halliwell and Rowe : " I don 't want to get into the side of things . They were very close . They clicked . And I think the lyrics in " 2 Become 1 " came from that , especially the first verse , which they wrote together . "
= = = Spanish version = = =
The group recorded a Spanish version of the song , written by them , Rowe , Stannard , and N. Maño . The title was " 2 Become 1 " ( Spanish Version ) , although the title is loosely translated in one line of the song , " Seremos Uno Los Dos " . It was released as the eleventh track of their debut album Spice , in Latin America , South Africa , in a special re @-@ edition of the album in Spain , and as one of the tracks of the " 2 Become 1 " maxi @-@ single in the US . A Spanglish edit that traded verses between the English and Spanish versions was created by DJ Mike Rizzo and production director Bill Schultz for New York @-@ based radio WKTU .
= = Composition = =
" 2 Become 1 " is a pop ballad , written in the key of F ♯ major ; it is set in the time signature of common time and moves at a slow tempo of 72 beats per minute . The song is constructed in a verse @-@ chorus form , and its instrumentation comes from a guitar , an electronic keyboard , and string instruments . The song opens with an instrumental introduction , with a chord progression of E ♭ m add9 – D ♭ / F – G ♭ – A ♭ m7 sus4 , that is also used during the first part of the verses . The last two lines of each verse changes the progression to C ♭ – B ♭ m7 – A ♭ m7 – D ♭ 11 , and changes again during each chorus to G ♭ – D ♭ – C ♭ – D ♭ . It closes with a string outro that uses the chord progression F ♭ – G ♭ – B ♭ ♭ – C ♭ , which is arranged by Scottish composer Craig Armstrong .
In 1995 the Spice Girls recorded the demo version of 2 Become 1 . The first three verses sang by Chisholm , Beckham and Bunton respectively . The second three verses were sung by Chisholm , Halliwell and Bunton respectively . The final verse sang by Bunton and the bridges sang by Brown . In the final versions of the song Brown sang the second verse instead of Beckham for unknown reasons . The first and third lines of the chorus are sung by Bunton and Halliwell together and the second and fourth lines are sung by Chisholm and Beckham . After Halliwell 's departure in 1998 , Beckham replaced Halliwell singing the first and third lines of the chorus along with Bunton , while Brown replaced Beckham singing the second and fourth lines of the chorus along with Chisholm .
The lyrics focus on how the bonding of two lovers can become so strong that they practically become one entity , through the act of sexual intercourse . Apart from the sexual connotations , there is an aspirational undercurrent to the lyrics , and like many of their subsequent songs , desire is explicitly linked to ambition – " Free your mind of doubt and danger / Be for real don 't be a stranger / We can achieve it / We can achieve it " .
Two different versions of the song , each with different lyrics , were recorded : in the album version , the second line of the second verse , " Any deal that we endeavor / Boys and girls go good together " , was changed in the single version to : " Once again if we endeavour / Love will bring us back together " . Victoria Beckham sings on the single version , while Halliwell sings on the album version , after Halliwell confessed that she had a hard time singing on that particular key . The single version appears in the music video , and on stage the girls always performed the single version before and after Halliwell 's departure .
= = Release = =
" 2 Become 1 " was released in the United Kingdom on 16 December 1996 , in three single versions . The first one , a maxi single that included the single version of the track , an orchestral take , the Junior Vasquez remix of " Wannabe " , and " One of These Girls " , a song written by the group with Paul Wilson and Andy Watkins — the songwriters and production duo known as Absolute . The second version was the special Christmas pack , a standard CD single in a cardboard case that included a signed postcard with a Christmas message from the group . This version contained the single version , the Dave Way remix , and their own version of Leroy Anderson 's " Sleigh Ride " . The third version was a two @-@ track cassette single , featuring the single version and the orchestral take of the song . The same track listing was also used for the release of the European CD single .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The song was generally well received by music critics . In a review of the group 's debut album Spice , Dev Sherlock of Yahoo ! Music Radio called it a " glossy ballad that would do Mariah Carey proud " . Whitney Pastorek of Entertainment Weekly said that the song is " too slow , and the lyrics appear to have been written by a safe @-@ sex @-@ loving unicorn " , adding that " it 's almost impossible to identify the individual Spice Girls by their voices here , so airbrushed are the proceedings " . Larry Flick of Billboard magazine said that " they are surprisingly adept at weaving warm and romantic imagery over a sweet melody " adding that " [ Everyone ] will delight in the track 's arrangement of soft harmonies and delicate acoustic guitar riffs " . Time magazine 's Christopher John Farley called it a " slumberous ballad [ ... ] [ that ] seem [ s ] designed to amuse , titillate , ingratiate " .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic called the song a " perfect adult contemporary confection " . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said that their first album " is a compendium of slick secondhand urban pop encompassing [ ... ] G @-@ funk synths on ' Say You 'll Be There ' [ ... ] and Babyface 's guitar and strings balladry on ' 2 Become 1 ' " . In a review of the group 's 2007 compilation album Greatest Hits , Talia Kraines of BBC Music called it " shimmering " adding that " only a cold heart could fail to love their first festive # 1 " . Digital Spy 's Nick Levine said that the group 's slower songs were " probably their strongest suit " , and thought that " ' 2 Become 1 ' manages to combine every element of the perfect Christmas ballad – a touch of elegance , a hint of romance , a soupcon of sexiness and a generous sprinkling of sparkle – and still finds time for a coy safe sex message " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" 2 Become 1 " was originally going to be released in the UK on 9 December 1996 , but the release date was delayed to let Dunblane 's " Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door " — a tribute to the children killed at the Dunblane Primary School in Scotland — to stay at the top of the UK Singles Chart . The single was released the next week , debuting at the top , becoming the group 's third chart @-@ topper and their first Christmas number @-@ one single in the UK . It sold 209 @,@ 000 copies in the first three days of release and 430 @,@ 000 in the first week , becoming the tenth best @-@ selling single of the year . " 2 Become 1 " sold 1 @.@ 12 million copies in total , giving the Spice Girls their second and final million @-@ selling single in the UK .
In Ireland , " 2 Become 1 " was the group 's second number @-@ one single , and their first to debut at the top of the Irish Singles Chart . It stayed at the top position for six weeks , and became their first Christmas number @-@ one single in the country . " 2 Become 1 " peaked at No. 3 on the Eurochart Hot 100 , and performed similarly across the rest of Europe , topping the singles chart in Spain , peaking inside the top ten in Austria , Denmark , Finland , France , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland , and inside the top fifteen in Belgium and Germany . It was also commercially successful in Australia and New Zealand , peaking inside the top three on both countries .
In July 1997 , " 2 Become 1 " debuted on the Canadian RPM singles chart at No. 87 , peaked at No. 3 on its fifth week , and ended at No. 25 on the year @-@ end chart . On the Adult Contemporary chart it peaked at No. 4 , and ended at No. 27 on the year @-@ end chart . In the United States , the song debuted on 16 August 1997 at No. 6 , reaching a peak of No. 4 in its fourth week , becoming the group 's third consecutive top five in the country . The song peaked at No. 6 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart and at No. 8 on the Hot 100 Singles Sales chart , selling 700 @,@ 000 copies as of December 1997 . It peaked at four on the Mainstream Top 40 , and had crossover success , peaking at four on the Rhythmic Top 40 and at eight on the Adult Contemporary chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " 2 Become 1 " was directed on 22 November 1996 by Big TV ! , in a two @-@ day shoot located at a studio in Old Compton Street , London . Cinematographer Stephen Keith @-@ Roach — who worked in other music videos such as Jamiroquai 's " Virtual Insanity " and U2 's " Discotheque " — was in charge of the photography . The shoot involved the group dressed in winter coats , wandering around the studio against a green screen , interspersed with close @-@ up camera angles , so that the backdrop could be superimposed later . To achieve the effect of the wind blowing slowly through their hairs , the group was required to lip @-@ synch the song in double time while wind machines were on them .
The music video features the group in Times Square in New York City with fast moving cars appearing around multi @-@ coloured lights , appearing in various places around the city , either alone , with one other member , or as a quintet . The video is intercut with scenes of lovers experiencing moments of togetherness and closes with a deer wandering the streets . Such a scene , according to the group 's first official book Girl Power ! , gave them a running gag all throughout the shoot — " Whenever anyone made a mistake it was , ' Oh , deer ' . " Sometimes , the closing scene would not be shown on television , due to the song fading out to an instrumental , which lasts for 40 seconds .
In the same book , Victoria Beckham wrote about the shoot : " I think ' 2 Become 1 ' is my favorite video . [ ... ] It was really different to the other videos – shot entirely in the studio , with high technology and loads of effects . It was really weird having to sing passionately into the camera , I was feeling a right mug in front of all those people singing ' wanna make love to ya baby ' . "
= = Live performances = =
The song was performed many times on television , including the Bravo Supershow , GMTV , Live & Kicking , Noel 's House Party , and Top of the Pops . In October 1997 , the group performed " 2 Become 1 " as the eighth song of their first live concert at the Abdi İpekçi Arena in Istanbul , Turkey . The performance was broadcast on Showtime in a pay @-@ per @-@ view event titled Spice Girls In Concert Wild ! , and was later included in the VHS and DVD release Girl Power ! Live in Istanbul . In December 2007 , the group performed the song on the finale of the fifth season of the British television show Strictly Come Dancing . They wore floor @-@ length gowns and used microphones covered in glitter , while professional dancers did a choreography in front of them .
The Spice Girls have performed the song on their three tours , the Spiceworld Tour , the Christmas In Spiceworld Tour , and the Return of the Spice Girls . The performance at the Spiceworld Tour 's final concert can be found on the video : Spice Girls Live at Wembley Stadium , filmed in London , on 20 September 1998 . For the Return of the Spice Girls Tour , the group performed it during the second segment of the show . After the " Too Much " performance , each of the girls emerged from a cocoon of oversized swan wings and danced around a set of barber ’ s poles while singing the song .
= = Cover versions = =
" 2 Become 1 " has been covered both in albums and live performances . In 1998 , The Countdown Singers recorded a sound @-@ alike version of the song for their album Today 's Love Songs . Lester Bowie 's Brass Fantasy did an instrumental jazz cover for the 1999 album The Odyssey Of Funk & Popular Music . American guitarist Paul Gilbert covered the song for his fourth album Alligator Farm . Wildside recorded a dance remake for the 1997 album Mega Hits Dance Party , Vol . 1 , and was later included on the 2005 album Let 's Hear It for the 90 's , Vol . 1 . Filipino bossa nova singer , Sitti Navarro , recorded a cover of the song for her second album My Bossa Nova . During her solo career , Emma Bunton has performed live covers of the song on television programmes such as CD : UK and Popworld , and it was also included as part of her setlist for the Pepsi Silver Clef Concert . She performed the song as a duet twice with her former band mate Melanie C on November 9 , 2013 as part of the Oxford Street Lights Switch On and on January 11 , 2014 for Sporty 's Forty at 02 Shepherd 's Bush Empire .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " 2 Become 1 " :
= = Credits and personnel = =
Published by Windswept Pacific Music Ltd . / PolyGram Music Publishing Ltd .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Crimes Act of 1790 =
The Crimes Act of 1790 ( or the Federal Criminal Code of 1790 ) , formally titled An Act for the Punishment of Certain Crimes Against the United States , defined some of the first federal crimes in the United States and expanded on the criminal procedure provisions of the Judiciary Act of 1789 . The Crimes Act was a " comprehensive statute defining an impressive variety of federal crimes . "
As an enactment of the First Congress , the Crimes Act is often regarded as a quasi @-@ constitutional text . The punishment of treason , piracy , counterfeiting , as well as crimes committed on the high seas or against the law of nations , followed from relatively explicit constitutional authority . The creation of crimes within areas under exclusive federal jurisdiction followed from the plenary power of Congress over the " Seat of the Government , " federal enclaves , and federal territories . The creation of crimes involving the integrity of the judicial process derived from Congress 's authority to establish such courts .
The Crimes Act also established a statute of limitations for federal crimes , provided for criminal venue , ensured procedural protections for treason and capital defendants , simplified the pleading requirements for perjury , and broadened the constitutional protection against " corruption of blood . " Further , the act provided for punitive dissection of murderers and codified diplomatic immunity .
= = Background = =
Even after the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1789 , " the definition of crimes and the establishment of punishments " remained a " missing link of the criminal system . " The Judiciary Act of 1789 divided original jurisdiction for the trial of federal crimes between the district courts and the circuit courts . The district courts were given jurisdiction over all federal crimes " where no other punishment than whipping , not exceeding thirty stripes , a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars , or a term of imprisonment not exceeding six months , is to be inflicted . " The circuit courts were given concurrent jurisdiction over these crimes , and exclusive jurisdiction over all other federal crimes . The circuit courts also exercised appellate jurisdiction over the district courts , but only in civil cases .
The Judiciary Act of 1789 also placed the responsibility for prosecuting federal crimes in the United States Attorney for each federal judicial district . The Act provided that " there shall be appointed in each district " a " person learned in the law to act as attorney for the United States in such district , who shall be sworn or affirmed to the faithful execution of his office , whose duty it shall be to prosecute in such district all delinquents for crimes and offences , cognizable under the authority of the United States . "
Prior to the Crimes Act , Congress had passed very few federal crimes . Among Congress 's earlier criminal statutes were :
The renewal of the Northwest Ordinance , which authorized the executive to adopt state law within the Northwest Territory ; and
A prohibition on unloading ships in the dark or without a license , as well as customs bribery and false statements ; and
A prohibition on census takers failing to report their findings .
= = Drafting = =
The Senate passed an act to define a variety of federal crimes on August 31 , 1789 , but the House did not act on that bill .
Like the Judiciary Act of 1789 and the Process Act of 1789 , the Crimes Act was primarily authored by Senator ( and future Chief Justice ) Oliver Ellsworth as the chair of the Senate committee . The committee examined the state criminal laws of Massachusetts , New Jersey , Pennsylvania , Virginia , and South Carolina at the beginning of the drafting process . The Crimes Act generated " little reported debate " on the floor of Congress . The act was passed on April 30 , 1790 .
= = Crimes established = =
Due to the seriousness of the authorized sentences , under the Judiciary Act of 1789 , original jurisdiction for the trial of all of the crimes created by the Crimes Act would have rested with the circuit courts ; none of the crimes created could have been tried in the district courts .
= = = Treason = = =
Article Three provides that : " Treason against the United States , shall consist only in levying War against them , or in adhering to their Enemies , giving them Aid and Comfort . No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act , or on Confession in open Court . The Congress shall have power to declare the Punishment of Treason , but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood , or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted . "
As to misprision of treason , according to David P. Currie , because " [ t ] he Constitution said nothing of this offense , " " the legislators must have interpreted the narrow definition of treason in Article III not to preclude it from creating lesser related offenses that might otherwise fall within federal purview — although nothing in the misprision provision suggested that Congress had yet considered the possible impact of the Treason Clause on its efforts to punish seditious expression . "
= = = Piracy and the high seas = = =
Article One provides that Congress shall have the power " [ t ] o define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas . " Five sections in the Crimes Act " were devoted to the subject . " Currie notes that the various piracy offenses " take an exceedingly broad view of what constituted piracy , " but that " [ f ] rom a constitutional standpoint no harm was done , since all of the acts punished were felonious and Congress 's power extended to all felonies on the high seas . "
" The principal provisions with respect to piracy were incorporated in section 8 . " Section 8 applied not only to the " high Seas , " but also to " any river , haven , basin , or bay , out of the jurisdiction of any particular State . " Currie notes a variety of constitutional theories which Congress might have espoused in order to justify this provision : " Whether Congress thought authority over such places included within the ostensibly narrower term ' high Seas , " necessary and proper to the regulation of commerce or to the exercise of admiralty jurisdiction , or implicit in a central government responsible for external affairs is not clear . "
Currie also argues that the phrase " offence , which , if committed within the body of a county , would , by laws of the United States , be punishable with death " is vague . He suggests that it could refer to any federal law , to any state or federal law , or only to federal laws applicable to places under exclusive federal jurisdiction .
= = = Counterfeiting = = =
Article One provides that Congress shall have the power " [ t ] o provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States . " Currie argues that section 14 's somewhat broad reading of the word " Securities " is fair enough . Currie suggests that " [ n ] othing was said of counterfeiting coins " because the United States Mint had not yet been established .
Some members of the House , including Theodore Sedgwick of Massachusetts , spoke against the prescribing death penalty for counterfeiting , viewing it as too harsh .
= = = Crimes against the law of nations = = =
Article One provides that Congress shall have the power " [ t ] o define and punish . . . Offenses against the Law of Nations . " According to Currie : " No reliance on inherent on implied powers over foreign affairs was necessary to justify " sections 26 and 28 as each " plausibly described " offenses against the law of nations . Congress had also created a civil offense against the law of nations in the Alien Tort Statute of the Judiciary Act of 1789 .
= = = Exclusive federal jurisdiction = = =
Several offenses were limited to acts committed in places " under the sole and exclusive jurisdiction of the United States . " Such regulations would have applied in the " Seat of the Government , " federal enclaves , and federal territories .
Article One provides that Congress shall have the power " [ t ] o exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever , over such District ( not exceeding ten Miles square ) as may , by Cession of particular States , and the acceptance of Congress , become the Seat of the Government of the United States , and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be , for the Erection of Forts , Magazines , Arsenals , dock @-@ Yards , and other needful Buildings . " And Article Four provides that " Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory . . . . "
With reference to the " arms , ordnance , munition , shot , powder , or habiliments of war belonging to the United States " provision of section 16 , Currie argues that it could have been justified under Congress 's Article One power to " raise and support armies " or Congress 's Article Four power to make needful rules respecting " property belonging to the United States . "
In United States v. Bevans ( 1818 ) , although the defendant had only been charged under § 8 of the Crimes Act , Chief Justice Marshall proceeded to consider whether the offense would have been cognizable under § 3 . Following the canon of noscitur a sociis , Marshall interpreted the jurisdictional phrase " any fort , arsenal , dockyard , magazine , or in any other place , or district of country " to be limited to places that are " fixed and territorial " ( i.e. not to include a navy vessel ) .
Crimes against persons
Crimes against property
Misprision
= = = Integrity of the judicial process = = =
The constitutional authorization of these crimes was less explicit , but Article One does provide that Congress shall have the power " [ t ] o constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court . " According to Currie :
This is the point at which explicit constitutional authority for the creation of federal crimes runs out . But the statute went on to define additional crimes : theft or falsification of court records , perjury , bribery of federal judges , interference with judicial process , and liberation of federal prisoners . All of these were plainly necessary and proper to the operation of the federal courts ; Marshall was to cite the perjury section as precedent for the existence of implicit powers in M 'Culloch v. Maryland .
According to Stacy and Dayton , these provision are " compelling evidence that the founders did not intend the national role in criminal law to be limited to crimes expressly mentioned in the Constitution . "
= = Criminal procedure = =
= = = Statute of limitations = = =
Section 32 provided for the following statutes of limitations : no statute of limitations for wilfull murder or forgery ; no statute of limitations for fugitives from justice ; three ( 3 ) years for capital offenses ( other than wilfull murder and forgery ) ; two ( 2 ) years for non @-@ capital offenses . In United States v. Cook ( 1872 ) , the Court held that indictments need not plead facts establishing that these limitations periods have not run .
= = = Venue = = =
Section 8 provided that " the trial of crimes committed on the high seas , or in any place out of the jurisdiction of any particular State , shall be in the district where the offender is apprehended , or into which he may first be brought . " Thus , section 8 was an exercise of Congress 's authority under Article Three to define criminal venue for all crimes " not committed within any State . " But , the Supreme Court did not interpret section 8 as exercising the full extent of Congress 's authority under Article Three . In Ex parte Bollman ( 1807 ) , the Court held that the statutory term " any place out of the jurisdiction of any particular state " applied only to " any river , haven , bason or bay , not within the jurisdiction of any particular state , " and only in " those cases there is no court which has particular cognizance of the crime . "
= = = Treason and capital cases = = =
The Crimes Act prescribed death as the exclusive punishment for the crimes of treason , counterfeiting , wilfull murder , and aiding the escape of a death row prisoner , as well as piracy , murder , and robbery on the high seas . Section 29 provided treason and capital defendants a right to a copy of the indictment , a list of the jury ( and , in treason cases , witnesses ) , appointed counsel , and compulsory process :
[ A ] ny person who shall be accused and indicted of treason , shall have a copy of the indictment , and a list of the jury and witnesses , to be produced on the trial for proving the said indictment , mentioning the names and places of abode of such witnesses and jurors , delivered unto him at least three entire days before he shall be tried for the same ; and in other capital offences , shall have such copy of the indictment and list of the jury two entire days at least before the trial : And that every person so accused and indicted for any of the crimes aforesaid , shall also be allowed and admitted to make his full defence by counsel learned in the law ; and the court before whom such person shall be tried , or some judge thereof , shall , and they are hereby authorized and required immediately upon his request to assign to such person such counsel , not exceeding two , as such person shall desire , to whom such counsel shall have free at all reasonable hours ; and every such person or persons accused or indicted of the crimes aforesaid , shall be allowed and admitted in his said defence to make any proof that he or they can produce , by lawful witness or witnesses , and shall have the like process of the court where he or they shall be tried , to compel his or their witnesses to appear at his or their trial , as is usually granted to compel witnesses to appear on the prosecution against them .
Most of the provisions of section 29 are plainly similar to those of the Sixth Amendment , namely the Information Clause , the Assistance of Counsel Clause , and the Compulsory Process Clause . The Sixth Amendment ( and the remainder of the Bill of Rights ) had not yet been ratified at the time of the Crimes Act 's passage .
Section 30 provided treason and capital defendants with peremptory challenges and provided for a plea of not guilty in the case that the defendant refused to enter a plea :
if any person or persons be indicted of treason against the United States , and shall stand mute or refuse to plead , or shall challenge peremptorily above the number of thirty @-@ five of the jury ; or if any person or persons be indicted of other of the offences herein for which the punishment is declared to be death , if he or they shall also stand mute or will not answer to the indictment , or challenge peremptorily above the number of twenty persons of the jury ; the court , in any of the cases aforesaid , shall notwithstanding proceed to the trial of the person or persons so standing mute or challenging , as if he or they had pleaded not guilty , and render judgment thereon accordingly .
In United States v. Shackleford ( 1855 ) , the Court held that the section 30 's allocation of peremptory challenges controlled , rather than an 1840 statute that required federal jury selection to generally follow state law ( and , thus , the prosecutor was given no peremptory challenges in such cases ) . Ten years later , Congress abrogated Shackleford , granting prosecutors five peremptory challenges in treason and capital cases ( and two in non @-@ capital felony cases ) ; the 1865 act left the defendant 's number of peremptory challenges unchanged .
Section 31 eliminated the benefit of clergy for capital crimes . Section 33 designated the means of execution as " hanging . . . by the neck until dead . "
= = = Perjury indictments = = =
Section 19 , applicable to perjury prosecutions under section 18 , provided that
in every presentment or indictment to be prosecuted against any person for wilful and corrupt perjury , it shall be sufficient to set forth the substance of the offence charged upon the defendant , and by what court , or before whom the oath or affirmation was taken , ( averring such court , or person or persons to have a competent authority to administer the same ) together with the proper averment or averments to falsify the matter or matters wherein the perjury or perjuries is or are assigned ; without setting forth the bill , answer , information , indictment , declaration , or any part of any record or proceeding , either in law or equity , other than as aforesaid , and without setting forth the commission or authority of the court , or person or persons before whom the perjury was committed .
and section 20 provided that
in every presentment or indictment for subornation of perjury , or for corrupt bargaining or contracting with others to commit wilful and corrupt perjury , it shall be sufficient to set forth the substance of the offence charged upon the defendant , without setting forth the bill , answer , information , indictment , declaration , or any part of any record or proceeding , either in law or equity , and without setting forth the commmsion or authority of the court , or person or persons before whom the perjttry was committed , or was agreed or promised to be committed .
= = = Sentencing = = =
Section 24 provided that " no conviction or judgment of any of the offences aforesaid , shall work corruption of blood , or any forfeiture of estate . " This generalized the guarantee of Article Three that " no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood , or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted . "
The Crimes Act made no provision for the creation of federal prisons . Instead , a September 21 , 1789 concurrent resolution asked the state legislatures to authorize their prisons to imprison federal prisoners . The first federal prison was not opened until 1894 at Fort Leavenworth .
= = Other provisions = =
= = = Dissection = = =
Section 4 authorized a court to order the post @-@ execution dissection of the corpse of convicted murderers . According to David P. Currie , this was the " most controversial provision of the entire statute . " Dissection @-@ as @-@ punishment had its roots in a 1789 New York statute and a 1752 English law . Rep. Michael J. Stone of Maryland argued against the inclusion of this provision as cruel . Currie argues that Congress was on a firm constitutional footing in enacting this provision in relation to murders committed in areas under exclusive federal jurisdiction , but perhaps less so for murders committed on the high seas .
= = = Diplomatic immunity = = =
Section 25 provided :
[ I ] f any writ or process shall at any time hereafter be sued forth or prosecuted by any person or persons , in any of the courts of the United States , or in any of the courts of a particular state , or by any judge or justice therein respectively , whereby the person of any ambassador or other public minister of any foreign prince or state , authorized and received as such by the President of the United States , or any domestic or domestic servant of any much ambassador or other public minister , may be arrested or imprisoned , or his or their goods or chattels be distrained , seized or attached , such writ or process shall be deemed and adjudged to be utterly null and void to all intents , construction and purposes whatsoever .
Section 27 provided a limited exception for private debts contracted by ambassadors prior to the passage of the act .
= = Prosecutions = =
Between 1790 and 1797 , only 147 criminal cases were brought in the circuit courts , and more than half of those cases were brought in the Pennsylvania circuit court concerning the Whiskey Rebellion . And , between 1790 and 1801 , only 426 criminal cases were brought in all federal courts ( the district courts and the circuit courts combined ) .
= = Amendments and repeals = =
Section 1 was supplemented by an omnibus treason law during the Civil War , which , inter alia , provided for punishments other than death and additional lesser offenses . The offense of treason , and the punishment thereof , were codified in consecutive sections of the Revised Statutes . Both were repealed and replaced by the Criminal Code of 1909 . During the 1948 re @-@ codification of the Criminal Code , the treason offense was amended and moved to 18 U.S.C. § 2381 , where it remains . It was amended in 1994 .
Section 2 was codified in the Revised Statutes , and re @-@ codified by the Criminal Code of 1909 , and the 1948 re @-@ codification . It was amended in 1994 .
Section 3 was amended by § 4 of the Crimes Act of 1825 and codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 4 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 5 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 6 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 7 was amended in 1857 and 1875 and codified in the Revised States .
Section 8 was amended in 1820 , 1835 , and 1846 and codified in five sections of the Revised Statutes . Further , § 8 was supplemented by additional prohibitions in § 5 of an 1819 act and § 3 of an 1820 act . Despite the similarity of the provisions , all three were all separately codified in the Revised Statutes in 1874 . Section 8 was repealed by the Criminal Code of 1909 . Section 8 's venue provision was re @-@ enacted by § 14 of the Crimes Act of 1825 , with minor changes .
Section 9 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 10 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 11 was codified in two sections of the Revised Statutes .
Section 12 was amended in 1835 and codified in two sections of the Revised Statutes .
Section 13 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 14 was repealed by § 17 of the Crimes Act of 1825 , which broadened the offense of counterfeiting and reduced authorized the punishment from death to 10 years hard labor and a $ 5000 fine . Sections 18 through 21 of the 1825 Act created additional counterfeiting offenses .
Section 15 was amended in 1874 and codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 16 was amended in 1842 and codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 17 was amended by § 8 of the Crimes Act of 1825 and codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 18 was amended by § 13 of the Crimes Act of 1825 — which defined the term " perjury " and increased the authorized punishment to 5 years hard labor and a $ 3000 fine — and further amended in 1874 and 1876 . Perjury and subornation were separately codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 19 was codified in three sections of the Revised Statutes .
Section 21 was codified in two sections of the Revised Statutes .
Section 22 was amended in 1866 and codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 23 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 24 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Sections 25 through 29 were not codified in Title LXX of the Revised Statutes .
Section 30 , with regard to peremptory challenges , was re @-@ enacted and supplemented in 1865 . Section 30 , with regard to a defendant 's failure to enter a plea , was extended from capital to all crimes by § 14 of the Crimes Act of 1825 .
Section 31 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
Section 33 was codified in the Revised Statutes .
= = Constitutionality = =
According to Taylor : " Like the Judiciary Act of 1789 , the Process Act of 1789 and the Crimes Act of 1790 , having been passed by the First Congress , are perhaps the statutes most informative of an original understanding of Congress 's constitutional power over the federal judiciary . "
According to Kurland , " for the most part , Congress enacted statutes that closely tracked the specific constitutional grants of federal criminal authority . However , Congress continued to venture slightly , but significantly , into areas outside the specific constitutional grants . " As examples in the later category , Kurland cites the provisions concerning the integrity of the federal criminal process , bribery , misprison of treason , and the revenue provisions .
Currie notes that the Crimes Act " resolved a number of interesting constitutional questions . " For example , with reference to the punishments of " stripes " and disqualification from office , Currie argues that : " These provisions suggest not only that Congress viewed neither of these punishments as cruel and unusual , but also that they did not understand impeachment to be the sole avenue for the future disqualification of current officeholders . " Taylor goes further in arguing the disqualification provision was not merely prospective : " The Crimes Act of 1790 indicates that , beyond its plenary power over federal court jurisdiction and procedure , the First Congress believed it had the constitutional power to make conviction by a court an alternative means of removing a federal judge , outside the impeachment context , and it sheds light on the First Congress 's understanding of its own powers to discipline federal judges . "
Similarly , the Supreme Court and individual justices have cited the Crimes Act 's authorization of the death penalty as evidence that the founders believed it was constitutional .
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= Witch trials in early modern Scotland =
Witch trials in early modern Scotland were the judicial proceedings in Scotland between the early sixteenth century and the mid @-@ eighteenth century concerned with crimes of witchcraft . In the late Middle Ages there were a handful of prosecutions for harm done through witchcraft , but the passing of the Witchcraft Act 1563 made witchcraft , or consulting with witches , capital crimes . The first major series of trials under the new act were the North Berwick witch trials , beginning in 1589 , in which James VI played a major part as " victim " and investigator . He became interested in witchcraft and published a defence of witch @-@ hunting in the Daemonologie in 1597 , but he appears to have become increasingly sceptical and eventually took steps to limit prosecutions .
An estimated 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 people , mostly from the Scottish Lowlands , were tried for witchcraft in this period ; a much higher rate than for neighbouring England . There were major series of trials in 1590 – 91 , 1597 , 1628 – 31 , 1649 – 50 and 1661 – 62 . Seventy @-@ five per cent of the accused were women . Modern estimates indicate that over 1 @,@ 500 persons were executed . Most of those executed were strangled and then burnt . The hunts subsided under English occupation after the Civil Wars during the period of the Commonwealth led by Oliver Cromwell . In the 1650s and returned after the Restoration in 1660 , causing some alarm and leading to the Privy Council of Scotland limiting arrests , prosecutions and torture . There was also growing scepticism in the later seventeenth century , while some of the factors that may have contributed to the trials , such as economic distress , subsided . Although there were occasional local outbreaks of witch @-@ hunting , the last recorded executions were in 1706 and the last trial in 1727 . The Scottish and English parliaments merged in 1707 , and the unified British parliament repealed the 1563 Act in 1736 .
Many causes have been suggested for the hunts , including economic distress , changing attitudes to women , the rise of a " godly state " , the inquisitorial Scottish judicial system , the widespread use of judicial torture , the role of the local kirk , decentralised justice and the prevalence of the idea of the diabolic pact . The proliferation of partial explanations for the witch @-@ hunt has led some historians to proffer the concept of " associated circumstances " , rather than one single significant cause .
= = Origins = =
= = = Legal origins = = =
For late Medieval Scotland there is evidence of occasional prosecutions of individuals for causing harm through witchcraft . High @-@ profile political cases included the action against John Stewart , Earl of Mar for allegedly using sorcery against his brother King James III in 1479 . Evidence of these political cases indicates that they were becoming rarer in the first half of the sixteenth century however . Popular belief in magic was widespread in the Middle Ages , but theologians had been generally sceptical , and lawyers only interested in prosecuting cases in which harm from magic was evident . From the late fifteenth century attitudes began to change , and witches were seen as deriving powers from the Devil , with the result that witchcraft was seen as a form of heresy . These ideas were widely accepted by both Catholics and Protestants in the sixteenth century . In the aftermath of the initial Reformation settlement of 1560 , Parliament passed the Witchcraft Act 1563 , one of a series of laws underpinning Biblical laws and similar to that passed in England a year earlier , which made the practice of witchcraft itself , and consulting with witches , capital crimes . The first witch @-@ hunt under the act was in the east of the country in 1568 – 69 in Angus and the Mearns , where there were unsuccessful attempts to introduce elements of the diabolic pact and the hunt collapsed .
= = = Role of James VI = = =
James VI 's visit to Denmark in 1589 , where witch @-@ hunts were already common , may have encouraged an interest in the study of witchcraft , and he came to see the storms he encountered on his voyage as the result of magic . After his return to Scotland , he attended the North Berwick witch trials , the first major persecution of witches in Scotland under the 1563 Act and the first known to successfully involve the diabolic pact . Several people , most notably Agnes Sampson and the schoolmaster John Fian , were convicted of using witchcraft to send storms against James ' ship . James became obsessed with the threat posed by witches . He subsequently believed that a nobleman , Francis Stewart , 5th Earl of Bothwell , was a witch , and after the latter fled in fear of his life , he was outlawed as a traitor . The king subsequently set up royal commissions to hunt down witches in his realm , recommending torture in dealing with suspects . James is known to have personally supervised the torture of women accused of being witches . Inspired by his personal involvement , in 1597 he wrote the Daemonologie , a tract that opposed the practice of witchcraft and which provided background material for Shakespeare 's Tragedy of Macbeth , which contains probably the most famous literary depiction of Scottish witches . James imported continental explanations of witchcraft . His goal was to divert suspicion away from male homosociality among the elite , and focus fear on female communities and large gatherings of women . He thought they threatened his political power so he laid the foundation for witchcraft and occultism policies , especially in Scotland . The point was that a widespread belief in the conspiracy of witches and a witches ' Sabbath with the devil deprived women of political influence . Occult power was supposedly a womanly trait because women were weaker and more susceptible to the devil . However , after the publication of Daemonologie his views became more sceptical , and in the same year he revoked the standing commissions on witchcraft , limiting prosecutions by the central courts .
= = Nature of the trials = =
Despite the fact that Scotland probably had about one quarter of the population of England , it had three times the number of witchcraft prosecutions , at an estimated 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 over the entire period . This was about four times the European average . The overwhelming majority were in the Lowlands , where the Kirk had more control , despite the evidence that basic magical beliefs were very widespread in the Highlands . Large series of trials included those in 1590 – 91 and the Great Scottish Witch Hunt of 1597 , which took place across Scotland from March to October . At least 400 people were put on trial for various forms of diabolism . The exact number of those executed as a result of these trials is unknown , but is believed to be about 200 . Later major trials included hunts in 1628 – 31 and 1649 – 50 . Probably the most intense witch @-@ hunt was in 1661 – 62 , which involved some 664 named witches in four counties .
Most of the accused , some 75 per cent , were women . Modern estimated indicate that over 1 @,@ 500 persons were executed . Most of these were older women , with some younger women and men accused because they were related to an accused witch , usually as daughters and husbands . Some men were accused because they were folk healers , who were felt to have misused their powers , although folk healers as a group were not targeted . Most were not vagrants or beggars , but settled members of their communities . Most had built a reputation for witchcraft over years , which resulted in prosecution when a " victim " suffered ill fortune , particularly after a curse had been issued . The use of curses by some women as a means of acquiring social power may have made this process more likely to occur .
Almost all witchcraft prosecutions took place in secular courts under the provisions of the 1563 Act . In 1649 the religiously radical Covenanter regime passed a new witchcraft act that ratified the existing act and extended it to deal with consulters of " Devils and familiar spirits " , who would now be punished with death . There were three main types of court in which accused witches could be tried . First was the Court of Justiciary in Edinburgh , which took cases from all over Scotland , with a heavy bias to the local region . Next were the circuit courts , presided over by judges from the central courts and held in the various shires of the country . Finally , there were a series of ad hoc local courts , held under commissions by the Privy Council or Parliament and staffed by local landholders and gentlemen to try witches in the places where they were accused . Based on known outcomes , the execution rates for the local courts was much higher than the courts run by professional lawyers , with the local courts executing some 90 per cent of the accused , the Judiciary Court 55 per cent , but the circuit courts only 16 per cent . After the revocation of the standing commissions in 1597 , the pursuit of witchcraft was largely taken over by kirk sessions , disciplinary committees run by the parish elite , and was often used to attack " superstitious " and Catholic practices . The central courts only launched a trial when the Privy Council issued a commission , although the council did not have full control over prosecutions in the Court of Judiciary .
Scottish witchcraft trials were notable for their use of pricking , in which a suspect 's skin was pieced with needles , pins and bodkins as it was believed that they would possess a Devil 's mark through which they could not feel pain . Professional prickers included John Kincaid and John Dick , whose actions helped set off the outbreak of witch @-@ hunting in 1661 – 62 , and whose exposure as frauds , and subsequent imprisonment , helped end the trials . Judicial torture was used in some high @-@ profile cases , like that of John Fine , one of the witches accused of plotting the death of the king in 1590 , whose feet were crushed in a shin press , known as the boots . However , these cases were relatively rare . Confessions , considered the best evidence for conviction , were more usually extracted by " waking " the witch , keeping the suspect sleep deprived . After about three days individuals tend to hallucinate , and this provided some exotic detail in witchcraft trials . In Scotland , convicted witches were usually strangled at the stake before having their bodies burned , although there are instances where they were burned alive .
= = Witch beliefs = =
The belief that witches could cure and cause harm was common among all social groups in early modern Scotland . In 1701 in Anstruther , Elizabeth Dick had been turned away from the local mill when begging . She cursed the mill and several witnesses testified that the grain in the mill turned red . Only when one of the people who had refused her help ran after her and gave her alms did she bless the mill and everything returned to normal . About half of accused witches had already gained a reputation for causing harm over a long period of time . The fact that only four per cent of recorded accused witches were involved in folk healing seems to indicate that healing was not seen as a major element of witchcraft . The Aberdeenshire trials of 1596 reveal that spells could be purchased from witches for success at fishing , to ensure a happy marriage , to prolong life and to affect the weather . Many accusations included gender and sexual fears . Margaret Bain , a midwife , it was claimed , could transfer the pains of childbirth to a woman 's husband and Helen Gray cast a spell on a man that gave him a permanent erection . Witches could also carry out divinations . These included by reading the marks on the shoulder blade of a slaughtered animal , measuring a person 's sleeve or waist to see if they were suffering from a fever , or being able to find answers based on which way a sieve suspended from scissors or shears swung , as Margaret Mungo was accused of doing before the kirk session of Dingwall in 1649 .
It has often been stated that Scottish witchcraft was particularly concerned with the demonic pact . In the high court , Katherine Sands , who was one of four women accused of witchcraft at Culross in 1675 , admitted to renouncing her baptism , receiving the Devil 's mark and having sex with the Devil , but in local trials these demonic elements were rarer . Stuart MacDonald notes that in trials from Fife the Devil was a relatively insignificant and indistinct figure and that a number of instances of covens meeting look like fairy revels , where the dancing fairies traditionally disappeared when a human broke the ring , rather than satanic gatherings . Fairies were an important part of magical beliefs in Scotland . Isobel Gowdie , the young wife of a cottar from near Auldearn , who was tried for witchcraft in 1662 , left four depositions , gained without torture , that provide one of the most detailed insights into magical beliefs in Britain . She stated that her coven met on nearby Downie Hill , that they could transform themselves into hares and that she had been entertained by the Queen of the Fairies in her home under the hill . J. A. MacCulloch argued that there was a " mingling of beliefs " in Scotland , between popular belief in fairies and elite Christian ideas of demonic action .
= = Decline = =
In the seventeenth century there was growing scepticism about the reality of witchcraft among the educated elite . Scotland was defeated in the Civil Wars by the forces of the English parliament led by Oliver Cromwell and occupied . In 1652 Scotland was declared part of a Commonwealth with England and Ireland and the Privy Council and courts ceased to exist . The English judges who replaced them were hostile to the use of torture and often sceptical of the evidence it produced , resulting in a decline in prosecutions . In an attempt to gain support among the landholding orders , Sheriff 's courts were re @-@ established and Justices of the Peace returned in 1656 . The result was a wave of witchcraft cases , with 102 in the period 1657 – 59 . The limitations on prosecutions were fully reversed with the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , and there was a flood of over 600 cases that alarmed the restored Privy Council , leading it to insist on the necessity of its commission for an arrest or prosecution , and banning judicial torture .
Prosecutions began to decline as trials were more tightly controlled by the judiciary and government , torture was more sparingly used and standards of evidence were raised . The exposure of prickers as frauds in 1662 removed a major form of evidence . The Lord Advocate George Mackenzie made efforts to make prosecutions ineffective . There may also have been a growing popular scepticism , and , with relative peace and stability , the economic and social tensions that may have contributed to accusations were reduced , although there were occasional local outbreaks , like those in East Lothian in 1678 and in Paisley in 1697 . The last executions in the records of the central courts were in 1706 . The last trial was held in the court of a sheriff @-@ depute at Dornoch in 1727 , and was of questionable legality . The British parliament repealed the 1563 Act in 1736 , making the legal pursuit of witches impossible . Nevertheless , basic magical beliefs persisted , particularly in the Highlands and Islands .
= = Causes = =
Various reasons for the Scottish witch @-@ hunt , and its more intense nature than that in England , have been advanced by historians . Older theories , that there was a widespread pagan cult that was persecuted in this period and that the witch @-@ hunts were the result of a rising medical profession eliminating folk healers , have been discredited among professional historians . Most of the major periods of prosecution coincided with periods of intense economic distress , and some accusations may have followed the withdrawal of charity from marginal figures , particularly the single women that made up many of the accused . The reformed Kirk that emerged from 1560 was heavily influenced by Calvinism and Presbyterianism , and may have perceived women as more of a moral threat . As a result the witch @-@ hunt in Scotland has been seen as a means of controlling women . Christina Larner suggested that the outbreak of the hunt in the mid @-@ sixteenth century was tied to the rise of a " godly state " , where the reformed Kirk was closely linked to an increasingly intrusive Scottish crown and legal system .
It has been suggested that the intensity of Scottish witch @-@ hunting was due to an inquisitorial judicial system and the widespread use of judicial torture . However , B. P. Levak argues that the Scottish system was only partly inquisitorial and that use of judicial torture was extremely limited , similar to the situation in England . A relatively high level of acquittal in Scottish trials may have been due to the employment of defence lawyers in Scottish courts , a benefit not given accused witches in England . The close involvement of the Scottish Kirk in trials and the decentralised nature of Scottish courts , where local magistrates heard many cases ( in contrast to England where most were before a small number of circuit judges ) , may have contributed to higher rates of prosecution . The diabolic pact is often stated as a major difference between Scottish and English witchcraft cases , but Stuart Maxwell argues that the iconography of Satan may be an imposition of central government beliefs on local traditions , particularly those concerned with fairies , which were more persistent in Scotland than in England . The proliferation of partial explanations for the witch @-@ hunt has led some historians to proffer the concept of " associated circumstances " , rather than one single significant cause .
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= Loboc Church =
The San Pedro Apostol Parish Church ( also Saint Peter the Apostle Parish Church , Spanish : Iglesia Parroquial de San Pedro Apóstol ) , commonly known as Loboc Church , is a Roman Catholic church in the municipality of Loboc , Bohol , Philippines , within the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Tagbilaran .
After the Jesuits established the Christian community in Baclayon , they moved to Loboc and established a second Christian settlement in Bohol . The parish was established in 1602 , and the present coral stone church was completed in 1734 . Because of its strategic location , it became the center of the Jesuit mission in the Bohol area . In 1768 , upon the expulsion of the Jesuits , the town was transferred to the Augustinian Recollects .
The church is classified as a National Historical Landmark by the National Historical Commission of the Philippines and a National Cultural Treasure by the National Museum of the Philippines . It was considered for the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of the Philippines as a member of two categories , the Baroque Churches of the Philippines ( Extension ) and the Jesuit Churches of the Philippines .
It was severely damaged when a 7 @.@ 2 magnitude earthquake struck Bohol and other parts of Central Visayas on October 15 , 2013 .
= = Church history = =
After the establishment of the Jesuit mission in Bohol , Father Juan de Torres , SJ , moved to the community along the Loboc River in late 1596 to establish a second mission station . The first church , made of wood , was built by the people of the area on a site called Calvario , Sawang , near the location of the present @-@ day church . It was dedicated under the patronage of Saint Michael the Archangel . Loboc officially became a Catholic parish in 1602 . Due to pirate attacks on Baclayon and the strategic position of Loboc , the Jesuits chose Loboc to become the center of their mission . The Jesuit superior of Bohol later resided in Loboc until the Jesuits ' expulsion in 1768 . A boarding school for boys , the Seminario de los Indios , was established at Loboc in 1605 .
Fire destroyed the original wooden church in 1638 ; it was later reconstructed by the Jesuit priest Jose Sanchez . A larger church was built in 1670 , on the site of the present day convent . The present coral stone church was finished in 1734 . After the Jesuits were expelled from the country in May 1768 , the Augustinian Recollects assumed the administration of the parish and the church that November .
= = = Historical and cultural designations = = =
In 1998 , Loboc Church was declared a National Historical Landmark by the National Historical Institute , now the National Historical Commission of the Philippines . It was also listed as a National Cultural Treasure by the National Museum of the Philippines .
The church complex was a candidate for UNESCO World Heritage Sites of the Philippines , under two distinct categories . The Jesuit Churches of the Philippines nomination includes the churches of Maragondon in Cavite , Baclayon in Bohol and Guiuan in Eastern Samar . The Baroque Churches of the Philippines ( Extension ) nomination , nominates Loboc Church along with the churches of Patrocinio de Maria in Boljoon , Cebu , La Inmaculada Concepcion in Guiuan , Eastern Samar , San Matias in Tumauini , Isabela , and San Isidro Labrador in Lazi , Siquijor . However , due to its total destruction , it was removed from the roster of nominated sites .
= = Architecture = =
The church is built along the banks of the Loboc River . The coral stone church follows a cruciform plan , with a sunken pyramidal roof on its crossing . As a church built by the Jesuits , exterior walls of the church have the Jesuit insignia and icons of an angel 's wing and head . Major renovations were undertaken by Augustinian priest Father Aquilino Bon , including the addition of a portico to the façade ( 1863 – 1866 ) and re @-@ roofing with tiles ( 1873 ) . Father José Sánchez , OAR , added stone buttresses to the walls ( 1891 – 1893 ) and side porticoes ( 1895 – 1896 ) . Because of frequent flooding , its wooden flooring was changed to cement tiles in 1895 and was elevated in 1969 .
= = = Interior = = =
The interior of the church is adorned with ceiling paintings by Canuto Avila and his sons , Ricardo and Ray Francia , created from May 1926 to July 1927 , and retouched by Cris Naparota in 1995 . A mural of Our Lady of Guadalupe , secondary patron of Loboc , painted by Max Aya @-@ ay in 1930 at the center of the nave depicts the Virgin saving Loboc from floods . The church also has a separate cantilevered organ loft , hosting a large pipe organ believed to be connected with Father Diego Cera , maker of the Las Piñas Bamboo organ .
= = = = Façade = = = =
The inner baroque façade , which is part of the 1734 church built by the Jesuits , is decorated with pilasters , capitals , blind niches and volutes . It is patterned after the San Ignacio Church in Intramuros , with two levels , a triangular pediment , and two narrow octagonal bell towers on each side . The neoclassical portico houses niches for Saint Peter and Saint Paul . Along the pediment is a wooden bas @-@ relief on galvanized iron of the papal tiara over crossed keys ( the symbol of Saint Peter ) on the center and medallions carrying the icons of the Augustinians and Saint Peter on both ends .
= = = = Altars = = = =
The church has five retablos ( reredos ) . The central retablo ( or retablo mayor ) at the altar houses images of Saint Peter , the patron , paired with Saint Paul on the uppermost niche . On the lowest level are images of Our Lady of Guadalupe , a secondary patron , in the center . Also on the lowest level were statues of Saint Lucy , patron against typhoons and Saint Francis Xavier , patron against floods and alligators . Both Saint Lucy and Saint Francis were elected patrons in 1697 . Behind the walls of the retablo mayor are the remains of the former Jesuit altarpiece , a bas @-@ relief of Saint Ignatius Loyola and St Francis Xavier dressed as a pilgrim .
= = = = = Epistle retablo = = = = =
On the right side of the altar are two retablos . The larger altar on the right side currently houses the image of St. Francis Xavier as preacher on the topmost level . On the middle level of the same retablo are images of Saint Vincent Ferrer in the center , and Saint Augustine and Saint Monica on the left and right niches , respectively . The lowest level contains images of the Nuestra Señora de la Consolacion in the center , Saint Anne to the right and Saint Thérèse of Lisieux ( originally St Joachim ) on the left . The smaller altar has two levels of baroque and neoclassical style , respectively , with images of the crucified Christ on the lower level and the Holy Infant on the upper . The tomb of Father Aquilino Bon and other Recollect priests who served Loboc are also on this side of the church . The remains of Jesuit priest Alonso de Humanes were formerly interred in this area before the transfer of his remains to San Ignacio in Intramuros . An apocryphal account tells of a fire in a former Loboc church stopping at the foot of Humanes ' tomb ; this story spread across the people of the Loboc and nearby towns , which drew pilgrims to light candles in memory of Humanes .
= = = = = Gospel retablo = = = = =
On the left side of the altar are also two retablos . The larger altar , which is a twin of the altar opposite it , houses an image of a unidentified saint on the topmost level , presumably Michael the Archangel , and the crucified Christ ( originally Madonna and Child ) in the center , Saint Anthony of Padua on the middle @-@ left , and Saint Nicholas of Tolentino on the middle @-@ right niches . The original images on the lowest level have been replaced . The smaller retablo , also of the same style , houses the images of Saint Joseph with the child Jesus , and St Isidore the Laborer on the lower and upper level , respectively . In the sacristy is another retablo , with a crucifix in its central niche . On the doorframes of the sacristy are two bas @-@ reliefs depicting Saint Ignatius and the first Jesuits before Mary and the child Jesus and of St. Ignatius holding a book ( in stucco ) .
= = = Outbuildings = = =
= = = = Sacristy and Convent = = = =
The convent , which was built around 1854 , was used as the central residence of Jesuit missionaries in Bohol . It was built parallel to the transept and was an unusual three @-@ storey structure , with a two @-@ storey outdoor gallery ( called a volada ) and thick walls . It is the only convent in the Philippines with three storeys . An extension perpendicular to the convent was built in the middle of the 19th century . The convent was also adorned with paintings on its walls and ceilings , and with colored glass on its windows and cornices on the kitchen . The roof was replaced with galvanized iron in 1888 . The third floor of the convent is now used as an ecclesiastical museum ( known as Loboc Museum ) , containing several religious artifacts , such as a 1786 silver missal and 18th century wooden Santo Niño .
= = = = Belltower = = = =
A detached four @-@ storey bell tower was built near the riverbanks by the first Augustinian Recollect priest of Loboc . It has seven bells , with the 1863 bell being the oldest and the 1937 bell , named for Father Cayetano Bastes , being the largest . It also has a large wooden ratchet , installed in 1899 , used during Holy Week , and a clock made by the Altonaga Company , installed in 1893 .
= = = = Mortuary chapel = = = =
A hexagonal mortuary is located on the left side of the façade . It was built by Father Bon between 1867 and 1868 . Inside is a baroque retablo , similar to the altars inside the church . It is now used as an adoration chapel .
= = 2013 Bohol earthquake = =
The island of Bohol experienced a strong earthquake on October 15 , 2013 . The center of the M7.2 earthquake was near Sagbayan , Bohol . Centuries @-@ old churches in Bohol , including Loboc and several other churches designated as National Cultural Treasures , were heavily damaged . The church of Loboc suffered major damage to its structure , particularly its façade and tower , which both partially collapsed .
Loboc Church after the 2013 Bohol Earthquake
The Diocese of Tagbilaran plans to restore the church of Loboc and all other churches destroyed by the earthquake . While waiting for the complete restoration and rehabilitation of the old church , the people of Loboc inaugurated an alternate church on October 12 , 2014 .
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= Robert A. Little =
Robert Alexander Little , DSO & Bar , DSC & Bar ( 19 July 1895 – 27 May 1918 ) , a World War I fighter pilot , is generally regarded as the most successful Australian flying ace , with an official tally of forty @-@ seven victories . Born in Victoria , he travelled to England in 1915 and learned to fly at his own expense before joining the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) . Posted to the Western Front in June 1916 , he flew Sopwith Pups , Triplanes and Camels with No. 8 Squadron RNAS , achieving thirty @-@ eight victories within a year and earning the Distinguished Service Order and Bar , the Distinguished Service Cross and Bar , and the French Croix de Guerre . Rested in July 1917 , he volunteered to return to the front in March 1918 and scored a further nine victories with No. 3 Squadron RNAS ( later No. 203 Squadron RAF ) before he was killed in action on the night of 27 May , aged twenty @-@ two .
= = Early life = =
Little was born on 19 July 1895 at Hawthorn , a suburb of Melbourne , to Canadian James Little , a seller of medical and surgical books , and his Victorian @-@ born wife Susan . His family heritage was Scottish , and he was educated at Camberwell Grammar School and Scotch College , Melbourne , where he was a swimming medallist . He entered his father 's business as a travelling salesman , and was living with his family at Windsor when World War I broke out in August 1914 .
= = World War I = =
Long interested in aviation , Little decided to apply for pilot training at the Australian Army 's Central Flying School in Point Cook , but with only four vacancies , he was rejected along with hundreds of others . He then decided to sail for England in July 1915 and become a qualified pilot at his own expense . Gaining his flying certificate with the Royal Aero Club at Hendon in October , he joined the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) as a probationary flight sub @-@ lieutenant on 14 January 1916 . He suffered badly from air sickness early on , most likely brought on by fumes from castor oil that was employed as an engine lubricant in the aircraft he flew in England .
Little arrived in France in June 1916 for service with No. 1 ( Naval ) Wing at Dunkirk , where he initially flew Sopwith 1 ½ Strutters in bombing raids . He married Vera Gertrude Field at the Congregational Church , Dover , on 16 September . The next month he was posted to No. 8 Squadron RNAS ( " Naval Eight " ) flying Sopwith Pups on the Western Front , under fellow Australian Stanley Goble . Little scored his first aerial victory on 23 November , destroying an enemy two @-@ seater north @-@ east of La Bassée . By the following February , he had four victories to his credit and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross ( DSC ) for " conspicuous bravery in successfully attacking and bringing down hostile machines " . In one action on 4 December , Little and Goble " fought like mad " against a large formation of German fighters , each claiming a Halberstadt ; Little did not return to base with Goble and was thought lost , but had only landed near Allied lines to clear his jammed gun before taking off again to continue the fight .
On 24 April 1917 , Little engaged a DFW C.V , forcing it to land . He then followed the German aircraft down to claim it as captured and personally take its crew prisoner at gunpoint . The Australian flipped his own plane in a ditch after touching down , however , prompting the surrendering enemy pilot to suggest : " It looks as if I have brought you down , not you me , doesn 't it ? " Naval Eight 's conversion to the Sopwith Triplane in April saw Little begin to score heavily , eventually registering twenty @-@ four victories on the type to bring his total up to twenty @-@ eight by 10 July , including twin victories in a day on four occasions . He was the squadron 's top scorer with the Triplane , mostly in one particular airframe , N5493 , that he christened " Blymp " , which also became the nickname of his baby son . The unit then began flying Sopwith Camels , in which he scored a further ten kills in July to make fourteen all @-@ up for the month . When he subsequently rotated back to England for rest , he was ranked Flight Lieutenant and credited with a total of thirty @-@ eight victories , including fifteen destroyed or captured . A bar to his DSC had been gazetted on 29 June , for " exceptional daring and skill in aerial fighting on many occasions " , and he received the French Croix de Guerre on 11 July , becoming — along with fellow Australian RNAS ace Roderic ( Stan ) Dallas — one of the first three British Empire pilots to be so decorated . In August , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order " for exceptional skill and daring " , followed by a bar to the decoration in September for " remarkable courage and boldness in attacking enemy machines " . He was mentioned in despatches on 11 December , and promoted to flight commander the following month .
Despite Little 's prowess in combat , as an aviator he was ordinary at best , enduring a number of crash @-@ landings . What gave him his edge as a fighter pilot was his keen eye , excellent marksmanship , and willingness to single @-@ handedly take on entire enemy formations and close in on his prey — down to twenty @-@ five yards on occasion — before opening fire . Fellow No. 8 Squadron member Reggie Soar recalled , " Although not a polished pilot , he was one of the most aggressive ... an outstanding shot with both revolver and rifle ... " , while ace Robert Comptson described Little as " not so much a leader as a brilliant lone hand ... Small in stature , with face set grimly , he seemed the epitome of deadliness " . His squadron nicknamed him " Rikki " , after the mongoose " Rikki @-@ Tikki @-@ Tavi " , which outstrikes cobras in the story of the same name by Rudyard Kipling . Many who knew him saw a sensitive side , however , Soar noting that in addition to his skill with guns , Little was " also a collector of wild flowers " , and his wife contending that his appearance in photographs belied his sense of humour . Squadron commander Raymond Collishaw , who would finish the war as the RNAS ' top @-@ scoring ace , summed up Little as " an outstanding character , bold , aggressive and courageous , yet he was gentle and kindly . A resolute and brave man . "
Following a period of rest in England , Little turned down a desk assignment and volunteered to return to action on the Western Front , joining Lieutenant Colonel Collishaw 's No. 3 Squadron RNAS in March 1918 . The unit evolved into No. 203 Squadron of the new Royal Air Force on 1 April , formed after the merger of the RNAS and the Royal Flying Corps . Now ranked captain , and again flying Sopwith Camels , Little gained a further nine successes , beginning with a Fokker Triplane on 1 April , and concluding with two kills in one day on 22 May , an Albatros and a DFW . During this stretch of victories , on 21 April 1918 , he was brought down unharmed by Friedrich Ehmann . On 27 May , Little received reports of German Gotha bombers in the vicinity , and took off on a moonlit evening to intercept the raiders . As he closed with one of the bombers , his plane was caught in a searchlight beam and he was struck by a bullet that passed through both his thighs . He crash @-@ landed in a field near Nœux , and bled to death before he was discovered the following morning by a passing gendarme . Little 's skull and ankle had also been fractured in the impact ; his body was identified by his friend and fellow ace , Charles Dawson Booker . Collishaw launched an investigation but it was never established whether the single bullet that hit Little had come from a gunner in the Gotha or from the ground .
= = Legacy = =
Little was buried in the village cemetery at Nœux , before his body was moved to Wavans British Cemetery in the Pas de Calais . Aged twenty @-@ two , he left a widow and a son ; in accordance with her husband 's wishes , Vera travelled back to Australia to raise the boy . Of Little 's forty @-@ seven confirmed victories , twenty were credited as destroyed , two as captured , and twenty @-@ five as " out of control " ; he was believed to be responsible for many others driven down or forced to land , which were not counted in his official total . As well as the eighth most successful Commonwealth ace of World War I , and the ranking RNAS ace , this score made him the most prolific Australian ace of all time , ahead of Stan Dallas with an official score of thirty @-@ nine , although modern research also credits Dallas with a tally numbering in the fifties .
The propeller blade from Little 's Sopwith Triplane was fitted with a clock in its hub by his fellow officers , who presented it to his widow ; she transported it back to Australia in three pieces and it later went on display at the Australian War Memorial , along with his awards and the wooden cross of his original burial place at Nœux . The Sopwith Pup he flew with No. 8 Squadron RNAS , N5182 , was rebuilt to flying standard and in October 1976 led a flypast to commemorate the squadron 's Diamond Jubilee , before going on permanent display at the Royal Air Force Museum , Hendon . One of the buildings of the Australian Defence Force Academy ( ADFA ) in Canberra , opened in 1986 , was named in Little 's honour .
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= Winnebago War =
The Winnebago War was a brief conflict that took place in 1827 in the Upper Mississippi River region of the United States , primarily in what is now the state of Wisconsin . Not quite a war , the hostilities were limited to a few attacks on American civilians by a portion of the Winnebago ( or Ho @-@ Chunk ) Native American tribe . The Ho @-@ Chunks were reacting to a wave of lead miners trespassing on their lands , and to false rumors that the United States had sent two Ho @-@ Chunk prisoners to a rival tribe for execution .
Most Native Americans in the region decided against joining the uprising , and so the conflict ended after U.S. officials responded with a show of military force . Ho @-@ Chunk chiefs surrendered eight men who had participated in the violence , including Red Bird , who American officials believed to be the ringleader . Red Bird died in prison in 1828 while awaiting trial ; two other men convicted of murder were pardoned by President John Quincy Adams and released .
As a result of the war , the Ho @-@ Chunk tribe was compelled to cede the lead mining region to the United States . The Americans also increased their military presence on the frontier , building Fort Winnebago and reoccupying two other abandoned forts . The conflict convinced some officials that Americans and Indians could not live peaceably together , and that the Natives should be compelled to move westward , a policy known as Indian removal . The Winnebago War preceded the larger Black Hawk War of 1832 , which involved many of the same people and concerned similar issues .
= = Background = =
Following the War of 1812 , the United States pursued a policy of trying to prevent wars among Native Americans in the Upper Mississippi River region . This was not strictly for humanitarian reasons : intertribal warfare made it more difficult for the United States to acquire Indian land and move the tribes to the West , a policy known as Indian removal , which had become the primary goal by the late 1820s . On August 19 , 1825 , U.S. officials finalized a multi @-@ tribal treaty at Prairie du Chien , which defined the boundaries of the region 's tribes .
By that time , however , white Americans had begun to trespass on Ho @-@ Chunk ( or Winnebago ) lands in large numbers , drawn by the promise of easy lead mining along the Fever ( later Galena ) River . Native Americans had mined this region for thousands of years , and exporting lead had become an important part of the Ho @-@ Chunk economy . Ho @-@ Chunks tried to drive away the trespassers , but they often suffered abuse at the hands of aggressive miners . Some U.S. officials , concerned that Ho @-@ Chunk mining would delay what they saw as the inevitable American possession of the mining region , worked " to dissuade the Indians from their mining plans " .
= = = Methode family murder = = =
In March 1826 , a French @-@ Canadian man named Methode , his Native American wife , and their children were gathering maple syrup in present @-@ day Iowa , about twelve miles north of Prairie du Chien , when they were murdered , apparently by a Ho @-@ Chunk raiding party that had been passing through . The murderers evidently had no specific grievance with the victims , who were targets of opportunity . Two Ho @-@ Chunk suspects were arrested by Prairie du Chien militiamen and taken to Fort Crawford . After they escaped , U.S. Army Lieutenant Colonel Willoughby Morgan seized two Ho @-@ Chunk hostages and demanded that the Ho @-@ Chunk tribe turn over the murderers .
On July 4 , 1826 , the Ho @-@ Chunks delivered six men to Morgan at Fort Crawford . In accordance with Ho @-@ Chunk custom , writes historian Martin Zanger , the six men were not all involved in the murders ; they were surrendered to appease American anger and deflect punishment away from the tribe as a whole . The Americans , however , wanted to punish those personally responsible for the killings . Colonel Morgan was unable to determine who was guilty , and so he detained all six and demanded that the Ho @-@ Chunk chiefs identify the killers . Colonel Josiah Snelling , commander of the 5th Infantry Regiment , reinforced the fort amid rumors that the Ho @-@ Chunks were going to attempt to free the prisoners . Eventually , two Ho @-@ Chunks , Wau @-@ koo @-@ kau ( or Waukookah ) and Man @-@ ne @-@ tah @-@ peh @-@ keh ( or Mahnaatapakah ) , were turned over to the Americans and indicted for the murders .
= = = Evacuation and rumors = = =
The rumored Ho @-@ Chunk attack on Fort Crawford never came , and so in October 1826 , Colonel Snelling moved the garrison to Fort Snelling , where he hoped to reduce hostilities between the Dakotas ( Sioux ) and the Ojibwes ( Chippewas ) . The two Ho @-@ Chunk prisoners were also moved to Fort Snelling . In May 1827 , after Dakotas attacked an Ojibwe party near Fort Snelling , Colonel Snelling arrested four of the Dakotas and turned them over to the Ojibwes , who killed them . This angered some Dakotas , who encouraged the Ho @-@ Chunks to help them strike at the Americans , falsely telling them that the Ho @-@ Chunks prisoners had also been turned over to the Ojibwes for execution .
The false story of the execution of the Ho @-@ Chunk prisoners , along with the incessant American trespassing , convinced some Ho @-@ Chunks to take up arms against the United States . The timing seemed right , since the evacuation of Fort Crawford appeared to be a sign of American weakness . Another grievance was the news that some Ho @-@ Chunk women had been sexually assaulted by American riverboat crews along the Mississippi River , although this story , like the one about the executions , may have been a false rumor . The Ho @-@ Chunks broke off diplomatic relations with the United States by not showing up for a scheduled treaty conference , and prepared for war .
= = Hostilities = =
In late June 1827 , a Ho @-@ Chunk leader named Red Bird , along with Wekau ( or Wa @-@ ni @-@ ga , The Sun ) and Chickhonsic ( or Chic @-@ hong @-@ sic , Little Buffalo ) , went to Prairie du Chien to seek revenge for what they believed were the executions of the Ho @-@ Chunk prisoners . Unable to locate their intended victim , they instead targeted the cabin of Registre Gagnier , the son of an esteemed African @-@ American nurse and midwife named Aunt Mary Ann . Gagnier welcomed the three Ho @-@ Chunks into his home for a meal . What happened inside varies according to sources . According to one account , Red Bird shot and killed Gagnier , while Chickhonsic shot and killed Solomon Lipcap , a hired man or friend of the family . Wekau tried to shoot Gagnier 's wife , but she wrestled his gun away before escaping with her young son . Wekau had to settle for stabbing and scalping Gagnier 's infant daughter , who survived the attack . Another account says that only Red Bird committed the murders . Red Bird and his companions returned with the three scalps to their village at Prairie La Crosse , where a celebration was held .
On June 30 , 1827 , the Prairie La Crosse Ho @-@ Chunks struck again . About 150 Ho @-@ Chunks , with a few Dakota allies , attacked two American keelboats on the Mississippi , near the mouth of the Bad Axe River . Two Americans were killed and four were wounded in the skirmish ; about seven Ho @-@ Chunks died in the attack or later from their wounds . According to historian Patrick Jung , " The attack , while relatively small , was significant because it was the first act of war committed against the United States by Indians in the region since the War of 1812 . "
In their nascent war against the Americans , the Prairie La Crosse Ho @-@ Chunks sought to recruit allies among the Dakotas , Potawatomis , and other Ho @-@ Chunk bands . Most leaders of these tribes , while sympathetic to Ho @-@ Chunk grievances , urged neutrality . Some Potawatomis participated by killing some American livestock , but Potawatomi leaders Billy Caldwell , Alexander Robinson , and Shaubena rode among the Potawatomi settlements and urged people to stay out of the war ; they would do the same five years later during the Black Hawk War . Many Ho @-@ Chunks also distanced themselves from the actions of Red Bird and the Prairie La Crosse Ho @-@ Chunks . Without allies , the effort to ignite a widespread war was doomed . By mid @-@ July , writes historian Martin Zanger , " for all practical purposes the ' Red Bird Uprising ' was over " .
= = American response = =
The attacks created panic among the American population of the area . Settlers , fearing the outbreak of a wider Indian war , fled to towns such as Galena and Chicago , or sought sanctuary in the abandoned Fort Crawford .
Lewis Cass , the governor of Michigan Territory , and Thomas McKenney , the Superintendent of Indian Affairs , were hosting a treaty conference near Green Bay when they learned of the attacks . To discourage the spread of the uprising , Cass promptly invited Native Americans in the region to come to the treaty grounds to receive gifts and food ; more than 2 @,@ 000 people eventually arrived . McKenney warned the Ho @-@ Chunk chiefs in attendance that the only way to avoid an American military invasion of their homeland was to surrender those responsible for the attacks . Other American officials met with other Native leaders , including Keokuk and Wabokieshiek , and urged them to stay out of the war .
Meanwhile , American officials scrambled to mobilize troops . Cass hurried to Prairie du Chien , where he organized the local militia . Colonel Snelling arrived at Prairie du Chien on July 10 , bringing about 200 regulars from Fort Snelling to reoccupy Fort Crawford . He was joined there on July 29 by Brigadier General Henry Atkinson , who brought 500 men upriver by steamboat from Jefferson Barracks . Several days later , Henry Dodge arrived at Fort Crawford with 130 mounted militiamen , mostly miners . Governor Ninian Edwards of Illinois sent 600 mounted militiamen north to Wisconsin .
To the east , McKenney and Major William Whistler organized another force . Whistler had about 100 regulars from Fort Howard , along with 50 mostly métis militiamen from Green Bay , 60 New York Indians , and 120 Menominees . On August 29 , Atkinson 's force began moving up the Wisconsin River towards Portage , Wisconsin , where the hostile Ho @-@ Chunks had concentrated , while Whistler 's force converged on the same location from the north .
On September 1 , 1827 , McKenney and Whistler 's force arrived at the Portage . On September 3 , two Ho @-@ Chunk leaders , Waukon Decorah and Carymaunee , surrendered Red Bird and Wekau to the Americans . Carymaunee asked the Americans not to put irons on Red Bird and Wekau ; this request was granted . He then offered to give the Americans twenty horses in exchange for the prisoners , but this was declined . The Ho @-@ Chunks turned in four more men involved in the uprising in the following weeks .
= = Aftermath = =
In diplomatic talks with the Ho @-@ Chunks at the close of the war , General Atkinson promised that the U.S. government would look into their grievances in the lead mining region . Thomas McKenney requested military aid to evict American miners who were trespassing on Ho @-@ Chunk land , but after the war , settlers poured into the region in unprecedented numbers , and U.S. officials proved to be unable or unwilling to stem the tide . By January 1828 , there were as many as 10 @,@ 000 illegal settlers on Ho @-@ Chunk land , including militia general Henry Dodge , who established a mining camp after the war and boasted that the U.S. Army could not make him leave . Having no other options , on August 25 , 1828 , the Ho @-@ Chunks signed a provisional treaty with the United States , agreeing to sell the land occupied by the miners in a more formal treaty to be held later .
Eight Ho @-@ Chunks were detained by the U.S. government at Fort Crawford for trial after the war . American officials most wanted to convict Red Bird , believing that he had been the leader of the uprising . This belief , according to historian Martin Zanger , was based on an American failure to understand the decentralized nature of Ho @-@ Chunk society . " Because Red Bird was well known to the white frontiersmen , " writes Zanger , " they focused their resentment on him , mistakenly attributing to him a leadership role he did not deserve . " Red Bird was never tried ; he contracted dysentery and died in prison on February 16 , 1828 , before his trial got underway .
The trials were delayed due to the difficulties in bringing together witnesses , prosecutors , defense attorneys , and interpreters . The proceedings finally began in August 1828 , with Judge James Duane Doty presiding . Wau @-@ koo @-@ kau and Man @-@ ne @-@ tah @-@ peh @-@ keh , the two warriors imprisoned for the 1826 murders of the Methode family , were released due to a lack of witnesses , as were three Ho @-@ Chunks held for the attack on the keelboats . Only two men , Wekau and Chickhonsic , were prosecuted . According to historian Patrick Jung , it became clear during the trial that Red Bird had committed the murders at the Gagnier cabin , and that there was not enough evidence to convict Wekau and Chickhonsic . Despite this , the white and métis jury found them guilty . Judge Doty sentenced them to hang , as he was required to do by law . Their lawyer filed a motion for a new trial , arguing that the jury had ignored the evidence , and so Doty suspended the death sentences .
On November 3 , 1828 , President John Quincy Adams , having been told that the executions would likely spark another uprising , pardoned the prisoners in exchange for a land cession . In July and August 1829 , in treaties signed at Prairie du Chien , the Ho @-@ Chunks and the Three Fires Confederacy formally ceded the lead mining region to the United States for annual payments of $ 16 @,@ 000 and $ 18 @,@ 000 respectively .
Hoping to prevent further uprisings , the United States decided to strengthen its military presence in the region after the Winnebago War . Fort Crawford was reoccupied , as was Fort Dearborn in Chicago , which had been abandoned in 1823 . A new outpost , Fort Winnebago , was built in October 1828 at the portage between the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers .
The conflict also helped to promote a change in U.S. policy regarding Native Americans . Previously , many Americans had argued that Indians should be " civilized " and assimilated into white American society . But for some , the Winnebago War discredited the idea that Indians and Americans could live peaceably together . In his State of the Union Address of December 2 , 1828 , outgoing President Adams announced that the " civilization " policy had been a failure , and that Indian removal — moving the tribes to the West — was the policy of the future . That policy would be taken up by Adams 's successor , Andrew Jackson .
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= The Modern Cook =
The Modern Cook was the first cookery book by the Anglo @-@ Italian cook Charles Elmé Francatelli ( 1805 – 1876 ) . It was first published in 1846 . It was popular for half a century in the Victorian era , running through 29 London editions by 1896 . It was also published in America .
The book offered elaborate dishes , described with French terminology such as bisque , entrées , entremets , vol @-@ au @-@ vent , timbale and soufflé . It included bills of fare for meals for up to 300 people , and for a series of eight- or nine @-@ course dinners served to Queen Victoria ; one exceptional royal dinner in 1841 had sixteen entrées and sixteen entremets , including truffles in Champagne .
The Modern Cook was the first to mention filling wafer cones with ice cream . The book , written for upper middle @-@ class housewives , is illustrated with 60 engravings , often showing how to present carefully @-@ decorated centrepiece dishes such as " Salmon a la Chambord " for large dinner parties .
The book influenced households in Britain and America to aspire to more complex , French @-@ style dinners in imitation of the Queen , and resulted in a change in eating habits , including the modern two @-@ course approach for both lunch and dinner .
= = Context = =
Charles Elmé Francatelli , from an Italian family , was born in London in 1805 , and learnt cookery in France . Coming to England , he worked for various aristocrats before becoming chief chef of Crockford 's club and then chief cook to Queen Victoria in 1840 . He went on to work at Crockford 's again , at the Coventry House and Reform Clubs , St James 's Hotel , and for the Prince and Princess of Wales . This made him a celebrity cook of his time .
= = Book = =
= = = Approach = = =
Apart from the preface and Francatelli 's advice on serving wine , the body of the book consists almost entirely of recipes without any kind of introduction . There is no guidance on choice of kitchenware or advice on the layout of the kitchen .
The recipes are presented entirely as instructions , generally without illustration . Quantities , where stated , are incorporated in the text ; ingredients are never listed explicitly . Quantities are sometimes named , as in the " Cream Bechamel Sauce " , which begins " Put six ounces of fresh butter into a middle @-@ sized stewpan ; add four ounces of sifted flour , some nutmeg , a few peppercorns , and a little salt ; " . In other cases only the relative proportions are indicated , as for the " Salmis of Partridges with Aspic Jelly " , where the only hint of quantity in the recipe is " must be mixed with one @-@ third of its quantity of aspic jelly " . This recipe also indicates the style of cross @-@ referencing , with the starting instruction " Prepare the salmis as directed in No. 1078 " .
The Modern Cook is the first published record in England of filling wafer cornets , which Francatelli called gauffres , with ice cream . He used them to garnish his iced puddings .
= = = Contents = = =
The following apply to the 28th edition of 1886 . The Table of Contents did not have page numbers .
= = = Illustrations = = =
The 28th edition is illustrated with 60 , mostly small , engravings . There is a full @-@ page frontispiece of the author , drawn by Auguste Hervieu and engraved by Samuel Freeman ( 1773 – 1857 ) . Freeman is known for working mainly in stipple , and the portrait here is no exception .
All the other engravings are of completed dishes , showing the serving @-@ plate with the food arranged on it and often elaborately garnished . The artists and engravers of the food illustrations are not identified .
= = = Bills of fare = = =
Francatelli provides " A Series of Bills of Fare for Every Month Throughout the Year " , including dinners variously for 6 , 8 , 10 , 12 , 14 16 , 18 , 20 , 24 , 28 and 36 persons ( though not all of these in every month ) . The bills of fare for dinners for 6 persons thus represent the simplest menus in the book . All the dinners are divided into a first and a second " Course " , but each course was divided in turn into three or four servings , in most cases with a choice of two or more dishes . Thus there might be one or two soups , two fishes , two " removes " of meat , and two savoury " entrées " in the first " Course " , with a second " Course " of one kind of game , followed by a choice of three " entremets " which included both savouries , generally vegetables , and desserts .
There is a single bill of fare for a " Ball Supper for 300 Persons " , and one for a " Public Dinner " for the same number .
There are 13 bills of fare for " Her Majesty 's Dinner " , each with an exact date in 1841 and the words " ( Under the control of C. Francatelli . ) " . Each of the royal dinners has either eight or nine courses ( including a buffet or sideboard ) , except for that of 30 June which is divided into two " Services " and has 11 courses .
The royal dinners are described almost entirely in French , with the exception of the heading , the phrase " Side Board " , and a few specifically British dishes such as " Roast Mutton " and " Haunch of Venison " . There are usually two soups , two fishes , two removes , six entrées , two roasts , two more removes , six entremets , and between two and seven dishes on the sideboard . The exceptional royal dinner of 30 June 1841 had sixteen entrées and sixteen entremets . Some of these entremets used the most costly ingredients including truffles in Champagne .
= = = Publication = = =
The Modern Cook was first published in 1846 . It reached its 29th edition in 1896 . Francatelli presented a copy of the 8th edition to Queen Victoria on 4 June 1853 .
Editions included :
1846 , First edition . Richard Bentley & Son , London .
1846 , Lea and Blanchard , Philadelphia .
c . 1855 , T.B. Peterson and Brothers , Philadelphia .
1858 , 11th edition . Richard Bentley & Son , London .
1859 , from 9th London edition . Thomas L. White , New Orleans .
1880 , 13th edition . Richard Bentley & Son , London .
1886 , 28th edition . Richard Bentley & Son , London .
1895 , from 26th London edition . D. McKay , Philadelphia .
1896 , 29th edition . Richard Bentley & Son , London .
1911 , Reprint of 1st edition . Macmillan , London .
1973 , Reprint of 1880 edition ( T.B. Peterson and Brothers , Philadelphia ) . Dover , New York
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary = = =
Kettner 's Book of the Table of 1877 , describing Francatelli as " a type of all the great French cooks " , asserted that he " gives a most elaborate recipe for aspic jelly ; and he is so satisfied with it that , having to prepare a cold supper for 300 people , he works it up in every one of his 56 dishes which are neither sweet nor hot . The book further argues that " this is the result of science — this the height of art . It produces , with such elaborate forms and majestic ceremonies , an aspic jelly without aspic , that , exhausted in the effort , it can proceed no further , and seems to think that here at last , in this supreme sauce , we have a sure resting @-@ place — the true blessedness — the ewigkeit . "
George H. Ellwanger wrote in his Pleasures of the Table in 1902 that Francatelli 's Modern Cook was " still a superior treatise , and although little adapted to the average household , it will well repay careful study on the part of the expert amateur . ' The palate is as capable and nearly as worthy of education as the eye and the ear , ' says Francatelli — a statement which his volume abundantly bears out . " He added that " one sees , accordingly , an ornate observance of decoration in his grand army of side @-@ dishes . These are excellent throughout , but generally very elaborate , while his sauces and recipes for pastry are especially good . The same may be said of his quenelles and timbales . A competent hand will find his work a valuable guide from which to obtain ideas ; it is not a practical book for the majority . "
The New Zealand Herald of 1912 commented that Francatelli was " an earnest and gifted worker in the cause of gastronomy " and that The Modern Cook faithfully reflected Victorian dining habits . " Everything was good and solid of its kind , even if tending towards complication rather than simplicity . " The review opined that the great joints of meat " decorated with their silver hatelet skewers bearing cock 's combs and trufflets , were attended by the most appetizing ragouts and garnishes . " Despite the gloss , there was " nothing meretricious or deceptive in the savoury promises held out by Victorian comestibles . " The reviewer notes , however , that even while Francatelli was describing this elaborate fare , the " excessive meat @-@ eating " was being replaced by a diet richer in vegetables , and meals were becoming simpler , so that " now , in the 20th century , much that Francatelli wrote about ... is no longer needed . "
= = = Modern = = =
M. F. K. Fisher , writing in The New York Times , stated that millions of American women in the 19th century organised " every aspect of their lives .. as much as possible in imitation of the Queen " , and that The Modern Cook sold almost as well in America as it did in England . Admitting that few American kitchens could " follow all its directions for the light Gallic dainties Francatelli introduced to counteract the basic heaviness of royal dining habits " , she argued that all the same his two @-@ course approach eventually shaped the way Americans now eat both lunch and dinner . She observed that at Windsor Castle , Francatelli and other royal chefs were assisted by 24 assistant chefs and two " Yeomen of the Kitchen " , not to mention a multitude of " servers and lackeys " . This did not deter American housewives " as far west as Iowa and then beyond " from doing their best to follow his instructions .
The Historic Food website notes that Francatelli provides two recipes for mincemeat , one with roast beef , the other containing lemons but no meat .
C. Anne Wilson , introducing Women and Victorian Values , 1837 @-@ 1910 . Advice Books , Manuals and Journals for Women , states that Francatelli was writing for the " upper middle @-@ class housewife " in The Modern Cook , explaining to her how to serve the " socially important " dinner in English , French and " à la Russe " styles . In contrast , his 1861 Cook 's Guide is for " more ordinary " households , advocating " traditional two @-@ course dinners " .
Nick Baines writes on LoveFood that Francatelli included " a whole collection of lavish pies " in the book .
Panikos Panayi , in his book Spicing Up Britain , writes that Francatelli 's book for the middle classes definitely recognised differences between British and foreign foods , even in its full title which ran " ... Comprising , in Addition to English Cookery , the Most Advanced and Recherché Systems of French , Italian and German Cookery " . Panayi notes that Francatelli 's preface to the first edition was scathing about ignorant " English writers on gastronomy " , comparing them unfavourably to the " great Professors " of cuisine in France . Panayi observes further that while most of Francatelli 's chapters are not grouped by national origin , he does distinguish English , Foreign , and Italian soups . He notes that it would have taken years to eat all the dishes listed , and that it is impossible to tell how often middle class families may have eaten " fillets of haddocks , à la royale " . He considers it likely that only the wealthiest could have aspired to eat the sort of food described by Francatelli , but concedes that his bills of fare for dinners for six persons ( by month ) do indicate that the middle classes could afford the best meat and vegetables , and indeed that they had domestic staff able to prepare dinners of that complexity described in Francatelli 's French terminology . Panayi concludes that Francatelli represents " perhaps the most extreme example " of the nineteeth century British habit of giving dishes French descriptions .
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= Ted Petoskey =
Frederick Lee " Ted " Petoskey ( January 5 , 1911 – November 30 , 1996 ) was a three @-@ sport athlete at the University of Michigan , a Major League Baseball player , a collegiate coach in three sports and an athletic director .
At the University of Michigan , Petoskey received eight varsity letters in three sports . In American football , he was a two @-@ time All @-@ American end for the undefeated Michigan Wolverines football teams that won back @-@ to @-@ back college football national championships in 1932 and 1933 . He was also a guard and captain of Michigan 's basketball team in the 1933 – 34 season . As a baseball player in 1934 , Petoskey led the Big Ten Conference with a .452 batting average .
Petoskey played parts of the 1934 and 1935 Major League Baseball seasons as an outfielder for the Cincinnati Reds and played minor league baseball until 1944 . Petoskey also served in a variety of collegiate coaching positions , including head coach of the University of South Carolina 's basketball team ( 1935 – 1940 ) , athletic director and football coach at Wofford College , and head baseball coach at the University of South Carolina ( 1940 – 42 , 1948 – 56 ) .
= = High school athlete = =
Petoskey was raised in St. Charles , Michigan and attended nearby Saginaw Eastern High School . On October 22 , 1926 , Petoskey became the first receiver in Michigan High School Athletic Association history to garner five receiving touchdowns in a high school football game . As of August 2002 , the record had not been surpassed . While playing for Saginaw , Petoskey was an all @-@ state end two years and an all @-@ state fullback another . He once played in a game with University of Michigan head coach Fielding H. Yost in the stands . Petoskey ran back the opening kickoff for 87 yards and a touchdown , and after hearing that Yost was in the stands ran back another kickoff in the second half for 92 yards and a touchdown .
= = University of Michigan athlete = =
Petoskey was a three @-@ sport player for the Michigan Wolverines . While enrolled at Michigan , he earned eight varsity letters — three in football , three in baseball and two in basketball .
= = = 1931 and 1932 football seasons = = =
In Petoskey 's three years as a varsity football player , the Wolverines had a combined record of 23 – 1 – 2 and won two national championships . As a sophomore in 1931 , Petoskey was touted as " a second Bennie Oosterbaan , " and earned a spot on the United Press All @-@ Big Ten Conference second team .
In his junior year , Petoskey was one of the favorite pass receivers for quarterback Harry Newman , who won the Douglas Fairbanks trophy as the Most Valuable Player in college football . Coach Harry Kipke shifted Petoskey to fullback mid @-@ way through the 1932 season , and he scored two touchdowns in a 32 – 0 win over Illinois . The United Press noted : " A running attack which featured Ted Petoskey , converted from an end to a fullback in the last week by Coach Harry Kipke dovetailed nicely with the Wolverine aerial play to produce the touchdowns . With Petoskey plunging the line and sweeping inside the ends for many sizeable gains , the Michigan eleven showed power through the line for the first time this season . " An Associated Press writer warned opponents to watch out for Petoskey : " It is about time for grid foeman to wake up when Ted Petoskey , end and fullback on the University of Michigan football team , gets to dreaming . Petoskey 's dreams have a habit of coming true , and happily for Petoskey , most of his dreams are good ones . "
Petoskey was selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ American in 1932 by the All @-@ American Football Board , a second @-@ team All @-@ American by the New York Sun , and a third @-@ team All @-@ American by the United Press . After the 1932 team compiled a perfect 8 – 0 record ( outscoring opponents 123 – 13 ) and won the national championship , the press credited the squad 's " esprit de corps " as a key to their success . As an example of Wolverine teamwork , a United Press story pointed to a fumble in the Minnesota game . " Michigan recovered , with both Ted Petoskey , end , and Charles Bernard , center , at the bottom of the heap . Bernard credited Petoskey . Petoskey said Bernard recovered . "
= = = 1933 football season = = =
During his senior year , Petoskey started all eight games at left end for the 1933 Michigan Wolverines football team , as Michigan won its second consecutive national championship , and Petoskey was again named an All @-@ American . Although Petoskey was principally an end , Coach Kipke played Petoskey at fullback in some games in 1933 . An October 1933 newspaper story reported on his versatility : " Ted Petoskey , Michigan 's brilliant right end was moved into the backfield for last night 's practice ... This is the second time Petoskey has figured in such a shift . Last fall he was converted into a fullback before the Illinois game and proved a capable ground gainer . Monday he was given a trial as a forward passer , and made an impressive showing . " In his final game for the Michigan football team , Petoskey also kicked a 35 @-@ yard field goal against Northwestern , representing the final points scored for Michigan in its 1933 championship season .
After the 1933 season , Petoskey was chosen as a first @-@ team All @-@ American in the Central Press Association poll of team captains , and for the second @-@ team by Grantland Rice . Petoskey also finished third in the voting for the Associated Press 1933 Big Ten Athlete of the Year award . In choosing Petoskey for his All @-@ American team , football writer Lawrence Perry said : " Ted Petoskey of Michigan is one of the finest ends who ever played the game . A former halfback , he is superb as an end @-@ around runner . He receives forward passes with great accuracy and when he catches the ball he is difficult to bring down . "
Coach Kipke credited the play of halfback , Herman Everhardus , and his ends for the undefeated season : " Our ends , Ward and Petoskey , were near perfection . " The 1934 University of Michigan yearbook , called the Michiganensian , described Petoskey 's contributions as follows : " After three years of Varsity football , Petoskey is recognized as one of Michigan 's greatest all @-@ time ends . At the end of his junior year , he was chosen All American , and recognized as one of the greatest defense players in the country . He was alert , followed every play , and opponents found it almost impossible to gain around his end . " In 1955 , Kipke rated Petoskey as one of the six best players he ever coached : " If I had to name the best player I ever coached , it would have to be among Harry Newman , Francis Wistert , Otto Pommerening , Ted Petoskey and Maynard Morrison . "
When the Associated Press picked Petoskey as only a second @-@ team All @-@ American in 1933 , ten @-@ year @-@ old Mary Lee Grossman from Saginaw , Michigan protested in a letter to AP sports editor , Alan Gould , that he had " chosen wrong " in leaving Petoskey and Whitey Wistert off the first @-@ team . To avoid any appearance of bias , the Saginaw native noted : " You may think I am a friend of these boys but I do not know either of them . I hope you change your mind . " Gould responded to Miss Grossman in his column : " You may be right , Mary Lee , but it 's too late now to change our mind . "
= = = Other sports = = =
Petoskey was also the captain of the 1933 – 34 Wolverines basketball team . For the versatile Petoskey , baseball was his best sport . In May 1933 , the Wolverines baseball team swept the Ohio State Buckeyes , as All @-@ American football players Whitey Wistert pitched a complete game , and Petoskey hit an inside @-@ the @-@ park home run . Petoskey led the Big Ten Conference in batting in 1934 , with 19 hits in 42 at bats for a .452 batting average .
= = Professional baseball = =
Immediately after graduating , Petoskey and Michigan teammate Whitey Wistert both signed with the Cincinnati Reds , reporting to the team in early June 1934 . Petoskey made his major league debut on September 9 , 1934 , and Wistert made his debut two days later . Petoskey played in six games in 1934 , where he went hitless and struck out five times in seven at bats . On the last day of the 1934 regular season , Petoskey was a strikeout victim of Dizzy Dean in the ninth inning of Dean 's 30th win of the year . When the baseball season ended , Petoskey and Wistert both returned to Ann Arbor , Michigan in early October , where they were given coaching assignments helping Ray Fisher teach fundamentals and offering personal tutoring to the freshman football team .
Petoskey returned to the Reds in 1935 , but after spring training he was assigned to the minor leagues . He played for the Wilmington Pirates in the Piedmont League for most of the 1935 season , where he was hitting .426 to lead the league in early June . The Reds called up Petoskey in June , and one newspaper noted that when he was called up , Petoskey was " batting above the .400 mark , leading the ( Piedmont ) league in home runs , runs driven in and practically everything else . " He was two @-@ for @-@ five with a stolen base and a .400 batting average in four games for the 1935 Reds , but he played his last game for the Reds on June 20 , 1935 .
Petoskey played for the Durham Bulls in the Piedmont League in 1936 , where he was hitting .428 in late May . He played for the Toronto Maple Leafs in 1937 , where he was leading the International League in base hits in mid @-@ June . He continued to play with the Leafs in 1938 and 1939 , before being sold to the Toledo Mud Hens in July 1939 . He was released by Toledo in March 1940 .
= = Coaching career = =
= = = Basketball coach at South Carolina = = =
During the off @-@ season from his summer job as a minor league baseball player , Petoskey coached the University of South Carolina basketball team from 1935 to 1940 . In five seasons as the Gamecocks ' head coach , the team had a record of 36 – 67 .
= = = South Carolina and Wofford ( 1940 – 47 ) = = =
Until 1940 , Petoskey had been coaching in the offseason , while still playing baseball in the summers . In August 1940 , he announced his retirement as a player to take a full @-@ time position as the head baseball coach at South Carolina , a position he held from 1940 to 1942 .
In August 1942 , Petoskey was hired by Wofford College as its head football coach and director of physical education . At the time , Petoskey had been playing for the Columbia Reds in the Sally League . Petoskey remained at Wofford through 1947 , taking time off at times to revive his baseball career . In 1944 , Petoskey was a player and manager for the Birmingham Barons of the Southern Association in 1944 . In 1945 , he left Wofford for the summer to play for the Buffalo Bisons in the International League . He returned to Wofford after World War II . Wofford had suspended its football and basketball programs in 1943 and 1944 , but Petoskey announced that the school would bring both programs back in the 1945 – 46 school year . He also served as coach of the Wofford football team .
= = = Baseball coach at South Carolina ( 1948 – 56 ) = = =
In 1948 , Petoskey returned to the University of South Carolina where he was the head coach of the baseball team until 1956 . He also served as an ends coach for the South Carolina football team . In twelve seasons as South Carolina 's head baseball coach , Petoskey compiled a record of 113 – 120 . Petoskey 's baseball players remembered his love of playing poker and his bringing the team home hungry after a tough loss to Duke . In what team members remembered as the " hunger game , " an angry Coach Petoskey told the players to " get on the bus , " and the team rode from Durham , North Carolina to Columbia , South Carolina ( 236 miles ) without having eaten . Another time against Furman University , the Gamecocks blew an 11 – 2 lead in the 8th inning to lose 12 – 11 . On the bus , Petoskey had " that look , " and the driver figured the team would receive a tongue @-@ lashing . " He said , ' I don 't want to hear a word out of you guys , and that goes for you , too , Bussie . ' "
= = Later years = =
In December 1956 , Petoskey announced he was leaving the University of South Carolina to work for the New York Yankees , as a baseball scout for the Georgia , North Carolina , South Carolina and eastern Tennessee territory . As a Yankees ' scout , he signed Duke catcher Steve Crihfield to a contract . And in 1959 , when the Yankees moved spring training for their farm system to Columbia , South Carolina , Petoskey was responsible for the logistics and preparing Capital City Park . He served in the mid @-@ 1960s as the director of recreation for the South Carolina Department of Corrections . Petoskey died in Elgin , South Carolina at age 85 in 1996 .
His son Ted Petoskey , Jr . , followed his father playing end in American football . Ted , Jr . , was chosen to play end for the South Carolina high school team in the 1959 Shrine Bowl against the North Carolina team , and was named South Carolina high school AAA Lineman of the Year . He went on to play end for the Clemson Tigers football team from 1962 to 1964 .
= = Head coaching record = =
= = = College football = = =
= = = College basketball = = =
= = = College baseball = = =
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= Psilocybe hispanica =
Psilocybe hispanica is a species of fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae . It produces small brown mushrooms with conical to convex caps up to 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter and stems 16 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) long by 0 @.@ 5 to 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 to 0 @.@ 04 in ) thick . Reported as new to science in 2000 , it is only known from the Pyrenees mountain range in northern Spain and southwestern France , where it grows on horse dung in grass fields at elevations of 1 @,@ 700 to 2 @,@ 300 m ( 5 @,@ 600 to 7 @,@ 500 ft ) . The mushroom contains the psychoactive compound psilocybin . The possible depiction of this species in the 6 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old Selva Pascuala rock art suggests that it might have been used in ancient religious rituals — the oldest evidence of such usage in prehistoric Europe .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was described by Mexican mycologist Gastón Guzmán in a 2000 publication , based on specimens collected by Ignacio Seral Bozal near Huesca in northern Spain in 1995 . Psilocybe hispanica is classified in the section Semilanceata of the genus Psilocybe because of its thick @-@ walled spores and fruit body that bruises blue with handling . The specific epithet hispanica is Latin for " Spanish " .
= = Description = =
The cap ranges in shape from somewhat conical to convex , and reaches diameters of 5 to 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) . Its surface is smooth , somewhat sticky to dry , and brown to brownish @-@ yellow . The gills are somewhat adnate , and brown @-@ violaceous with whitish edges . The stem is 16 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) long by 0 @.@ 5 to 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 to 0 @.@ 04 in ) thick , cylindrical , and slightly bulbous at the base . It is whitish @-@ yellow , with vinaceous or blue @-@ green to blackish tones towards the base . Mature specimens do not have a veil on the stem . The flesh is whitish , but like most psilocybin @-@ containing species , stains blue when injured .
The spores are ellipsoid and measure 12 – 14 @.@ 5 by 6 @.@ 5 – 8 μm . They have a brownish @-@ yellow wall greater than 1 μm thick and a broad apical germ pore with an acute hilar appendix at the base ( a region where the spore was once attached to the sterigma ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are four @-@ spored , hyaline ( translucent ) , and measure 32 – 44 by 8 – 12 μm . The cap cuticle is made of a layer 130 – 150 μm thick , with hyaline , thin @-@ walled gelatinized hyphae measuring 1 @.@ 5 – 4 μm broad . The hypodermium ( the tissue layer directly under the pileipellis ) is made of thin @-@ walled , hyaline hyphae , 2 @.@ 5 – 8 μm broad , with a brownish incrusting pigment . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae .
= = = Similar species = = =
Psilocybe semilanceata is roughly similar in appearance to P. hispanica , but may distinguished by its mycenoid ( Mycena @-@ like ) appearance and acute umbonate cap . Although the grassland habitat of the two species is similar , P. semilanceata does not grow directly on dung ; rather , it is a saprobic species that grows on decaying grass roots . P. fimetaria also resembles P. hispanica , but it also has a mycenoid appearance and has a ring on the stem . In terms of microscopic characteristics , P. fimetaria has larger cheilocystidia that measure 20 – 32 by 4 – 8 μm . P. hispanica differs from P. liniformans var. liniformans in that it lacks a gelatinous gill edge . P. liniformans var. americana has larger cheilocystidia , measuring 22 – 33 by 5 @.@ 5 – 9 μm , and it is known to grow only on soil around herbs , in the Northwest and Northeast USA and Chile . Deconica coprophila ( formerly known as Psilocybe coprophila ) is a small brownish mushroom that also grows on dung , but it does not contain psilocybin and does not have a bluing stem .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Psilocybe hispanica is a coprophilous fungus ( dung @-@ loving ) , and produces fruit bodies that grow solitarily or in dense groups on horse dung ; sometimes more than 25 fruit bodies can arise from the same dung . In Guzmán 's original report , they were found in a Pyrenean meadow in Aragon , at an elevation of 2 @,@ 300 metres ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) . In 2003 , the species was reported from Tramacastillo de Tena , a small village in the Pyrenees ; it was also reported to have " penetrated the French part of the Pyrenees " . Within its restricted range , the mushroom is " very common " at altitudes of 1 @,@ 700 to 2 @,@ 300 m ( 5 @,@ 600 to 7 @,@ 500 ft ) .
= = Uses = =
The mushroom is consumed recreationally by Spanish youths for its mind @-@ altering effects ; other mushrooms used recreationally in Spain include P. semilanceata and P. gallaeciae . Guzmán and Castro report that a 17th @-@ century medallion found in Tena Valley in the southern Pyrenees had images of a devil and mushrooms carved on it . The mushrooms — possibly either P. semilanceata or P. hispanica , according to Guzmán and Castro — were used in witchcraft , a common practice in the valley during the Middle Ages .
It has been argued that prehistoric rock art at a site known as Selva Pascuala near the Spanish town of Villar del Humo offers evidence that P. hispanica was used in religious rituals 6 @,@ 000 years ago . The rock shelter at Selva Pascuala was discovered in the early 20th century ; in the early 21st century it was noticed that objects in one of the murals , which previously had been described as " mushrooms " , matched the general morphology of P. hispanica : the mural depicts a row of 13 mushroom @-@ like objects with convex to conical caps , and ringless stems that vary from straight to sinuous ( wavy ) . Additionally , the mural shows a bull , which suggests an association with the coprophilic P. hispanica . Although the hallucinogenic species P. semilanceata is also widespread in the area where the mural was found , its differing shape ( narrowly conical and acutely papillate ) and its habitat on soil instead of dung suggests it is not the species represented in the mural . If the interpretation is correct , the mural represents the oldest evidence of psychedelic fungi use in Europe , and the third reported instance of rock art suggesting prehistoric usage of neurotropic fungi . The only older example is from Tassili n 'Ajjer , in the Sahara desert in southeast Algeria . In 1992 , the Italian ethnobotanist Giorgio Samorini reported finding a painted mural dated 7000 to 9000 BCE portraying mushrooms , later tentatively identified as Psilocybe mairei , a species known from Algeria and Morocco .
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= Valhalla =
In Norse mythology , Valhalla ( from Old Norse Valhöll " hall of the slain " ) is a majestic , enormous hall located in Asgard , ruled over by the god Odin . Chosen by Odin , half of those who die in combat travel to Valhalla upon death , led by valkyries , while the other half go to the goddess Freyja 's field Fólkvangr . In Valhalla , the dead join the masses of those who have died in combat known as Einherjar , as well as various legendary Germanic heroes and kings , as they prepare to aid Odin during the events of Ragnarök . Before the hall stands the golden tree Glasir , and the hall 's ceiling is thatched with golden shields . Various creatures live around Valhalla , such as the stag Eikþyrnir and the goat Heiðrún , both described as standing atop Valhalla and consuming the foliage of the tree Læraðr .
Valhalla is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , Heimskringla , also written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , and in stanzas of an anonymous 10th century poem commemorating the death of Eric Bloodaxe known as Eiríksmál as compiled in Fagrskinna . Valhalla has inspired various works of art , publication titles , popular culture references , and has become a term synonymous with a martial ( or otherwise ) hall of the chosen dead .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
Valhalla is referenced at length in the Poetic Edda poem Grímnismál , and Helgakviða Hundingsbana II , while Valhalla receives lesser direct references in stanza 33 of the Völuspá , where the god Baldr 's death is referred to as the " woe of Valhalla " , and in stanzas 1 to 3 of Hyndluljóð , where the goddess Freyja states her intention of riding to Valhalla with Hyndla , in an effort to help Óttar , as well as in stanzas 6 through 7 , where Valhalla is mentioned again during a dispute between the two .
= = = = Grímnismál = = = =
In stanzas 8 to 10 of Grímnismál , the god Odin ( in the guise of Grímnir ) states that Valhalla is located in the realm of Glaðsheimr . Odin describes Valhalla as shining and golden , and that it " rises peacefully " when seen from afar . From Valhalla , every day Odin chooses from those who have died in combat . Valhalla has spear @-@ shafts for rafters , a roof thatched with shields , coats of mail are strewn over its benches , a wolf hangs in front of its west doors , and an eagle hovers above it .
From stanzas 22 to 24 , more details are given by Odin about Valhalla : the holy doors of the ancient gate Valgrind stand before Valhalla , Valhalla has five hundred and forty doors that eight hundred men can exit from at once ( from which the einherjar will flow forth to engage the wolf Fenrir at Ragnarök ) . Within Valhalla exists Thor 's hall Bilskirnir , and within it exist five hundred and forty rooms , and of all the halls within Valhalla , Odin states that he thinks his son 's may be greatest . In stanzas 25 through 26 , Odin states that the goat Heiðrún and the hart Eikþyrnir stand on top of Valhalla and graze on the branches of the tree Læraðr . Heiðrún produces vats of mead that liquor cannot be compared to , and from Eikþyrnir 's antlers drip liquid into the spring Hvergelmir from which flows forth all waters .
= = = = Helgakviða Hundingsbana II = = = =
In stanza 38 of the poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana II , the hero Helgi Hundingsbane dies and goes to Valhalla . In stanza 38 , Helgi 's glory there is described :
So was Helgi beside the chieftains
like the bright @-@ growing ash beside the thorn @-@ bush
and the young stag , drenched in dew ,
who surpasses all other animals
and whose horns glow against the sky itself .
Prose follows after this stanza , stating that a burial @-@ mound was made for Helgi , and that when Helgi arrived in Valhalla , he was asked by Odin to manage things with him . In stanza 39 , Helgi , now in Valhalla , has his former enemy Hunding — also in Valhalla — do menial tasks ; fetching foot @-@ baths for all of the men there , kindling fire , tying dogs , keeping watch of horses , and feeding the pigs before he can get any sleep . In stanzas 40 to 42 , Helgi has returned to Midgard from Valhalla with a host of men . An unnamed maid of Sigrún , Helgi 's valkyrie wife , sees Helgi and his large host of men riding into the mound . The maid asks if she is experiencing a delusion , if Ragnarök has begun , or if Helgi and his men have been allowed to return .
In the stanzas that follow , Helgi responds that none of these things have occurred , and so Sigrún 's maid goes home to Sigrún . The maid tells Sigrún that the burial mound has opened up , and that Sigrún should go to Helgi there , as Helgi has asked her to come and tend his wounds , which have opened up and are bleeding . Sigrún goes into the mound , and finds that Helgi is drenched in gore , his hair is thick with frost . Filled with joy at the reunion , Sigrún kisses him before he can remove his coat of mail , and asks how she can heal him . Sigrún makes a bed there , and the two sleep together in the enclosed burial mound . Helgi awakens , stating that he must " ride along the blood @-@ red roads , to set the pale horse to tread the path of the sky , " and return before the rooster Salgófnir crows . Helgi and the host of men ride away , and Sigrún and her servant go back to their house . Sigrún has her maid wait for him by the mound the next night , but when she arrives at dawn , she finds that he has not returned . The prose narrative at the end of the poem relates that Sigrún dies of sadness , but that the two are thought to have been reborn as Helgi Haddingjaskati and the valkyrie Kára .
= = = Prose Edda = = =
Valhalla is referenced in the Prose Edda books Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál .
= = = = Gylfaginning = = = =
Valhalla is first mentioned in chapter 2 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , where it is described partially in euhemerized form . In the chapter , King Gylfi sets out to Asgard in the guise of an old man going by the name of Gangleri to find the source of the power of the gods . The narrative states that the Æsir foresaw his arrival and had prepared grand illusions for him , so that when Gangerli enters the fortress , he sees a hall of such a height that he has trouble seeing over it , and notices that the roof of the hall is covered in golden shields , as if they were shingles . Snorri then quotes a stanza by the skald Þjóðólfr of Hvinir ( c . 900 ) . As he continues , Gangleri sees a man in the doorway of the hall juggling short swords , and keeping seven in the air at once . Among other things , the man says that the hall belongs to his king , and adds that he can take Gangleri to the king . Gangleri follows him , and the door closes behind him . All around him he sees many living areas , and throngs of people , some of which are playing games , some are drinking , and others are fighting with weapons . Gangleri sees three thrones , and three figures sitting upon them : High sitting on the lowest throne , Just @-@ As @-@ High sitting on the next highest throne , and Third sitting on the highest . The man guiding Gangleri tells him that High is the king of the hall .
In chapter 20 , Third states that Odin mans Valhalla with the Einherjar : the dead who fall in battle and become Odin 's adopted sons . In chapter 36 , High states that valkyries serve drinks and see to the tables in Valhalla , and Grímnismál stanzas 40 to 41 are then quoted in reference to this . High continues that the valkyries are sent by Odin to every battle , where they choose who is to die , and determine victory .
In chapter 38 , Gangleri says : " You say that all men who have fallen in battle from the beginning of the world are now with Odin in Valhalla . With what does he feed them ? I should think the crowd there is large . " High responds that this is indeed true , that a huge amount are already in Valhalla , but yet this amount will seem to be too few when " the wolf comes . " High describes that there are never too many to feed in Valhalla , for they feast from Sæhrímnir ( here described as a boar ) , and that this beast is cooked every day and is again whole every night . Grímnismál stanza 18 is then recounted . Gangleri asks if Odin himself eats the same food as the Einherjar , and High responds that Odin needs nothing to eat — Odin only consumes wine — and he gives his food to his wolves Geri and Freki . Grímnismál stanza 19 is then recounted . High additionally states that at sunrise , Odin sends his ravens Huginn and Muninn from Valhalla to fly throughout the entire world , and they return in time for the first meal there .
In chapter 39 , Gangleri asks about the food and drinks the Einherjar consume , and asks if only water is available there . High replies that , of course , Valhalla has food and drinks fit for kings and jarls , for the mead consumed in Valhalla is produced from the udders of the goat Heiðrún , who in turn feeds on the leaves of the " famous tree " Læraðr . The goat produces so much mead in a day that it fills a massive vat large enough for all of the Einherjar in Valhalla to satisfy their thirst from it . High further states that the stag Eikþyrnir stands atop Valhalla and chews on the branches of Læraðr . So much moisture drips from his horns that it falls down to the well Hvelgelmir , resulting in numerous rivers .
In chapter 40 , Gangleri muses that Valhalla must be quite crowded , to which High responds by stating that Valhalla is massive and remains roomy despite the large amount of inhabitants , and then quotes Grímnismál stanza 23 . In chapter 41 , Gangleri says that Odin seems to be quite a powerful lord , as he controls quite a big army , but he yet wonders how the Einherjar keep themselves busy when they are not drinking . High replies that daily , after they 've dressed and put on their war gear , they go out to the courtyard and battle one another in one @-@ on @-@ one combat for sport . Then , when mealtime comes , they ride home to Valhalla and drink . High then quotes Vafþrúðnismál stanza 41 . In chapter 42 , High describes that , " right at the beginning , when the gods were settling " they had established Asgard and then built Valhalla . The death of the god Baldr is recounted in chapter 49 , where the mistletoe that is used to kill Baldr is described as growing west of Valhalla .
= = = = Skáldskaparmál = = = =
At the beginning of Skáldskaparmál , a partially euhemerized account is given of Ægir visiting the gods in Asgard and shimmering swords are brought out and used as their sole source of light as they drink . There , numerous gods feast , they have plenty of strong mead , and the hall has wall @-@ panels covered with attractive shields . This location is confirmed as Valhalla in chapter 33 .
In chapter 2 , a quote from the anonymous 10th century poem Eiríksmál is provided ( see the Fagrskinna section below for more detail and another translation from another source ) :
What sort of dream is that , Odin ? I dreamed I rose up before dawn to clear up Val @-@ hall for slain people . I aroused the Einheriar , bade them get up to strew the benches , clean the beer @-@ cups , the valkyries to serve wine for the arrival of a prince .
In chapter 17 of Skáldskaparmál , the jötunn Hrungnir is in a rage and , while attempting to catch up and attack Odin on his steed Sleipnir , ends up at the doors to Valhalla . There , the Æsir invite him in for a drink . Hrungnir goes in , demands a drink , and becomes drunk and belligerent , stating that he will remove Valhalla and take it to the land of the jötunn , Jötunheimr , among various other things . Eventually , the gods tire of his boasting and invoke Thor , who arrives . Hrungnir states that Thor is under their protection , and subsequently he can 't be harmed while in Valhalla . After an exchange of words , Hrungnir challenges Thor to a duel at the location of Griotunagardar , resulting in Hrungnir 's death .
In chapter 34 , the tree Glasir is stated as located in front of the doors of Valhalla . The tree is described as having foliage of red gold and being the most beautiful tree among both gods and men . A quote from a work by the 9th century skald Bragi Boddason is presented that confirms the description .
= = = Heimskringla = = =
Valhalla is mentioned in euhemerized form and as an element of remaining Norse pagan belief in Heimskringla . In chapter 8 of Ynglinga saga , the " historical " Odin is described as ordaining burial laws over his country . These laws include that all the dead are to be burned on a pyre on a burial mound with their possessions , and their ashes are to be brought out to sea or buried in the earth . The dead would then arrive in Valhalla with everything that one had on their pyre , and whatever one had hidden in the ground . Valhalla is additionally referenced in the phrase " visiting Odin " in a work by the 10th century skald Þjóðólfr of Hvinir describing that , upon his death , King Vanlandi went to Valhalla .
In chapter 32 of Hákonar saga Góða , Haakon I of Norway is given a pagan burial , which is described as sending him on his way to Valhalla . Verses from Hákonarmál are then quoted in support , themselves containing references to Valhalla .
= = = Fagrskinna = = =
In chapter 8 of Fagrskinna , a prose narrative states that , after the death of her husband Eric Bloodaxe , Gunnhild Mother of Kings had a poem composed about him . The composition is by an anonymous author from the 10th century and is referred to as Eiríksmál , and describes Eric Bloodaxe and five other kings arriving in Valhalla after their death . The poem begins with comments by Odin ( as Old Norse Óðinn ) :
'What kind of a dream is it , ' said Óðinn ,
in which just before daybreak ,
I thought I cleared Valhǫll ,
for coming of slain men ?
I waked the Einherjar ,
bade valkyries rise up ,
to strew the bench ,
and scour the beakers ,
wine to carry ,
as for a king 's coming ,
here to me I expect
heroes ' coming from the world ,
certain great ones ,
so glad is my heart .
The god Bragi asks where a thundering sound is coming from , and says that the benches of Valhalla are creaking — as if the god Baldr had returned to Valhalla — and that it sounds like the movement of a thousand . Odin responds that Bragi knows well that the sounds are for Eric Bloodaxe , who will soon arrive in Valhalla . Odin tells the heroes Sigmund and Sinfjötli to rise to greet Eric and invite him into the hall , if it is indeed he .
Sigmund asks Odin why he would expect Eric more than any other king , to which Odin responds that Eric has reddened his gore @-@ drenched sword with many other lands . Eric arrives , and Sigmund greets him , tells him that he is welcome to come into the hall , and asks him what other lords he has brought with him to Valhalla . Eric says that with him are five kings , that he will tell them the name of them all , and that he , himself , is the sixth .
= = Locations = =
Multiple places have been named after Valhalla . These include :
the Walhalla temple built by Leo von Klenze for Ludwig I of Bavaria between 1830 – 1847 near Regensburg , Germany , and
the Tresco Abbey Gardens Valhalla museum built by August Smith around 1830 to house ship figureheads from shipwrecks that occurred at the Isles of Scilly , England , where the museum is located .
A crater , Valhalla , located on the planet Jupiter 's moon Callisto , is named after the hall .
Valhalla Borgen in Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen , Denmark
Valhalla in Pleasure Beach Blackpool in Blackpool , England
Locations named after Valhalla also exist :
North America :
Valhalla , New York
Valhalla Centre , Alberta
Valhalla Golf Club in Louisville , Kentucky
Lake Valhalla in Washington
Mt . Valhalla in Chequamegon @-@ Nicolet National Forest , Bayfield County , Wisconsin
Walhalla , Michigan
Walhalla , North Dakota
Walhalla , South Carolina
and Walhalla , Texas
Walhalla , Victoria
Valhalla , Pretoria
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= NSB Di 3 =
NSB Di 3 is a class of 35 diesel @-@ electric locomotives built by NOHAB for the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) . The class was built between 1954 and 1969 , and delivered in two series , Di 3a and Di 3b . They are based on the Electro @-@ Motive Division F7 and are equipped with EMD 567 engines . They have a distinct bulldog nose and were numbered 602 – 633 ( a @-@ series ) and 641 – 643 ( b @-@ series ) . The locomotives had a prime mover that gives a power output of 1 @,@ 305 kilowatts ( 1 @,@ 750 hp ) . The a @-@ series has a Co 'Co ' wheel arrangement , while the b @-@ series has ( A1A ) ' ( A1A ) ' . The b @-@ series has higher top speed , but lower tractive effort .
The class was the dominant locomotive on NSB 's unelectrified lines . It was ordered as part of the company 's dieselization of services during the 1950s and 1960s , and was initially used on the three mainline routes of the Bergen , Dovre and Nordland Lines . In the 1960s the Bergen and Dovre Lines were electrified and the Di 3 units transferred to smaller lines , such as the Meråker , Valdres , Røros , Solør and Rauma Lines . They remained in service with NSB until 2001 , five years later than planned due to NSB returning their successor , the Di 6 . The units are still in use by the private operator Ofotbanen , the Kosovo Railways , an operator in Sicily , and the Norwegian Railway Museum . The class is similar to the DSB Class MY and MÁV M61 .
= = Construction = =
The first diesel locomotive used by NSB was a single Di 1 unit delivered in 1942 . It was more cost @-@ efficient than the steam locomotives used on the non @-@ electrified lines , and in 1945 , NSB decided that it would not order more steam locomotives . General Motors ' Electro Motive Division ( EMD ) made a bid to deliver twelve units based on their F7 , and NSB agreed to lease a single unit for trial . The body and mechanical components were built by NOHAB , the motors by ASEA and prime mover by EMD . While under production in 1954 , GM shipped a G12 for trial in Norway and Sweden . It was tested on the express train on the Dovre Line on 7 August , but proved to have insufficient power , causing the train to be 20 minutes late .
The trial unit from NOHAB was delivered on 17 September 1954 . The first test runs in scheduled service were on the Nordland Line between Trondheim and Mo i Rana in October . There were no technical faults until 22 December , when a grounding error caused the locomotive to be grounded until 17 January . In March the unit was sent back to NOHAB and went on a marketing tour that would eventually reach Ankara , Turkey in 1955 .
The locomotive returned to Norway on 1 July 1955 , where it was numbered 602 and put into service on the Nordland Line . The trials were successful , with much higher regularity than the steam locomotives . The Di 3 was used eight days in a row , and then spent a single day in the depot . NSB signed an agreement with NOHAB for delivery of five further locomotives . This caused a public debate , because the domestic supplier Thune had offered to build a similar locomotive in cooperation with American Locomotive Company . The first delivery was made on 25 April 1957 , and the order completed by July . In March 1957 NSB received permission to buy another eight locomotives . Delivery started in October and was completed on 1 June 1958 . The order was supplemented with another six trains , with delivery in 1958 .
The Finnish State Railways ( VR ) ordered five units in 1959 , but these were cancelled for political reasons . The units were offered to NSB for a reduced price . Three were designated Di 3b because they had a slight specification variation , with a ( A1A ) ' ( A1A ) ' wheel arrangement and higher top speed . Two units had come short enough in the production process that they could be given the same specifications as the other Di 3a units , but received a slightly longer body . The Di 3b were given the numbers 641 – 643 . For part of 1960 , no . 623 was leased by NOHAB and sent on a demonstration tour in Eastern Europe . This resulted in an order from the Hungarian State Railways , where it became the MAV M61 . The Røros Line was upgraded and the Bergen Line units transferred to Trondheim in 1960 , but increased need for hauling forced NSB to not use the units on the Røros Line until the delivery of the next batch of six units in 1965 . The final delivery , of four units , was made in 1969 .
= = Operation = =
The initial use for the Di 3 was to operate the three non @-@ electrified long @-@ distance lines of NSB : the Bergen Line , the Dovre Line and the Nordland Line . Following the delivery of the first batch in 1957 , they were from 2 June used on the Dovre Line , north of Otta to Trondheim , and further north along the Nordland Line to Mo i Rana . The stock was sufficient to replace all steam locomotives on the Nordland Line , and reduced travel time by one hour . From Hamar to Otta , the track did not have sufficient permitted axle load . From the second batch of eight units , five were put into service on the Bergen Line , the rest on the Dovre and Nordland Lines . Necessary upgrades of the permitted axle load had been made to the Dovre Line and Nordland Line , and the locomotives were in use from Hamar to Saltdal . On 30 November , the Nordland Line was completed to Fauske , and the full length operated with Di 3 .
The first section of the Bergen Line , the Gjøvik Line and the Roa – Hønefoss Line , was electrified in February 1961 . This allowed diesel and electric locomotives to haul all trains from Oslo to Bergen . In 1962 the Nordland Line was completed to Bodø , but the increased need for locomotives was more than compensated by the electrification of the Bergen Line being extended to Ål . The first Di 3 ran on the Røros Line in 1964 , that had previously been denied due to bridges with insufficient axle load permits . In 1965 , the Bergen Line was electrified , and all but one Di 3 was transferred to Trondheim . A single unit , usually no . 610 , was stationed at Finse Station as a snowplow . Along with additional deliveries , there were sufficient Di 3 units to terminate most steam operations .
After the Bergen Line was electrified , the work continued on the Dovre Line . The section from Hamar to Otta was finished in 1967 , and the following year to Dombås . This allowed the locomotives to be transferred to secondary lines . With the final delivery of the last units in 1969 and the completion of the electrification of the Dovre Line in 1970 , the final steam locomotive was taken out of service . During the last half of the 1960s , the Di 3 was put into service on the Rauma Line , the Røros Line , the Solør Line , the Valdres Line and the Meråker Line .
In November 1970 , the Dovre Line was electrified , and the last steam locomotives were retired . A long @-@ term plan to electrify half the lines was finished , and for two decades , NSB 's operations were very stable with no major investments to infrastructure or closing of lines . NSB had slightly less diesel locomotives than they needed , but plans to order additional Di 3 was never fulfilled . In 1981 , NSB took delivery of five Di 4 to supplement the older units . They were mainly used on the Nordland Line , and Di 3 units were predominantly used on the other lines , although they continued to operate som trains on the Nordland Line . On 1 April 1987 , a Di 3 612 caught on fire ; the damage was small enough that it could have been repaired , but NSB instead decided to put aside the unit . At the time NSB planned to order additional Di 4 , but these plans were put on hold . In 1988 , the Valdres Line was closed ; this was the only time a line with Di 3 in regular service was closed .
During the 1980s , NSB started leasing SJ T44 @-@ locomotives from Sweden to supplement the Di 3 . In 1992 , the decision was made to order 12 Di 6 and 20 Di 8 to replace the Di 3 . The former was based on the Di 4 and had twice the power of the Di 3 . The Di 8 was slightly more powerful than the Di 3 , and were intended for freight trains . Both series were put into service in 1996 , but the Di 6 proved to have so many technical problems that they were returned to Siemens in 1998 . The Di 3 units had been set aside and some had been scrapped , but the return of the Di 6 forced NSB to put the units back into service .
During the mid @-@ 1990s , NSB had initiated a program to replace the traditional locomotive and carriage trains with new , tilting multiple units . This had led to the order of sixteen Class 73 four @-@ car units for the three mainline routes on the Bergen Line , Dovre Line and Sørland Line . To supplement this , the board of NSB decided on 14 November 1996 to purchase seven tilting diesel multiple units for the Røros and Rauma Lines . The choice fell on Class 93 , with fifteen units eventually delivered . This allowed all passenger trains on diselized lines to either be operated with Class 93 be hauled by the Di 4 . The last Di 3 @-@ hauled train ran on 7 January 2001 .
= = = Post @-@ NSB = = =
With the delivery of Class 93 , NSB started to retire or sell the Di 3 . In November 2001 , five units were sold for NOK 250 @,@ 000 each — well under market price — to the new private operator Ofotbanen . The purchase raised controversy , because the potential operator Banetransport had offered full market price for the trains . One year after delivery , six of eleven Class 93 @-@ locomotives were out of order . To solve the problem , NSB had to rent back used Di 3 locomotives from Ofotbanen . NSB had chosen to sell the old locomotives for less than market price , but Ofotbanen demanded that NSB pay the entire purchase price for the short @-@ term rental back .
Four units ( 619 , 633 , 641 and 643 ) were sold to the United Nations and was put into service in Kosovo , in what has since become the Kosovo Railways . Four units ( 622 , 626 , 630 and 631 ) were sold to an operator in Sicily , Italy . The Norwegian National Rail Administration bought one unit ( 628 ) for maintenance , and has painted it yellow . The Norwegian Railway Museum in Hamar has preserved three units , of which two ( 602 and 616 ) were operated by GM @-@ Gruppen and one ( 615 ) is kept for spare parts . NSB has kept one unit as reserve at Ål Station . The remaining units have been scrapped , put aside or sold as spare part units .
= = Specifications = =
The Di 3 was built by Nydquist och Holm of Trollhätten , Sweden , as part of a series of GM EMD AA16 locomotives in Europe . They are technically similar to the DSB Class MY of Denmark and the MAV M61 of Hungary . The locomotives are powered by a 16 @-@ cylinder EMD 16 @.@ 567 C or E engine that has a power output of 1 @,@ 305 kilowatts ( 1 @,@ 750 horsepower ) at 835 revolutions per minute ( rpm ) . The engines power an EMD D32 or D12 generator that feeds six ASEA LJB76 or LJB84 motors on a Di 3a . The Di 3b is equipped with four EMD D40 or D77B motors . This gives a tractive effort of 265 kilonewtons ( 60 @,@ 000 lbf ) for the a @-@ series and 176 @.@ 5 kilonewtons ( 39 @,@ 700 pounds @-@ force ) for the b @-@ series . The motors have a power output of 1 @,@ 100 kilowatts ( 1 @,@ 500 horsepower ) . The maximum speed is 105 kilometres per hour ( 65 mph ) for the a @-@ series and 143 kilometres per hour ( 89 miles per hour ) for the b @-@ series .
The steel bodies are 18 @.@ 60 or 18 @.@ 90 metres ( 61 @.@ 0 or 62 @.@ 0 ft ) long . The longer length is for the three b @-@ series units and the two a @-@ series locomotives that were made in the batch , originally intended for VR . The a @-@ series has a Co 'Co ' wheel arrangement , while the b @-@ series has a ( A1A ) ' ( A1A ) ' arrangement , where the center of the three axles on each bogie is unpowered . The wheels have a 1 @,@ 016 millimetres ( 3 ft 4 @.@ 0 in ) wheel diameter and the locomotives have a weight of 102 @.@ 0 tonnes ( 100 @.@ 4 long tons ; 112 @.@ 4 short tons ) for the a @-@ series and 103 @.@ 0 tonnes ( 101 @.@ 4 long tons ; 113 @.@ 5 short tons ) for the b @-@ series . The trains can be run in multiple with the Di 4 , Di 6 and Di 8 . All the Di 3 engines featured a bulldog nose , the only locomotive type in Norway to do so . The locomotives were at first delivered in a dark green livery , but during the 1960s this was changed to red , and the last delivered units never had a green scheme .
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= Queen Vic Fire Week =
" Queen Vic Fire Week " is a group of four episodes of the BBC soap opera EastEnders , broadcast between 6 and 10 September 2010 on BBC One . The episodes included a fire at The Queen Victoria public house , also known as The Queen Vic or The Vic , and the departure of the character Peggy Mitchell , portrayed by Barbara Windsor , who left the series after sixteen years in the role . During the episodes , Peggy — the pub landlady — has her crack cocaine @-@ addicted son Phil ( Steve McFadden ) imprisoned in The Queen Victoria , forcing him to go cold turkey . She later learns that her deceased husband Archie ( Larry Lamb ) was murdered by local resident Stacey Branning ( Lacey Turner ) . Before she can report Stacey to the police , Phil escapes and sets the pub on fire . Stacey and her infant daughter Lily are trapped inside , but are rescued by Ryan Malloy ( Neil McDermott ) , prompting Stacey to reveal to him that he is Lily 's father . The pub destroyed , Peggy decides against reporting Stacey for Lily 's sake . She plans to make a fresh start , bidding her family goodbye and leaving Walford .
The episodes were directed by Lee Salisbury and produced by Bryan Kirkwood . The first was written by Daran Little and the remainder by Simon Ashdown . Kirkwood intended to give Windsor an " epic and poignant " departure , as befitting her status as the ultimate EastEnders matriarch . The fire storyline was created for her exit , and to facilitate a refurbishment of The Queen Victoria set for the transition to high @-@ definition television broadcasting . The episodes were filmed over seventeen days , more than twice the series ' typical filming duration , with the interior set rebuilt on the George Lucas Stage in Elstree for the fire . A special version of the theme tune , called " Peggy 's Theme " , was created for Windsor 's final episode . It was released as an EP , available for download following the episode , and features as the lead track on composer Simon May 's album The Simon May Collection . The episodes were accompanied by two documentaries on BBC Three , one following the filming of the fire , and the other examining ten of Peggy 's most iconic moments in EastEnders .
Viewership ranged from 8 @.@ 60 – 10 @.@ 09 million , with no episode watched by less than a third of the total viewing audience . They were the most watched programmes on BBC One in the week of broadcast , and the Friday episode was the second @-@ most watched show across all channels . The episodes received a mixed response from critics . Several highlighted inaccuracies and implausibilities in the storyline , including the lack of fire alarms and sprinklers in the pub . Others focussed on Peggy 's departure , with James McCarthy of the Western Mail writing that it would " doubtless remain the stuff of EastEnders ' legend for years to come , " and Jim Shelley calling it " a good way to go . " In contrast , the Daily Mirror 's Polly Hudson found Peggy 's exit a nonsensical " non event " , and Gareth McLean of The Guardian deemed it " suitably sentimental " , but several years overdue . The fire was nominated in the " Best Stunt " category at the 2011 All About Soap Bubble Awards .
= = Plot = =
= = = 6 September 2010 = = =
Peggy Mitchell ( Barbara Windsor ) , who has just regained her status as landlady of The Queen Victoria public house , decides to throw a wedding reception for Janine Butcher ( Charlie Brooks ) and Ryan Malloy ( Neil McDermott ) to let everyone know the pub is hers again . Peggy 's friend Pat Evans ( Pam St. Clement ) arranges a hen party for Janine at the R & R nightclub , but Janine feels betrayed by Pat when Peggy reveals that she said Janine 's marriage would not last . Janine meets a man named Richard Monroe ( Andrew Hall ) , who settles her bill . Impressed by his car , Janine leaves with him . Worried about her son Phil ( Steve McFadden ) because of his addiction to the drug crack cocaine , Peggy enlists the help of Minty Peterson ( Cliff Parisi ) and Billy Mitchell ( Perry Fenwick ) to abduct him from the flat he is living in . They bring him back to The Queen Victoria , locking him in the living room upstairs , where the windows have been boarded up to stop him from escaping . Stacey Branning ( Lacey Turner ) reveals to Dot Branning ( June Brown ) that her deceased husband Bradley ( Charlie Clements ) is not the father of her baby Lily .
= = = 7 September 2010 = = =
Stacey explains to Dot that Bradley knew he was not Lily 's father . Dot informs Bradley 's father Max ( Jake Wood ) , who tells her he already knows . Concerned by Stacey telling people her secrets , he wonders if she has ceased taking medication for her bipolar disorder . He tells her that she needs to keep the truth about Lily 's father and the fact that she killed Peggy 's husband Archie ( Larry Lamb ) several months previously to herself . Phil tries to convince various people to let him out as he is suffering withdrawal symptoms , but nobody will . Janine awakens in Richard 's flat and gets dressed , though they did not have sex . She returns home and tells Pat that she feels guilty , and Pat tells her not to inform Ryan . Janine fears that she is not good enough for Ryan , but he reassures her and they marry . Stacey attends their wedding reception in The Queen Victoria , leaving Lily in a bedroom upstairs . She is surprised by a photograph of Peggy and Archie , and is frightened to hear Phil making noises in the living room . Stacey tells Peggy that she thinks Archie is alive and locked upstairs . Peggy assures Stacey that Archie is dead , telling her that Bradley killed him , as he was posthumously found guilty of the murder . Stacey then confesses that she killed Archie .
= = = 9 September 2010 = = =
Peggy demands that Stacey leave the pub and Stacey pleads with her not to call the police for Lily 's sake . She attempts to tell Ryan that he is Lily 's father , but is interrupted by Pat , who thinks Stacey is trying to seduce him and slaps her . Phil smashes through the door using a crowbar that was left in the room . He starts taking cash and drinking alcohol , and interrupts Peggy before she can call the police about Stacey . They argue , with Phil accusing Peggy of loving the pub more than she loves him and throwing a match to the alcohol @-@ soaked floor to start a fire . It spreads quickly , causing an explosion . The customers flee the pub , Syed Masood ( Marc Elliott ) is knocked to the ground and trampled in the process but is rescued by his father Masood Ahmed ( Nitin Ganatra ) and brother Tamwar ( Himesh Patel ) .
Peggy tries in vain to extinguish the flames , but is forced out by her friends and family . Stacey , unaware of the events , heads upstairs to Lily and becomes trapped . She uses the crowbar to smash a boarded @-@ up window and hands Lily over to Ryan , who has climbed a ladder . Peggy realises Phil is still inside and returns to the building with Billy . They find him trapped beneath a wooden beam , and are able to drag him out to safety . Ryan goes back up the ladder and carries an unconscious Stacey out . Stacey regains consciousness and sees that Lily is safe , and tells Ryan that Lily is his daughter . Peggy stares at the pub as it is completely destroyed .
= = = 10 September 2010 = = =
The next day , Peggy visits Stacey in hospital and asks her to confess to burning the pub , as a sentence for arson would be less than one for murder , but Stacey refuses . Peggy realises that Stacey needs to look after her daughter so she leaves . Ryan confronts Stacey at the hospital , shocked with her confession , refuses to acknowledge his daughter , and goes on his honeymoon with Janine . Peggy goes into the pub and looks around as she remembers events from her time there . She then tells Billy she wants to take Phil away to make a fresh start and to protect him . Her niece Ronnie ( Samantha Womack ) tells Peggy she is five months pregnant and asks Peggy not to leave as she is like a mother to her . Peggy tells Ronnie to give her real mother , Glenda ( Glynis Barber ) , another chance . Peggy 's daughter Sam ( Danniella Westbrook ) does not want her to leave as Peggy promised to look after Sam 's baby Richard for her , however , Peggy says she is old now and the baby needs a strong mother . Peggy gives her jewellery to Sam to sell so she has some money . Peggy speaks to Phil , accepting responsibility for making him the way he is and offering to help him get off the drugs . He says she needs him more than he needs her and that she suffocates him . Realising that he is right , Peggy asks the rest of her family to look after him , saying emotional goodbyes . Though Phil claims not to have meant what he said , Peggy says she has to leave for his sake . As she leaves the house , Phil begins to follow her , but she sends him back inside . She looks at the pub and walks out of Walford .
= = Background = =
In October 2009 , actress Barbara Windsor 's decision to leave EastEnders after sixteen years of portraying the character Peggy Mitchell was announced . The show 's executive producer , Bryan Kirkwood , said it was a massive honour for him to be responsible for the character 's exit , but explained that as she has become the " quintessential matriarch of the show " , they had to get the exit storyline right , which he said would be " both epic and poignant " . Windsor gave one year 's notice of leaving , giving the production team time to come up with a storyline , and was asked to keep her decision a secret until the announcement was made . Kirkwood looked at Windsor 's first episode and decided her exit should be about Peggy and her son Phil , as Peggy 's arrival came at a time when Phil needed her most , and since then , she had believed that Phil still needed her . Peggy 's exit came when she realised his mother was not what Phil needed . Windsor did not want to know in advance how her character would leave , but hoped she would not be killed off . She commented : " My exit was beautifully written and I really couldn ’ t have asked for a better send @-@ off for Peggy . "
In June 2010 , it was announced that The Queen Victoria would be destroyed in a fire to tie in with EastEnders ' transition to high definition so the set could be completely refurbished . It was reported that the fire could tie in with the departure of Peggy or one of the several other characters whose departure had previously been announced . Director Lee Salisbury said the fire , as well as Peggy 's departure , would have a huge effect on several characters , especially the Mitchell family , of which Peggy is the matriarch . Kirkwood said the fire was " one of the most spectacular stunts that EastEnders has ever seen , and it 's very exciting . "
= = Production = =
= = = Filming = = =
All four episodes were directed by Lee Salisbury , who learned three weeks before filming that he would be working on the episodes , and said he was " a bit dumbstruck " to discover he would be directing the fire episodes and Windsor 's departure , but that he was proud to do so . He said his main aim for the fire was to show the fear , panic and pandemonium that comes when a fire starts and quickly spreads . He wanted the story to be character @-@ led rather than led by the fire , saying that the fire " almost becomes a backdrop " . Salisbury said it was hard to make the fire look real because " you can 't actually set fire to stuff " . As the fire lasted for some time , characters ' scenes could be divided up into small sections . Salisbury commented : " Bryan Kirkwood , the writer [ Ashdown ] and myself also wanted it to be an episode where things kept happening and the audience would keep thinking , ' Wow , that must have been the explosion ' or ' That must have been the stunt ' . But more things keep happening and happening , and I think that 's what people will find really shocking . " The production team had several production meetings for the weeks ' worth of episodes , whereas there is usually just one .
The episodes took seventeen days to film , where normally crew are given eight days to film a week 's worth of episodes . Between forty and forty @-@ five members of crew were required for filming the fire episode , including assistant directors , a design department , cameras , lighting , sound , make up , costume , visual effects , fire safety officers and a stunt team consisting of a stunt co @-@ ordinator and stunt doubles . Filming was done with four television cameras , a steadicam and a dolly . The exterior fire scenes were filmed first , in five night shoots lasting until 4 a.m. , and the real exterior set was burnt . Safety was the top priority for the fire scenes , and fire safety advisors ensured all cast and crew were protected . Stunt doubles wore flame @-@ proof gel on their faces and for the scene where Ryan and Stacey fall from the ladder , several layers of cardboard boxes were stacked on the ground for the stunt doubles to fall onto . For filming the final explosion scene , all the actors whose characters were involved were filmed separately for their reactions . The explosion had to be delayed due to a power failure at Elstree Studios , two minutes before the explosion was due to be set off , which also affected a live broadcast of Big Brother . The power cut lasted two hours and filming was further delayed due to rain . The explosion was completed in a third take . Despite the delay , the scenes were completed on schedule . Salisbury noted that the demise of such an iconic set as The Queen Victoria left several cast members in tears .
The interior set of The Queen Victoria pub was taken apart and rebuilt exactly to scale on the George Lucas Stage , a fire stage at Elstree Film Studios , for interior scenes , filmed over four days . The interior set took seven weeks to build and two weeks to get into the studio . Controlled gas pipes were used to shoot jets of flames and a header was specially built to collapse on Phil . Salisbury had to ensure that the fire for the interior scenes matched that of the already @-@ filmed exterior scenes . Producers decided to extend the 10 September episode featuring Peggy 's departure by ten minutes , meaning it would clash with rival soap opera Coronation Street .
In 2016 , Windsor said that the Queen Vic fire was her favourite stunt to film since joining the cast in 1994 . She called it her " Joan of Arc moment " and revealed that when the explosion happened , she " was actually blown off my feet and landed on Steve McFadden who ended up with bruised ribs " .
= = = Theme music = = =
Windsor 's final episode on 10 September 2010 did not end with the usual EastEnders theme tune . Instead the occasionally used " Julia 's Theme " , a piano version of the theme , was reworked specially for the broadcast , and given the name " Peggy 's Theme " . The theme was created by the original theme tune composer , Simon May , who was reportedly thrilled to write the theme tune for Windsor . He added more piano to the theme and gave it a " more melancholy feel " . May composed the theme not knowing what would happen on screen , but when Kirkwood brought a rough edit of the episode , May noted that the music fitted perfectly first time , saying it was " remarkable and very moving . " The theme features as the lead track on the album The Simon May Collection and was also released as an EP available to download immediately after the episode . He revealed : " All the actors and crew had made a really special couple of shows . My main purpose was to bring something to the table , and I didn 't think it would be a single . [ ... ] But when everybody heard the track they said ' you 've got to release that as the single because it 's something special ' . "
= = = Related media = = =
A number of trailers were released to television in August 2010 to promote Peggy 's departure from the series , and a section on the official EastEnders website was dedicated to the character , allowing fans to " heart Peggy " . The 10 September episode was followed by a twenty @-@ minute episode of documentary programme EastEnders Revealed titled " Peggy Mitchell : Queen of the Vic " . Narrated by Shane Richie , the documentary looked at ten moments from Peggy 's time in the show that made her a British icon . According to overnight figures , it received ratings of 4 @.@ 49 million viewers . Official ratings raised the figure to 4 @.@ 62 million . A documentary looking at the filming of the fire was broadcast on 24 September 2010 on BBC Three . It received 800 @,@ 000 viewers .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The 6 September episode , featuring Janine 's hen party , attracted 9 @.@ 54 million viewers on BBC One . It was watched by 36 @.@ 1 % of television viewers during its original broadcast . The later BBC Three repeat was viewed by 840 @,@ 000 people , attaining a 3 @.@ 9 % share of the audience during broadcast . The 7 September episode , in which Stacey confessed to Peggy that she killed Archie , was viewed by 8 @.@ 60 million people on BBC One and 990 @,@ 000 on BBC Three , with audience shares of 34 @.@ 9 % and 4 @.@ 7 % respectively . The fire episode on 9 September received 9 @.@ 40 million viewers and a 41 % share of the audience , and the BBC Three repeat saw 1 @.@ 59 million viewers ( 7 @.@ 4 % ) tuning in . Peggy 's departure on 10 September received 10 @.@ 09 million viewers for BBC One , a 38 @.@ 1 % share during broadcast , and the later BBC Three repeat was watched by 1 @.@ 16 million viewers , attaining a 5 @.@ 3 % share . Additionally , the four episodes were the most @-@ watched programmes on BBC One that week and the Friday episode was the second most @-@ watched on all channels .
= = = Critical response = = =
The fire and Peggy 's exit episodes garnered a mixed reception by critics . Liam Tucker , founder of website Watch With Mothers , compared the fire episode to the film The Texas Chain Saw Massacre and admired the special effects and performances of the episode , but said that it seemed unlikely that everyone would have escaped safely , especially Stacey and her baby . Roz Laws from the Sunday Mercury wondered if the fire episode was inaccurate due to the lack of fire alarms , sprinklers and emergency lighting in the pub , but noted that the episode 's use of the song " Murder on the Dancefloor " , featuring the line " Gonna burn this god damn house right down " , was " clever " . A writer for Heat said " We knew the Vic fire was coming , but actually seeing it was quite another thing , and knowing that it also marked the end of an era with the departure of Barbra [ sic ] Windsor made it that much more emotional . " A reporter for the Nottingham Evening Post wrote " Never in the history of soap fires , of which there have of course been legion , have so many hilariously overindulgent explosions been captured on camera . " The Mail on Sunday picked the fire episode as the " Soap of the Day " , while The People deemed the lack of deaths " a wasted opportunity . " Ally Ross wrote in his column in The Sun that the fire episode was " twenty minutes of shouting " , questioned why one character was seen flouting the smoking ban and Phil was boarded up behind an inward @-@ opening door , and opined that he was glad to see Peggy leave as she had become " increasingly psychotic " and " vile " .
Writing for entertainment news website Digital Spy , Daniel Kilkelly said Peggy 's final episode featured " plenty of poignant moments [ ... ] — not least the scene which saw Peggy standing in the destroyed Queen Vic and appearing completely devastated . " Gareth McLean from The Guardian said the use of " Peggy 's Theme " was a " suitably sentimental sendoff " for the character , but said that " in hindsight , Peggy should have left Walford three or four years ago , her character trapped in a cycle of increasingly samey stories that reduced her to a parody of her former self " , describing her efforts to put out the flames as " like a very sooty clockwork mouse " . James McCarthy of Welsh newspaper Western Mail said Windsor 's " final emotional scene will doubtless remain the stuff of EastEnders ' legend for years to come , " and Jim Shelley from the Daily Mirror said " It was a good way to go . " However , Shelley 's colleague Polly Hudson said Peggy 's exit was a " non event " , as " Peggy just left , nonsensically and at complete odds with everything we 've learnt about her character over the last 15 years . "
In February 2011 , the fire was nominated for ' Best Stunt ' at the 2011 All About Soap Bubble Awards . In May , it was nominated for ' Spectacular Scene of the Year ' at the 2011 British Soap Awards . In 2015 , Inside Soap listed the Queen Vic fire as their 9th favourite soap opera stunt of all time , saying it was " just smoke and mirrors — we wanted proper carnage ! "
= = = Impact = = =
The London Fire Brigade used the " dramatic and distressing " events of EastEnders to publicly highlight the devastation a real fire can cause , urging viewers to be more aware of how to protect themselves .
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= Cyclone Kate ( 2006 ) =
Tropical Cyclone Kate was a short @-@ lived Category 2 cyclone that remained nearly stationary for its entire existence in the northwestern Coral Sea in February 2006 . Forming out of a monsoonal trough on 22 February , Kate rapidly intensified throughout the day . By 23 February , the system attained its peak intensity with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 985 hPa ( mbar ) . Shortly thereafter , increasing wind shear caused the storm to quickly weaken . By 24 February , the system dissipated over open waters near Queensland , Australia . Although Kate did not directly affect land , large swells produced by the storm impaced beaches in Papua New Guinea and Queensland . The waves injured six people in Australia , although no property damage was reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
Cyclone Kate originated from an area of low pressure that was first identified on 22 February 2006 , within a monsoonal trough . The system rapidly intensified throughout the day , with the Australian Bureau of Meteorology issuing their first advisory on the system that evening . Upon being classified , the system was immediately declared Tropical Cyclone Kate , skipping tropical low status . At the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) also began issuing advisories on the system , designating it as Tropical Cyclone 13P . The storm had developed well @-@ defined , upper @-@ level outflow enhanced by diffluence over the system .
The system remained nearly stationary over the northwestern Coral Sea . Early on 23 February , the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 985 hPa ( mbar ) . However , the JTWC assessed the system to have been slightly weaker , attaining peak winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . Further intensification was anticipated as Kate slowly tracked towards Queensland , Australia . However , Kate stalled shortly thereafter and began to weaken due to increasing wind shear . Rapid weakening took place throughout the day , and JTWC declared the system dissipated early on 24 February . The Bureau of Meteorology downgraded Kate to a tropical low around the same time , although they continued to monitor the storm for several more hours before reporting that it had dissipated over open waters .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Upon the cyclone 's formation , the Bureau of Meteorology warned vessels to avoid the storm in anticipation of rough seas and winds gusting to 125 km / h ( 78 mph ) . Although the storm did not pose much of a threat to Queensland , officials urged residents to ensure their disaster kits were ready and that preparations for a moderate storm , such as storing lose outdoor objects and clearing gutters , had been completed .
While the storm had no direct impact on land , large swells affected most of the Queensland coastline . In the Shire of Noosa , six surfers sustained serious injuries after wading into turbulent waters . Waves up to 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) tossed the six surfers , leaving them with injuries ranging from broken noses and fractured ankles to head wounds from surfboards . The waves also caused additional beach erosion to parts of Papua New Guinea previously impacted by Cyclone Ingrid in March 2005 .
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= Metal Gear Solid =
Metal Gear Solid is an action @-@ adventure stealth video game developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Japan and first published by Konami for the PlayStation in 1998 . The game was directed , produced , and co @-@ written by series creator Hideo Kojima , and serves as a sequel to the MSX2 video games Metal Gear and Metal Gear 2 : Solid Snake , which Kojima also wrote and directed .
Metal Gear Solid follows Solid Snake , a soldier who infiltrates a nuclear weapons facility to neutralize the terrorist threat from FOXHOUND , a renegade special forces unit . Snake must liberate two hostages , the head of DARPA and the president of a major arms manufacturer , confront the terrorists , and stop them from launching a nuclear strike . Cinematic cutscenes were rendered using the in @-@ game engine and graphics , and voice acting was used throughout the entire game .
Metal Gear Solid was well received , shipping more than six million copies , and scoring an average of 94 / 100 on the aggregate website Metacritic . It is regarded as one of the greatest and most important games of all time , and is often seen as the game which helped popularize the stealth genre . The commercial success of the title prompted the release of an expanded version for the PlayStation and PC , titled Metal Gear Solid : Integral ; and a remake , Metal Gear Solid : The Twin Snakes was later released for the GameCube . The game has also spawned numerous sequels , prequels and spin @-@ offs , including several games , a radio drama , comics , and novels .
= = Gameplay = =
Despite a transition to 3D , the gameplay of Metal Gear Solid remains similar to its 2D MSX2 predecessor Metal Gear 2 : Solid Snake . The player must navigate the protagonist , Solid Snake , through the game 's areas without being detected by enemies . Detection is triggered by the player moving into an enemy 's field of vision and sets off an alarm that draws armed enemies to his location . This also triggers " alert mode " and the player must then hide and remain undetected , at which point “ evasion mode ” begins and once the counter reaches zero the game returns to " infiltration mode " where enemies are not suspicious of Snake ’ s presence . The radar cannot be used in alert or evasion mode .
To remain undetected , the player can perform techniques which make use of both Solid Snake 's abilities and the environment , such as crawling under objects , using boxes as cover , ducking or hiding around walls , and making noise to distract enemies . These are carried out using the third @-@ person camera , which often changes its angle to give the player the best view of the area possible , and an on @-@ screen radar , which displays enemies and their field of vision . Snake can also make use of many items and gadgets , such as infra @-@ red goggles or a cardboard box disguise . The emphasis on stealth promotes a less violent form of gameplay , as fights against large groups of enemies will often result in serious damage for the player .
The game 's progress is punctuated by cutscenes and codec , as well as encounters with bosses . To progress , players must discover the weaknesses of each boss and defeat them . Play controls and strategies can also be accessed via the Codec radio , where advice is delivered from Snake 's support team ; for example , the support team may chastise Snake for not saving his progress often enough , or explain his combat moves in terms of which buttons to press on the gamepad . The Codec is also used to provide exposition on the game 's backstory . Completion of the title provides the player with a statistical summary of their performance , and a " code name " based upon it , typically the name of a common animal .
In a first for the Metal Gear series , a training mode , called VR Mode , is available in which players can practice hiding techniques , weapon use , and sneaking . In addition to the stealth gameplay , there are set piece sequences that entail firefights between the player and enemies from the third @-@ person and first @-@ person perspectives .
= = Characters = =
The protagonist of Metal Gear Solid is Solid Snake , a legendary infiltrator and saboteur . During the mission , Snake receives support and advice via codec radio . Colonel Roy Campbell , Solid Snake 's former commanding officer , supports Snake with advice and tactics . While he initially keeps a number of secrets from Snake , he gradually reveals them . He is joined by Naomi Hunter , who gives medical advice ; Nastasha Romanenko , who provides item and weapon tips ; Master Miller , a former drill instructor and survival coach ; and Mei Ling , who invented the soliton radar system used in the mission and is also in charge of mission data ; the player can call her to save the game .
The main antagonist of the game is Liquid Snake , leader of a now @-@ terrorist splinter cell of the organization FOXHOUND , and genetic counterpart to Solid Snake . An elite special forces unit , FOXHOUND contains experts specializing in unique tasks . Members are Revolver Ocelot , a Western @-@ style gunslinger and expert interrogator whose weapon of choice is the Colt Single Action Army ; Sniper Wolf , a preternatural sniper ; Vulcan Raven , a hulking Alaskan shaman armed with an M61 Vulcan torn from a downed F @-@ 16 ; Psycho Mantis , a psychic profiler and psychokinesis expert ; and Decoy Octopus , a master of disguise .
Other characters include Meryl Silverburgh , Colonel Campbell 's niece and a rookie soldier stationed in Shadow Moses who did not join the revolt ; Dr. Hal Emmerich , the lead developer of Metal Gear REX ; and the " Ninja " , a mysterious cybernetically enhanced agent who is neither an ally nor an enemy of Snake but does oppose FOXHOUND .
= = Plot = =
The year is 2005 , six years after the downfall of Zanzibarland . A renegade genetically @-@ enhanced special forces unit , FOXHOUND , has seized a remote island in Alaska 's Fox Archipelago codenamed " Shadow Moses " , the site of a nuclear weapons disposal facility . FOXHOUND threatens to use the nuclear @-@ capable mecha , Metal Gear REX , against the U.S. government if they do not receive the remains of Big Boss and the ransom of $ 1 billion within 24 hours . Solid Snake is forced out of retirement by Colonel Roy Campbell to infiltrate the island and neutralize the threat .
Snake enters the facility via an air vent and locates the first hostage , DARPA Chief Donald Anderson . Anderson reveals that Metal Gear REX can be deactivated with a secret detonation override code , but dies of a heart attack . Colonel Campbell 's niece Meryl Silverburgh , held hostage in an adjoining cell , helps Snake escape . Snake locates another hostage , ArmsTech president Kenneth Baker , but is confronted by FOXHOUND member Revolver Ocelot . Their gunfight is interrupted by a mysterious cyborg ninja who cuts off Ocelot 's right hand . Baker briefs Snake on the Metal Gear project and advises him to contact Meryl , whom he gave a PAL card that might prevent the launch , but he too dies of a sudden heart attack .
Over Codec , Meryl agrees to meet in the warhead disposal area on the condition that Snake contacts Metal Gear 's designer , Dr. Hal " Otacon " Emmerich . En route , Snake receives an anonymous codec call warning him of a tank ambush . Snake fends off the attack from Vulcan Raven and proceeds to the rendezvous , where he locates Otacon . The ninja reappears and Snake realizes it is his former ally Gray Fox , believed dead . Otacon agrees to aid Snake remotely using special camouflage to procure information and supplies .
Snake meets Meryl and receives the PAL card . As they head for the underground base , Meryl is possessed by psychic Psycho Mantis and pulls her gun on Snake . He disarms her and defeats Mantis , who informs Snake that he has " a large place " in her heart . After they reach the underground passageway , Sniper Wolf ambushes them , wounds Meryl , and captures Snake . Liquid confirms Snake 's suspicion that they are twin brothers . After being tortured by Ocelot , Snake is confused to discover Anderson 's body in his cell , seemingly dead for days . He escapes , makes his way up the communications tower , and fends off a helicopter attack from Liquid . As he emerges onto a snowfield , he is confronted again by Sniper Wolf . He kills her , devastating Otacon , who was infatuated with her .
Snake continues to REX 's hangar and is ambushed again by Raven . After Snake defeats him , Raven tells Snake that " Anderson " was in fact FOXHOUND disguise artist Decoy Octopus Infiltrating Metal Gear 's hangar , Snake overhears Liquid and Ocelot preparing the REX launch sequence and uses the PAL card , but this unexpectedly activates REX . Liquid reveals that he has been impersonating Snake 's advisor Master Miller and that FOXHOUND has used Snake to facilitate REX 's launch . He and Snake are the product of the Les Enfants Terribles project , a 1970s government program to clone Big Boss . He also reveals to Snake the government 's true reason for sending him : Snake is unknowingly carrying a weaponized " FoxDie " virus that causes cardiac arrest in FOXHOUND members on contact , allowing the government to retrieve REX undamaged .
As Liquid , in REX , battles Snake , Gray Fox appears , destroys REX 's radome , and is killed . Snake destroys REX and defeats Liquid , then escapes with Meryl or Otacon via an underground tunnel , pursued by Liquid in a Jeep . After their vehicles crash , Liquid pulls a gun on Snake but dies from FoxDie . Colonel Campbell , briefly ousted from command , calls off a nuclear strike to destroy evidence of the operation , and has Snake registered as killed in action to stop the US government searching for him . Naomi Hunter , who injected Snake with the FoxDie virus , tells him that he has an indeterminate amount of time before it kills him . Ocelot calls the U.S. President ; he was a double agent whose mission was to steal Baker 's disk of Metal Gear specifications .
= = Development = =
Kojima initially planned the third Metal Gear game in 1994 , originally titled Metal Gear 3 , and to release it for the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer in 1994 . Conceptual artwork , by illustrator Yoji Shinkawa , of the characters Solid Snake , Meryl Silverburgh , who was also a character in the adventure game Policenauts , and the FOXHOUND team , were included in the Policenauts : Pilot Disk preceding the release of the full version of the 3DO game in 1995 . However , due to the discontinuation of the 3DO from the market , development of the game shifted to the PlayStation shortly after Policenauts was released .
Kojima retitled the game Metal Gear Solid , choosing this over the working title Metal Gear 3 . This was due to the fact that he believed that the first two MSX2 games were not well known at the time due to their lack of worldwide releases . He used the word ' Solid ' which was chosen due to the game being the third installment in the series , and because it uses 3D computer graphics , as well as being in reference to Solid Snake , the game 's protagonist . Sequels to this game also use the Metal Gear Solid title , and generally follow a numeral progression .
The development for Metal Gear Solid began in mid @-@ 1995 with the intention of creating the " best PlayStation game ever " . Developers aimed for accuracy and realism while making the game enjoyable and tense . In the early stages of development , the Huntington Beach SWAT team educated the creators with a demonstration of vehicles , weapons and explosives . Weapons expert Motosada Mori was also tapped as technical adviser in the research , which included visits to Fort Irwin and firing sessions at Stembridge Gun Rentals . Kojima stated that " if the player isn 't tricked into believing that the world is real , then there 's no point in making the game " . To fulfill this , adjustments were made to every detail , such as individually designed desks .
Hideo Kojima created the characters of Metal Gear Solid . Modifications and mechanics were made by conceptual artist Yoji Shinkawa . According to Shinkawa , Solid Snake 's physique in this particular installment was based on Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme , while his facial appearance was based on Christopher Walken . The characters were completed by polygonal artists using brush drawings and clay models by Shinkawa . Kojima wanted greater interaction with objects and the environment , such as allowing the player to hide bodies in a storage compartment . Additionally , he wanted " a full orchestra right next to the player " ; a system which made modifications such as tempo and texture to the currently playing track , instead of switching to another pre @-@ recorded track . Although these features could not be achieved , they were implemented in Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty .
Metal Gear Solid was shown to the public at E3 1997 as a short video . It was later playable for the first time at the Tokyo Game Show in 1998 and officially released the same year in Japan with an extensive promotional campaign . Television and magazine advertisements , in @-@ store samples , and demo give @-@ aways contributed to a total of $ 8 million in promotional costs . An estimated 12 million demos for the game were distributed during 1998 .
= = = Music = = =
The musical score of Metal Gear Solid was composed by Konami 's in @-@ house musicians , including Kazuki Muraoka , Hiroyuki Togo , Takanari Ishiyama , Lee Jeon Myung , and Maki Kirioka . Composer and lyricist Rika Muranaka provided a song called " The Best is Yet To Come " for the game 's ending credits sequence . The song is performed in Irish by Aoife Ní Fhearraigh . The main theme was composed by Tappi Iwase from the Konami Kukeiha Club .
Music played in @-@ game has a synthetic feel with increased pace and introduction of strings during tense moments , with a looping style endemic to video games . Overtly cinematic music , with stronger orchestral and choral elements , appears in cutscenes . The soundtrack was released on September 23 , 1998 , under the King Records label .
= = Releases = =
= = = Original version = = =
The English version of Metal Gear Solid , translated by Jeremy Blaustein , who localized the Sega CD version of Snatcher , contains minor refinements made during localization , such as a choice of three difficulty settings when starting a new game ( with a fourth unlockable setting available if a completed file is present ) , an alternate tuxedo outfit for Snake ( which the character wears on every third successive playthrough on the same save file ) , and a " demo theater " where the player views every cutscene and radio conversations relevant to the main story . Changes to the English script include the addition of Western sources and authors to Mei @-@ Ling 's motivational quotes ( originally the character only cited Chinese proverbs ) and the games detected by Psycho Mantis when he reads the player 's memory card ( due to certain titles such as Policenauts and the Tokimeki Memorial series not being released for the foreign market ) . Versions of the game dubbed in Spanish , German , French and Italian were released throughout Europe in addition to the English @-@ dubbed version released in America . A premium package was released in Japan and Asia containing the game , a T @-@ shirt , dog tags , a music CD featuring the soundtracks of the MSX2 games , and a booklet with information about the game 's production and plot . A European version of the package was also produced , featuring different content from the Japanese version .
The Japanese PlayStation version of Metal Gear Solid , as well as Integral , had been reissued twice : once under The Best range and second time as a PS one Books title . Likewise , the American and European versions of Metal Gear Solid were reissued under the " Greatest Hits " and " Platinum " ranges respectively . The game is included in the Japanese Metal Gear Solid : 20th Anniversary Collection set and in the American Essential Collection set . The original Metal Gear Solid was released on the PlayStation Store for download on the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable in 2008 in Japan and in 2009 in North America and Europe .
= = = Integral = = =
Released on June 25 , 1999 for the PlayStation in Japan , Metal Gear Solid : Integral ( メタルギアソリッド インテグラル , Metaru Gia Soriddo : Integuraru ) is an expanded edition that features the additional content from the American and European versions of the original game . Integral replaces the Japanese voices from the original version with the English dub , while offering a choice between Japanese and English subtitles ( item descriptions , mission logs and other text are still in Japanese ) . Further additional content to the main game include an alternate " sneaking suit " outfit for Meryl ( which she wears after the player unlocks the tuxedo for Snake ) , a " Very Easy " difficulty setting where the player starts the mission armed with a suppressor @-@ equipped MP5 sub @-@ machine gun with infinite ammo ( which substitutes the FAMAS rifle in the player 's inventory ) , an eight Codec frequency featuring written staff commentary ( in Japanese only ) on every area and boss encounter , hidden music tracks , an alternate game mode where the player controls Snake from a first @-@ person perspective , an option for alternate patrol routes for enemies , and a downloadable PocketStation minigame . The Torture Event was also made easier on higher difficulty levels , reducing the number of rounds to three per session in all settings .
In addition to the main game , Integral includes a third disc of additional content called the " VR Disc . " The VR Disc features 300 VR training missions testing the player 's sneaking and fighting skills , as well as less conventional tests , such as murder mysteries , battling giant genome soldiers , and three missions where the player controls the Cyborg Ninja . Other content include preview trailers and a " photoshoot " mode where the player takes pictures of Mei Ling and Naomi . Completing all 300 missions will unlock a concept artwork of the Metal Gear RAY mech that would later appear in Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty . Famitsu magazine rated Metal Gear Solid : Integral a 34 out of 40 .
The third disc from Integral was released as a stand @-@ alone game in North America under the title of Metal Gear Solid : VR Missions on September 23 , 1999 . While the content of VR Missions are virtually identical to the VR Disc , the unlocking requirements for the Ninja missions and the photoshoot mode were changed accordingly so that they no longer required save data from the main story mission .
The VR Disc was also released in the PAL region as an expansion pack titled Metal Gear Solid : Special Missions on October 29 , 1999 . Unlike the Japanese and American versions , Special Missions requires a PAL copy of the original Metal Gear Solid in order to be played . This change was done since the original Metal Gear Solid was released in multiple languages in Europe and Special Missions determines the language it uses based on which version of the original game the player owns . When the Special Missions disc is loaded into the PlayStation console , the game will ask the player to switch the disc with the first disc from Metal Gear Solid in order to load voice and language data before asking the player to switch back to the Special Missions disc . This requirement renders Special Missions incompatible with PlayStation 2 consoles made prior to the SCPH @-@ 70000 model .
= = = PC version = = =
The PC version of Metal Gear Solid was released in North America , Europe and Asia in late 2000 . This version was published by Microsoft Game Studios and developed by Digital Dialect . It supports the use of a keyboard or a USB game controller with at least six buttons ( with the manual recommending the Sidewinder Game Pad Pro ) . The PC version is simply labelled Metal Gear Solid on the packaging , but the actual game uses the Metal Gear Solid : Integral logo , although it has some differences as well from the PlayStation version of Integral and lacks some of its content . The biggest change was reducing the number of discs from three to two , which was done by giving each disc two separate executable files , one for the main game ( mgsi.exe ) and the other for the VR training portion ( mgsvr.exe ) , thus eliminating the need for a stand @-@ alone third disc .
One notable omission was the removal of the cutscene prior to the Psycho Mantis battle in which he reads the player 's memory card and activates the vibration function of the player 's controller if a DualShock is being used , as this scene involved the use of PlayStation @-@ specific peripherals . The method for defeating Mantis was also changed from using the second controller to simply using the keyboard ( regardless of whether the player was using a game controller or not up to that point ) . Other omissions include the removal of the eighth Codec frequency ( 140 @.@ 07 ) , which featured written commentaries by the developers , Meryl 's alternate sneaking suit outfit , and the mission logs when loading a save file . However , the PC version adds the option to toggle moving and shooting in first @-@ person view mode at any time regardless of difficulty setting , and players can now save their progress at any point without contacting Mei @-@ Ling through the use of quick saves . On the VR training portion , all 300 missions , as well as the photoshoot mode , are available from the start , although the three unlockable preview trailers from the PlayStation version have been removed .
Scoring 83 in Metacritic 's aggregate , the game was criticized for " graphic glitches " , the aged nature of the port , and being essentially identical to the PlayStation version .
= = = The Twin Snakes = = =
A remake of Metal Gear Solid , titled Metal Gear Solid : The Twin Snakes , was developed by Silicon Knights under the supervision of Hideo Kojima and released for the GameCube in North America , Japan , and Europe in March 2004 . While Twin Snakes was largely developed at Silicon Knights , its cutscenes were developed in @-@ house at Konami and directed by Japanese film director Ryuhei Kitamura , reflecting his dynamic signature style , utilizing bullet time photography and choreographed gunplay extensively . While the storyline and settings of the game were unchanged ( although a select few lines of dialog were re @-@ written more closely resembling the original Japanese version ) , a variety of gameplay features from Sons of Liberty were added such as the first person aiming and hanging from bars on walls . Another change in the English voice acting was the reduction of Mei Ling 's , Naomi 's and Nastasha 's accents , as well as the recasting of Gray Fox from Greg Eagles , who still reprise the role of the DARPA chief , to Rob Paulsen . The graphics were also updated to match those of Metal Gear Solid 2 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Metal Gear Solid was a commercial success , shipping over six million copies worldwide . It became one of the most rented games and topped sales charts in the United Kingdom .
The game was critically acclaimed , gaining a 93 @.@ 24 % and 94 / 100 aggregate at ratings websites GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively . The review in PlayStation Magazine declared it " the best game ever made . Unputdownable and unforgettable . " The review by IGN opined Metal Gear Solid came " closer to perfection than any other game in PlayStation 's action genre " and called it " beautiful , engrossing , and innovative ... in every conceivable category . " NGamer compared it to " playing a big budget action blockbuster , only better . " GamePro called it " this season 's top offering [ game ] and one game no self @-@ respecting gamer should be without , " but criticized the frame rate that " occasionally stalls the eye @-@ catching graphics " . GameSpot was critical of how easy it is for the player to avoid being seen , as well as the game 's short length , calling it " more of a work of art than ... an actual game . " Metal Gear Solid received an Excellence Award for Interactive Art at the 1998 Japan Media Arts Festival .
= = = Retrospective = = =
Metal Gear Solid is often recognized as one of the key titles involved in popularizing the stealth game genre . The idea of the player being unarmed and having to avoid being seen by enemies rather than fight them has been used in many games since . It is also sometimes acclaimed as being a film as much as a game due to the lengthy cut scenes and complicated storyline . GameTrailers claimed that Metal Gear Solid " invented the stealth game " and IGN called it " the founder of the stealth genre " . Entertainment Weekly said it " broke new ground with ... movie @-@ style production ... and stealth @-@ driven gameplay . " The game is often considered one of the best games for the PlayStation , and was featured in best video games lists by Computer and Video Games in 2000 , by Electronic Gaming Monthly and Game Informer in 2001 , by Retro Gamer in 2004 , by GameFAQs and GamePro in 2005 , and by Famitsu , and by Entertainment Weekly and GameTrailers in 2006 .
In 2002 , IGN ranked it as the best PlayStation game ever , stating that just the demo for the game had " more gameplay [ in it ] than in most finished titles . " IGN also gave it the " Best Ending " and " Best Villain " awards . In 2005 , in placing it 19th on their list of " Top 100 Games " , they said that it was " a game that truly felt like a movie . " Guinness World Records awarded Metal Gear Solid with a record for the " Most Innovative Use of a Video Game Controller " for the boss fight with Psycho Mantis in the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition 2008 edition . In 2010 , PC Magazine ranked it as seventh in the list of most influential video games of all time , citing its influence on " such stealthy titles as Assassin 's Creed and Splinter Cell . " In 2012 , Time named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time and G4tv ranked it as the 45th top video game of all time . According to 1UP.com , Metal Gear Solid 's cinematic style continues to influence modern action games such as Call of Duty . Metal Gear Solid , along with its sequel , Metal Gear Solid 2 , was featured in the Smithsonian American Art Museum 's exhibition The Art of Video Games in 2012 . In September 2015 , Metal Gear Solid was voted the best original PlayStation game of all time by users .
= = Related media = =
A Japanese radio drama version of Metal Gear Solid , directed by Shuyo Murata and written by Motosada Mori , was produced shortly after the release of the original PlayStation game . 12 episodes were aired , from 1998 to 1999 on Konami 's CLUB db program . The series was later released on CD as a two volume set . Set after the events of the PlayStation game , Snake , Meryl , Campbell and Mei Ling ( all portrayed by their original Japanese voice actors ) pursue missions in hostile third world nations as FOXHOUND . The new characters introduced include Sgt. Allen Iishiba ( voiced by Toshio Furukawa ) , a Delta Force operative who assists Snake and Meryl , Col. Mark Cortez ( v.b. Osamu Saka ) , an old friend of Campbell who commands the fictional Esteria Army Special Forces , and Capt. Sergei Ivanovich ( v.b. Kazuhiro Nakata ) , a former war buddy of Revolver Ocelot from his SVR days .
In September 2004 , IDW Publications began publishing a series of Metal Gear Solid comics , written by Kris Oprisko and illustrated by Ashley Wood . As of 2006 , 12 issues have been published , fully covering the Metal Gear Solid storyline . The comic was adapted into a PlayStation Portable game titled Metal Gear Solid : Digital Graphic Novel ( Metal Gear Solid : Bande Dessinée in Japan ) . It features visual enhancements and two interactive modes designed to give further insight into the publication . Upon viewing the pages , the player can open a " scanning " interface to search for characters and items in a three dimensional view . Discoveries are added to a database which can be traded with other players via Wi @-@ Fi . The " mission mode " allows the player to add collected information into a library . This information must be properly connected to complete a mission . Metal Gear Solid : Digital Graphic Novel was released in North America on June 13 , 2006 , Japan on September 21 and the PAL region on September 22 . In 2006 , the game received IGN 's award for Best Use of Sound on the PSP . A DVD @-@ Video version is included with its sequel ( Metal Gear Solid 2 : Bande Dessinée ) , which was released in Japan on June 12 , 2008 . The DVD version features full voice acting .
A novelization based on the original Metal Gear Solid was written by Raymond Benson and published by Del Rey . The American paperback edition was published on May 27 , 2008 , and the British Edition on June 5 , 2008 .
= = = Film adaptation = = =
Director Hideo Kojima confirmed in 2006 that a film adaptation of Metal Gear Solid was in development . He also hinted that the movie may be set in Alaska , the original setting for the game . Despite pitching his ideas regarding the movie , the voice of Solid Snake , David Hayter , will not be writing the final script , appearing in the movie or directing the film . However , a petition has been started by fans to get Hayter involved in writing the script . The movie 's producers hoped to invite Kurt Wimmer to write the movie , but the final decision has not yet been announced , but producer Michael DeLuca dismissed the claim . According to an interview in Nuts magazine actor Christian Bale is interested in playing Solid Snake in the film . In late August 2012 , Konami issued a press release stating that a live @-@ action film was in pre @-@ production . The film is being produced by Avi Arad and Ari Arad , with their production company Arad Productions as well as Columbia Pictures . Distribution and production will be handled by Sony Pictures Entertainment .
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= Delaware Route 26 =
Delaware Route 26 ( DE 26 ) is a state highway in Sussex County , Delaware . The route 's western terminus is at an intersection with Maryland Route 353 ( MD 353 ) and DE / MD 54 at the Maryland border south of Gumboro and its eastern terminus is at a dead end on the Atlantic Ocean in Bethany Beach , even though signage ends at the DE 1 intersection . The route passes through rural areas of southeastern Sussex County along with the communities of Dagsboro , Millville , Ocean View and Bethany Beach . DE 26 intersects DE 30 and DE 54 in the Gumboro area , U.S. Route 113 ( US 113 ) and DE 20 in Dagsboro , and DE 17 west of Millville . The road was built as a state highway in various stages during the 1920s and 1930s . By 1936 , DE 26 was assigned onto its current alignment .
= = Route description = =
DE 26 begins at the Maryland border at an intersection where DE / MD 54 runs west along the state line and MD 353 continues south into Maryland . From the state line , DE 26 heads northeast on two @-@ lane undivided Millsboro Highway concurrent with DE 54 . The two routes pass through agricultural areas with some woods and homes , intersecting DE 30 . At this point , DE 30 turns northeast to form a concurrency with DE 26 / DE 54 . The road curves north and heads into the residential community of Gumboro , where DE 54 turns to the east . DE 26 / DE 30 leaves Gumboro and continues back into areas of farms and forests with occasional residences .
In Shaft Ox Corner , DE 26 splits from DE 30 by turning east onto Nine Foot Road . The route continues east through rural land to an intersection with US 113 . Past this intersection , the road becomes Clayton Street and enters Dagsboro , passing homes and businesses and crossing Norfolk Southern 's Indian River Secondary railroad line . In the center of Dagsboro , DE 26 comes to an intersection with DE 20 , at which point it turns south to form a concurrency with DE 20 on Main Street . The two routes curve east and leave town on Vines Creek Road .
Upon leaving Dagsboro , the road passes to the south of Prince George 's Chapel and DE 20 splits from DE 26 by heading southeast on Armory Road . DE 26 continues east on Vines Creek Road , passing through a mix of farmland and woodland with some residential and commercial development . The route turns southeast and comes to the community of Clarksville , where it turns east onto Atlantic Avenue . Farther along , the road comes to an intersection with the northern terminus of DE 17 . After the DE 17 junction , DE 26 continues into Millville and runs through residential and commercial areas . The road continues east through Ocean View before it crosses the Assawoman Canal into Bethany Beach and becomes Garfield Parkway . The road gains a center left @-@ turn lane and intersects DE 54 Alt. before coming to a junction with DE 1 , at which point DE 26 signage ends . DE 26 officially continues east on four @-@ lane divided Garfield Parkway through the commercial center of Bethany Beach , ending at a dead end at the Atlantic Ocean .
DE 26 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 16 @,@ 225 vehicles at Central Avenue intersection in Ocean View to a low of 3 @,@ 837 vehicles at the west end of the DE 20 concurrency in Dagsboro . None of DE 26 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what is now DE 26 existed as an unimproved county road . The route was upgraded to a state highway between present @-@ day US 113 and Dagsboro and from Millville to just west of the Assawoman Canal by 1924 . A year later , the road was completed as a state highway between Gumboro and Mission and between Dagsboro and Vines Creek , with the route between the Maryland border and Gumboro and the incomplete sections between Dagsboro and Bethany Beach proposed as a state highway . The proposed segments were completed by 1931 . In 1932 , the state highway between Shaft Ox Corner and Dagsboro was completed . DE 26 was assigned to its current alignment between the Maryland border south of Gumboro and Bethany Beach , where it intersected the southern terminus of DE 14 ( now part of DE 1 ) , by 1936 . In 2014 , work began to widen DE 26 between Clarksville and the Assawoman Canal from a two @-@ lane road to a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane and bike lanes in order to reduce traffic congestion . The widening project , which is to cost $ 57 million , is expected to be finished in 2017 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sussex County .
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= The Stripped Mixes =
The Stripped Mixes ( released on CD for a limited time as The Motown 50 Mixes ) , is a collection of American recording artist and former Jackson 5 member Michael Jackson 's classic songs . The songs featured on the album are mainly from Jackson 's career as a member of the Jackson 5 from the 1960s to the 1980s ; songs credited to Jackson as a solo artist are from his albums during his Motown @-@ era . Other songs included on the album are " stripped " mixes of Jackson material , meaning the songs are of a quieter tone and most of the drums have been removed .
Following a surge in Jackson 's popularity after his death in June 2009 , it was confirmed on July 7 , that The Stripped Mixes would be released . The album was made available as a digital download on July 7 , 2009 , and as a CD on July 28 . A remixed song , entitled " I 'll Be There ( Minus Mix ) " , was released on iTunes to promote the album on June 9 , 2009 , prior to Jackson 's death . The Stripped Mixes was the second Jackson compilation album to be posthumously released , the first being The Collection ; which was released over two weeks prior . The Stripped Mixes received mixed reviews from music critics . The album was a moderate commercial success worldwide and had a better chart performance internationally than in the United States .
= = Concept = =
Due to the high popularity of a State Farm Insurance commercial featuring an acoustic version of the hit " I 'll Be There " , Motown released " I 'll Be There ( Minus Mix ) " via iTunes on June 9 , 2009 , as a prelude to The Stripped Mixes . " I 'll Be There ( Minus Mix ) " did not chart on any music charts . Shortly after Jackson 's death in June 2009 , his music experienced a surge in popularity , leading to re @-@ issues of his music . Less than an hour after the memorial service for Jackson at the Staples Center on July 7 , 2009 , Universal Music Group announced The Stripped Mixes , a collection of Jackson 's classic songs , would be released . The album features " stripped " mixes of Jackson 's classic Motown @-@ era songs as well as songs recorded while he was a member of The Jackson 5 from the 1960s to the 1980s . The songs that are " stripped " on the album have backing instruments and some studio engineering removed to make the songs have a more acoustic sound . The Stripped Mixes was made available as a digital download on July 7 , and as a compact disc on July 28 , 2009 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The Stripped Mixes charted at a peak position of # 95 on the Billboard 200 in its debut week with sales of less than five thousand units . It charted at # 43 on the R & B Albums Chart in 2009 , and moved up to # 21 in 2010 . Internationally , The Stripped Mixes was more successful commercially . The album charted within the top fifty in Belgium Flanders and Belgium Wallonia , peaking at # 43 and # 47 for five and seven weeks , respectively . The Stripped Mixes also charted at # 75 in Mexico for one week before dropping out of the top 100 .
= = = Critical analysis = = =
The Stripped Mixes received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics . Writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave The Stripped Mixes two out of five stars , stating that he felt that " the logic of what is left behind doesn 't quite make sense " , pointing out that " I Want You Back " and " ABC " have no drums and " feel a little tipsy and top @-@ heavy " ; " Ben " and " With a Child 's Heart " have echoes of strings in the background , making it hard to identify the songs as being " stripped " . He added that since the genius lies in the arrangements , " having so much of the arrangement absent " means that the music " just sounds awkward and incomplete , as if it was waiting for the final round of mixing and overdubs . " Erlewine 's overall opinion on the album was " if the purpose of this disc is to draw attention to Michael 's vocals , The Stripped Mixes does its job , but just because his voice is pushed front and center does not mean that this is the best place to appreciate his genius . "
A writer for PR Newswire praised the album , describing it as " showcasing " Jackson 's vocal talent and viewed The Stripped Mixes as shining a " bright , fresh light " on Jackson 's early career as both a solo artist and with his brothers in The Jackson 5 . Natalie Salvo of TheDwarf.com.au commented that the mix of " Ain 't No Sunshine " made the album " personally " worth buying . She added that " the music does what it 's supposed to do " , which was " evoking the right mood but not being overly showy . " Despite the praise , she did state that the album could be clinically looked at as an " element of bad taste " from a " greedy record company " and noted that it was " difficult " to " stop yourself being overcome with cynicism towards this album " . Jeff Dorgay of Tone Publications described all of the album 's tracks as being " quite strong " and added that " regardless of your interest in Michael Jackson " the The Stripped Mixes is a disc " you should have in your collection " because it offers a " rare look " at " classic " material by Jackson when he was just beginning his career .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic .
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= Sir William Gordon @-@ Cumming , 4th Baronet =
Sir William Alexander Gordon Gordon @-@ Cumming , 4th Baronet ( 20 July 1848 – 20 May 1930 ) was a Scottish landowner , soldier , adventurer and socialite . A notorious womaniser , he is best known for being the central figure in the royal baccarat scandal of 1891 . After inheriting a baronetcy he joined the Army and saw service in South Africa , Egypt and the Sudan ; he served with distinction and rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel . Something of an adventurer , he also spent time hunting in the US and India .
A friend of Edward , Prince of Wales for over 20 years , in 1891 he attended a house party at Tranby Croft , Yorkshire , where he took part in a game of baccarat at the behest of the prince . During the course of two nights ' play he was accused of cheating , which he denied vehemently . After news of the affair leaked out , he sued five members of the host family for slander , with the Prince of Wales called as a witness during the ensuing trial . The case was a public spectacle , widely reported in the UK and abroad . Knowledgeable commentators of the day , and subsequently , sided with Gordon @-@ Cumming , but the judgement went against him and he was ostracized from polite society .
A handsome , arrogant man , Gordon @-@ Cumming was a womanizer , particularly with married women . After the court case he married an American heiress ; the couple had five children , but it was an unhappy relationship . He was the grandfather of the writers Katie Fforde and Jane Gordon @-@ Cumming .
= = Early life = =
William Gordon Gordon @-@ Cumming was born on 20 July 1848 at Sanquhar House , near Forres , Morayshire . His parents were Alexander Penrose Gordon @-@ Cumming and his wife Anne Pitcairn née Campbell ( died 1888 ) . The big @-@ game hunter Roualeyn George Gordon @-@ Cumming was his uncle ; and the travel writer Constance Gordon @-@ Cumming was his aunt . He was educated at Eton and Wellington colleges .
At the age of eighteen he inherited the baronetcy and became chief of the Clan Cumming ; his line had been traced from the fourth century , through Charlemagne . His inheritance included three Morayshire estates : Altyre near Forres , Gordonstoun near Elgin and Dallas . Though the estates totalled 38 @,@ 500 acres ( 156 km2 ) , they yielded poor revenues ; the annual income from the estates in around 1890 has been described as either £ 60 @,@ 000 or £ 80 @,@ 000 .
= = Professional career = =
Although Gordon @-@ Cumming suffered from asthma and was blind in one eye , he purchased an ensign 's commission in the Scots Fusilier Guards ( later the Scots Guards ) in 1868 ( dated from 25 December 1867 ) . He was promoted to regimental lieutenant and to the rank of captain in the army by purchase on 17 May 1871 , the last year commissions were allowed to be purchased . He volunteered for service in South Africa in the Anglo @-@ Zulu War , where he served gallantly , and was the first man to enter Cetshwayo 's kraal after the Battle of Ulundi ( 1879 ) . That year he conveyed the condolences of the army to the Empress Eugénie on the death of her son , Napoléon , Prince Imperial .
Gordon @-@ Cumming was promoted to the regimental rank of captain and the army rank of lieutenant @-@ colonel on 28 July 1880 . He went on to serve in Egypt , in the Anglo @-@ Egyptian War ( 1882 ) and in the Sudan in the Mahdist War ( 1884 – 85 ) , the last of which was with the Guards Camel Regiment in the Desert Column . He was promoted to regimental major on 23 May 1888 .
He also found time for independent adventure , hunting in the Rocky Mountains in the U.S. and in India , where he would stalk tigers on foot ; in 1871 he published an account of his travels in India , Wild Men & Wild Beasts . Scenes in camp and jungle .
= = Royal baccarat scandal = =
In September 1890 Gordon @-@ Cumming was invited , along with Edward , Prince of Wales , to a house party at Tranby Croft in Yorkshire . There he was accused of cheating at baccarat by placing additional counters onto his stake after the hand had finished , but before the stake had been paid — a method of cheating known in casinos as la poussette . Gordon @-@ Cumming insisted they had been mistaken , and explained that he played the coup de trois system of betting , in which if he won a hand with a £ 5 stake , he would add his winnings to the stake , together with another £ 5 , as the stake for the next hand .
In order to avoid a scandal involving the prince , he gave way to pressure from the attendant royal courtiers to sign a statement undertaking never to play cards again in return for a pledge that no @-@ one present would speak of the incident again .
" In consideration of the promise made by the gentlemen whose names are subscribed to preserve my silence with reference to an accusation which has been made in regard to my conduct at baccarat on the nights of Monday and Tuesday the 8th and 9th at Tranby Croft , I will on my part solemnly undertake never to play cards again as long as I live . "
Despite the pledge of silence , rumours of the incident began to circulate and were brought to Gordon @-@ Cumming 's attention . In an attempt to scotch the rumours , he demanded a retraction from five of the house party ; when that was not forthcoming , with no withdrawal forthcoming , on 6 February 1891 , Gordon @-@ Cumming issued writs for slander against the five , claiming £ 5 @,@ 000 against each of them .
The trial opened on 1 June 1891 and entry to the court was by ticket only . The Prince of Wales was present , and sat on a red leather chair on a raised platform between the judge and the witness box ; his appearance was the first time since 1411 that an heir to the throne had appeared involuntarily in court .
The trial closed the following week , after the judge 's summing up " had been unacceptably biased " , according to Tomes . The jury deliberated for only 13 minutes before finding in favour of the defendants ; their decision was greeted by prolonged hissing from some members of the galleries . The day after judgement was passed , the leader in The Times stated that " He is ... condemned by the verdict of the jury to social extinction . His brilliant record is wiped out and he must , so to speak , begin life again . Such is the inexorable social rule ... He has committed a mortal offence . Society can know him no more . "
Gordon @-@ Cumming 's senior counsel , the Solicitor General Sir Edward Clarke , remained convinced in his client and , in his 1918 memoirs , wrote that " I believe the verdict was wrong , and that Sir William Gordon @-@ Cumming was innocent " .
= = Aftermath = =
As a result of the scandal , Gordon @-@ Cumming was dismissed from the army the day after the trial , and he resigned his membership of his four London clubs , the Carlton , Guards ' , Marlborough and Turf .
The same day he married his American fiancée , the heiress Florence Garner , who had stood by him throughout the trial despite Gordon @-@ Cumming twice offering to break off their engagement because of the scandal . The service took place at the Holy Trinity church in Chelsea with only a small congregation . When the couple returned to Scotland a few days later the locals from near his estate had decorated the station and pulled the carriage through the streets by hand . According to the former Lord Chancellor , Michael Havers , the lawyer Edward Grayson and the historian Peter Shankland , " That the prince and society considered him a social outcast mattered not at all to his people " . The prince was determined Gordon @-@ Cumming should remain ostracised and he " declined to meet anyone who henceforth acknowledged the Scottish baronet " .
= = Later life = =
Gordon @-@ Cumming remained outside high society for the remainder of his life . He later told his daughter that " among a host of acquaintances I thought I had perhaps twenty friends . Not one of them ever spoke to me again " . Others of his friends only relented after the death of the prince , who was by that stage King Edward VII .
Gordon @-@ Cumming and his wife had three sons and two daughters between 1892 and 1904 . In 1905 Florence 's fortune slumped and the couple were compelled to let or close up the houses on the Scottish estates and to move to Bridge House , Dawlish , Devon with a reduced household . Gordon @-@ Cumming managed to disguise his contempt for the middle class society to which he was now limited so that he could continue to indulge himself in golf , croquet , billiards , cricket , bridge and collecting post marks . He also enjoyed his own company , and that of his dogs and pet monkey . He hated Dawlish and considered his wife a " fat little frump " , unapologetically engaging in chronic infidelity . Florence lost no opportunity to remind him who funded their life but eventually herself resorted to alcohol abuse ; the couple had effectively separated before she died in 1922 .
In 1916 Gordon @-@ Cumming ensured that the Labour Party politician Ramsay MacDonald had his membership rescinded from the Moray Golf Club because of the latter 's opposition to the First World War .
Gordon @-@ Cumming died on 20 May 1930 at his Altyre home at the age of 81 . He was succeeded in his title by his eldest son , Major Alexander Penrose Gordon @-@ Cumming , MC .
= = Private life = =
Gordon @-@ Cumming 's biographer , Jason Tomes , thought that his subject possessed " audacity and wit [ and ] gloried in the sobriquet of the most arrogant man in London " , while Sporting Life described him as " possibly the most handsome man in London , and certainly the rudest " . Gordon @-@ Cumming also owned a house in Belgravia , London ; he was a friend of the Prince of Wales , and would lend the premises to the prince for assignations with the royal mistresses .
Gordon @-@ Cumming was a womaniser , and stated that his aim was to " perforate " members of " the sex " . His preference was for uncomplicated relationships with married women , and he admitted that " all the married women try me " ; his liaisons included Lillie Langtry , Sarah Bernhardt and Lady Randolph Churchill . In 1890 , three days before the events at Tranby Croft , the Prince of Wales returned early from travelling in Europe ; he visited Harriet Street where he found his mistress , Daisy , Lady Brooke " in Gordon @-@ Cumming 's arms " , which soured the relationship between the two men .
After Gordon @-@ Cumming 's death in 1930 , his house at Gordonstoun was obtained by Kurt Hahn , who turned it into the eponymous school . It has been attended by Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , and his three sons , Charles , Andrew and Edward .
Two of Gordon @-@ Cumming 's granddaughters , Katie Fforde and Jane Gordon @-@ Cumming , became writers .
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= Lycoperdon echinatum =
Lycoperdon echinatum , commonly known as the spiny puffball or the spring puffball , is a type of puffball mushroom in the genus Lycoperdon . The saprobic species has been found in Africa , Europe , Central America , and North America , where it grows on soil in deciduous woods , glades , and pastures . It has been proposed that North American specimens be considered a separate species , Lycoperdon americanum , but this suggestion has not been followed by most authors . Molecular analysis indicates that L. echinatum is closely related to the puffball genus Handkea .
The fruit bodies of L. echinatum are 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide by 2 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) tall , supported by a small base , and densely covered with spines that are up to 0 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) long . The spines can fall off in maturity , leaving a net @-@ like pattern of scars on the underlying surface . Initially white in color , the puffballs turn a dark brown as they mature , at the same time changing from nearly round to somewhat flattened . Young specimens of L. echinatum resemble another edible spiny puffball , Lycoperdon pulcherrimum , but the latter species does not turn brown as it ages . The fruit bodies are edible when young , when the interior is white and firm and before it has turned into a powdery brown mass of spores . Laboratory tests have shown that extracts of the fruit bodies can inhibit the growth of several bacteria that are pathogenic to humans .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first described by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1797 . It was later reduced to a variety of Lycoperdon gemmatum ( as L. gemmatum var. echinatum ; L. gemmatum is now known as Lycoperdon perlatum ) by Elias Magnus Fries , but American mycologist Charles Horton Peck , who extensively studied the North American distribution of the genus , raised it again to species level in 1879 . He thought it worthy of status as a species distinct from L. gemmatum because of the different character of its warts , its much spinier appearance , and the smoother surface of the peridium underneath the spines . Miles Joseph Berkeley and Christopher Edmund Broome wrote of the fungus in 1871 , but believed their specimen , collected from Reading , Berkshire , by Hoyle , represented a new species , which they called Lycoperdon Hoylei . They wrote that their specimen agreed " exactly with an authentic specimen of Persoon 's L. echinatum externally , who could , however , scarcely have overlooked the lilac spores . " Despite the apparent difference in spore color , L. Hoylei is currently considered synonymous with L. echinatum . Utraria echinata , named by Lucien Quélet in 1873 , is another synonym for L. echinatum .
In 1972 , Vincent Demoulin described the species Lycoperdon americanum on the basis of a specimen found in North Carolina . Although he believed it to be a unique species , several authors consider it synonymous with L. echinatum . Phylogenetic analysis of the sequence and secondary structure of the ribosomal RNA ( rRNA ) genes coding for the internal transcribed spacer units suggests that Lycoperdon echinatum forms a clade with the puffball genus Handkea , separate from the type species of Lycoperdon , Lycoperdon perlatum . In previous analyses that used only the rRNA sequences for phylogenetic comparison , L. echinatum formed a clade with L. mammiforme , L. foetidum , and Bovistella radicata ( now known as Lycoperdon radicatum ) , but separate from L. pyriforme .
The species is commonly known as the " spiny puffball " or the " spring puffball " ; Peck referred to the species as the " echinate puff @-@ ball " . The specific epithet echinatum is derived from the Greek word echinos ( εχινος ) meaning " hedgehog " or " sea @-@ urchin " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of L. echinatum are 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide by 2 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) tall , and are roughly spherical , or pear @-@ shaped . The exterior surface is crowded with spines that may be up to 0 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) long . According to Curtis Gates Lloyd , American specimens have more slender spines than European ones . Initially white and becoming dark brown in maturity , the spines are often joined at the tips in groups of three or four . In this form the puffballs resemble acorn caps of burr oak , with which they may readily be confused . The spines slough off in age , revealing a somewhat net @-@ like or reticulated surface . The fruit body has a small base that is an off @-@ white or purple @-@ gray color , and it may be attached to the growing surface by thin white cords ( rhizomorphs ) . The internal contents of the puffball contain the gleba , a mass of spores and associated spore @-@ producing cells . In young specimens the gleba is white and firm , but as the puffball ages , it turns yellowish and then brown to purple @-@ brown and powdery . Mature specimens develop a pore at the top of the fruit body through which spores are released when hit by falling raindrops .
The spores of L. echinatum , roughly spherical with warts on the surface , have diameters between 4 and 6 µm . The capillitia ( coarse thick @-@ walled hyphae in the gleba ) are elastic , brown in color , contain small pores , and are 5 – 8 µm thick . The basidia ( the spore @-@ bearing cells ) may be attached to two to four spores , and the sterigmata ( tapered spine @-@ like projections from the basidia that attach the spores ) are up to 5 µm long .
Like most other puffball species , L. echinatum is edible when still young and while the gleba is still white and firm . Consumption of older specimens with a non @-@ white gleba , or where the gleba has turned into a powdery spore mass , may cause stomach upsets . This species has a mild taste , and no distinguishable odor , although one source describes the smell of dried fruit bodies as similar to " old ham " . One source notes that it is " well flavoured and tender when cooked " , while another describes the texture ( of edible puffballs in general ) as " somewhat like French toast " . Antonio Carluccio recommends sautéeing puffballs with other mushrooms . To avoid possible confusion with potentially deadly Amanita species , it is recommended to slice young puffballs with a longitudinal cut to ensure that the flesh is devoid of any internal structures .
= = Similar species = =
Lycoperdon pulcherrimum closely resembles L. echinatum , but its spines are stouter , do not turn brown in age , and the surface of the fruit body underneath the spines is smooth , not pitted . Alexander H. Smith noted that in youth , they are " difficult if not impossible to distinguish from each other , but this will cause no inconvenience to those collecting for the table , since both are edible . " In some areas the two species appear to intergrade , as specimens may be found whose spines turn brown but do not fall off . Young specimens of L. pedicellatum may also be difficult to distinguish from L. echinatum , but the former has a smooth outer surface when mature , and has spores attached to a pedicel ( a narrow extension of the basidium on which the sterigmata and spores are formed ) that is about 4 – 5 times as long as the spore . Lycoperdon compactum , found only in New Zealand , also resembles L. echinatum in appearance , but differs in having smaller spores , capillitia that are hyaline ( translucent ) and septate ( with partitions that divide the capillitia into compartments ) .
= = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = =
Lycoperdon echinatum can be found either solitary or in small groups . It typically grows on the ground in deciduous forests and grassy areas , glades and pastures , on moss , humus , or woody debris . The fungus has been noted to have a preference for beech woods . Fruit bodies may make their appearance anytime from the late spring to autumn . Older specimens are more likely to be overlooked , as their brown color blends into the surrounding environment of dead leaves and dead wood . The puffball is used by various species of scuttle flies ( family Phoridae ) as larval food .
This species has been collected from eastern central Africa , China , Costa Rica , Iran , Japan , and Europe ( including Britain , Bulgaria , the Czech Republic , Finland , Germany , Italy , Slovakia , Spain , Sweden , and Switzerland ) . In North America , it is " locally frequent " east of the Rocky Mountains .
It is considered a threatened species in the Åland Islands of Finland . A study of the species ' distribution in Sweden reported that in the 1940s and 50s , it grew in beech woods with broad @-@ leaved grasses and herbs in topsoils with soil pH levels between 5 @.@ 0 and 6 @.@ 6 , but the populations have since decreased owing to soil acidification during the last several decades . Fruit bodies collected near arsenic @-@ contaminated sites have been shown to bioaccumulate arsenic , largely in the form of arsenobetaine .
= = Antimicrobial activity = =
Using a standard laboratory method to determine antimicrobial susceptibility , methanol @-@ based extracts of Lycoperdon umbrinum fruit bodies were shown in a 2005 study to have " significant " antibacterial activity against various human pathogenic bacteria , including Bacillus subtilis , Escherichia coli , Salmonella typhimurium , Staphylococcus aureus , Streptococcus pyogenes , and Mycobacterium smegmatis . An earlier study ( 2000 ) had identified weak antibacterial activity against Enterococcus faecium and Staphylococcus aureus . Although the specific compounds responsible for the antimicrobial activity have not been identified , chemical analysis confirms the presence of terpenoids , a class of widely occurring organic chemicals that are being investigated for their potential use as antimicrobial drugs .
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= Speak Now ( song ) =
" Speak Now " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift . The song , written and produced by Swift with Nathan Chapman , was released as a promotional single on October 5 , 2010 , by Big Machine Records from her 2010 album of the same name . Swift wrote the song about interrupting a wedding , after conversing with her friend , whose ex @-@ boyfriend would soon wed to someone else , and having a dream about one of her own ex @-@ boyfriends marrying another girl . The song relies on acoustic guitar and is a narration from the perspective of a person who crashes her former love 's wedding in attempt to win him back .
The song opened to critical acclaim for its lyrical detail . " Speak Now " had successful commercial outcomes in Canada and the United States , debuting and peaking at number eight on both the Canadian Hot 100 and the Billboard Hot 100 . Its appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 marked Swift 's sixth top ten debut , which made her the artist with the most top ten debuts in the history of the chart . " Speak Now " also managed to garner enough airplay to chart on the Hot Country Songs chart .
= = Background = =
" Speak Now " was written by Swift , as were all the tracks for the album . The song was inspired by the story of her friend and her high school boyfriend . The couple went their separate ways after high school – with the idea that they would get back together . One day , Swift 's friend informed Swift that her high school boyfriend would soon wed . " He had met this girl who 's just this horrible , mean person who made him completely stop talking to all of his friends , cut off his family . She had him so completely isolated , " said Swift . She asked her friend if she would " speak now . " Perplexed , her friend asked for an explanation , and she answered , " You know , storm the church . ' Speak now or forever hold your peace . ' I 'll go with you . I 'll play guitar . It 'd be great . " Swift 's friend found this to be humorous , laughing at the idea .
After speaking with her friend , Swift became deeply fixated on the idea of how tragic it would be for the person one loved to wed someone else . That night , Swift experienced a dream where one of her own ex @-@ boyfriends married another girl . To her , this signaled that she had to compose a song about interrupting a wedding . In retrospect , she concluded , " For me , I like to think of it as good versus evil . And this girl is just completely – just the evil one . " Swift entitled the album after " Speak Now " because it fit the album 's concept , with each song being a different confession to a person . " It 's called Speak Now , and that pertains to the album as a concept and as an entire theme of the record more than I can even tell you , " she said . The song was released as a promotional single on October 5 , 2010 , as part of Countdown to Speak Now , an exclusive campaign launched by the iTunes Store . During the opening week of Speak Now , Swift performed " Speak Now " on the Late Show with David Letterman .
= = Composition = =
" Speak Now " is a country pop track with a length of four minutes and two seconds . It has a predominant pop music composition , intertwined with various country elements . The song is set in common time and has a moderate tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is written in the key of G major and Swift 's vocals span two octaves , from A3 to D5 . Swift 's vocals begin in a hushed tone , gradually turn grow , and at one point belt the song 's title . The song features different twangy , up @-@ and @-@ down vocal hooks might , in similarity to " You Belong with Me " . It follows the chord progression G – D – Am – C. The song 's instrumentation is based on acoustic guitar ; it eventually has its own gentle solo .
In the lyrics of " Speak Now " , Swift narrates about crashing her former love 's wedding in attempt to win him back . The opening lines acknowledge that , although out of character , Swift is still in love with her ex @-@ boyfriend and wants to make sure he does not marry the wrong girl . Throughout the song 's verses , Swift sneaks in the wedding and describes her observations , such as the bride @-@ to @-@ be 's bearing of a poofy wedding gown , her cumulative family , and an organist playing " Bridal Chorus " . In " Speak Now " ' s refrains , Swift pleads her ex @-@ boyfriend to not say his vows in order to run away with her . The bridge has Swift responding to the priest 's calling of " Speak now or forever hold your peace " before repeating the opening lines . The last refrain is altered , with Swift narrating from the groom 's perspective and inform Swift they will indeed run away together .
= = Critical reception = =
The song opened to critical acclaim . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly deemed " Speak Now " one of Swift 's best songs yet . He also said , " Her expressive delivery of the lyrics makes up for any shortcomings as a technical vocalist " and that it was " expertly catchy " . He concluded that he was unable to stop playing the song after he heard it . Bill Lamb of About.com said the song was " brilliant " . He continued , " The song is sweet , funny , bratty , and edgy all at the same time . Taylor Swift remains one of our most gifted young lyricists . " Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine thought that " Speak Now " exemplified Swift 's inability to " write authoritatively about anything other than how great boys are or how much boys suck or how dreams about boys will take her somewhere better than where she is now . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Speak Now " entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number eight due to the sales of 217 @,@ 000 digital downloads . With that week 's appearance on the chart , " Speak Now " became Swift 's sixth top ten debut and , therefore , set the mark that made Swift the artist with most top ten debuts in the history of the Billboard Hot 100 , surpassing the five top ten entries earned by Mariah Carey from 1995 to 1998 . Elsewhere in North America , the track debuted at number eight on the Canadian Hot 100 . In Australia , " Speak Now " debuted at number twenty .
= = Live performances = =
The song is performed on the Speak Now World Tour . Clips of the performance can be seen in the music video for Swift 's single " Sparks Fly " . In the clips we see a bride wearing " a gown shaped like a pastry " as she walks up the stairs to the groom and preacher . Swift can be seen in the background making a scene during this clip . Other clips show the bridesmaids waving , the bride getting onto them while the groom is clapping and the groom running off with Swift . According to Jocelyn Vena of MTV.com , the performance is " a very theatrical moment " in which " Swift acted out crashing a wedding . She eventually stole the groom away , as she sings in the song , and the pair ran through the crowd together . "
= = Covers = =
Speak Now was covered by Seohyun of Girls ' Generation as a solo stage at the Romantic Fantasy concert on 1 January 2013 . Prior to this , she played a part of the song on the 21 September 2011 episode of the Big Brother TV program as an example of a song which she enjoyed when practicing the guitar and the English language .
= = Track listing = =
Digital Download
" Speak Now " – 4 : 02
= = Charts = =
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= American Water Spaniel =
The American Water Spaniel , ( often abbreviated to AWS ) , is a breed of spaniel which is one of a small number of breeds originating in the United States . Developed in the state of Wisconsin during the 19th century from a number of other breeds , including the Irish and English Water Spaniels . The breed was saved by Dr. Fred J. Pfeifer , who set up the breed club and standard , and whose work led to recognition for the breed by the United Kennel Club , and later , the American Kennel Club . While they are the state dog of Wisconsin , they remain a rare breed .
They are medium @-@ sized dog , and have a double layered coat , which comes in a variety of brown related shades . A versatile hunting dog , they are also suitable for apartment life due to work by breeders to develop a breed with an even temperament . The AWS may have been involved in the development of the Boykin Spaniel .
= = History = =
Developed in the United States , the American Water Spaniel is the Wisconsin state dog . The breed originated in the areas along the Fox River and its tributary the Wolf River during the early 19th century . Hunters needed a dog that could work on both land and water , a versatile hunter skilled at bringing in a variety of game . Hunters also wanted a hunting dog compact enough to be transported in a small skiff , one that was able to withstand Wisconsin 's cold water temperatures . Breeds involved in the creation of the American Water Spaniel are thought to have included the English Water Spaniel , Irish Water Spaniel , Curly Coated Retriever , native Indian Dogs , the Poodle , and either the Sussex Spaniel or another type of field spaniel .
This little brown dog created was known at the time as the American Brown Spaniel , and weighed around 40 pounds ( 18 kg ) . It had a thick curly coat that protected it from the cold temperatures of the water and winter . It was used to hunt waterfowl , Ruffed Grouse , Greater Prairie Chicken and a variety of fur – bearing animals .
Over the years the numbers of the breed began to dwindle due both to a reduction in the duck population through those valley areas , and because of a switch in hunting – from a means to gather food for survival to that of recreation . Additionally , following World War II , new types of dogs became available in Wisconsin such as setters , pointers and other spaniels , allowing additional specialization in hunting .
Dr. Fred J. Pfeifer , from New London , Wisconsin , set up Wolf River Kennels in order to save the breed . Numbers held by the kennel fluctuated but at times went up to 132 dogs . He advertised the dogs widely across the country , selling male dogs for $ 25 and females dogs for $ 20 . Part of a sales pitch that Pfeifer mailed to prospective dog owners read , " The American Brown Spaniel is distinctively an American production . Hunters have known this type for years and it was through their efforts that this dog was propagated .... For years we have bred only selective stock , breeding for gameness , stability , courage , intelligence , and beauty . They are dogs to admire and trust under all conditions whether in the home circle or in the field with the outdoor man . "
Due to Pfeifer 's work , the breed was recognized by the United Kennel Club ( UKC ) as the American Water Spaniel in 1920 , and by the Field Dog Stud Book in 1938 . Dr. Pfeifer 's own dog , named " Curly Pfeifer " was the first American Water Spaniel to be registered with UKC . John Scofield of Missouri and Thomas Brogdan of Rush Lake , Wisconsin worked together with the American Water Spaniel Club ( AWSC ) , gaining the breed recognition with the American Kennel Club ( AKC ) in 1940 . Prior to recognition by the AKC , the breed had not been shown in the show ring before .
The breed has links to the Boykin Spaniel , and is thought to have been the main breed used to develop the Boykin . The differences between the Boykin and the AWS are negligible with some dog historians suggesting that the original Boykin , called " Dumpy " , who was found on the streets of Spartanburg , South Carolina , was actually an American Water Spaniel who had been misplaced in transit . However the breed clubs for the Boykin do not agree with this account .
The breed was made the state dog of Wisconsin in 1985 . The American Water Spaniel remains a rare breed . During 1998 only 233 puppies were registered with the AKC , with an estimated 3 @,@ 000 dogs in existence mostly around the Midwestern United States , in particular in Wisconsin , Minnesota and Michigan . In 2010 , the breed was ranked 143rd most popular breed in the United States , out of 167 breeds . This is a decrease since 2000 , when the breed was ranked 125th . The dogs are not classified specifically as either retrievers or as spaniels and so may not compete in AKC field trials , but may compete in AKC hunt tests ( spaniel and retriever tests ) and retriever hunting tests sponsored by the AWSC , the breed club in the United States . The American Water Spaniel Field Association was set up in 1993 by breed enthusiasts supporting AKC Spaniel classification and looking to provide field training opportunities to owners of the breed . In a vote held of members of the AWSC in 1999 , they chose to keep the breed unclassified .
= = Appearance = =
The limited popularity of the American Water Spaniel restricted development , resulting in the breed being relatively unchanged since its origins in the 19th century . They are a medium @-@ sized dog , with a curly liver , brown , or chocolate colored coat . The average height at the withers for the breed is 15 – 18 inches ( 38 – 46 cm ) , and their weight around 25 – 45 pounds ( 11 – 20 kg ) . They have similar features to the Irish Water Spaniel , but the Irish breed is larger at between 21 – 24 inches ( 53 – 61 cm ) and weighing 55 – 65 pounds ( 25 – 29 kg ) . The coat of the American Water Spaniel can fall in two different patterns , either tightly curled or in the " marcel pattern " where the fur falls in waves . Working and show lines have not diverged as with some other breeds of spaniel , and both appear the same , with show dogs of this breed being rare .
The coat has a coarse outside layer which keeps water away and protects the dog from foliage such as briers . The inside layer provides insulation to keep the dog warm . The coat has an oily feel to it , which gives off a " doggy smell " . The breed standard specifies color of the eyes should harmonize with the color of the coat , and should never be yellow . The skull is broad , and carries long , wide ears . The tail is not typically docked .
= = Temperament = =
In the field , the AWS is less exuberant than the English Springer Spaniel , but it is as skilled in retrieval as Labrador or Golden Retriever . It is versatile regardless of the type of terrain , and in the water it is not the fastest swimmer but has a high level of endurance . The breed is also good at agility and flyball , with the first of the breed receiving a flyball championship title in 1993 .
Members of the breed enjoy being the center of attention , and can be quite vocal at times . It is a one family dog , and will often bond with one particular individual . For many years the breed was " pack bred " , where they were allowed to live in a group . Since these times , breeders have been working to breed even tempered dogs that are suitable for both hunting and family life .
The AWS has a mind of its own at times and reaches peak performance with the owner who is dedicated to teaching the dog just what is expected of it . The breed takes well to training , and especially excels at training that offers some variety rather than routine training drills . However , members of the breed can may have issues with food possessiveness . They can be stubborn , and mentally are slow to mature from puppyhood . Some lines of the breed still retain dominant and aggressive temperaments ; other than these lines , the AWS gets on well with children and enjoys playing with them . Even though they were originally bred to hunt , due to their size , they are suitable for apartment living as long as they receive enough exercise .
= = Health = =
Pack breeding early in its development led to a level of genetic variation , so the hereditary conditions of more popular breeds are not common in the AWS . The breed however is known to suffer from eye issues including cataracts and progressive retinal atrophy . Inheritance is suspected in both conditions , with the average age of cataract onset at under one year old .
Additional concerns are hypothyroidism , allergies , epilepsy , diabeties and glandular disorders which may cause baldness . The hair loss occurs at around six months of age , affecting the neck , thighs and tail ; however the frequency has been reduced through work conducted by the breed clubs . Hip dysplasia is seen in around 8 @.@ 3 % of the breed , according to surveys conducted by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals over a twenty five @-@ year period between 1974 and 1999 . This was one of the lower results of the sporting breeds , with Greyhounds coming lowest with 3 @.@ 4 % , and the related Boykin Spaniel coming in second highest at 47 % . There was no evidence of elbow dysplasia found . The breed has an average life span of 10 – 13 years .
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= Arniston ( East Indiaman ) =
Arniston was an East Indiaman that made eight voyages for the British East India Company ( EIC ) . She was wrecked on 30 May 1815 during a storm at Waenhuiskrans , near Cape Agulhas , South Africa , with the loss of 372 lives – only six on board survived . She had been requisitioned as a troopship and was underway from Ceylon to England on a journey to repatriate wounded soldiers from the Kandyan Wars .
Controversially , the ship did not have a marine chronometer on board , a comparatively new and expensive navigational instrument that would have enabled her to determine her longitude accurately . Instead , she was forced to navigate through the heavy storm and strong currents using older , less reliable navigational aids and dead reckoning . Navigational difficulties and a lack of headway led to an incorrect assumption that Cape Agulhas was Cape Point . Consequently , the ship was wrecked when the captain headed north for St Helena with the incorrect belief the ship had already passed Cape Point .
= = Overview = =
East Indiamen operated under charter or licence to the Honourable East India Company , which held a monopoly granted by Queen Elizabeth I of England for all English trade between the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn . Arniston was built at the Barnard yard at Deptford on the Thames and launched in 1794 .
Arniston was heavily armed , with her fifty @-@ eight guns making her the equivalent of a Royal Navy fourth @-@ rate ship of the line . A classification of " ship of the line " – a class of ship that later evolved into the battleship – meant that a ship was powerful enough to stand in a line of battle and explained why these ships of commerce were sometimes mistaken for men @-@ o @-@ war . The armament was necessary for the ship to protect herself and her valuable cargo from pirates and commerce raiders of other nations during long voyages between Europe and the Far East . Arniston , like other East Indiamen , was slow and unmanoeuvrable , but able to carry a large quantity of cargo .
= = Voyages ( 1794 – 1812 ) = =
Arniston sailed from Great Britain to the Far East eight times before her last voyage . On one of her homeward journeys from China , she struck an uncharted rock at 5 ° 46 ′ 8 ″ S 105 ° 16 ′ 43 ″ E , near the island of Pulo Goondy ( modern day Pulau Legundi ) , located just south of Sumatra . She did not suffer any ill effects as a result of this incident however , which is mentioned in journals of the time only for its noteworthiness as a navigation hazard to other shipping .
Apart from this and another incident in 1800 , Arniston 's first eight voyages were uneventful .
= = = Voyage # 1 : St Helena , Madras , and China ( 1795 @-@ 97 ) = = =
Captain Campbell Marjoribanks :
3 April 1795 : Portsmouth
14 April : Tenerife
2 June : St Helena
9 August : Cape of Good Hope
27 September : Madras
14 November : Penang
3 December : Malacca
11 March 1796 : Whampoa
23 April : Second Bar
29 June : Macau
20 November : St Helena
1 March 1797 : Deptford
While Arniston was at St Helena on her outward journey , she undertook to transport troops from there to join Lord Elphinstone , who was undertaking an expedition to capture Cape Colony from the Dutch . On 10 July George Vancouver arrived in HMS Discovery . Vancouver was returning to England after his four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year long voyage of exploration . He transferred to Arniston four field guns that he had been carrying , together with what ammunition he had left for them , for onward transmission to Elphinstone . Discovery 's boats also helped in the ferrying of troops from shore to Arniston .
Arniston was to ferry nine field pieces , as well as a company of artillery and three of infantry ( 393 men in all ) , to Elphinstone .
= = = Voyage # 2 : China ( 1797 @-@ 98 ) = = =
On this voyage Arniston sailed under a letter of marque in the name of Captain William Macnamara , and dated 13 May 1797 . Her itinerary was :
5 June 1797 : Portsmouth
29 August : Cape of Good Hope
9 December : Whampoa
14 February 1798 : Second Bar
26 March : Macau
5 August : St Helena
23 October : Long Reach
= = = Voyage # 3 : St Helena , Benkulen , and China ( 1800 @-@ 01 ) = = =
On this voyage Arniston sailed under a letter of marque in the name of Captain Campbell Marjoribanks , and dated 29 November 1799 . Her itinerary was :
7 January 1800 : Portsmouth
4 April : St Helena
27 June : Benkulen
29 July : Penang
27 August : Malacca
21 September : Whampoa
29 November : Second Bar
18 January 1801 : Macau
15 April : St Helena
17 June : Long Reach
During this voyage Arniston had just anchored at Benkulen on 27 June 1800 , when the 26 @-@ gun French privateer Confiance attacked her . Arniston cut her anchor and gave chase , firing several broadsides into the other ship , but the faster French ship was able to make an escape . On 9 October 1800 , the East Indiaman Kent would be less fortunate ; Confiance would capture Kent after a two @-@ hour engagement .
= = = Voyage # 4 : St Helena , Benkulen , and China ( 1801 @-@ 03 ) = = =
Captain Campbell Marjoribanks :
31 December 1801 : Downs
9 March 1802 : St Helena
10 June : Benkulen
12 July : Penang
31 August : Whampoa
24 October : Second Bar
11 February 1803 : St Helena
26 April : Long Reach
= = = Voyage # 5 : China ( 1804 @-@ 05 ) = = =
On this voyage Arniston sailed under a letter of marque in the name of Captain James Jameson , and dated 24 March 1804 . Her itinerary was :
9 June 1804 : Portsmouth
17 August : Rio de Janeiro
14 January 1805 : Whampoa
14 February : Second Bar
21 March : Malacca
30 June : St Helena
15 September : Long Reach
This journey included a passage through the Bass Strait to improve an earlier nautical chart of the route .
= = = Voyage # 6 : China ( 1806 @-@ 07 ) = = =
On this voyage Arniston sailed under a letter of marque in the name of Captain Peter Wedderburn , and dated 20 March 1806 . Her itinerary was :
14 May 1806 : Portsmouth
7 August : Cape of Good Hope
10 October : Penang
21 January 1807 : Whampoa
4 May : off Lintin Island
1 July : Penang
17 July : Acheh
19 September : Cape of Good Hope
13 October : St Helena
6 January 1808 : Lower Hope
= = = Voyage # 7 : Bombay and China ( 1810 @-@ 11 ) = = =
Captain Samuel Landon :
21 January 1810 : Portsmouth
9 April : Cape of Good Hope
26 May : Bombay
1 September : Penang
12 October : Whampoa
29 December : Second Bar
28 May 1811 : St Helena
13 August : Long Reach
= = = Voyage # 8 : Bombay and China ( 1812 @-@ 13 ) = = =
On this voyage Arniston sailed under a letter of marque in the name of Captain Walter Campbell . Her itinerary was :
4 January 1812 : Torbay
5 April : Johanna
7 May : Bombay
11 September : Whampoa
4 January 1813 : Macau
27 March : St Helena
7 June : Long Reach
The British government then chartered Arniston as a troop transport to the Cape and India .
= = = Voyage # 9 : Madeira , Cape , and Ceylon ( 1814 @-@ 1815 ) = = =
Captain George Simpson left England on 8 June 1814 . At Ceylon , Arniston embarked soldiers of the 73rd Regiment , who were wounded in the Kandyan Wars in Ceylon , to repatriate them to England .
= = Wreck ( 1815 ) = =
Critically , the ship did not have a chronometer for this voyage , a comparatively new and expensive navigational instrument at the time . Captain George Simpson could not afford the 60 – 100 guineas for one , and the ship 's owners were also unwilling to purchase one , even threatening to replace him with another captain if he refused to set sail without one .
Arniston sailed from Port de Galle on 4 April 1815 in a convoy of six other East Indiamen , under the escort of HMS Africaine and HMS Victor . Among her 378 passengers were many invalid soldiers and sailors , plus 14 women and 25 children .
During the passage from Ceylon , at one o 'clock every day , the ships signalled each other their longitude that they calculated using their chronometers . In this way , the ships were able to compare their respective instruments , and the master of the Arniston was able to learn his longitude too , as long as he remained in the convoy .
On 26 May , while rounding the southern tip of Africa , Arniston separated from the convoy in bad weather after her sails were damaged . Without accurate daily longitudinal information from the other ships , Arniston had to rely instead on older , less accurate navigation methods . Navigation via dead reckoning proved particularly difficult as there were strong ocean currents combined with inclement weather that prevented a fix being obtained for several days via celestial navigation .
On 29 May , land was sighted to the north at 7 am , and given the dead reckoning estimates , was presumed to be the Cape of Good Hope . The ship sailed west until 4 : 30 pm on 29 May , then turned north to run for St Helena . However the land sighted had in fact been Cape Agulhas ( then known as " Cape L 'Agullas " ) and the ship had also not made good headway against the current since this sighting . Compounding these navigational errors , the master had not taken any depth soundings ( which would have confirmed his location over the Agulhas Bank ) , before heading north . Consequently , instead of being 100 miles ( 160 km ) west of the Cape of Good Hope as presumed , the ship was closing on the reef at Waenhuiskrans near Cape Agulhas . The anchors were unable to hold the heavy ship in the storm , so on 30 May near 4 pm , Lieutenant Brice advised Captain Simpson to ground the ship to save the lives of those aboard . Eight minutes later , at about 8 pm , the ship struck rocks half a mile offshore and heeled into the wind . The guns on the opposite side were cut away in a failed attempt to level the ship , which soon started to break up in the waves .
Only six men of the 378 people on board survived , after reaching the shore only with great difficulty through the high surf . The following morning the sternpost was the only part of the vessel still visible . The ship and her passengers had been lost for the price of a chronometer , or as an officer from the same convoy later wrote :
[ T ] his valuable ship , and all the lives on board of her , were actually sacrificed to a piece of short @-@ sighted economy . That they might have been saved , had she been supplied with the worst chronometer that was ever sent to sea , is also quite obvious .
= = Aftermath = =
The six survivors buried the bodies found on the beach , then travelled east along the beach , expecting to reach Cape Town . However , after four and a half days , they realised their error and returned to the site of the wreck . Here they subsisted off a cask of oatmeal , while trying to effect repairs to the ship 's pinnace , which had been washed ashore . They were discovered six days later on 14 June by a farmer 's son , who was out hunting .
Among the victims were : Captain George Simpson , Lieutenant Brice , Lord and Lady Molesworth .
The six survivors were : Dr. Gunter ( boatswain ) , John Barrett ( carpenter ) , Charles Stewart Scott ( carpenter 's mate ) , William Grung ( second class ) , Gibbs ( third class ) , Robinson ( fourth class ) .
A memorial , a replica of which can be seen today , was erected on the beach by the wife of Colonel Giels , whose four children were lost in the tragedy on their homeward journey , having visited him in Ceylon . The memorial bears the following inscription :
Erected by their disconsolate parents to the memory of Thomas , aged 13 years , William Noble , aged 10 , Andrew , aged 8 and Alexander McGregor Murray , aged 7 ( the four eldest sons of Lieut Colonel Andrew Giels of H.M. 73rd Regiment ) who , with Lord and Lady Molesworth unfortunately perished in the Arniston Transport , wrecked on this shore on 3rd May , 1815 .
Over time , the seaside village of Waenhuiskrans has become so associated with the wreck , that it now is also known as Arniston . The nearby town of Bredasdorp has a museum dedicated to the wreck . The wreck had a direct influence on the decision to build a lighthouse at Cape Agulhas to the west in 1847 – 1848 .
Thirty seven years later , the 73rd Regiment once again suffered hundreds of casualties on this coast when HMS Birkenhead was wrecked only 50 miles ( 80 km ) away at Gansbaai .
= = Archaeological excavation = =
The wreck , which lies in about 6 metres ( 20 ft ) of water , was surveyed by an archaeological team from the University of Cape Town ( UCT ) in 1982 . The National Monuments Council issued a permit to UCT student Jim Jobling to conduct an underwater survey of the site , as well as a limited excavation . A number of artefacts were recovered , which were donated to the Bredasdorp Shipwreck Museum .
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= United States Capitol shooting incident ( 1998 ) =
The United States Capitol shooting incident of 1998 was an attack on July 24 , 1998 , which led to the death of two United States Capitol Police officers . Detective John Gibson and Officer Jacob Chestnut were killed when Russell Eugene Weston , Jr . , entered the Capitol and opened fire . Chestnut was killed instantly and Gibson died during surgery at George Washington University Hospital . Weston 's exact motives are unknown , but he has a mental disorder and maintains a strong distrust of the federal government . He remains in a mental institution due to paranoid schizophrenia and has yet to be tried in court .
= = The shooting = =
On the day of shooting , Officer Chestnut and another officer were assigned to operate the X @-@ ray machine and magnetometer at the Document Door entrance located on the East Front of the Capitol , which was open only to Members of Congress and their staff . Detective Gibson was assigned to the dignitary protection detail of Rep. Tom DeLay ( R @-@ TX ) and was in his suite of offices near this door . Weston , armed with a .38 caliber Smith & Wesson six @-@ shot revolver , entered the Document Door at 3 : 40 p.m. At the same time , Officer Chestnut was providing directions to a tourist and his son while his partner escorted another tourist towards the restroom . Weston reportedly walked around the metal detector just inside the entrance ; Chestnut requested he go back through the detector . Weston suddenly produced the gun and without warning , shot Chestnut in the back of the head at point @-@ blank range . According to witnesses , he turned down a short corridor and pushed through a door which leads to a group of offices used by senior Republican representatives including then Majority Whip Tom DeLay and Representative Dennis Hastert , future Speaker of the House and a close protégé of then Speaker Newt Gingrich .
Detective Gibson , who was in plainclothes , was shot after the suspect entered DeLay 's office . Despite being mortally wounded , Detective Gibson was able to return fire and wound the suspect , who was apprehended in that office . A female tourist was grazed by bullets on her shoulder and face . She was treated for her injuries and released . Also injured was USCP Officer Douglas McMillian . Future Senate Majority Leader Bill Frist , R @-@ Tennessee , a heart surgeon who had been presiding on the Senate floor just before the shooting , resuscitated the gunman and accompanied him to D.C. General Hospital .
= = After the shooting = =
Officers Chestnut and Gibson were the two people killed in the attack . Following the shooting , both officers received the tribute of lying in honor in the United States Capitol rotunda . They were the first police officers , and Chestnut was the first African American , to receive the honor .
In 1999 , Weston was found incompetent to stand trial due to mental illness as he was a man with schizophrenia who stopped taking his medication . A judge of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia ordered that he be treated with antipsychotic medication without his consent in 2001 , and the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit upheld the decision . In 2004 , the court determined that Weston still was not competent to be tried , despite ongoing treatment , and suspended but did not dismiss the criminal charges against him . Weston was known to the United States Secret Service prior to the incident as a person who had threatened the President of the United States .
The shooting led to the creation of the United States Capitol Police Memorial Fund , a nonprofit organization managed by the Capitol Police Board which provides funds for the families of Chestnut and Gibson . In November 2005 , the fund was expanded to include the family of Sgt. Christopher Eney , a USCP officer killed during a training accident in 1984 . The shooting was cited as one reason for the development of the Capitol Visitors Center . The legislation authorizing the construction of the facility was introduced by Washington , D.C. Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton and was entitled the Jacob Joseph Chestnut @-@ John Michael Gibson United States Capitol Visitor Center Act of 1998 . The door where Weston entered was renamed in honor of the two officers , from the Document Door to the Chestnut @-@ Gibson Memorial Door .
On March 6 , 2008 , Weston filed a motion requesting a hearing on his mental status . The hearing was held on May 6 with Weston appearing via teleconference from the Federal Medical Center , Butner with his public defender Jane Pierce and two witnesses he selected , a psychologist and vocational rehabilitation specialist . Federal judge Earl Britt denied Weston 's request to be released from the federal facility , arguing that he failed to present enough evidence that he no longer needed to be committed . During the hearing defense psychologist Holly Rogers stated that , " sometimes there are individuals who simply do not respond to medication " , implying that Weston was not ready for release . Had Weston been released from the facility , it would have made it possible for him to be taken to Washington , D.C. to stand trial for the murders of Gibson and Chestnut .
= = The officers = =
Detective John Michael Gibson ( March 29 , 1956 – July 24 , 1998 ) was a United States Capitol Police officer assigned to the dignitary protection detail of Congressman Tom DeLay . He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery after lying in honor with Chestnut in the Capitol rotunda . Detective Gibson had served with the agency for 18 years . He was a native of Massachusetts who married the niece of Representative Joe Moakley , Democrat of Massachusetts . He had three children , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old daughter and two boys , ages 15 and 14 . Growing up in New England , Det . Gibson was a lifelong Boston Red Sox fan , and on August 11 , 1998 , his beloved team had a moment of silence in his honor prior to a game with the Kansas City Royals .
Officer Jacob Joseph Chestnut ( April 28 , 1940 – July 24 , 1998 ) , was the first African American to lie in honor at the Capitol . Chestnut is buried in Arlington National Cemetery . His funeral included a speech by President Bill Clinton and a fly @-@ over by military jets in a missing man formation . A United States Post Office located in Fort Washington , Maryland has been renamed in their honor .
= = The suspect = =
Russell Eugene Weston , Jr . ( born December 28 , 1956 ) , also known as Rusty , grew up in Valmeyer , Illinois . Weston attended Valmeyer High School , the only high school in a town of 900 people . Shortly after graduating high school in 1974 , Weston moved to Rimini , Montana , rarely returning to Valmeyer . The only attempt his high school classmates made at inviting him to a class reunion was returned with obscenities written across it . Many of Weston 's Montana neighbors had disliked him , and often ignored him . They considered him to be unusual , and sometimes eccentric . Weston had once thought that his neighbor was using his television satellite dish to spy on his actions and believed Navy SEALs were hiding in his cornfield .
He was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia six years before the shooting and spent fifty @-@ three days in a mental hospital after threatening a Montana resident . He was released after testing as being of no danger to himself or anyone else . Eighteen months before the shooting , he moved back to Valmeyer from Montana . Once home , he was known to compulsively hack at trees which filled his back yard following the Mississippi River floods of 1993 . There was so much downed timber on his family 's homestead that they had to ask him to stop cutting at trees . Two days prior to the Capitol shooting , at his grandmother 's insistence to do something about nearby cats which were becoming a nuisance , Weston shot and killed 14 cats with a single @-@ barreled shotgun , leaving several in a bucket and burying the rest .
Following the Capitol shooting , Weston was transferred to a psychiatric center at Butner Federal Correctional Institution in Butner , North Carolina . In an interview with a court @-@ appointed psychiatrist he explained that he stormed the Capitol to prevent the United States from being annihilated by disease and legions of cannibals .
He has never been charged with any crime due to apparent mental inculpability . One contentious issue of Weston 's incarceration is that of forced medication . Weston has thus far refused to take any medications voluntarily . His lawyers helped enable this , in order to protect him from the death penalty . In May 2001 , a federal judge authorized doctors to treat Weston involuntarily . A panel from a federal appeals court ruled in July 2001 that Weston could be forced to take the drugs which he was forced to do for 120 days . He remains in the Butner facility indefinitely .
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= Hurricane Kathleen ( 1976 ) =
Hurricane Kathleen was a tropical cyclone that caused destructive impacts in California . On September 7 , 1976 , a tropical depression formed ; two days later it accelerated north towards the Baja California Peninsula . Kathleen brushed the Pacific coast of the peninsula as a hurricane on September 9 and made landfall as a fast @-@ moving tropical storm the next day . With its circulation intact and still a tropical storm , Kathleen headed north into the United States and affected California and Arizona . Kathleen finally dissipated late on September 11 .
Damage in the United States was considerable . California received record rainfall , with over a foot of rain falling in some areas . Flooding caused catastrophic destruction to Ocotillo , and six people drowned . Flooding extended west ; railway tracks were destroyed in Palm Desert and high winds and severe flooding were recorded in Arizona . Overall , the damage total was $ 160 million ( 1976 USD ) and 12 deaths were attributed to the storm .
= = Background = =
Tropical cyclones do not typically bring high winds to the southwestern United States . Most Pacific hurricanes are embedded in easterly winds south of the subtropical ridge , and thus move westward — away from large land masses — until they dissipate over cold waters . However , during early autumn , tropical cyclones generally form closer to the Mexican shoreline than average , making them more likely to recurve , or to curve again , northwards under the influence of an approaching trough . These troughs tend to extend farther to the south during the latter part of the Pacific hurricane season , in the period between late August and early October . They also produce a synoptic @-@ scale flow that is conducive to steering hurricanes towards the southwestern United States . However , many hurricanes that approach the southwestern United States tend to be undergoing extratropical transition as they encounter increased wind shear and markedly cooler sea surface temperatures , and as they interact with the deep troughs that caused them to recurve . Kathleen is one of only six recorded tropical cyclones in the eastern Pacific Ocean known to have brought gale @-@ force or hurricane @-@ force winds to the Continental United States .
= = Meteorological history = =
A large area of thunderstorms , with a diameter of about 500 mi ( 800 km ) , formed 270 mi ( 430 km ) southwest of Acapulco . Moving rapidly west @-@ northwest , a tropical depression formed on September 7 . While briefly moving towards the east , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Kathleen . Moving above 83 ° F ( 28 ° C ) sea surface temperatures , Kathleen quickly strengthened . Before passing 40 mi ( 64 km ) east of Socorro Island , Kathleen reached its secondary peak with winds of 65 mph ( 115 km / h ) . Kathleen then weakened considerably , and by 0600 UTC September 9 , Tropical Storm Kathleen was barely a tropical storm . At this time , the system was located at 55 mi ( 89 km ) north of the island . Shortly thereafter , Kathleen turned north @-@ northeast into warmer waters .
Subsequently , the tropical storm began to re @-@ strengthen . Despite moving rapidly north , the cyclone strengthened into Hurricane Kathleen . The hurricane passed near several ships , and was intercepted by a Hurricane Hunter aircraft early on September 10 . It is estimated that the storm peaked in intensity around that time , with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 986 mb ( 986 hPa ) . However , Kathleen never developed an eye . About an hour after the first flight reached Kathleen , a second flight suggested that Kathleen had weakened back into a tropical storm . With precipitation falling in the United States , some 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) north of the cyclone 's atmospheric circulation , Kathleen 's motion accelerated to speeds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) -38 mph ( 61 km / h ) .
After crossing the Point Eugenia peninsula ( the cyclones first landfall ) later on the morning of September 10 , Kathleen made its second landfall 120 mi ( 190 km ) north of Ensenada at 1130 UTC the same day . Unlike most tropical cyclones , Kathleen weakened slowly over California . Tropical Storm Kathleen weakened further into a depression over southern California and shortly thereafter , moved across Death Valley . On September 11 , Kathleen entered western Nevada . Finally , the center became difficult to locate , and the depression dissipated later on September 11 . After undergoing a Fujiwhara @-@ like interaction , where two circulations interact with each other , with a low @-@ pressure area stalled off the Pacific coast , moisture later spread into the northwestern part of the United States . After the stalled low was pulled inland , Kathleen combined with the low to produce additional rainfall over parts of California .
= = Impact = =
= = = Mexico = = =
The bulk of the rainfall from the tropical cyclone fell over Baja California Norte and Baja California Sur , to the east of its track . The highest amount reported was 6 @.@ 52 in ( 166 mm ) in San Antonio .
= = = Arizona = = =
On September 10 – 11 , gale @-@ force winds caused considerable damage to the city of Yuma . For a time , the sustained winds exceeded 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , with gusts up to 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) . The National Weather Service 's forecast office in Tucson estimates that tropical storm @-@ force winds extended as far east as Pima County , and as far north as Lake Havasu . Rains caused severe flash @-@ flooding in Mohave County . One man was killed when the wind blew a palm tree onto his mobile home and 13 people across the state were hurt . The Tucson metropolitan area was particularly hard hit with flash flooding , with golf @-@ ball size hail . On Mount Lemmon , the hail reached a depth of 5 in ( 13 cm ) . While most of the rainfall from Tropical Storm Kathleen fell in California , 2 @.@ 87 inches ( 7 @.@ 3 cm ) fell at the Davis Dam on the Colorado River .
= = = California = = =
The state received record rainfall , with 14 @.@ 76 in ( 37 @.@ 5 cm ) falling on the southern slopes of Mount San Gorgonio , and 10 @.@ 13 in ( 25 @.@ 7 cm ) accumulated on Mount Laguna . Because the village is situated atop an alluvial fan , a 40 ft ( 12 m ) wall of water exited a mountain canyon . Ocotillo was flooded with 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) -6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of water ; subsequently , half the town was destroyed . Six people drowned in the mud and waters in the town and two people were initially reported missing , though they were later found by officials . Overall , Ocotllio was 70 % – 80 % destroyed . Officials evacuated 175 people from the flooded area of Ocotillo and the nearby communities that surround the Salton Sea ; the sea rose 6 in ( 150 mm ) -8 in ( 200 mm ) . A quarter mile of interstate and a 60 @-@ foot bridge were destroyed by the flood , which also washed away mobile homes , trucks , and cars .
In Los Angeles , two people died of injuries suffered from slippery roads . One man drowned in El Centro. and two people drowned when their cars tumbled into the water near the city . Record flood stage was attained at numerous streams near the Coachella Valley . Widespread property damage was recorded on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada as well as the nearby desert . Across the San Joaquin Valley , 2 / 3 of the $ 150 million raisin crop was threatened . Crops including cotton , lettuce , and hay were damaged .
Homeowners in Palm Desert suffered $ 4 million in damage from the storm ; the town received more than a year 's worth of rainfall in a matter of days . No serious injuries were reported throughout the desert city , though two agricultural dikes broke .
Several miles of railway track , including three trestles that belonged to the San Diego and Arizona Eastern Railway , were destroyed and five others were damaged . At more than 50 other locations , tracks were buried by mudslides or had the ground under them washed away . After assessing the damage from Kathleen , the Southern Pacific Transportation Company decided in 1977 to abandon most of the railroad . A 700 ft ( 210 m ) section of Interstate 8 from Yuma to San Diego was destroyed .
Overall , hundreds of homes were damaged or destroyed ; Tropical Storm Kathleen was described as a one @-@ in- 160 @-@ year event . Total damage was $ 160 million , making Kathleen one of the costliest tropical storms in state history . Parts of California were declared a disaster area , and flash flood watches were issued throughout Southern California , including the desert and mountains . Flash flood warnings were also issued for parts of California , as well as nearby states Nevada and Arizona , but were dropped as the rain tampered off on September 11 .
= = = Rest of the United States = = =
In Wyoming , the cyclone is credited for the first known sighting of a white ibis in the state 's history . In Montana , Kathleen dropped locally heavy rainfall approaching 2 inches ( 51 mm ) in localized spots , enough to become the wettest known tropical cyclone in state history . The remnants of the storm also affected Oregon and Idaho .
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= Mamoru Miyano =
Mamoru Miyano ( 宮野 真守 , Miyano Mamoru , born Wednesday , June 8 , 1983 ) is a Japanese voice actor , actor , and singer from Saitama Prefecture . He is best known for his roles on Ouran High School Host Club , Vampire Knight , Death Note , Soul Eater , Tokyo Ghoul , Free ! , Mobile Suit Gundam 00 , Kōtetsu Sangokushi , Steins ; Gate , Nobunaga the Fool , and Uta no Prince @-@ sama . At the 2007 Seiyu Awards he was nominated for two awards for his role as Light Yagami in Death Note , and in 2008 , he won the " Best Voice Actor " award at the 2008 Tokyo International Anime Fair . At the 2008 Seiyu Awards , Miyano won " Best Lead Actor Award " for his role as Setsuna F Seiei in Mobile Suit Gundam 00 , and as Hakugen Rikuson in Kōtetsu Sangokushi .
Miyano began his career as a musician in 2007 . He released his debut single , " Kuon " ( 久遠 , lit . Eternity ) , in May on the King Records label . In March 2009 , his debut album Break was released .
= = Acting career = =
Miyano started his acting career in 1990 and provides the voice of Riku in the Japanese version of the PlayStation 2 video game Kingdom Hearts . He then voiced Kiba , the main character of anime series Wolf 's Rain . He returned as the voice for Riku in the 2004 Game Boy Advance game Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , as well as Kingdom Hearts II in 2005 , and in Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories in 2007 .
In 2006 , Miyano voiced Light Yagami for the anime version of the manga Death Note . In 2007 , for his role as Light Yagami , he was nominated for two awards at the first Seiyu Awards : " Best Lead Actor Award " and " Best New Actor Awards " . Also in 2007 , Miyano went on to provide the voice of Setsuna F Seiei , the main character of Mobile Suit Gundam 00 . He won his first award , " Best Voice Actor " , at the 2008 Tokyo International Anime Fair for his portrayal of Light Yagami and Setsuna F Seiei . In 2008 , Miyano took on the role as Setsuna F Seiei again for the second season of Mobile Suit Gundam 00 . He won his first Seiyu award for the roles of Setsuna F Seiei and of Hakugen Rikuson in Kōtetsu Sangokushi . He has also voiced Zero Kiryu from the series Vampire Knight and Vampire Knight Guilty , as well as Death The Kid in the anime Soul Eater . He also provided the voice of Tamaki Suoh in the anime version of Ouran High School Host Club , Okabe Rintarō from Steins ; Gate , Ling Yao from Fullmetal Alchemist Brotherhood , Oda Nobunaga from Nobunaga the Fool , and Rin Matsuoka from Free ! Iwatobi Swim Club and Free ! Eternal Summer .
In addition to voice acting , Miyano has also appeared on camera . His first acting job was in 1992 in Tokusou Exceedraft , where he appeared in a flashback as a child in a yakuza member 's past . In 2003 , Miyano joined the cast of The Prince of Tennis Musical playing Tetsu Ishida ( 石田 鉄 , Ishida Tetsu ) . He made his film debut in 2006 's The Prince of Tennis . He also made a guest appearance in the drama The Quiz Show in 2008 . In 2009 , he has voiced Ultraman Zero from the new movie , Mega Monster Battle : Ultra Galaxy Legend The Movie .
In 2010 , he began voicing Dent in the popular Pokémon anime series . In the same year he starred with fashion model and actress Ayumi Uehara and fellow voice actors Tomokazu Sugita , Tomokazu Seki , Rikiya Koyama , Yuka Hirata , Showtaro Morikubo and Yūko Kaida in the film , Wonderful World , directed by Daisuke Namikawa . Later , he voiced Ultraman Zero again in the movie , Ultraman Zero : The Revenge of Belial . In 2012 , he continued to voice Ultraman Zero in Ultraman Saga , in 2015 in Ultraman Ginga S : Showdown ! Ultra 10 Warriors ! ! , as well as in the new movie , Ultraman X : Here It Comes ! Our Ultraman in 2016 .
= = Musical career = =
On May 28 , 2007 on the King Records label , Miyano debuted as a singer with the single " Kuon " ( 久遠 , Eternity ) . " Kuon " debuted at number 47 on the Oricon charts and was used as the ending theme song for anime series Kōtetsu Sangokushi . On June 13 , 2007 , with fellow voice actress Romi Park , the duo released a collaboration single titled " Fight " , which debuted on the Oricon chart at number 73 . On June 4 , 2008 he released his second single , " Discovery " , which was the intro song for PlayStation 2 video game Fushigi Yūgi : Suzaku Ibun . The song debuted at number 24 on the chart .
In August 2008 , Miyano released the character single " Soup / Hakosora " , under the name Mamoru Miyano comes across Setsuna F Seiei ( 宮野真守 come across 刹那 ・ F ・ セイエイ ) ; it debuted at number 18 . In December he released his third single , " ... Kimi e " ( … 君へ , ... To You ) , which also debuted at number 18 . On March 11 , 2009 Miyano released his debut album , Break , which debuted at number 20 . On April 11 , 2009 , a month after the release of his album , Miyano went on his first tour , 1st Live Tour 2009 : Breaking .
In 2010 , Miyano released his second album , Wonder . The album charted at number 20 on the Oricon Weekly Albums chart . Following the album 's release , Miyano went on his second tour , Mamoru Miyano Live Tour 2010 : Wondering . In April 2012 , Miyano released his third album , Fantasista . The album charted at number 4 on the Oricon Weekly Albums chart .
In 2013 , Miyano made his first appearance in on NHK 's music variety show Music Japan .
In May 2014 , Miyano went on his 6th live tour ~ Wakening ! ~ where he traveled around Japan . The DVD was released January 28 , 2015 .
= = Personal life = =
Miyano married in late 2008 . He and his wife have a son together .
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = Promotional singles = = =
= = = Video releases = = =
Mamoru Miyano Live Tour 2009 : Smile & Break ( 2010 )
Mamoru Miyano Live Tour 2010 : Wondering ( 2011 )
Mamoru Miyano Live 2011 – 12 : Fight & Stand ( 2012 )
Mamoru Miyano Live 2012 – 13 : Beginning ( 2013 )
Mamoru Miyano Special Live 2013 : Traveling ! ( 2014 )
Mamoru Miyano Live 2014 : WAKENING ! ( 2015 )
Mamoru Miyano Live 2015 : AMAZING ( 2015 )
Mamoru Miyano Live 2015 – 16 : GENERATING ( 2016 )
= = Filmography = =
= = = Television anime = = =
= = = Tokusatsu = = =
Special Rescue Exceedraft ( 1992 ) – Child
Zyuden Sentai Kyoryuger ( 2013 ) – Ferocious Knight D
Ultraman Retsuden ( 2011 ) - Ultraman Zero ( Voice ) , Singer ( Ep . 72 cameo ; actor )
New Ultraman Retsuden ( 2013 ) Ultraman Zero
Ultraman X ( 2015 ) - Ultraman Zero ( Ep.5 )
= = = Original video animation ( OVA ) = = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Video games = = =
= = = Dubbing = = =
= = = = Live @-@ action = = = =
Caitlin 's Way ( Griffen Lowe ( Jeremy Foley ) )
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory ( Willy Wonka ( Johnny Depp ) )
Halloweentown High ( Dylan Cromwell ( Joey Zimmerman ) )
Hannah Montana : The Movie ( Travis Brody ( Lucas Till ) )
Harry Potter film series ( Percy Weasley ( Chris Rankin ) )
The Musketeers ( d 'Artagnan ( Luke Pasqualino ) )
Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief ( Percy Jackson ( Logan Lerman ) )
Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters ( Percy Jackson ( Logan Lerman ) )
The Spy Next Door ( Larry ( Lucas Till ) )
Upside Down ( Adam Kirk ( Jim Sturgess ) )
= = = = Animation = = = =
Bionicle : Mask of Light ( Takua Takanuva )
Despicable Me 2 ( Antonio Pérez )
The Lorax ( Ted Wiggins )
Minions ( Herb )
My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic ( Shining Armor )
The Secret Life of Pets ( Tiberius )
X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine ( Scott Summers )
= = = Drama CD = = =
Dolls ( Seiju Shikibu )
Free ! ( Rin Matsuoka )
Karneval ( Yogi )
Mobile Suit Gundam 00 ( Setsuna F Seiei )
Ouran High School Host Club ( Tamaki Suoh )
Soul Eater ( Death the Kid )
Starry Sky ( Shiki Kagurazaka )
Steins ; Gate ( Rintaro Okabe )
Uta no Prince @-@ sama ( Tokiya Ichinose )
Vampire Knight ( Zero Kiryu and Ichiru Kiryu )
Fate / Stay Night : Garden of Avalon- glorious afterimage ( Bedivere )
= = = Comics = = =
Strobe Edge ( Ren Ichinose )
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= Japanese ironclad Hiei =
Hiei ( 比叡 , Hiei ) was the second and last vessel of the Kongō @-@ class ironclad corvettes built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the 1870s . They were built in the United Kingdom because the Japanese were unable to build ironclad warships in Japan . She became a training ship in 1887 and made training cruises to the Mediterranean and to countries on the edge of the Pacific Ocean . The ship returned to active duty during the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 where she was damaged during the Battle of the Yalu River . Hiei also participated in the Battle of Weihaiwei and the invasion of Formosa in 1895 . The ship resumed her training duties after the war , although she played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . She was reclassified as a survey ship in 1906 and was sold for scrap in 1912 .
= = Design and description = =
During the brief Japanese occupation of Taiwan in 1874 , tensions heightened between China and Japan , and the possibility of war caused the Japanese government to realize that it needed to reinforce its navy . The following year the government placed an order for the armored frigate Fusō and two Kongō @-@ class ships , designed by the British naval architect Sir Edward Reed , from British shipyards as no Japanese shipyard was able to build a ship of this size .
Hiei was 220 feet ( 67 @.@ 1 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 41 feet ( 12 @.@ 5 m ) . She had a forward draft of 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) and drew 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) aft . The ship displaced 2 @,@ 248 long tons ( 2 @,@ 284 t ) and had a crew of 22 officers and 212 enlisted men . Her hull was of composite construction with an iron framework planked with wood .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship had a single two @-@ cylinder , double @-@ expansion , horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine , driving a single propeller using steam from six cylindrical boilers . The engine was designed to produce 2 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) to give the Kongō @-@ class ironclads a speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) . During her sea trials on 7 December 1877 , the ship reached a maximum speed of 13 @.@ 92 knots ( 25 @.@ 78 km / h ; 16 @.@ 02 mph ) . She carried enough coal to steam 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ironclad was barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 14 @,@ 036 square feet ( 1 @,@ 304 m2 ) . The ship was reboilered at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal in 1889 with two steel cylindrical boilers ; the new boilers proved to be less powerful during sea trials . Hiei reached a maximum speed of 10 @.@ 34 knots ( 19 @.@ 15 km / h ; 11 @.@ 90 mph ) from 1 @,@ 279 ihp ( 954 kW ) . Her topmasts were removed in 1895 .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Hiei was fitted with three 172 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 8 in ) Krupp rifled breech @-@ loading ( RBL ) guns and six RBL 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) Krupp guns . All of the 172 @-@ millimeter guns were positioned as chase guns , two forward and one aft . The 152 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted on the broadside . The ship also carried two short 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns for use ashore or mounted on the ship 's boats .
During the 1880s , the armament of the ship was reinforced with the addition of four quadruple @-@ barreled 25 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) Nordenfelt and two quintuple @-@ barreled 11 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) Nordenfeldt machine guns for defense against torpedo boats . Around the same time she also received two 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes for Schwartzkopff torpedoes . The anti @-@ torpedo boat armament was again reinforced in 1897 by the addition of a pair of 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . After the end of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Hiei 's armament was reduced to six ex @-@ Russian 12 @-@ pounder guns and six 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounders .
The Kongō @-@ class corvettes had a wrought @-@ iron armor waterline belt 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships that tapered to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) at the ends of the ship .
= = History = =
The contract for Hiei was awarded to Milford Haven Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. in Pembroke Dock , Wales , on 24 September 1875 for the price of £ 119 @,@ 600 , exclusive of armament . Japanese sources universally give the date for Hiei 's keel @-@ laying as 24 September 1875 — the same as that for the awarding of the contract — but historian Hans Langerer describes this as improbable , arguing that no shipyard would order enough material to begin construction without cash in hand . She was launched on 12 June 1877 ; Reed 's daughter smashed a bottle of champagne on the ship 's bow in the traditional Western style . The ship was named for Mount Hiei . Completed in February 1878 , Hiei sailed for Japan on 22 March under the command of a British captain and with a British crew because the IJN was not yet ready for such a long voyage . One of the passengers aboard her was the future admiral Togo Heihachiro , who had just completed six years of study in the United Kingdom . She arrived in Yokohama on 22 May and was assigned to the Tokai Naval District a month later . On 10 July a formal ceremony was held in Yokohama for the receipt of the ship that was attended by the Meiji Emperor and many senior government officials . The ship was opened for tours by the nobility , their families and invited guests for three days after the ceremony . On 14 July , the general public was allowed to tour the ship for a week .
During 1880 , Hiei visited ports in India , Persia , the Persian Gulf and various ports in Southeast Asia . The ship made annual port visits to Jinsen in Korea in 1881 through 1883 . She was assigned to the Small Standing Fleet in 1886 and became a training ship in 1887 the following year . Together with her sister ship Kongō , Hiei sailed from Shinagawa , Tokyo on 13 August 1889 on a training cruise to the Mediterranean with cadets from the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy , returning on 2 February 1890 . On 5 October the sisters departed Shinagawa for Kobe to pick up the 69 survivors of the wrecked Ottoman frigate Ertuğrul and continued on to Constantinople , Turkey to return them to their homeland . They arrived on 2 January 1891 , and the ships ' officers were received by Sultan Abdul Hamid II . The ships also carried a class of naval cadets . On the return voyage , they made a port visit at Piraeus where they were visited by King George I of Greece and his son , Crown Prince Constantine . Making stops at Alexandria , Port Said , Aden , Colombo , Singapore and Hong Kong , the sisters arrived at Shinagawa on 10 May .
Hiei began another cadet cruise on 30 September 1891 and visited Australia and Manila before returning to Shinagawa on 10 April 1892 . The ship was not in service in 1893 , but she was recommissioned before the beginning of the First Sino @-@ Japanese War in 1894 . Hiei was assigned to the Standing Fleet on 2 July . She was the last ship in the Japanese line during the Battle of the Yalu River in September and was heavily damaged when her captain decided to pass through the Chinese fleet rather than try to keep up with the faster Main Squadron . The ship became the target of most of the Chinese ships and was forced to disengage to prevent further damage . Hiei was transferred to the West @-@ Sea Fleet on 14 October , and the sisters were assigned to the Second Raiding Unit in December for operations against the Chinese port of Weihaiwei . The ships were present during the Battle of Weihaiwei in January – February 1895 , although neither saw any significant combat . Hiei took part in the invasion of Formosa in 1895 , and participated in the bombardment of the Chinese coastal forts at Takow ( Kaohsiung ) on 13 October 1895 .
After the war , Hiei alternated her training cruises with Kongō , making the 1897 cruise to the West Coast of North America and Hawaii from 13 April to 20 September and repeating the same cruise from 14 December 1898 to 28 August 1899 . During that cruise , on 21 March 1898 , the ship was re @-@ designated as a 3rd @-@ class coast defense ship , although she retained her training duties . Both ships made the 1902 cruise , their last , to Manila and Australia from 19 February to 25 August . Hiei played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War before she was reclassified as a survey ship in 1906 . Hiei was stricken from the Navy List on 1 April 1911 and ordered to be sold on 21 December . The exact date of her sale is not known , although Maizuru Naval District reported her sale on 25 March 1912 .
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= Moncton =
Moncton / ˈmʌŋktən / is a city located in Westmorland County in the southeastern portion of the province of New Brunswick , Canada . Situated in the Petitcodiac River Valley , Moncton lies at the geographic centre of the Maritime Provinces . The city has earned the nickname " Hub City " due to its central location in the region and its history as a railway and land transportation hub for the Maritimes .
The city proper has a population of 69 @,@ 074 ( 2011 ) and has a land area of 142 km2 ( 55 sq mi ) . The Moncton CMA has a population of 138 @,@ 644 ( 2011 ) , making it the largest CMA in New Brunswick , the second @-@ largest CMA in the Maritime Provinces , and the third @-@ largest CMA in Atlantic Canada . The CMA includes the neighbouring city of Dieppe and the town of Riverview , as well as adjacent suburban areas in Westmorland and Albert counties .
Although the Moncton area was originally settled in 1733 , Moncton is considered to have been officially founded in 1766 with the arrival of Pennsylvania Dutch immigrants from Philadelphia . Initially an agricultural settlement , Moncton was not incorporated until 1855 . The city was named for Lt. Col. Robert Monckton , the British officer who had captured nearby Fort Beauséjour a century earlier . A significant wooden shipbuilding industry had developed in the community by the mid @-@ 1840s , allowing for the civic incorporation in 1855 , but the shipbuilding economy collapsed in the 1860s , causing the town to lose its civic charter in 1862 . Moncton regained its charter in 1875 after the community 's economy rebounded , mainly due to a growing railway industry . In 1871 , the Intercolonial Railway of Canada had chosen Moncton to be its headquarters , and Moncton remained a railroad town for well over a century until the closure of the Canadian National Railway ( CNR ) locomotive shops in the late 1980s . Although the economy of Moncton was traumatized twice — by the collapse of the shipbuilding industry in the 1860s and by the closure of the CNR locomotive shops in the 1980s — the city was able to rebound strongly on both occasions . The city adopted the motto Resurgo after its rebirth as a railway town . At present , the city 's economy is stable and diversified , primarily based on its traditional transportation , distribution , retailing , and commercial heritage , and supplemented by strength in the educational , health care , financial , information technology , and insurance sectors . The strength of Moncton 's economy has received national recognition and the local unemployment rate is consistently less than the national average .
= = History = =
Acadians first settled the head of the Bay of Fundy in the 1670s . The first reference to the " Petcoucoyer River " was on the De Meulles map of 1686 . Settlement of the Petitcodiac and Memramcook river valleys began about 1700 , gradually extending inland and reaching the site of present @-@ day Moncton in 1733 . The first Acadian settlers in the Moncton area established a marshland farming community and chose to name their settlement Le Coude ( The Elbow ) , an allusion to the 90 ° bend in the river near the site of the settlement .
In 1755 , nearby Fort Beausejour was captured by English forces under the command of Lt. Col. Robert Monckton . The Beaubassin region including the Memramcook and Petitcodiac river valleys subsequently fell under English control .
Later that year , Governor Charles Lawrence issued a decree ordering the expulsion of the Acadian population from Nova Scotia ( including recently captured areas of Acadia such as le Coude ) . This action came to be known as the " Great Upheaval " .
The reaches of the upper Petitcodiac River valley then came under the control of the Philadelphia Land Company ( one of the principals of which was Benjamin Franklin ) and in 1766 Pennsylvania Dutch settlers arrived to re @-@ establish the pre @-@ existing farming community at Le Coude . The Settlers consisted of eight families ; Heinrick Stief ( Steeves ) , Jacob Treitz ( Trites ) , Matthias Sommer ( Somers ) , Jacob Reicker ( Ricker ) , Charles Jones ( Schantz ) , George Wortmann ( Wortman ) , Michael Lutz ( Lutes ) , and George Koppel ( Copple ) . There is a plaque dedicated in their honor at the mouth of Hall 's Creek . They renamed the settlement " The Bend " . The Bend remained an agricultural settlement for nearly 80 more years . Even by 1836 , there were only 20 households in the community . At this time , the Westmorland Road became open to year round travel and a regular mail coach service was established between Saint John and Halifax . The Bend became an important transfer and rest station along the route . Over the next decade , lumbering and then shipbuilding would become important industries in the area .
The turning point for the community was when Joseph Salter took over ( and expanded ) a shipyard at The Bend in 1847 . The expanded shipyard ultimately grew to employ about 400 workers . The Bend subsequently developed a service @-@ based economy to support the shipyard and gradually began to acquire all the amenities of a growing town . The prosperity engendered by the wooden shipbuilding industry allowed The Bend to incorporate as the town of Moncton in 1855 . The town was named for Lt. Col. Robert Monckton , but a clerical error at the time the town was incorporated resulted in the misspelling of the community 's name , which has been perpetuated to the present day . The first mayor of Moncton was the shipbuilder Joseph Salter .
Two years later , in 1857 , the European and North American Railway opened its line from Moncton to nearby Shediac ; this was followed by a line from Moncton to Saint John opening in 1859 . At about the time of the arrival of the railway , the popularity of steam @-@ powered ships forced an end to the era of wooden shipbuilding . The Salter shipyard closed in 1858 . The resulting industrial collapse caused Moncton to surrender its civic charter in 1862 .
Moncton 's economic depression did not last long and a second era of prosperity came to the area in 1871 when Moncton was selected to be the headquarters of the Intercolonial Railway of Canada ( ICR ) . The arrival of the ICR in Moncton was a seminal event for the community . For the next 120 years , the history of the city would be firmly linked with that of the railway . In 1875 , Moncton was able to reincorporate as a town and adopted the motto " Resurgo " ( Latin for I rise again ) . One year later , the ICR line to Quebec was opened . The railway boom that emanated from this and the associated employment growth allowed Moncton to achieve city status on 23 April 1890 .
Moncton grew rapidly during the early 20th century , particularly after provincial lobbying helped the city become the eastern terminus of the massive National Transcontinental Railway project in 1912 . In 1918 , the ICR and NTR were merged by the federal government into the newly formed Canadian National Railways ( CNR ) system . The ICR shops would become CNR 's major locomotive repair facility for the Maritimes and Moncton became the headquarters for CNR 's Maritime division . The T. Eaton Company 's catalogue warehouse moved to the city in the early 1920s , employing over seven hundred people . Transportation and distribution became increasingly important to the Moncton economy throughout the middle part of the 20th century . The Moncton Airport opened in 1929 and quickly became an important fixture in the community . During the Second World War the Canadian Army built a large military supply base in the city to service the Maritime military establishment . The CNR continued to dominate the economy of the city with railway employment in Moncton peaked at nearly six thousand workers in the 1950s before beginning a slow decline .
Moncton was placed on the Trans @-@ Canada Highway network in the early 1960s after Route 2 was built along the northern perimeter of the city . Subsequent development saw Route 15 built between the city and Shediac . At the same time , the Petitcodiac River Causeway was constructed . The Université de Moncton was founded in 1963 . This institution became an important resource in the development of Acadian culture in the area .
The late 1970s and the 1980s again saw a period of economic hardship hit the city as several major employers closed or restructured . The Eatons catalogue division , CNR 's locomotive shops facility and CFB Moncton were all closed during this time throwing thousands of citizens out of work .
Diversification in the early 1990s saw the rise of information technology , led by call centres which made use of the city 's bilingual workforce . By the late 1990s , retail , manufacturing and service expansion began to occur in all sectors and within a decade of the closure of the CNR locomotive shops Moncton had more than made up for its employment losses . This dramatic turnaround in the fortunes of the city has been termed the " Moncton Miracle " .
The growth of the community has continued unabated since the 1990s and has actually been accelerating . The confidence of the community has been bolstered by its ability to host major events such as the Francophonie Summit in 1999 , a Rolling Stones concert in 2005 , the Memorial Cup in 2006 and both the IAAF World Junior Championships in Athletics and a neutral site regular season CFL football game in 2010 . Recent positive developments include the Atlantic Baptist University ( later renamed Crandall University ) achieving full university status and relocating to a new campus in 1996 , the Greater Moncton Airport opening a new terminal building and becoming a designated international airport in 2002 , and the opening of the new Gunningsville Bridge to Riverview in 2005 . In 2002 , Moncton became Canada 's first officially bilingual city . In the 2006 census , Moncton was officially designated a Census Metropolitan Area and became the largest metropolitan area in the province of New Brunswick .
= = Geography = =
Moncton lies in southeastern New Brunswick , at the geographic centre of the Maritime Provinces . The city is located along the north bank of the Petitcodiac River at a point where the river bends acutely from a west − east to north − south flow . This geographical feature has contributed significantly to historical names given to the community .
Petitcodiac in the Mi 'kmaq language has been translated as meaning " bends like a bow " . The early Acadian settlers in the region named their community Le Coude which means " the elbow " . Subsequent English immigrants changed the name of the settlement to The Bend of the Petitcodiac ( or simply The Bend ) .
The Petitcodiac river valley at Moncton is broad and relatively flat , bounded by a long ridge to the north ( Lutes Mountain ) and by the rugged Caledonia Highlands to the south . Moncton lies at the original head of navigation on the river , however a causeway to Riverview ( constructed in 1968 ) resulted in extensive sedimentation of the river channel downstream and rendered the Moncton area of the waterway unnavigable . On 14 April 2010 , the causeway gates were opened in an effort to restore the silt @-@ laden river .
= = = Tidal bore = = =
The Petitcodiac River exhibits one of North America 's few tidal bores : a regularly occurring wave that travels up the river on the leading edge of the incoming tide . The bore is as a result of the extreme tides of the Bay of Fundy . Originally , the bore was very impressive , sometimes between 1 and 2 metres ( 3 ft 3 in and 6 ft 7 in ) in height and extending across the 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) width of the Petitcodiac River in the Moncton area . This wave would occur twice a day at high tide , travelling at an average speed of 13 km / h ( 8 @.@ 1 mph ) and producing an audible roar . Unsurprisingly , the " bore " became a very popular early tourist attraction for the city , but when the Petitcodiac causeway was built in the 1960s , the river channel quickly silted in and reduced the bore so that it rarely exceeds 15 to 20 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) in height . On 14 April 2010 , the causeway gates were opened in an effort to restore the silt @-@ laden river . A recent tidal bore since the opening of the causeway gates measured a 2 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) wave , unseen for many years .
= = = Nearby natural features = = =
There are many natural attractions near Moncton . Two major national parks , Fundy National Park and Kouchibouguac National Park , are within a one @-@ hour drive of the city . The warmest salt water beaches north of Virginia can be found on the Northumberland Strait , only 15 minutes away at Parlee Beach in the nearby town of Shediac . New Brunswick 's signature natural attraction , the Hopewell Rocks , are a half @-@ hour 's drive down the Petitcodiac river valley . Cape Enrage , located near Alma , includes a historic lighthouse , fossil cliffs , scenic vistas , and adventure tourism . The Sackville Waterfowl Park includes nature trails and a boardwalk over a freshwater marsh as well as waterfowl viewing platforms . Other nearby attractions ( within one hour of the city ) include The Cape Jourimain National Wildlife Preserve , La Dune de Bouctouche Eco @-@ Centre , ( an ecotourism site and beach ) and the Joggins Fossil Cliffs in Nova Scotia ; a UNESCO world heritage site .
= = Climate = =
Despite being less than 50 km ( 31 mi ) from the Bay of Fundy and less than 30 km ( 19 mi ) from the Northumberland Strait , the climate tends to be more continental than maritime during the summer and winter seasons , with maritime influences somewhat tempering the transitional seasons of spring and autumn .
Moncton has a warm summer continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) with uniform precipitation distribution . Winter days are typically cold but generally sunny with solar radiation generating some warmth . Daytime high temperatures usually range a few degrees below the freezing point . Major snowfalls can result from nor 'easter ocean storms moving up the east coast of North America . These major snowfalls typically average 20 – 30 cm ( 8 – 12 in ) and are frequently mixed with rain or freezing rain . Spring is frequently delayed because the sea ice that forms in the nearby Gulf of St. Lawrence during the previous winter requires time to melt , and this will cool onshore winds , which can extend inland as far as Moncton . The ice burden in the gulf has diminished considerably over the course of the last decade ( which may be a consequence of global warming ) , and the springtime cooling effect has weakened as a result . Daytime temperatures above freezing are typical by late February . Trees are usually in full leaf by late May . Summers are hot and humid due to the seasonal prevailing westerly winds strengthening the continental tendencies of the local climate . Daytime highs sometimes reach more than 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . Rainfall is generally modest , especially in late July and August , and periods of drought are not uncommon . Autumn daytime temperatures remain mild until late October . First snowfalls usually do not occur until late November and consistent snow cover on the ground does not happen until late December . The Fundy coast of New Brunswick occasionally experiences the effects of post @-@ tropical storms . The stormiest weather of the year , with the greatest precipitation and the strongest winds , usually occurs during the fall / winter transition ( November to mid @-@ January ) .
= = Cityscape = =
Moncton generally remains a " low rise " city . The city 's skyline however encompasses many buildings and structures with varying architectural styles from many periods . The most dominant structure in the city is the Bell Aliant Tower , a 127 metres ( 417 ft ) microwave communications tower built in 1971 . When it was constructed , it was the tallest microwave communications tower of its kind in North America . It remains the tallest structure in Moncton , dwarfing the neighbouring Place L ’ Assomption by 46 metres ( 151 ft ) . Indeed , the Bell Aliant Tower is also the tallest free @-@ standing structure in all four Atlantic provinces . Assumption Place is a 20 @-@ story office building and is the headquarters of Assumption Mutual Life Insurance . This building is 81 metres ( 266 ft ) in height and is tied with Brunswick Square ( Saint John ) as the tallest building in the province . The Blue Cross Centre is a large nine @-@ story building in Downtown Moncton . Although only nine stories tall , the building is architecturally distinctive , encompasses a full city block , and is the largest office building in the city in terms of square footage . It is the home of Medavie Blue Cross and the Moncton Public Library . There are about a half dozen other buildings in Moncton that range between eight and twelve stories in height , including the Delta Beausejour and Brunswick Crowne Plaza Hotels and the Terminal Plaza office complex .
= = Urban parks = =
The most popular park in the area is Centennial Park , which contains an artificial beach , lighted cross country skiing and hiking trails , the city 's largest playground , lawn bowling and tennis facilities , a boating pond , a treetop adventure course , and Rocky Stone Field , a city owned 2 @,@ 500 seat football stadium with artificial turf , and home to the Moncton Minor Football Association . The city 's other main parks are Mapleton Park in the city 's north end , Irishtown Nature Park ( one of the largest urban nature parks in Canada ) and St. Anselme Park ( located in Dieppe ) . The numerous neighbourhood parks throughout the metro Moncton area include Bore View Park ( which overlooks the Petitcodiac River ) , and the downtown Victoria Park , which features a bandshell , flower gardens , fountain , and the city 's cenotaph . There is an extensive system of hiking and biking trails in Metro Moncton . The Riverfront Trail is part of the Trans Canada Trail system , and various monuments and pavilions can be found along its length .
= = Demography = =
The population of Moncton is 69 @,@ 074 ( 2011 Census ) . Along with Fredericton and Halifax , Moncton is one of only three Maritime cities to register a population increase in recent years .
The majority of Moncton residents are native English speakers , but the city also has a substantial French @-@ speaking Acadian population ( 31 @.@ 9 % ) . Almost all Monctonians speak English ( 64 @.@ 6 % ) or French ( 31 @.@ 9 % ) as first languages ; 1 @.@ 6 % speak both languages as a first language , and 6 @.@ 9 % speak another language . About 46 % of the city population is bilingual and understands both English and French ; the only other Canadian cities that approach this level of linguistic duality are Ottawa , Sudbury , and Montreal . Moncton became the first officially bilingual city in the country in 2002 . The adjacent city of Dieppe is about 73 % Francophone and has benefited from an ongoing rural depopulation of the Acadian Peninsula and areas in northern and eastern New Brunswick . The town of Riverview meanwhile is heavily ( 95 % ) Anglophone .
The census metropolitan area ( CMA ) grew by 9 @.@ 7 % between 2006 and 2011 - the fastest such rate of any metropolitan area in Atlantic Canada . The census metropolitan area had a population of 138 @,@ 644 as of the 2011 national census , which makes it the largest metropolitan area in the province of New Brunswick and the second largest in the Maritime Provinces after Halifax . The 2015 estimated CMA population is 148 @,@ 000 . The CMA includes the city of Dieppe ( population 23 @,@ 310 ) , town of Riverview ( 19 @,@ 128 ) , Moncton Parish ( 9 @,@ 421 ) , Memramcook ( 4 @,@ 831 ) , Coverdale Parish ( 4 @,@ 401 ) , and Salisbury ( 2 @,@ 208 ) .
Migration is mostly from other areas of New Brunswick ( especially the north ) , Nova Scotia ( 13 % ) , and Ontario ( 9 % ) . 62 % of new arrivals to the city are Anglophone and 38 % are Francophone .
There are 2 @,@ 990 Aboriginal people living in Moncton , who make up 4 @.@ 3 % of the city 's population . There are 3 @,@ 305 visible minorities in Moncton . Blacks and South Asians are the largest visible minority groups , comprising 1 @.@ 7 % and 0 @.@ 7 % of the city 's population , respectively . There is also a growing Korean community in Moncton .
= = Economy = =
The underpinnings of the local economy are based on Moncton 's heritage as a commercial , distribution , transportation , and retailing centre . This is due to Moncton 's central location in the Maritimes : it has the largest catchment area in Atlantic Canada with 1 @.@ 6 million people living within a three @-@ hour drive of the city . The insurance , information technology , educational , and health care sectors also are major factors in the local economy with the city 's two hospitals alone employing over five thousand people .
Moncton has garnered national attention because of the strength of its economy . The local unemployment rate averages around 6 % , which is below the national average . In 2004 Canadian Business Magazine named it " The best city for business in Canada " , and in 2007 FDi magazine named it the fifth most business friendly small @-@ sized city in North America .
A number of nationally or regionally prominent corporations have their head offices in Moncton including Atlantic Lottery Corporation , Assumption Life Insurance , Medavie Blue Cross Insurance , Armour Transportation Systems , Imvescor , Major Drilling Group International , PropertyGuys.com , and Co @-@ op Atlantic .
There are 37 call centres in the city which employ over 5000 people . Some of the larger centres include Asurion , Numeris ( formerly BBM Canada ) , Exxon Mobil , Royal Bank of Canada , Tangerine Bank ( formerly ING Direct ) , UPS , Fairmont Hotels and Resorts , Rogers Communications , and Sitel . A growing high tech sector includes companies such as Gtech , Nanoptix , International Game Technology , OAO Technology Solutions , BMM Test Labs , TrustMe , and BelTek Systems Design .
Several arms of the Irving corporation have their head offices and / or major operations in greater Moncton . These include Midland Transport , Majesta / Royale Tissues , Irving Personal Care , Master Packaging , Brunswick News , and Cavendish Farms . Kent Building Supplies ( an Irving subsidiary ) opened their main distribution centre in the Caledonia Industrial Park in 2014 . The Irving group of companies employs several thousand people in the Moncton region .
There are three large industrial parks in the metropolitan area . The Irving operations are concentrated in the Dieppe Industrial Park . The Moncton Industrial Park in the city 's west end has been expanded . Molson / Coors opened a brewery in the Caledonia Industrial Park in 2007 , its first new brewery in over fifty years . All three industrial parks also have large concentrations of warehousing and regional trucking facilities .
A new four @-@ lane Gunningsville Bridge was opened in 2005 , connecting downtown Riverview directly with downtown Moncton . On the Moncton side , the bridge connects with an extension of Vaughan Harvey Boulevard as well as to Assumption Boulevard and will serve as a catalyst for economic growth in the downtown area . This has become already evident as an expansion to the Blue Cross Centre was completed in 2006 and a Marriott Residence Inn opened in 2008 . The new regional law courts on Assumption Blvd opened in 2011 . Construction will begin on a new downtown 9 @,@ 000 seat multipurpose events centre and arena on the site of the former Highfield Square shopping centre in 2016 . On the Riverview side , the Gunningsville Bridge now connects to a new ring road around the town and is expected to serve as a catalyst for development in east Riverview .
The retail sector in Moncton has become one of the most important pillars of the local economy . Major retail projects such as Champlain Place in Dieppe and the Wheeler Park Power Centre on Trinity Drive have become major destinations for locals and for tourists alike .
Tourism is an important industry in Moncton and historically owes its origins to the presence of two natural attractions , the tidal bore of the Petitcodiac River ( see above ) and the optical illusion of Magnetic Hill . The tidal bore was the first phenomenon to become an attraction but the construction of the Petitcodiac causeway in the 1960s effectively extirpated the attraction . Magnetic Hill , on the city 's northwest outskirts , is the city 's most famous attraction . The Magnetic Hill area includes ( in addition to the phenomenon itself ) , a golf course , major water park , zoo , and an outdoor concert facility . A $ 90 million casino / hotel / entertainment complex opened at Magnetic Hill in 2010 .
= = Arts and culture = =
Moncton 's Capitol Theatre , an 800 @-@ seat restored 1920s @-@ era vaudeville house on Main Street , is the main centre for cultural entertainment for the city . The theatre hosts a performing arts series and provides a venue for various theatrical performances as well as Symphony New Brunswick and the Atlantic Ballet Theatre of Canada . The adjacent Empress Theatre offers space for smaller performances and recitals . The Molson Canadian Centre at Casino New Brunswick provides a 2 @,@ 000 seat venue for major touring artists and performing groups .
The Moncton @-@ based Atlantic Ballet Theatre tours mainly in Atlantic Canada but also tours nationally and internationally on occasion . Théâtre l 'Escaouette is a Francophone live theatre company which has its own auditorium and performance space on Botsford Street . The Anglophone Live Bait Theatre is based in the nearby university town of Sackville . There are several private dance and music academies in the metropolitan area , including the Capitol Theatre 's own performing arts school .
The Aberdeen Cultural Centre is a major Acadian cultural cooperative containing multiple studios and galleries . Among other tenants , the Centre houses the Galerie Sans Nom , the principal private art gallery in the city .
The city 's two main museums are the Moncton Museum at Resurgo Place on Mountain Road and the Musée acadien at Université de Moncton . The Moncton Museum reopened following major renovations and an expansion to include the Transportation Discovery Centre . The Discovery Centre includes many hands on exhibits highlighting the city 's transportation heritage . The city also has several recognized historical sites . The Free Meeting House was built in 1821 and is a New England @-@ style meeting house located adjacent to the Moncton Museum . The Thomas Williams House , a former home of a city industrialist built in 1883 , is now maintained in period style and serves as a genealogical research centre and is also home to several multicultural organizations . The Treitz Haus is located on the riverfront adjacent to Bore View Park and has been dated to 1769 both by architectural style and by dendrochronology . It is the only surviving building from the Pennsylvania Dutch era and is the oldest surviving building in the province of New Brunswick .
Moncton is home to the Frye Festival , an annual bilingual literary celebration held in honour of world @-@ renowned literary critic and favourite son Northrop Frye . This event attracts noted writers and poets from around the world and takes place in the month of April .
The Atlantic Nationals Automotive Extravaganza , held each July , is the largest annual gathering of classic cars in Canada . Other notable events include The Atlantic Seafood Festival in August , The HubCap Comedy Festival , and the World Wine Festival , both held in the spring .
= = Sports = =
= = = Facilities = = =
The Moncton Coliseum is a 6 @,@ 554 @-@ seat arena which serves as a venue for major concerts and trade shows and is the home of the Moncton Wildcats of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League . The CN Sportplex is a major recreational facility which has been built on the former CN Shops property . It includes ten ballfields , six soccer fields , an indoor rink complex with four ice surfaces ( the Superior Propane Centre ) and the Hollis Wealth Sports Dome , an indoor air supported multi @-@ use building . The Sports Dome is large enough to allow for year @-@ round football , soccer and golf activities . A newly constructed YMCA near the CN Sportsplex has extensive cardio and weight training facilities , as well as three indoor pools . The CEPS at Université de Moncton contains an indoor track and a 37 @.@ 5 metres ( 123 ft ) swimming pool with diving towers . The new Moncton Stadium , also located at the U de M campus was built for the 2010 IAAF World Junior Track & Field Championships . It has a permanent seating for 10 @,@ 000 , but is expandable to a capacity of over 20 @,@ 000 for events such as professional Canadian football . The only velodrome in Atlantic Canada is in Dieppe . The metro area has a total of 12 indoor hockey rinks and three curling clubs . Other public sporting and recreational facilities are scattered throughout the metropolitan area , including a new $ 18 million aquatic centre in Dieppe opened in 2009 . A new 9 @,@ 200 seat downtown arena and events centre has been approved and is expected to open in 2018 .
Greater Moncton has many golfing facilities . There are nine 18 @-@ hole golf courses in the census metropolitan area , four of which are residential courses with courseside housing developments either existing or under construction . Both the Royal Oaks and Fox Creek golf clubs can be considered championship courses , with Royal Oaks being the first Rees Jones designed golf course in Canada . Other notable courses include the Moncton Golf & Country Club , Memramcook Valley Golf Club and the Mountain Woods Golf Club .
= = = Sports teams = = =
The Moncton Wildcats play major junior hockey in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) . They won the President 's Cup , the QMJHL championship in both 2006 and 2010 . The Moncton Mets played baseball in the New Brunswick Senior Baseball League and won the Canadian Senior Baseball Championship in 2006 . The Dieppe Commandos ( formerly known as the Moncton Beavers ) are a member of the Maritime Junior A Hockey League . The Universite de Moncton has a number of active CIS university sports programs including hockey , soccer , and volleyball . These teams are a part of the Canadian Interuniversity Sport program . Historically , Moncton was home to a professional American Hockey League franchise from 1978 to 1994 . The New Brunswick Hawks won the AHL Calder Cup by defeating the Binghamton Whalers in 1981 @-@ 1982 .
In 2011 , the Moncton Miracles began play as one of the seven charter franchises of the professional National Basketball League of Canada . In 2015 , the Moncton Fisher Cats began play in the New Brunswick Senior Baseball League . They were formed by a merger between the Moncton Mets and the Hub City Brewers of the NBSBL .
= = = Major events = = =
Moncton has hosted many large sporting events . The 2006 Memorial Cup was held in Moncton with the hometown Moncton Wildcats losing in the championship final to rival Quebec Remparts . Moncton hosted the Canadian Interuniversity Sports ( CIS ) Men 's University Hockey Championship in 2007 and 2008 . The World Men 's Curling Championship was held in Moncton in 2009 ; the second time this event has taken place in the city .
Moncton also hosted the 2010 IAAF World Junior Championships in Athletics . This was the largest sporting event ever held in Atlantic Canada , with athletes from over 170 countries in attendance . The new 10 @,@ 000 seat capacity Moncton Stadium was built for this event on the Université de Moncton campus . The construction of this new stadium led directly to Moncton being awarded a regular season neutral site CFL game between the Toronto Argonauts and the Edmonton Eskimos , which was held on 26 September 2010 . This was the first neutral site regular season game in the history of the Canadian Football League and was played before a capacity crowd of 20 @,@ 750 . Additional CFL regular season games were held in 2011 and 2013 .
Moncton was one of only six Canadian cities chosen to host the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup .
Major sporting events hosted by Moncton include :
= = Tourism , entertainment and shopping = =
Magnetic Hill is on the northwestern outskirts of Moncton and is now the city 's most famous attraction . It is a gravity hill optical illusion , where the local topography gives the impression that you are going uphill when in fact you are going downhill .
The " Magnetic Hill Illusion " is a popular tourism draw and both the city and province have built major tourism developments on the surrounding properties to capitalize on this . The complex includes The Magnetic Hill Zoo , a nationally accredited and award winning zoo with over 400 animals displayed in themed exhibit areas . It is the largest zoo in Atlantic Canada , has well @-@ developed and popular educational program , and was ranked as the fourth best zoo in Canada in 2007 . Also on site is Magic Mountain , the largest water park in Atlantic Canada , with a half dozen large water slides , a lazy river , wave pool , children 's splash pool , and a 36 @-@ hole mini @-@ golf course . An adjacent amusement park is now under construction and will be completed in 2017 . The Magnetic Hill Concert Site , a large outdoor concert facility which holds one or two large concerts every year is located nearby . The Rolling Stones performed there in 2005 in front of 85 @,@ 000 fans . The Eagles played there in the summer of 2008 in front of 55 @,@ 000 fans . AC / DC and Bon Jovi played at the hill in 2009 , with the crowd for the AC / DC concert exceeding 70 @,@ 000 . The Magnetic Hill Concert Site has developed a reputation for holding the largest concert productions in the entire country . U2 played the final concert of their worldwide U2 360 ° Tour at Magnetic Hill on 30 July 2011 . The Casino New Brunswick , which also encompasses a hotel and 2 @,@ 000 seat entertainment venue also opened at Magnetic Hill in 2010 . The performance space at the Casino New Brunswick has already hosted many top acts on the casino circuit .
At present , the major destinations for shopping enthusiasts in Greater Moncton are the Northwest Centre , and the Wheeler Park Power Centre in Moncton , and Champlain Place in Dieppe , which , at 816 @,@ 000 square feet ( 75 @,@ 800 m2 ) , is the largest shopping mall in Atlantic Canada and has over 160 stores and services . The Bass Pro Complex is adjacent to Champlain Place and is co @-@ managed by Cadillac Fairview . It includes a Chapters bookstore , multiplex cinema complex and includes a Bass Pro Shop .
= = Government = =
The municipal government consists of a mayor and ten city councillors elected to four @-@ year terms of office . The council is non @-@ partisan with the mayor serving as the chairman , casting a ballot only in cases of a tie vote . There are four wards electing two councillors each with an additional two councillors selected at large by the general electorate . Day @-@ to @-@ day operation of the city is under the control of a City Manager .
The greater Moncton area contains nine of New Brunswick 's 49 provincial electoral districts : Moncton Centre , Moncton East , Moncton South , Moncton Southwest , Moncton Northwest , Dieppe , Shediac Bay @-@ Dieppe , Riverview and Albert . Of the nine members of the Legislative Assembly that represent greater Moncton , five belong to the Liberal party and four belong to the Progressive Conservative party .
Moncton is in the federal riding of Moncton — Riverview — Dieppe . Portions of Dieppe are in the federal riding of Beauséjour , and portions of Riverview are in the riding of Fundy Royal . In the current federal parliament , all three members from the metropolitan area belong to the Liberal party .
The current federal MP for Moncton — Riverview — Dieppe is Ginette Petitpas Taylor ( Liberal ) , as of the 2015 federal election .
= = Education = =
Separate Anglophone and Francophone school boards administer greater Moncton 's 35 public primary and secondary schools . The Francophone South School Board administers ten schools in the Moncton area . The Anglophone East School Board administers 25 schools in Greater Moncton . There are four Anglophone high schools in the metro Moncton area ; Moncton High School , Harrison Trimble High School , Bernice MacNaughton High School , and Riverview High School . The area 's Francophone high schools are École Mathieu @-@ Martin and École L 'Odyssée .
Four universities have campuses in the greater Moncton region .
The Université de Moncton is a publicly funded provincial comprehensive university and is the largest French @-@ language university in Canada outside of Quebec . The Moncton campus enrolls over 4 @,@ 000 students and offers a variety of undergraduate and post @-@ graduate degree programs , including a School of Law as well as a number of health sciences disciplines including an MD degree program ( offered in conjunction with the Université de Sherbrooke ) .
Crandall University ( formerly Atlantic Baptist University ) is a private undergraduate liberal arts university affiliated with the Convention of Atlantic Baptist Churches that enrolls about 800 students . It offers degrees in arts , science , education , business , and religious studies . Crandall is partway through a $ 24 million expansion to the campus which began in 2009 and will see three new buildings constructed , allowing enrollment to increase to 1 @,@ 200 students .
The University of New Brunswick ( Moncton ) is a small satellite health sciences campus located at the Moncton Hospital that offers degrees in nursing and medical X @-@ ray technology to over 300 students . The Dalhousie NB Medical Training Program ( in conjunction with UNBSJ ) sees about 25 medical students and residents based at the Moncton Hospital as well .
Mount Allison University is a publicly funded principally undergraduate liberal arts university . Mount A is traditionally ranked by Maclean 's magazine as one of Canada 's top undergraduate universities , taking top honours in 18 out of the last 25 years . Mount Allison University is located about a half hour from downtown Moncton in nearby Sackville . Mount Allison enrolls nearly 2 @,@ 500 students and offers degrees in arts , fine arts , music , commerce , and science ( including master 's degrees in biology and chemistry ) . Mount Allison also provides first year and extension university courses in Moncton and has developed a formal affiliation with the Moncton Flight College to allow for a bachelor 's degree in aviation . As of 2014 , Mount Allison has produced 53 Rhodes Scholars , the most of any comparable university in the Commonwealth .
Moncton is home to two campuses of the New Brunswick Community College system .
The English @-@ language New Brunswick Community College - Moncton is the largest campus in the NBCC system with an enrollment of over 1600 full @-@ time students and also hundreds of part @-@ time students . It provides training in over 30 different trades and technology disciplines . A major $ 20 million expansion / refurbishment of the campus has recently been completed which , amongst other things has allowed construction of a new academic building for the business program .
The ( smaller ) French @-@ language Collège Communautaire du Nouveau Brunswick - Dieppe provides similar training for the trades and technology sectors .
Moncton has six private vocational schools that offer practical training in a variety of fields .
The Atlantic Business College offers a variety of business , paramedical and paralegal programs .
The Atlantic Paramedic Academy , operated by Medavie EMS is a Canadian Medical Association accredited school providing training in Primary and Advanced Care Paramedicine . It is also home to the Advanced Emergent Care ( AEC ) program of the Department of National Defence ( Canada ) .
Eastern College ( formerly known as CompuCollege ) has a campus in Moncton . Operating for over 25 years , they offer 40 different programs at seven different campuses in Atlantic Canada . Programs are offered in the areas of Business and Administration , Art and Design , Health Care , Social Sciences & Justice , Tourism & Hospitality , and Trades .
Moncton Flight College is one of Canada 's oldest , largest , and most prestigious flight schools .
McKenzie College is a visual arts institution specializing in graphic design , digital media , and animation .
Oulton College , New Brunswick 's oldest private college , provides training in a variety of business , paramedical , dental sciences , pharmacy , veterinary , youth care and paralegal programs . A new campus has just been constructed off of Vaughan Harvey Blvd in central Moncton .
= = Media = =
Moncton 's daily newspaper is the Times & Transcript , which has the highest circulation of any daily newspaper in New Brunswick . More than 60 percent of city households subscribe daily , and more than 90 percent of Moncton residents read the Times & Transcript at least once a week . The city 's other publications include L 'Acadie Nouvelle , a French newspaper published in Caraquet in northern New Brunswick .
There are 16 broadcast radio stations in the city covering a variety of genres and interests , all on the FM dial . Ten of these stations are English and six are French .
Rogers Cable has its provincial headquarters and main production facilities in Moncton and broadcasts on two community channels , Cable 9 in French and Cable 10 in English . The French @-@ language arm of the CBC , Radio @-@ Canada , maintains its Atlantic Canadian headquarters in Moncton . There are three other broadcast television stations in Moncton and these represent all of the major national networks .
= = Transportation = =
Air
Moncton is served by the Greater Moncton International Airport ( YQM ) . A new airport terminal with an international arrivals area was opened in 2002 by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II . The GMIA handles about 677 @,@ 000 passengers per year , making it the second busiest airport in the Maritime provinces in terms of passenger volume . The GMIA is also the 10th busiest airport in Canada in terms of aircraft movements . Regular scheduled destinations include Halifax , Montreal , Ottawa , Toronto and Hamilton . Scheduled service providers include Air Canada , Air Canada Express , Westjet and Porter Airlines . Seasonal direct air service is provided to destinations in Cuba , Mexico , the Dominican Republic , Jamaica , and Florida , with operators including Sunwing Airlines , Air Transat , and Westjet . FedEx , UPS , and Purolator all have their Atlantic Canadian air cargo bases at the facility . The GMIA is the home of the Moncton Flight College ; the largest pilot training institution in Canada , and is also the base for the regional RCMP air service , the New Brunswick Air Ambulance Service and the regional Transport Canada hangar and depot .
There is a second smaller aerodrome near Elmwood Drive . McEwen Airfield ( CCG4 ) is a private airstrip used for general aviation . Skydive Moncton operates the province 's only nationally certified sports parachute club out of this facility .
The Moncton Area Control Centre is one of only seven regional air traffic control centres in Canada . This centre monitors over 430 @,@ 000 flights a year , 80 % of which are either entering or leaving North American airspace .
Railways
Freight rail transportation in Moncton is provided by Canadian National Railway . Although the presence of the CNR in Moncton has diminished greatly since the 1970s , the railway still maintains a large classification yard and intermodal facility in the west end of the city , and the regional headquarters for Atlantic Canada is still located here as well . Passenger rail transportation is provided by Via Rail Canada , with their train the Ocean serving the Moncton railway station three days per week to Halifax and to Montreal . The downtown Via station has been refurbished and also serves as the terminal for the Maritime Bus intercity bus service .
Highways
Moncton lies on Route 2 of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway , which leads to Nova Scotia in the east and to Fredericton and Quebec in the west . Route 15 intersects Route 2 at the eastern outskirts of Moncton , heads northeast leading to Shediac and northern New Brunswick , Route 16 connects to route 15 at Shediac and leads to Port Elgin and Prince Edward Island . Route 1 intersects Route 2 approximately 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) west of the city and leads to Saint John and the U.S. border . Wheeler Boulevard ( Route 15 ) serves as an internal ring road , extending from the Petitcodiac River Causeway to Dieppe before exiting the city and heading for Shediac . Inside the city it is an expressway bounded at either end by traffic circles .
Urban transit
The Metro Moncton Area is served by Codiac Transpo , which is operated by the City of Moncton . It operates 40 buses on 19 routes throughout Moncton , Dieppe , and Riverview .
Intercity Bus
Maritime Bus provides intercity service to the region . Moncton is the largest hub in the system . All other major centres in New Brunswick , as well as Charlottetown , Halifax , and Truro are served out of the Moncton terminal .
= = Military = =
Aside from locally formed militia units , the military did not have a significant presence in the Moncton area until the beginning of the Second World War . In 1940 , a large military supply base ( later known as CFB Moncton ) was constructed on a railway spur line north of downtown next to the CNR shops . This base served as the main supply depot for the large wartime military establishment in the Maritimes . In addition , two Commonwealth Air Training Plan bases were also built in the Moncton area during the war : No. 8 Service Flying Training School , RCAF , and No. 31 Personnel Depot , RAF . The RCAF also operated No. 5 Supply Depot in Moncton . A naval listening station was also constructed in Coverdale ( Riverview ) in 1941 to help in coordinating radar activities in the North Atlantic . Military flight training in the Moncton area terminated at the end of World War II and the naval listening station closed in 1971 . CFB Moncton remained open to supply the maritime military establishment until just after the end of the Cold War .
With the closure of CFB Moncton in the early 1990s , the military presence in Moncton has been significantly reduced . The northern portion of the former base property has been turned over to the Canada Lands Corporation and is slowly being redeveloped . The southern part of the former base remains an active DND property and is now termed the Moncton Garrison . It is affiliated with CFB Gagetown . Resident components of the garrison include the 1 Engineer Support Unit ( Regular force ) . The garrison also houses the 37 Canadian Brigade Group Headquarters ( reserve force ) and one of the 37 Brigades constituent units ; the 8th Canadian Hussars ( Princess Louise 's ) , which is an armoured reconnaissance regiment . 3 Area support unit Det Moncton , and 42 Canadian Forces Health Services Center Det Moncton provide logistical support for the base . In 2013 , the last regular forces units left the Moncton base , but the reserve units remain active and Moncton remains the 37 Canadian Brigade Unit headquarters .
= = Health facilities = =
There are two major regional referral and teaching hospitals in Moncton .
The Moncton Hospital has approximately 400 active treatment beds and is affiliated with Dalhousie University Medical School . It is home to the Northumberland family medicine residency training program and is a site for third and fourth year clinical training for medical students in the Dalhousie Medicine New Brunswick Training Program . The hospital hosts UNB degree programs in nursing and medical x @-@ ray technology and professional internships in fields such as dietetics . Specialized medical services at the hospital include neurosurgery , peripheral and neuro @-@ interventional radiology , vascular surgery , thoracic surgery , orthopedics , trauma , burn unit , medical oncology , neonatal intensive care , and adolescent psychiatry . A $ 48 million expansion to the hospital was completed in 2009 and contains a new laboratory , ambulatory care centre , and provincial level one trauma centre . A new oncology clinic was built at the hospital and opened in late 2014 . The Moncton Hospital is managed by the Horizon Health Network ( formerly the South East Regional Health Authority ) .
The Dr. Georges @-@ L.-Dumont University Hospital Centre has about 400 beds and hosts a medical training program through the local CFMNB and distant Université de Sherbrooke Medical School . There are also degree programs in nursing , medical x @-@ ray technology , medical laboratory technology and inhalotherapy which are administered by U de M. Specialized medical services include medical oncology , radiation oncology , orthopedics , vascular surgery , and nephrology . A cardiac cath lab is being studied for the hospital and a new PET / CT scanner has been installed . A future $ 75 million expansion for ambulatory care , expanded surgery suites , and medical training is also planned . The hospital is also the location of the Atlantic Cancer Research Institute . This hospital is managed by Vitalité Health Network .
Maclean 's magazine has stated that Moncton has the best health care facilities of any of the smaller sized regional cities in Canada .
= = Notable people = =
Moncton has been the home of a number of notable people , including National Hockey League Hall of Famer and NHL scoring champion Gordie Drillon , World and Olympic champion curler Russ Howard , distinguished literary critic and theorist Northrop Frye , former Governor @-@ General of Canada Roméo LeBlanc , and former Supreme Court Justice Ivan Cleveland Rand , developer of the Rand Formula and Canada 's representative on the UNSCOP commission . Robb Wells , the actor who plays Ricky on the Showcase hit comedy Trailer Park Boys hails from Moncton , along with Chris Lee , Jacques Daigle , Julie Doiron , an indie rock musician , and Holly Dignard the actress who plays Nicole Miller on the CTV series " Whistler " . Harry Currie , noted Canadian conductor , musician , educator , journalist and author was born in Moncton and graduated from MHS . Antonine Maillet , a francophone author , recipient of the Order of Canada and the " Prix Goncourt " , the highest honour in francophone literature , is also from Moncton . France Daigle , another acclaimed Acadian novelist and playwright , was born and resides in Moncton , and is noted for her pioneering use of chiac in Acadian literature , was the recipient of the 2012 Governor General 's Literary Prize in French Fiction , for her novel " Pour Sûr " ( translated into English as " For Sure " ) . Canadian hockey star Sidney Crosby graduated from Harrison Trimble High School in Moncton .
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= Be Someone Else =
Be Someone Else is the second studio album by Portuguese singer @-@ songwriter Slimmy . Saul Davies was first set to be the producer of the album , however , such collaboration wasn 't possible and Slimmy started working on the album with his longtime producers Quico Serrano and Mark J Turner . Other musicians joined Slimmy for the recording of the album : Paulo Garim in the bass and Tó @-@ Zé in the drums , who already worked with slimmy in Beatsound Loverboy , and Gustavo Silva , in the keyboards and Daniel Santos in the guitar as guest musicians . He mentioned that all production process happened because of him and that he was the one with the " last word " on his projects , not the bands or producers that he worked with . Originally due for release on May 2010 , the album 's release was pushed back to 14 June 2010 . The album was released in three formats : the physical standard edition , the physical deluxe edition with 2 discs and the digital format featuring 10 tracks .
Slimmy defined the album as " freedom , with a bit of " teasing " and " sexual " , an album full of strong songs dedicated to his fans . The album is essentially a rock album , a completely opposite of Beatsound Loverboy , which features a more electronic sound , keeping , however , the same connection between rock and electro music . In an interview with JN Slimmy declared that the album feels more organic and less electronic because in Beatsound Loverboy , there was no one else to play the songs but him . While maintaining his irreverence , Slimmy guarantees , however , that what matters is to make music that people intending to sing and lyrics that people can understand . He also said that he already received criticism for not being a singer with a proper style , but " I try to provide different sensations to people .
Slimmy 's most significant promotion marked the beginning of " A Very Slimmy Tour " , starting on 18 February 2011 at the Kastrus River Klub in Esposende and ending on 30 April 2011 at the Pitch Club in Porto . Slimmy 's " Be Someone Else Tour " began on 6 May 2011 with its opening show at the Academy Week in Mirandela . Neither of the album 's singles , " Be Someone Else " and " The Games You Play " , were particularly successful , charting anywhere . Critical response to the album was generally favorable , with critics praising Quico Serrano and Mark Turner 's Be Someone Else 's polished production , calling the album more direct and humanized than Beatsound Loverboy . " Be Someone Else " was a commercial disappointment , the album didn 't managed to chart on any official chart company to date . Two music videos were released from the album : " The Games You Play " , produced by Ana Andrade , Carla Fardilha , Clara Araújo Teixeira and Helena Oliveira , premiered on 17 November 2009 on YouTube and " Be Someone Else " , produced by Riot Films and premiered on 27 June 2010 .
= = Background and development = =
= = = Production = = =
Slimmy started working on the album with his longtime producers Quico Serrano and Mark Turner by the third quarter of 2009 . Saul Davies was first set to be the producer of the album , however , Davies was on tour with the band James at the time , making such collaboration impossible . Other musicians joined Slimmy for the recording of the album : Paulo Garim in the bass and Tó @-@ Zé in the drums , who already worked with slimmy in Beatsound Loverboy , and Gustavo Silva , in the keyboards and Daniel Santos in the guitar as guest musicians . Slimmy commented that most songs on the album are re @-@ recordings which were recorded in Portugal in 2006 and 2007 , however , these suffered some changes during the recording sessions at the Wrong Planet Studios in the UK , to improve their sound quality .
In an interview with Susana Faria of JPN , Slimmy defined the album as " freedom , with a bit of " teasing " and " sexual " , an album full of strong songs dedicated to my fans " . During this same interview , Slimmy talked about the album :
= = = Concept and music = = =
The album is essentially a rock album , a completely opposite of Beatsound Loverboy , which features a more electronic sound , keeping , however , the same connection between rock and electro music . Slimmy has been influenced by rock artists such as Placebo , IAMX and Kings of Leon . Slimmy explained that Be Someone Else sounds different from Beatsound Loverboy because of its complex and structured production . Slimmy mentioned that Be Someone Else is less individualist than Beatsound Loverboy , he declares that this album is like " a message about being who you are " , while his previous album talked about his past experiences , specially about his experience in London . In an interview with Palco Principal , Slimmy was asked if he missed the " One Man Show " times . He declared that " Doesn 't matter how big the bands that play with me are , I will always feel like " one " , because , in this new record , I was the one who spent nights working on the album , not my band " . He also mentioned that all production process happened because of him and that he was the one with the " last word " on his projects , not the bands or producers that he worked with . During this same interview , Slimmy confessed that is always good to have someone with great ideas to work with , in this case , he was talking about him . He explained : " if there were five persons creating music , there would be a lot of mess , that 's why do it all and I 'm glad people trust in me for that " .
" I Can 't Live Without You In This Town " , an electro rock ballad , makes a markable difference from the other tracks , some critics called the chorus of the song memorable . The song is dedicated to a girl Slimmy met in Texas in 2004 . The album also features a song entitled " Together 4ever " remixed by DJ Ride . The song " Beatsound Loverboy " , included on the Beatsound Loverboy Remixes EP , was also remixed by DJ Ride .
In an interview with JN Slimmy declared that the album feels more organic and less electronic because in Beatsound Loverboy , there was no one else to play the songs but him . He explained that with the trio now completely formed , it is a whole different concept , everything sounds different , and their presence on stage is more energetic and trustful . Slimmy also declared that SLIMMY is no longer a solo project , but also belongs to those who follow it . In an interview with Jornal Metro , Slimmy said that the album reflects the maturity , greater stability in the mind . While maintaining his irreverence , Slimmy guarantees , however , that what matters is to " make music that people intending to sing and lyrics that people can understand . I do not do things to shock " , he also said that he already received criticism for not being a singer with a proper style , but " I try to provide different sensations to people . When I sing alive , I sound much more rock , but in this album , there are many different spirit moods " .
= = Release and promotion = =
Originally due for release on May 2010 , the album 's release was pushed back to 14 June 2010 . It was released in three formats : the physical standard edition , featuring 10 tracks ; the physical deluxe edition with 2 discs , the first disc featuring the standard 10 track listing plus a bonus remix of " Together 4ever " and the second disc , released in digipack format together with the other CD , featuring remixes of 8 songs from Beatsound Loverboy ; and the digital format featuring 10 tracks . Both standard and deluxe edition 's jewel case CD contained a booklet with alternative covers .
In an interview with Palco Principal , on March 23 , 2010 , Slimmy revealed the title of the album . He explained : " As a first resort , when I wrote the lyrics of the song [ " Be Someone Else " ] , I just wanted to warn those who not work , but still waiting for results . If you want to be somebody , you have to give much of yourself , is not enough to " give less and expect more " . However , over the years , I realized that music was also for the kind of people that bring us down . Life is not a race . We must be ourselves , open our eyes and always look forward . "
While being interviewed by Palco Principal , Slimmy declared he was bit " unsure " about the promotion process of the album , he affirmed that he already had shows to make in France and Germany , but his real intention was to tour Portugal intensively , because he felt he had no success in his country . The first promotional concert toke place at the Cidade do Porto Shopping on 26 March 2010 , where Slimmy sang a few songs from his album , including " The Games You Play " and " Be Someone Else " . Slimmy also promoted his album in Albufeira , at the Algarve Shopping 's Fnac on November 27 , 2010 . Slimmy 's next significant promotion marked the beginning of " A Very Slimmy Tour " , where Slimmy performed songs from his two albums . It started on 18 February 2011 at the Kastrus River Klub in Esposende and ended on 30 April 2011 at the Pitch Club in Porto . The first music video to be released was " The Games You Play " , produced by Ana Andrade , Carla Fardilha , Clara Araújo Teixeira and Helena Oliveira . It premiered on 17 November 2010 on YouTube . A music video was also made for " Be Someone Else " , produced by Riot Films . It premiered on 27 June 2010 on YouTube . Slimmy 's " Be Someone Else Tour " began on 6 May 2011 with its opening show at the Academy Week in Mirandela . Future show dates will be added on 1bigo 's Facebook page . Slimmy also performed at the Queima das Fitas in Viana do Castelo on 15 May 2011 .
= = = Singles = = =
" Be Someone Else " was unveiled as the album 's lead single . The song was written by Fernandes and produced by Quico Serrano and Mark Turner . It was released to MySpace on 1 January 2010 . " The Games You Play " , also written by Fernandes and produced by Quico Serrano and Mark Turner , was released as the second single of the album on 6 March 2010 on the iTunes Store . " The Games You Play " premiered on the Antena 3 radio station on 20 September 2009 and was released on Slimmy 's MySpace profile on 30 September 2009 as a promotional song . Neither of the album 's singles were particularly successful , charting anywhere . Despite not being released as a single , " I Can 't Live Without You in This Town " is available for digital purchase at Amazon since June 14 , 2010 . It charted at number 152 at the Metropolis Chart , and it was featured on the eighth season of the Portuguese soap opera Morangos com Açúcar .
= = Critical reception = =
Since its release , the album has received favorable reviews from contemporary music critics . A Trompa gave the album a favorable review , commenting that " [ the album is ] fast and oriented to be devoured in dance floors or other places of similar excitement and socializing " it " clearly evokes a modern rock that welcomes people to it " . A Trompa also praised Quico Serrano and Mark Turner 's polished production , calling the album more direct and humanized then Beatsound Loverboy . CDGO gave the album a positive review and commented that the album is more eclectic and that " it will surely satisfy the fans and other lovers of electronic music . Slimmy emphasizes again his unmistakable style , both musical and his image , proving to be one of the most promising musicians of the new generation of national music . " Ágata Ricca from Palco Principal also gave the album a favorable review and stated that " [ the album ] marks the difference with the previous one , due to Slimmy 's mature and reflective attitude " and that the album does not " change Slimmy 's past , it just emphasize it and strengthen it " . Ágata Ricca also praised the song " I Can 't Live Without You In This Town " for its markable difference from the other tracks , calling the chorus of the song memorable . She also said that some other tracks of the album are pretty " danceable " .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Paulo Fernandes , all music composed by Paulo Fernandes , Paulo Garim , Tó @-@ Zé , Gustavo Silva , Daniel Santos .
= = = Deluxe edition = = =
= = Personnel = =
Taken from iOnline .
Performance Credits
Technical credits
= = Charts = =
= = = Songs = = =
= = Release history = =
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= Delichon =
Delichon is a small genus of passerine birds that belongs to the swallow family and contains three species named as house martins . These are chunky , bull @-@ headed and short @-@ tailed birds , blackish @-@ blue above with a contrasting white rump , and with white or grey underparts . They have feathering on the toes and tarsi that is characteristic of this genus . The house martins are closely related to other swallows that build mud nests , particularly the Hirundo barn swallows . They breed only in Europe , Asia and the mountains of North Africa . Two species , the common and Asian house martins , migrate south in winter , while the Nepal house martin is resident in the Himalayas year @-@ round .
The house martins nest in colonies on cliffs or buildings , constructing feather- or grass @-@ lined mud nests . The typical clutch is two or three white eggs ; both parents build the nest , incubate the eggs and feed the chicks . These martins are aerial hunters of small insects such as flies and aphids . Despite their flying skills the Delichon martins are sometimes caught by fast @-@ flying birds of prey . They may carry fleas or internal parasites . None of the species are considered threatened , although widespread reductions in common house martin numbers have been reported from central and northern Europe . This decline is due to factors including poor weather , poisoning by agricultural pesticides , lack of mud for nest building and competition with house sparrows for nest sites .
= = Taxonomy = =
The three Delichon species are members of the swallow family of birds , and are classed as members of the Hirundininae subfamily which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins . DNA studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae , broadly correlating with the type of nest built . The groups are the " core martins " including burrowing species like the sand martin , the " nest @-@ adopters " , which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities , and the " mud nest builders " . The Delichon species construct a closed mud nest and therefore belong to the latter group ; they appear to be intermediate between the Hirundo and Ptyonoprogne species that make open cup nests , and the Cecropis and Petrochelidon swallows , which have retort @-@ like closed nests with an entrance tunnel . The genetic evidence suggests a close relationship between Hirundo and Delichon , which is further supported by the frequency of interbreeding between two widespread species , the barn swallow and the common house martin , despite being their being in different genera . The suggested taxonomic sequence of the mud @-@ building swallows has been recommended by at least two European taxonomic committees .
The genus Delichon was created by American naturalist Thomas Horsfield and British entomologist Frederic Moore in 1854 to accommodate the Nepal house martin that was first described by Moore in the same year , and is therefore the type species for the genus . The two other house martins were moved to Delichon from the genus Chelidon in which they had been placed up to that time . The name of the new genus , " Delichon " , is an anagram of the Ancient Greek term χελιδον / chelidôn , meaning swallow .
The genus contains three similar species :
Common house martin ( Delichon urbicum ) originally described as Hirundo urbica by Linnaeus in 1758 .
Asian house martin ( Delichon dasypus ) described as Chelidon dasypus by Bonaparte in 1850 .
Nepal house martin ( Delichon nipalense ) described by Moore in 1854 .
The common and Asian house martins have sometimes been considered to be a single species , although both breed in the western Himalayas without hybridising . There is also limited DNA evidence that suggests a significant genetic distance between these two martins .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Delichon is an Old World genus with all three species breeding only in the Northern Hemisphere . The common house martin is a widespread migrant breeder across Europe , north Africa and all northern temperate Asia to Kamchatka . Its western subspecies D. u. urbicum winters in tropical Africa , and eastern D. u. lagopodum moves to southern China and Southeast Asia . The Asian house martin breeds further south than common house martin in the mountains of central and eastern Asia ; its nominate subspecies winters in Southeast Asia , but the races breeding in the Himalayan and Taiwan may just move from the high mountains to lower altitudes . The Nepal house martin is resident in the mountains of southern Asia .
The preferred habitat of the common house martin is open country with low vegetation , such as pasture , meadows and farmland , and preferably near water , although it is also found in mountains up to at least 2 @,@ 200 metres ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) altitude . As its name implies , it readily nests on man @-@ made buildings , and will breed even in city centres if the air is clean enough . The other two species favour mountainous country ( and sea cliffs in the case of Asian house martin ) ; they use buildings as nest sites less frequently than their northern relative . The wintering grounds of the two migrant species include a range of open country and hilly habitats .
= = Description = =
Delichon martins are 13 – 15 cm ( 5 – 6 in ) long , blackish blue above with a contrasting white rump , and with white or grey underparts . They are chunky , bull @-@ headed and short @-@ tailed birds , and have feathering on the toes and tarsi . The common house martin is the largest bird of the three , with an average weight of 18 @.@ 3 g ( 0 @.@ 65 oz ) , and has the most deeply forked tail ; the Nepalese species is the smallest ( 15 g , 0 @.@ 53 oz ) and has the squarest tail . Distinctive species plumage features are the black chin and black undertail coverts of the Nepal house martin , and the greyish wash to the underparts of the Asian house martin . As with other swallows and martins , the moult is slow and protracted because of the need to maintain efficient flight at all times to enable feeding . Moult normally starts on arrival at the wintering grounds , but overlaps with the breeding season for the non @-@ migratory Nepal house martin .
The Delichon martins have simple flight calls of one to three notes . In the two more widespread species these have a distinctive buzzing quality . The male 's song is a short simple ripple , perhaps less musical than that given by other swallows .
As a group , the house martins cannot easily be confused with any other swallows . Four species of the genus Tachycineta have white rumps and underparts , but they have bright metallic green or blue @-@ green upperparts , longer tails , and are restricted to Central and South America . The variable plumages of the South Asian species and a confused taxonomic history has left their distribution ranges in doubt .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
The Delichon martins were originally cliff nesters , breeding in colonies situated under an overhang on a vertical cliff . However , the house martin now largely uses human structures , as , to a lesser extent , does the Asian house martin . The typical nest is a grass or feather @-@ lined deep closed mud bowl with a small opening at the top , but many Asian house martins leave the top of the nest open .
David Winkler and Frederick Sheldon believe that evolutionary development in the mud @-@ building swallows , and individual species follow this order of construction . A retort builder like red @-@ rumped swallow starts with an open cup , closes it , and then builds the entrance tunnel . Winkler and Sheldon propose that the development of closed nests reduced competition between males for copulations with the females . Since mating occurs inside the nest , the difficulty of access means other males are excluded . This reduction in competition permits the dense breeding colonies typical of the Delichon martins .
The urban common house martin has to compete with house sparrows , which frequently attempt to take over the nest during construction , with the house martins rebuilding elsewhere if the sparrows are successful . The entrance at the top of the completed cup is so small that the sparrows cannot take over the nest once it is finished .
As with other swallows , pairing and copulation displays are normally brief , taking just a few minutes . The male calls to a female and attempts to lead her to the nest , where he lands and continues calling while posing with lowered head , dropped wings and ruffled throat . If he is successful , the female calls and allows him to mount her , usually in the nest . Three or four white eggs are the normal clutch and all three species are frequently double @-@ brooded . Both sexes build the nest , incubate the eggs and feed the chicks , although the female does most of the incubation , which normally lasts 14 – 16 days . The newly hatched chicks are altricial , and after a further 22 – 32 days , depending on weather , the chicks leave the nest . The fledged young stay with , and are fed by , the parents for about a week after leaving the nest . Occasionally , young birds from the first brood will assist in feeding the second brood .
A Scottish study showed that mortality in common house martins occurred mostly outside the breeding season and averaged 57 % . Females that had raised two clutches in a season had a higher mortality than those that were single @-@ brooded , but there was no such correlation for the males .
= = = Feeding = = =
The Delichon species typically feed higher in the air , and take smaller prey than other swallows . It is believed that this reduces inter @-@ specific food competition , particularly with the barn swallow which shares much of the breeding and wintering range of the martins . The insects eaten are mostly small flies , aphids and Hymenoptera such as winged ants . A wide range of other insects are caught , including Lepidoptera , beetles and lacewings . The Asian house martin appears to occasionally take terrestrial springtails and larvae and the common house martin also sometimes feeds on the ground . These martins are gregarious , feeding in flocks often with other aerial predators like swifts , or other hirundines such as the barn or striated swallows . In the case of at least the common house martin , the start of egg laying appears to be linked to the appearance of large numbers of flying aphids , which provide a stable and abundant food supply .
= = = Predators and parasites = = =
The main predators of the house martins are those birds of prey which are capable of catching these agile fliers , such as the hobby ( Falco subbuteo ) . Birds of the Delichon species are most vulnerable when collecting mud from the ground . This has therefore become a communal activity , with a group of these birds descending suddenly on a patch of mud . The generally insectivorous collared falconet has been recorded as hunting Nepal house martins .
The house martins are parasitised by fleas and mites , including the " house martin flea " , Ceratophyllus hirundinis and its relatives . A Polish study of the common house martin showed that nests typically contained more than 29 species of ectoparasite , with C. hirundinis and another swallow specialist , Oeciacus hirundinis , the most abundant . The genus also hosts endoparasites such as Haemoproteus prognei ( avian malaria ) , which are transmitted by blood @-@ sucking insects including mosquitoes .
More than 40 beetle species have been recorded in common house martin nests , but most are either typical of the locality or found in the nests of other birds . The typical number of individuals , around 200 , is relatively low compared to other bird species ( 1 @,@ 400 individual beetles for house sparrow , 2 @,@ 000 for sand martin ) . The beetles have no effect on the nesting birds , and the reason for their comparatively low numbers is unknown , although the numbers of specific parasites found in house martin 's nests is also quite small .
= = Conservation status = =
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) is the organisation responsible for assessing the conservation status of species . A species is assessed as subject to varying levels of threat if it has a small , fragmented or declining range , or if the total population is less than 10 @,@ 000 mature individuals , or if numbers have dropped rapidly ( by more than 10 % in ten years or three generations ) . None of the three Delichon species meets these criteria , and three genus house martins are therefore considered of least concern .
The numbers of the two Asian species are unknown , but both can be locally common or abundant , and the Asian house martin is extending its range in southern Siberia . The lowland breeding common house martin has greatly benefited from forest clearance , creating the open habitats it prefers , and from human habitation which has given it an abundance of safe man @-@ made nest sites , although widespread declines in its numbers have been reported from central and northern Europe since 1970 . This is due to factors including poor weather , poisoning by agricultural pesticides , lack of mud for nest building and competition with house sparrows for nest sites . Despite this , the huge geographical range and large numbers of the common house martin mean that its global status is secure .
= = Fossil record = =
Delichon polgardiensis ( late Miocene of Polgardi , Hungary )
Delichon pusillus ( Pliocene of Csarnota , Hungary )
Delichon major ( Pliocene of Beremend , Hungary )
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= The Firefly ( Fringe ) =
" The Firefly " is the 10th episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 53rd episode overall . The episode centers on a chain of events created by Walter crossing over into the parallel universe in 1985 that has had subtle but significant effects in the present . Christopher Lloyd guest @-@ starred as retired rocker Roscoe Joyce .
As the first episode in its new Friday time slot , " The Firefly " aired on January 21 , 2011 in the United States to 4 @.@ 88 million viewers , outperforming the previous episode " Marionette " Thursday night viewership by 18 % . Time shifted viewership added 42 % in its ratings . It received generally positive reviews , with many praising the storyline as " elegant " and " beautiful . "
= = Plot = =
The Fringe team is brought to a nursing home , where Roscoe Joyce ( Christopher Lloyd ) , the former keyboardist of the band Violet Sedan Chair , was seen talking to his son Bobby ( Nick Ouellette ) who had died in 1985 , as well as evidence of an Observer . Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) , meeting his musical hero , requests to take Roscoe back to his lab to help Roscoe remember what his son said . Walter is able to help Roscoe remember much of his past since the loss of his son through therapy that includes helping Roscoe to recall his piano @-@ playing skills . Roscoe shortly recalls the conversation with his son , which was actually a message from the Observer September to Walter . September ( Michael Cerveris ) soon appears at the lab and requests to speak to Walter .
As they walk , September reminds Walter of the damage he did when he brought Peter from the parallel universe . September recounts the events of one such chain : in the prime universe , three months after Walter 's crossing , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) captured a firefly which set into motion a chain of events that eventually led to the death of a pedestrian in a car accident . September mysteriously departs when Walter answers a telephone call , but not before leaving him with a message : " give him the keys and save the girl . " Later , Walter returns Roscoe to the nursing home . Roscoe thanks him and explains that the recent events reminded him of the last phone call he had with his son , where Bobby said he had dreamed of meeting Roscoe in a nursing home in the future . Roscoe is remorseful that Bobby died shortly after that call when a car struck him while crossing the street , which led to the breakup of the band . Walter realizes that Roscoe 's son was the pedestrian that was previously alluded to by September .
Unbeknownst to the Fringe team , September has engineered several events in the last few days , including stopping an armed robbery to help the asthmatic female employee ( Olivia Cheng ) recover from an asthma attack , taking her inhaler . When Walter hears of this witness , he requests Peter and Agent Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) to bring her to his lab , believing her to be related to the Observer 's warning . Minutes from the lab , September rams the car in which the woman is being transported , initiating another asthma attack . September races from the scene , prompting Peter to follow him in Walter 's car , requesting Walter to " give me the keys and save the girl . " Walter realizes that September has been orchestrating the events leading up to this point and urges Peter not to go , believing that following the advice of the Observer might lead to Peter 's death . Walter eventually relents and returns to help the woman , creating a makeshift inhaler before emergency help arrives . Meanwhile , Peter and Olivia follow the Observer to a rooftop . Peter corners September , who says " It must be very difficult , being a father " , before he shoots Peter with an energy blast that knocks him off his feet . Olivia arrives in time to give chase to the Observer but September disappears from an adjacent rooftop .
While Walter and Agent Astrid Farnsworth ( Jasika Nicole ) ensure that the witness is safe at the hospital , Olivia takes Peter back to the lab . Peter , suffering from a headache , takes an aspirin and drinks out of what he believes to be an ordinary bottle of milk from the fridge . In reality , the milk contains a serum developed by Walter in order to help him recover his full mental function . However , the serum was incorrectly prepared , which causes Peter to begin convulsing . Over the phone , Walter directs Olivia to inject Peter with the correct compounds in order to save his life . Walter realizes that the serum would have killed him if he had consumed it , and that this was another step in the Observer 's plot . Later that evening , September meets with another Observer , and identifies the fact that Walter was able to let Peter go , despite believing that he may not survive , and that when the time comes , they can expect Walter to do it again .
In a side plot , Olivia and Peter attempt to reorganize their relationship after Olivia receives a book ( If You Meet The Buddha On The Road , Kill Him ! by Sheldon Kopp ) from Peter that he had originally ordered for Olivia 's doppelgänger from the parallel universe .
= = Production = =
" The Firefly " was co @-@ written by co @-@ showrunners J.H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner , while being directed by Supernatural veteran Charles Beeson . On October 20 , 2010 , TV Guide announced that Back to the Future star Christopher Lloyd had been cast in an upcoming episode as " Walter 's musical hero " . Noble explained Lloyd 's role : " We all know how much Walter loves music , right ? Well this fellow was one of his icons . He adored this man . So Walter gets to be a bit of a fanboy " . Lloyd began shooting the episode in late October . Soon before the episode aired , Lloyd told reporters " I was very excited for this role . My character is going through an experience he never expected to happen to him , and he 's adjusting to that . " Lloyd also added he felt welcomed in as a part of the ensemble cast . In a conference call interview with journalists , John Noble explained that " probably the best fun that I 've had [ on Fringe ] was doing the stuff with Chris Lloyd , because it was two crazy old guys just trying desperately to communicate with each other . We had a lot of laughs . There was a common thread of trying to find the music again , because Chris ' character had forgotten how to play the piano , so we go through this journey of bringing the music back to him , and [ it 's a ] thrill to Walter . This happens all the way through this very complicated episode " .
The band name of Lloyd 's character Roscoe Joyce , " Violet Sedan Chair , " is a fictional band that Walter Bishop had mentioned the previous season , in the episode Grey Matters . J.J. Abrams had also named @-@ dropped the fictional band two years earlier in an issue of Wired for which he had guest @-@ edited , alluding to the band 's album , Seven Suns , recorded in the 1970s . Several months prior to the broadcast of " The Firefly " , a number of vinyl records of Seven Suns were shipped to a select number of independent record stores across the United States , which have been discovered by some people . The album does contain twelve songs in the style of psychedelic and folk . The album itself has been briefly shown in the series .
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " The Firefly " , with the intention of having " students learn about pharmacology and the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical functions . "
= = Cultural references = =
Walter explains that the red and blue sunglasses he uses in order to see Roscoe Joyce 's aura were sent to him by his friend , Doctor Jacoby from Washington State . This is a reference to the television series Twin Peaks , set in Washington State where Doctor Lawrence Jacoby is the local psychiatrist who also owns a pair of the same sunglasses . Reviewers also contrasted the casting of Christopher Lloyd , better known for his role of the scientist " Doc " Brown from the Back to the Future trilogy which took place in 1985 , to that of a character involved with time travel involving the year 1985 . Some journalists have speculated that the episode 's title was in reference to Joss Whedon 's Firefly series , which while critically acclaimed was cancelled mid @-@ season after being scheduled in the Friday night death slot . However , though " The Firefly " was the first Fringe episode to be first aired in the new Friday night slot , the producer had already selected the title of the episode prior to the Fox Network rescheduling .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In November 2010 , Fox announced that Fringe was being moved to Friday nights as a part of the network 's midseason overhaul , to air after the fourth season of their reality series Kitchen Nightmares . The move meant that Fringe would be airing against Supernatural , a show with a similar science fiction genre , though this competition did not begin until Fringe 's third Friday episode " Concentrate and Ask Again " . Fox 's popular reality series American Idol took Fringe 's timeslot , as it was shifted a day later to Wednesdays and Thursdays . Executive producer J.H. Wyman stated in an interview that they were excited and believed Friday nights are " open territory that can be conquered ... [ We believe ] we can actually deliver like The X @-@ Files did . ... I think we both agree it 's a good opportunity " . Wyman elaborated that the show 's high DVR numbers proved that though fans were watching the show , they did not want to do so on Thursdays . Co @-@ executive producer Jeff Pinkner felt that if the show " can build a fan base on and carve out some territory on Friday night , we can be there for years " .
The episode was originally going to air on January 28 until it was moved to a week earlier , on January 21 behind the season premiere of Kitchen Nightmares . " The Firefly " was the first Fringe episode to broadcast in its Friday slot , and many journalists considered the pending viewership numbers critical for the future of the show . The episode was the most watched show of the night , earning a 1 @.@ 9 / 6 share or about 4 @.@ 88 million viewers in the 18 – 49 age group . This figure was slightly higher than the average viewership for Fringe in the first half of the 2010 @-@ 2011 television season , and 18 % higher than the previous episode , " Marionette " . When time shifted viewership over the following three days is considered , the episode received a 42 % ratings increase with a 2 @.@ 7 rating share , and within 7 days after its airing , reported a total of 6 @.@ 7 million viewers with 2 @.@ 8 rating , representing a 37 % increase from the live broadcast . Fringe and its lead @-@ in show , Kitchen Nightmares , resulted in Fox 's highest rated Friday night with entertainment programs since 2008 .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Firefly " was well received by critics who considered the episode to be backed by a strong script . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly considered " The Firefly " as one of the series ' " finest episodes " , calling on the show 's many qualities :
The pull of family ; the knotty complexity of romance ; the way sci @-@ fi can provide fresh metaphors for the most frequently explored ideas and emotions ; the way we encounter humor and surprise even in the midst of anguish and regret — this is the stuff of which Fringe is made .
The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen rated the episode an " A " in considering the " elegance " of the complicated Rube Goldberg @-@ like plot , and praised the " beautiful , beautiful writing " in the reveal of the connection between Walter 's actions and Roscoe 's loss . Time 's James Poniewozik also enjoyed the elegant plot , calling the episode " an impressive outing for the series to welcome back its fans with " ; Poniewozik also appreciated John Noble 's performance as he " made Walter 's regret , and the toll it has taken , real — while also pulling off an amusing turn as an overawed , elderly rock fanboy " .
Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times , though somewhat confused to the cause @-@ and @-@ effect of the Observer 's plot , he still found the show enjoyable , and called it " the Fringe version of the butterfly effect " , a trope often used in other shows to show the impact of small changes in the characters ' lives . IGN 's Ramsey Isler gave the episode a rating of 7 @.@ 5 / 10 , stating that was " an important part of the setup for the second half of the season " with strong character development , but felt the pacing was slow and needed more action . Television Without Pity graded the episode a " B + " . The A.V. Club staff highlighted the episode in their review of the best television shows of 2011 .
= = = Awards and nomination = = =
At the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards , John Noble submitted " The Firefly " , along with " Entrada " and " The Day We Died " , for consideration in the Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series category , but did not receive a nomination .
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= Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II =
Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II is a platforming action @-@ adventure video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) developed by UK @-@ based company Zippo Games , a subsidiary of Rare Ltd. it was published by Acclaim and released in North America in December 1989 and in Europe on March 27 , 1991 . It is the sequel to Rare 's 1987 title Wizards & Warriors . In Ironsword , the player controls the knight warrior Kuros as he ventures in the land of Sindarin . He must defeat the evil wizard Malkil , who has assumed the elemental forms of Earth , Wind , Fire , and Water . Kuros must collect the parts of and assemble the legendary " IronSword " in order to defeat Malkil , who resides at the top of IceFire Mountain .
Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was developed by Zippo Games ' founder Ste Pickford and was the first game that he developed for the NES . Steve Hughes also assisted in development , while Rare 's video game composer David Wise did the music and sound . Pickford wanted to expand on the previous Wizards & Warriors game . Having experience with developing computer games , Pickford used various animation and graphics techniques to try and show off the NES ' graphical capabilities . In addition , Acclaim hired Italian male model Fabio Lanzoni to pose as Kuros on the game 's cover .
The game was fairly well @-@ received , selling 500 @,@ 000 copies in North America and 50 @,@ 000 copies in Europe . Various video game magazines praised Ironsword for its size , graphics and sound , detailed characters and bosses , and gameplay . Other reviews criticized its lack of originality as compared to other games that were released at the time . The game led Zippo Games to develop additional games for Rare on the NES such as Solar Jetman : Hunt for the Golden Warpship and Wizards & Warriors III : Kuros : Visions of Power . Ironsword won " Game Player 's NES Excellence Award " from Game Players magazine as one of the better NES titles of 1990 .
= = Gameplay = =
Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II is a platforming video game where the player controls the renowned warrior Kuros as he explores the land of Sindarin to defeat the evil wizard Malkil . This time , Malkil has taken the form of the four " Elementals " , based on the Greek classical elements – Earth , Wind , Fire , and Water – to stop Kuros in his quest . The objective is to assemble the legendary " IronSword " — the only weapon that can defeat Malkil — and defeat the evil wizard who lies at the peak of IceFire Mountain . In the game , players can move Kuros left or right , or make him crouch with the control pad ; the buttons allow Kuros to jump , to use his sword or a magic spell to defeat enemies , to access the " Magic Spell Screen " , or to pause the game . Kuros has a life meter that decreases every time he sustains damage from an enemy or a dangerous projectile , or if he falls for too long a distance . Along the way , players can collect chicken and brew to replenish Kuros ' life meter . Kuros loses a life when his life meter runs out , and the game ends when he loses all his lives . However , players may continue and restart the game where they left off up to two times . The continue feature would normally be disabled after the player had completed the earth domain , but due to an in @-@ game bug , the player actually loses the continue function immediately upon merely setting foot in the domain .
Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II consists of four levels called " domains , " each named after the four elementals . In each domain , Kuros must find a golden artifact that belongs to the domain 's " Animal King " and return it to him . Upon doing so , the path to the second part of the domain will appear . In the second part , Kuros must find the magic spell necessary to defeat the boss – the domain 's Elemental . Without the spell , it is impossible to damage the boss . Once the elemental in each stage has been destroyed , Kuros obtains a piece of the IronSword , which is needed for the final battle on Icefire Mountain . Throughout the game , players must collect items , spells , and money to progress . Money helps buy magic spells , more powerful weapons , shields , helmets , keys to open locked treasure chests , and additional food . Treasure chests — located throughout the game — can contain one of the following items : Additional money , magic spells , or weapon and armor upgrades . In each domain , players can visit inns where they can buy food , keys , or items ; they may also participate in a " Bonus chance " game where they may gamble their money to see which cup a bouncing skull will fall into .
In the game , magic spells help against enemies and Elemental bosses ; some are bought , while others must be found . Magic spells include " The Familiar Spell , " which turns enemies into money and helps retrieve golden objects , the " Dragon Tooth Spell , " which turns enemies into food , the " Asp Tongue Spell , " which slows down enemies , the " Silver Fleece Spell , " which makes Kuros temporarily invincible , and the " Water Spout Spell , " which creates an upward column of water that allows Kuros to reach high places . Each spell has a limited number of uses before it vanished from the player 's inventory . Other magic spells are necessary to defeat the Elemental bosses . These spells are found in each of the four domains , and include " Windbane , " " Blightwater , " " Firesmite " and " Earthscorch . " These spells can be used only in the corresponding levels in which they are obtained , and each consumes magic upon use. players can obtain additional magic by collecting small , floating , gold bubbles that appear randomly or are triggered by the player 's proximity to secret locations .
Players may also increase their score by defeating enemies or collecting items . Hidden along the way are the " Relics of Sindarin , " which are worth many points when collected . At the end of the game , players with a high enough of a score can place their names in the " IronSword Hall of Fame . " However , the list resets when the console is turned off . The game also includes a password feature in which players can obtain a password from the " Magic Spell Screen " to use to continue the game at a later time , even after the console has been turned off .
= = Development = =
Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was developed by UK @-@ based computer game company Zippo Games , headed by Ste and John Pickford ; this was the first game Zippo developed for fellow UK @-@ based video game company Rare . At the time , Zippo Games had just completed a previous game titled Cosmic Pirate - a game that was published by Palace Software and released for the Commodore 64 , Atari ST , and Amiga in 1988 . New to the technical capabilities of the Nintendo Entertainment System , the Pickford brothers visited Rare and were pleased with their NES library , though they thought they were backtracking by deciding to develop games for the console . According to Ste Pickford : " The NES seemed primitive by comparison , sub @-@ Commodore 64 . But the games were ten times better than everything being released for home computers , which we appreciated , and we wanted to try to make games as good as that . " Rare decided to hire Zippo Games to develop this Wizards & Warriors sequel ; Pickford remarked : " Rare showed us Wizards & Warriors and asked us to develop the sequel , and pretty much left us to it . " Rare felt that Zippo Games was trustworthy enough to develop the sequel without much help from them .
Development started in early 1989 , when the Pickford brothers were still learning about the NES and what it could do . At the same time , as being new to developing console video games , they were also learning about the market aspects and Nintendo 's policies and restrictions on games . Feeling that the graphics in most of the games in the NES library were poor , they placed emphasis on the graphics and animation . Pickford was particularly pleased with the animation of the enemy eagles and their movement . Rare assisted with the sound , and all of the game 's background music was composed by video game composer David Wise , who Pickford said " did a fantastic job on IronSword " . As far as gameplay was concerned , they tried to expand upon its predecessor , introducing more adventure @-@ based gameplay and additional RPG elements such as magic , inns , and money .
= = = Graphics and animation = = =
Ste Pickford developed the gameplay map for Ironsword . According to him , he basically copied the map that was used in a conversion port of Ghosts ' n Goblins that he developed a couple of years earlier . Moreover , the Pickford brothers were trying to resemble Ghosts ' n Goblins and similar games by Capcom as part of their attempt to earn the rights to develop the game from Rare . For the map screen , Ste Pickford used specific character data in the ROM itself , used the font from elsewhere in the data that was inserted separately , and overlaid the Elementals ' floating heads over the top of the graphic . According to Pickford : " The job of graphic was always about 30 % drawing , and about 70 % fiddly technical stuff ( which was why so many terrible artists – people who couldn 't draw at all – made decent video game artists back then , if they could manage the technical side of things well enough ) . "
In developing the game 's graphics , Ste Pickford translated black and white sketches into the character maps in the game . For the bosses , the plan was to use the entire screen while involving as few moving sprites as possible " to fool the player into thinking the whole thing was alive " . The same was done with the " Dragon King " , which was not one of the game 's bosses ; the dragon 's head and neck were composed of sprites , while the rest of the body was considered part of the background . The dragon 's neck stretched out vertically due to NES hardware sprite limitations horizontally .
The animation of the eagle ( the " Eagle King " ) that transports Kuros to the Wind Elemental was one of Ste Pickford 's first graphics which he drew for the NES . It was done in Deluxe Paint for the Amiga with sketching done by mouse - without assistance from graphics tablets or other scanners . He took eagle drawings from a book on animals in motion by Eadweard Muybridge . Pickford wanted to show off the possible graphical capabilities of the NES ; he said , " I wanted to do something ' flashy ' early in the game , trying to show off my amazing graphic art skills on the rather primitive NES . We were working on Amiga and ST games at the same time , so were always trying to push the NES with bigger and better graphics , right from the start of our work on the machine . " The eagle consisted of only three colors and between 11 and 17 sprites per frame of animation . There was a smaller version of the same eagle , which was used as a regular enemy in that level .
Development of the game 's title screen was inspired by loading screens that were used in most computer games at the time ; the objective was to create a nice @-@ looking graphic while waiting for the game to load , even though the NES , more rooted in arcade traditions , did not require that . Pickford spent most of his character space on the title screen image ; he was limited in the number of available colors due to the more limited graphic capabilities of the NES ( as opposed to most home computers ) , as it was more designed for scrolling and animation and not for stationary graphics . The sword in the title screen used character sprites and used a different palette from the picture of Kuros himself ; the sword had to be vertical as the NES hardware did not allow for too many sprites horizontally . Pickford planned to use and completed an Ironsword logo of his own when Acclaim made him use their planned logo , which he said " was a bit more bland and blocky , with detail that didn 't work very well at such a low pixel resolution " .
= = = Release = = =
Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was first unveiled in North America as part of the 1989 Winter Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas , Nevada and was displayed with other games to be released later that year by Acclaim . It was mentioned as a future game in the May 1989 premiere issue of video gaming magazine Electronic Gaming Monthly . It was also covered in GamePro 's premiere issue in May 1989 . Finally , it was previewed by Nintendo Power in its July – August 1989 issue .
For the game 's cover , Acclaim hired Italian male model Fabio Lanzoni to pose as Kuros ; Fabio was presented on the cover bare @-@ chested and without armor . When Zippo Games saw the image of the cover a week prior to its release , they were perplexed . According to Ste Pickford , " Our jaws hit the floor when we first saw this image ( which was , being merely the developers , probably about a week before the game 's release ) . Why on earth did they choose a photograph of a bare @-@ chested barbarian to promote a game starring a knight in shining armour ? " . Pickford added that " We used it as an example of the lack of imagination of Americans " , while suggesting that having an actual suit or armor would be too costly to use for a photo shoot . Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was released by Acclaim for the NES in North America in December 1989 and in Europe and Australia in 1991 . It managed to sell about 500 @,@ 000 copies in North America and about 50 @,@ 000 copies in Europe . Following the game 's release , Zippo Games would proceed to develop its next game for Rare , Solar Jetman : Hunt for the Golden Warpship ; they would eventually also release the third installment in the Wizards & Warriors series , Wizards & Warriors III : Kuros : Visions of Power .
The television advertisement consisted of a boy who is shown playing the first Wizards & Warriors game when a Conan the Barbarian @-@ lookalike enters his room after having defeated a monster and hands him a copy of Ironsword . After describing the brief plot and shortly showing clips of the game , the Conan @-@ lookalike leaves his room while exclaiming , " The fate of the world is in your hands ! Back vile beast ! " . At the end of the commercial , after briefly playing Ironsword , the boy opens the door in his room , only to find his dog , who now has smoke coming from his behind .
= = Reception = =
Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was initially reviewed and received positive ratings in the June 1989 issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly . Steve Harris said that the game was very large and expansive , noting that it " is so big , and has so much to offer , most of the competition pales by comparison " . Ed Semrad called the game " a worthy sequel that fortunately is better than the original " , similarly noting the game 's size as well as difficulty . Donn Nauert appreciated the game 's good graphics which complement the adventure theme , but he noted that some of the precise movements that are required in various areas may cause some frustration in gameplay . Jim Allee praised all the aspects of the game , saying " if you liked Wizards & Warriors , you 'll love Ironsword " . All four reviewers lauded the game 's involving gameplay and graphics .
The game would also be featured in the magazine 's September 1989 issue , in which it was named the magazine 's " Game of the Month " ; it also featured the game 's box art , with Fabio , on the cover . The reviewers , the U.S. National Video Game Team , noted that the game was superior to its predecessor as well as other games released at the time , noting that it was particularly better than Castlevania II : Simon 's Quest . They praised its well @-@ detailed and thought @-@ out graphics , the inclusion of well @-@ drawn out large bosses and supporting characters , the sound which " has an eerie tone that sets the mood for the whole game " , and additional features which expanded upon the game 's predecessor . They concluded that Ironsword was " one of the most welcome Nintendo Entertainment System games in a long time " . The game was also one of the featured games in the November – December 1989 issue of Nintendo Power , where it received six pages of coverage and featured a poster of the game . Game Players magazine awarded Ironsword the " Game Player 's NES Excellence Award " as one of the best games for the console in 1990 .
The game was also featured in UK @-@ based magazine Mean Machines in May 1991 . Matt Regan said that he was not impressed with the game , saying that similar platforming games such as DuckTales and Gremlins 2 : The New Batch were superior to Ironsword and had a more original approach in gameplay . He also criticized the fact that players cannot hit enemies while in mid @-@ air . However , he noted the game 's good gameplay . Julian Rignall also said that the game was fun , but it was not spectacular . However , just as Regan noted , Rignall said that the game did not offer anything special like with better titles such as Mega Man 2 or Super Mario Bros. 2 . However , he noted the game 's good graphics and challenge , though both noted that the backgrounds " are slightly bland " . Both reviewers said the game was well @-@ presented with good introductions and a password mode , easy controls , fair challenge , and " fairly good tunes and effects which fit the action well " . Overall , they said that Ironsword was " a fun but ultimately limited game that will appeal to platform fans " .
Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was listed at # 64 in IGN 's list of " Top 100 NES Games " . Reviewer Sam Claiborn said that the game was more expansive than its predecessor and that it featured many of the good graphics , gameplay , and usage of Middle English . He also noted that " Fabio 's bare @-@ breasted likeness smoldering on IronSword 's cover art that made this game a smash hit with kids and moms alike " . Website GamesRadar praised the game 's music , especially the title theme ; Brett Elston said it set a serious tone for the game , saying " its heavy , droning beats mix with a fantasy @-@ minded melody that make it sound like a funeral dirge in the Shire " .
The game 's cover , which features Fabio , has received significant coverage from many gaming websites . IGN listed Ironsword as having one of the most notable covers in video game history , listing its cover as the 2nd best of all time behind Ninja Golf . Conversely , 1UP.com listed Ironsword as having one of the worst covers of all time , comparing it to the cover for Mega Man . GameSpy listed it as the 4th worst video game cover in history , saying that " thanks to the presence of Fabio on the cover , gamers got confused and thought they had accidentally picked up one of their mom 's romance novels " . In a retrospective of the NES for the console 's 25th anniversary , Nintendo Power wrote that " the game 's quality will be forever overshadowed by Acclaim 's choice of Fabio as the cover model " .
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= Unas =
Unas / ˈjuːnəs / or Wenis , also spelled Unis ( hellenized form Oenas / ˈiːnəs / or Onnos ) , was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh , the ninth and last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty during the Old Kingdom period . Unas reigned for 15 to 30 years in the mid @-@ 24th century BC succeeding Djedkare Isesi , who might have been his father . Little is known of Unas ' activities during his reign , which was a time of economic decline . Egypt maintained trade relations with the Levantine coast and Nubia , and military action may have taken place in southern Canaan . The growth and decentralization of the administration in conjunction with the lessening of the king 's power continued under Unas , ultimately contributing to the collapse of the Old Kingdom some 200 years later .
Unas built a pyramid in Saqqara , the smallest of the royal pyramids completed during the Old Kingdom . The accompanying mortuary complex with its high and valley temples linked by a 750 m ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) long causeway was lavishly decorated with painted reliefs , whose quality and variety surpass the usual royal iconography . Furthermore , Unas was the first pharaoh to have the Pyramid Texts carved and painted on the walls of the chambers of his pyramid , a major innovation that was followed by his successors until the First Intermediate Period ( c . 2160 – c . 2050 BC ) . These texts identify the king with Ra and with Osiris , whose cult was on the rise in Unas ' time , and were meant to help the king reach the afterlife .
Unas had several daughters and possibly one or two sons who are believed to have predeceased him . Manetho , an Egyptian priest of the Ptolemaic period and author of the first history of Egypt , claims that with Unas ' death the Fifth Dynasty came to an end . Unas was succeeded by Teti , the first pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty , possibly after a short crisis . However the archaeological evidence suggests that the Egyptians at the time made no conscious break with the preceding dynasty and the distinction between the Fifth and Sixth dynasties might be illusory .
The funerary cult of Unas established at his death continued until the end of the Old Kingdom and may have survived during the chaotic First Intermediate Period . The cult was still in existence or revived during the later Middle Kingdom ( c . 2050 – c . 1650 BC ) . This did not prevent Amenemhat I and Senusret I ( c . 1990 – c . 1930 BC ) from partially dismantling the mortuary complex of Unas for its materials . In parallel to the official cult , Unas may have received popular veneration as a local god of the Saqqara necropolis until as late as the Late Period ( 664 – 332 BC ) , nearly 2000 years after his death .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Historical sources = = =
Unas is well attested by historical sources with three ancient Egyptian king lists dating to the New Kingdom period mentioning him . Unas occupies the 33rd entry of the Abydos King List , which was written during the reign of Seti I ( 1290 – 1279 BC ) . Unas ' name is also present on the Saqqara Tablet ( 32nd entry ) and on the Turin canon ( third column , 25th row ) , both of which were written during the reign of Ramses II ( 1279 – 1213 BC ) . The Turin canon further credits Unas with 30 years of reign . These sources all place Unas as the ninth and final ruler of the Fifth Dynasty , succeeding Djedkare Isesi and preceding Teti on the throne . This relative chronology is corroborated by archaeological evidence , for example in the tomb of officials serving under these kings .
In addition to these sources , Unas was also likely mentioned in the Aegyptiaca , a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II ( 283 – 246 BC ) by the Egyptian priest Manetho . No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is known to us only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius . Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned a pharaoh " Onnos " reigning for 33 years at the end of the Fifth Dynasty . Onnos is believed to be the hellenized form for Unas , and Africanus ' 33 @-@ year figure fits well with the 30 years of reign given to Unas on the Turin canon .
= = = Contemporaneous sources = = =
The primary contemporaneous sources attesting to Unas ' activities are the many reliefs from his pyramid complex . Excluding these , surprisingly few documents dating to Unas ' reign have survived to this day , considering the 30 @-@ year length that later records give for his reign . Excavations at Abusir , the royal necropolis of the Fifth Dynasty , have produced only four dated inscriptions safely attributable to Unas . They explicitly mention his third , fourth , sixth and eighth years on the throne . Unas also left a rock inscription on the island of Elephantine , next to the First Cataract of the Nile in Nubia .
In addition , several alabaster vases bearing Unas ' cartouche are known . A complete vessel and additional fragments originating from Byblos on the Levantine coast are now in the National Museum of Beirut . A vase of unknown provenance is located in the National Archaeological Museum of Florence and reads " Horus Wadjtawy , living eternally , king of Upper and Lower Egypt , son of Ra , Unas , living eternally " . Another vessel , of unknown origins , is on display at the Louvre Museum . It is a 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) tall 13 @.@ 2 cm ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) large globular alabaster vase finely decorated with a falcon with outstretched wings and two uraei , or rearing cobras , holding ankh signs surrounding Unas ' cartouche . An ointment jar bearing Unas ' cartouche and Horus name is in the Brooklyn Museum . Finally , a fragment of a calcite vase rim bearing two cartouches of Unas is on display in the Petrie Museum .
= = Reign = =
= = = Family = = =
Unas assumed the throne at the death of his predecessor Djedkare Isesi . Djedkare is thought to have been Unas ' father , in spite of the complete lack of evidence bearing on the question . The succession from Djedkare Isesi to Unas seems to have been smooth .
Unas had at least two queens , Nebet and Khenut , who were buried in a large double mastaba adjacent to their husband 's pyramid . Unas and Nebet possibly had a son , the " king 's son " , " royal chamberlain " , " priest of Maat " and " overseer of Upper Egypt " Unas @-@ Ankh , who died about 10 years into Unas ' reign . The filiation of Unas @-@ Ankh is indirectly hinted at by his name and titles and by the presence of his tomb near those of Nebet and Unas but is not universally accepted . Two other sons have been proposed , Nebkauhor and Shepsespuptah , but these filiations are conjectural and contested . Unas likely died without a male heir .
Unas had at least five daughters named Hemetre Hemi , Khentkaues , Neferut , Nefertkaues Iku , and Sesheshet Idut . The status of another possible daughter , Iput , is uncertain .
= = = Duration = = =
The duration of Unas ' reign is uncertain . As indicated above , historical sources credit him with 30 and 33 years on the throne , figures that have been adopted by many Egyptologists , including Flinders Petrie , William C. Hayes , Darrell Baker , Peter Munro , and Jaromir Malek . In favor of such a long reign are scenes of a Sed festival found in Unas ' mortuary temple . This festival was normally celebrated only after 30 years of reign and was meant to rejuvenate the pharaoh 's strength and power . Mere depictions of the festival do not necessarily imply a long reign however , for example a relief showing pharaoh Sahure in the tunic of the Sed festival has been found in his mortuary temple , although both historical sources and archeological evidence agree that he ruled Egypt for less than 14 full years .
Other Egyptologists suspect a reign of less than 30 years for Unas owing to the scarcity of artefacts datable to his reign as well as the lack of documents dated to beyond his eighth year on the throne . Hence , Jürgen von Beckerath believes that Unas ruled Egypt for 20 years while Rolf Krauss , David Warburton and Erik Hornung shortened this number to 15 years in their 2012 study of Egyptian chronology . Krauss and Miroslav Verner further question the credibility of the Turin canon concerning the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties , so that the 30 years figure credited to Unas by the canon might not be reliable .
Excavations of the tomb of Nikau @-@ Isesi under the direction of Naguib Kanawati at Saqqara have yielded evidence in support of a shorter reign . Nikau @-@ Isesi was an official who started his career during the reign of Djedkare Isesi , lived through that of Unas and died as overseer of Upper @-@ Egypt under Unas ' successor Teti . Nikau @-@ Isesi is known to have died on the year of the eleventh cattle count during Teti 's reign , an event consisting of counting the livestock throughout the country to evaluate the amount of taxes to be levied . It is traditionally believed that such counts occurred every two years during the Old Kingdom and every year during the later Middle Kingdom ( c.2055 – c.1650 BC ) . Thus Nikau @-@ Isesi would have lived for 22 years after Teti took the throne and together with the 30 years of reign credited to Unas , would have died past 70 years old . However , forensic examination of his mummy yielded an age at death of no more than 45 years old . This suggests that the cattle count occurred more than once every two years during Unas and Teti 's time , possibly irregularly . If so , Unas ' 30 years figure on the Turin canon , understood to mean 15 cattle counts , could translate into as little as 15 years , which together with just 11 years during Teti 's reign would account for Nikau @-@ Isesi 's death at around 40 – 45 years of age .
= = = Activities = = =
Trade and warfare
Owing to the scarcity of evidence dating to Unas ' reign , we know very little about his activities . Existing trade relations with foreign countries and cities , in particular Byblos , seem to have continued during Unas ' time on the throne . Reliefs from the causeway of his pyramid complex show two large seagoing ships coming back from an expedition to the Levantine coast with Syro @-@ Canaanite men , who were either the boat crews or slaves . Another relief depicts a military campaign , Egyptians armed with bows and daggers attacking Canaanite nomads called the Shasu . Similar reliefs have been found in preceding pyramid complexes , such as that of Sahure , and they may thus be standard themes rather than depictions of actual events . Other sources tend to confirm the accuracy of these depictions however , for example the autobiography of Weni relates many punitive raids against Canaanite nomads in the early Sixth Dynasty .
To the South of Egypt , inscriptions of Unas on Elephantine record a visit of the king to Lower Nubia , possibly to receive tribute from local chieftains or because of growing unrest in the region . In addition , a relief from the causeway of Unas leading to his pyramid shows a giraffe , suggesting trade relations with Nubia .
Domestic
Unas ' reign was a time of economic decline although , as the French Egyptologist Nicolas Grimal writes , it was " by no means a time of decadence " . Indeed , the Egyptian state was still capable of mounting important expeditions to provide building stones for the king 's pyramid complex . These expeditions are depicted on unique reliefs found in Unas ' causeway and are also referred to in the autobiographical stela of an administration official . This official reports the transport of 10 @.@ 40 m ( 34 @.@ 1 ft ) tall palmiform columns of red granite from Elephantine to Saqqara in only four days , a feat for which he was praised by the king . In addition to the important construction works undertaken in Saqqara for the construction of his pyramid complex , building activities also took place on Elephantine .
Until 1996 , the domestic situation during Unas ' reign was thought to have been disastrous , based on reliefs from the causeway of his pyramid complex showing emaciated people and thus suggesting times of famine . This changed when excavations at Abusir in 1996 yielded similar reliefs in the mortuary complex of Sahure , who reigned at a prosperous time in the early Fifth Dynasty . In addition , research showed that the starving people are likely to be desert dwellers , nomads distinguished by their specific hair @-@ style , rather than Egyptians . Thus , these reliefs are now understood to be standard representations of the generosity of the king towards the destitute and of the hardships of life in the desert regions bordering Egypt rather than referring to actual events .
= = = Death and end of a dynasty = = =
In his history of Egypt Manetho states that with the death of Unas the Fifth Dynasty came to an end . This may be because Unas died without a male heir , his probable son Unas @-@ Ankh having predeceased him . This might have caused a succession crisis hinted at by the personal name chosen by Teti upon his accession to the throne : " Seheteptawy " meaning " He who reconciles / pacifies the two lands " . Teti 's claim to the throne could have relied on his marriage to Iput , who may have been a daughter of Unas . This possibility is heavily debated , as the interpretation of Iput 's titles that would indicate that she was the daughter of a king is uncertain . Furthermore , the idea that Teti could legitimate his claim by marrying into the royal family is rejected by many Egyptologists , including Munro , Dobrev , Baud , Mertz , Pirenne , and Robin , who do not think that the right to the pharaonic throne passed through the female line .
In addition to Manetho 's statement , the Turin king list presents a special break point between Unas and his successor Teti . Although the king list is not organized in dynasties – which were invented by Manetho – the Egyptologist Jaromir Malek explains that " the criterion for such divisions in the Turin Canon invariably was the change of location of the capital and royal residence . " Malek thus suggests that the capital of Egypt , then known as Inbu @-@ Hedj , was indeed supplanted at the time by settlements located to the South , East of South Saqqara , where Unas ' palace may have been located . In the second millennium BC these cities finally merged and gave rise to Memphis .
Whatever the basis for Manetho 's choice to end the Fifth Dynasty with Unas , Egyptians living at the time probably perceived no particular change from one dynasty to the next . The administration of the state shows no evidence of disturbances , with many officials continuing their careers from Unas ' onto Teti 's reign . These include the viziers Mehu , Kagemni and Nikau @-@ Isesi and the overseer of the province of Edfu Isi . Given that the Egyptians of the Old Kingdom might not have conceived of dynasties , the distinction between the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties might be illusory .
= = Evolution of religion and kingship = =
The reigns of Djedkare Isesi and of Unas were a time of changes in Ancient Egyptian religion and in the ideology of kingship , changes that are first demonstrable under Unas . A statistical analysis of clay seal fragments bearing Horus names of pharaohs of the Fifth Dynasty points to a marked decline of the cult of the king during Unas ' time on the throne . This continued under Unas ' successor Teti , for whom we know only two seals bearing his Horus name . This trend reflects the lessening of the king 's power in conjunction with the growth of the administration and priesthood .
Meanwhile , the cult of Osiris was becoming more important with this god replacing the king as the guarantor of life after death for the pharaoh 's subjects . The German Egyptologist Hartwig Altenmüller writes that for an Egyptian of the time " the [ ... ] afterlife no longer depends on the relationship between the individual mortal and the king , [ ... ] instead it is linked to his ethical position in direct relation to Osiris " . In contrast , the cult of the sun god Ra was in apparent decline , even though Ra was still the most important deity of the Egyptian pantheon . Thus , Djedkare Isesi and Unas did not build a sun temple in contrast with most of their Fifth Dynasty predecessors . In addition , the names of Menkauhor Kaiu and Unas do not incorporate any reference to Ra , in rupture with a tradition which held since the reign of Userkaf , about a century earlier . The Pyramid Texts found in Unas ' pyramid demonstrate the importance of Osiris and Ra in ancient Egyptian religion at the time . Both gods were believed to play the key roles in accessing the afterlife , with Ra as the source of life and Osiris as the force through which the next life would be attained .
= = Pyramid = =
Unas had a pyramid built for himself in North Saqqara , between the pyramid of Sekhemkhet and the southwestern corner of the pyramid complex of Djoser , in symmetry with the pyramid of Userkaf located at the northeastern corner . In the process , workers leveled and covered older tombs located in the area , most notably the tomb of the Second Dynasty pharaoh Hotepsekhemwy ( c . 2890 BC ) .
The original Egyptian name of the pyramid was " Nefer Isut Unas " , meaning " Beautiful are the places of Unas " . The pyramid of Unas is the smallest of the pyramids completed during the Old Kingdom , having a square base of 57 @.@ 7 m × 57 @.@ 7 m ( 189 ft × 189 ft ) for a height of 43 m ( 141 ft ) .
= = = Mortuary complex = = =
The pyramid of Unas is part of a larger mortuary complex built around it . It was approached via an ancient lake on the shores of which Unas ' valley temple was located . This temple received the provisions for the cult of the king and the offerings to be made were prepared there . At the back of the valley temple was the beginning of a 750 m ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) -long causeway , equaled only by that of Khufu , and leading to an upper temple adjacent to the pyramid . A thin slit in the roof of the causeway allowed the light to illuminate its walls covered for their entire length in painted reliefs . These depicted the Egyptian seasons , processions of people from the nomes of Egypt , craftsmen at work , offerings bearers , battle scenes and the transport of granite columns for the construction of the pyramid complex .
At the end of the causeway was a large hall leading to a pillared open court surrounded by magazine chambers . The court led into the mortuary temple proper which housed statues of the king and where the offerings to the deceased took place . This was immediately adjacent to the eastern side of the pyramid , which was surrounded by an enclosure wall defining the sacred space . At the southeast corner of the enclosure was a small satellite pyramid for the Ka of the king . The internal chambers of the pyramid were entered in 1881 by Gaston Maspero , who thus discovered the pyramid texts . The burial chamber housed nothing but a black basalt sarcophagus sunk into the floor and a canopic chest . The sarcophagus proved to contain scattered bones , which may belong to Unas .
= = = Pyramid Texts = = =
The main innovation of the pyramid of Unas is the first appearance of the Pyramid Texts , one of the oldest religious texts in Egypt to have survived to this day . In doing so , Unas initiated a tradition that would be followed in the pyramid of the kings and queens of the Sixth to Eighth Dynasties , until the end of the Old Kingdom circa 200 years later .
In total 283 magical spells , also known as utterances , were carved and the signs painted blue on the walls of the corridor , antechamber , and burial chamber of Unas ' pyramid . They constitute the most complete rendition of the Pyramid Texts existing today . These spells were intended to help the king in overcoming hostile forces and powers in the Underworld and thus join with the sun god Ra , his divine father in the afterlife . By writing the texts on the walls of the pyramid internal chambers , the architects of Unas ' pyramid ensured that the king would benefit from their potency even if the funerary cult was to cease . Hence , the Pyramid Texts of the pyramid of Unas incorporate instructions for ritual actions and words to be spoken , suggesting that they were precisely those performed and recited during the cult of the king in his mortuary temple .
The good preservation of the texts in Unas ' pyramid shows that they were arranged so as to be read by the Ba of Unas , as it arose from the sarcophagus thanks to resurrection utterances and surrounded by protective spells and ritual offerings . The Ba would then leave the burial chamber , which incorporates texts identifying the king with Osiris in the Duat , and would move to the antechamber symbolizing the Akhet . Included in the spells written on the walls of the antechamber of Unas are two utterances known as the Cannibal Hymn , which portrays the pharaoh as flying to heaven through a stormy sky and eating both gods and men . In doing so the king would receive the life force of the gods . At this point the Ba of Unas would face east , the direction of the sunrise , and beyond the pyramid masonry , the false door of the mortuary temple where funerary rituals were performed . Finally , turning left the Ba would join Ra in the sky by passing through the pyramid corridor .
An example of a spell from the pyramid of Unas is Utterance 217 :
Re @-@ Atum , this Unas comes to you
A spirit indestructible
Your son comes to you
This Unas comes to you
May you cross the sky united in the dark
May you rise in lightland , the place in which you shine !
= = Legacy = =
Unas ' most immediate legacy is his funerary cult , which continued at least until the end of the Old Kingdom . This cult is attested by the tombs at Saqqara of seven priests responsible for the religious duties to be performed in the funerary complex . Three of these tombs date to the early Sixth Dynasty in the time following the death of Pepi I. Three more tombs date to the reign of Pepi II and the last one dates to the very end of the Old Kingdom ( c . 2180 BC ) . The priests of the cult of Unas adopted basilophorous names , incorporating that of the king , possibly upon taking office .
Unas ' funerary cult appears to have survived during the chaotic First Intermediate Period until the Middle Kingdom . By the time of the 12th Dynasty ( c . 1990 – c . 1800 BC ) , the lector @-@ priest Unasemsaf and his family were involved in the cult of Unas . In spite of this , Unas ' funerary complex was partially dismantled and its materials reemployed for the construction of Amenemhat I and Senusret I own pyramid complexes .
In addition to his official cult , Unas was deified and became a local god of the Saqqara necropolis . Grimal attributes this directly to the grandeur of his funerary complex . Malek doubts the existence of a popular cult of Unas during the Old Kingdom but acknowledges it from the Middle Kingdom onwards . He attributes this Middle Kingdom revival to the geographic position of Unas ' complex making it a natural gateway to the Saqqara necropolis . The popular cult of the deified Unas continued for nearly 2000 years as shown by the numerous scarabs bearing Unas ' name found in Saqqara and dated from the New Kingdom ( c.1550 – c.1077 BC ) until the Late Period ( 664 – 332 BC ) . The epicenter of this cult was not the pyramid of Unas nor the associated mortuary temple but rather the statues of the king in the valley temple . This activity could explain why the pyramid complex of Unas was the object of restoration works under the impulse of Prince Khaemweset , a son of Ramesses II ( 1279 – 1213 BC ) .
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= Bulldog Drummond =
Bulldog Drummond is a British fictional character , created by H. C. McNeile and published under his pen name " Sapper " . After an unsuccessful one @-@ off appearance as a policeman in The Strand Magazine , the character was reworked by McNeile into a gentleman adventurer for his 1920 novel Bulldog Drummond . McNeile went on to write ten Drummond novels , four short stories , four stage plays and a screenplay before his death in 1937 . The stories were continued by his friend Gerard Fairlie between 1938 and 1954 ; further books were published in the 1960s and one in 1983 .
Drummond is a First World War veteran , brutalised by his experiences in the trenches and bored with his post @-@ war lifestyle . He publishes an advertisement looking for adventure , and soon finds himself embroiled in a series of exploits , many of which involve Carl Peterson — who becomes his nemesis — and Peterson 's mistress , the femme fatale Irma . After his first adventure Drummond marries his client , Phyllis Benton ; in later episodes she becomes involved in Drummond 's exploits , often as the victim of kidnapping by Drummond 's enemies .
In 1921 an adaptation of the first novel was staged in London , with Gerald du Maurier playing the role of Drummond ; the play was further adapted and resulted in the 1922 silent film Bulldog Drummond , with Carlyle Blackwell in the lead role . Several other Drummond films have followed , either based on McNeile 's stories or with unique storylines .
= = Drummond = =
The Bulldog Drummond stories of H. C. McNeile follow Captain Hugh " Bulldog " Drummond , DSO , MC . Drummond is a member of " the Breed " , a class of Englishman who were patriotic , loyal and " physically and morally intrepid " . Drummond is a wealthy gentleman , formerly an officer in the fictional " Royal Loamshire Regiment " , who , after the First World War , spends his new @-@ found leisure time looking for adventure . McNeile first wrote the Drummond character as a detective for a short story in The Strand Magazine , but the portrayal was not successful and was changed for the novel Bull @-@ dog Drummond , which was a thriller . The character was an amalgam of McNeile 's friend Gerard Fairlie , and his idea of an English gentleman , although writer J.D. Bourn disputes Fairlie 's claim to be a model for the character , noting that " he was still at school when Sapper created his ... hero " . Drummond also had roots in the literary characters Sherlock Holmes , Sexton Blake , Richard Hannay and The Scarlet Pimpernel .
Drummond 's wartime experience had given him a series of abilities akin to that of a hunter : stealth — " he could move over ground without a single blade of grass rustling " — and the ability to incapacitate others — " he could kill a man with his bare hands in a second " . During his time on the Western Front he would take himself on solitary raids through no man 's land . Drummond was also proficient in jujutsu and boxing , was a crack shot , played cricket for the Free Foresters , and was an excellent poker player . In addition to Drummond 's physical attributes is his common sense , which allows him to equal and beat his opponents , even if they have a superior intellect .
Drummond is characterised as large , very strong , physically unattractive and an " apparently brainless hunk of a man " , He is six feet tall , weighs around 14 stone , and has a " cheerful type of ugliness which inspires immediate confidence in its owner " . Throughout his exploits , Drummond is joined by several of his ex @-@ army friends and colleagues , including Algy Longworth ( who would appear in many of the films , as Drummond 's sidekick ) , MC ; Toby Sinclair , VC ; Peter Darrell and Ted Jerningham . Dummond 's ex @-@ batman from his military days , James Denny , runs Drummond 's flat on Half @-@ Moon Street in Mayfair , London , along with Mrs Denny . ( Denny appeared as Drummond 's sidekick in the radio series , a version of the character named Tenny appeared in the films ) Drummond is a gentleman with a private income ; he is also be construed as " a brutalized ex @-@ officer whose thirst for excitement is also an attempt to reenact [ sic ] the war " , although the character was later described by Cecil Day @-@ Lewis as an " unspeakable public school bully " .
The novel Bulldog Drummond begins when Drummond places an advertisement in a newspaper looking for adventure to lift the ennui of his life in post @-@ war London . The response comes from Phyllis Benton , who is concerned for the health and well @-@ being of her father , over whom Henry Lakington and Carl Peterson have a hold . At the end of the novel Drummond and Phyllis marry , and remain married throughout the course of the McNeile and Fairlie series of books , in contrast to the films , which generally portray Drummond as unmarried . Phyllis becomes integral to the plot of some of the novels : she is kidnapped by Irma Peterson in several stories , including The Black Gang and The Female of the Species .
In the matter of his personal tastes , Drummond is a member of the fictional Junior Sports Club , a gentleman 's club on St. James 's Square , London . His preferred drink is beer although he also enjoys drinking martinis and is knowledgeable about wines . Drummond owns both a Rolls @-@ Royce and a Bentley .
Although Drummond 's actions are intended to maintain the conservative status quo of Britain , academic Hans Bertens considers that instead , he comes across as " a murderous exponent of a fierce competitive individualism " .
= = Carl and Irma Peterson = =
The first four books deal with Drummond against Carl Peterson , who becomes Drummond 's arch @-@ enemy . Peterson is also a master of disguise and uses several aliases . Peterson is killed in the fourth book , The Final Count , although Fairlie brings him back for his final novel , The Return of the Black Gang . Drummond forms a grudging respect for Peterson , and offers an honourable duel to the death at the end of The Third Round , instead of the usual summary justice that normally befalls members of Peterson 's gang . The writer Richard Usborne sees Peterson as " quite a sympathetic character . Almost , in fact , a hero " , and wrote that " authors ... fall in love with their big villains ... Sapper came to love Carl Peterson dearly , and so did Drummond " .
The title of the fifth Bulldog Dummond book , The Female of the Species refers to Rudyard Kipling 's line " the female of the species is more deadly than the male " . Irma is described by Jonathon Green as " the slinky epitome of a twenties ' vamp ' " , and by Lawrence Treadwell as dark , sexy and from an oriental background , " a true femme fatale " . After Carl Peterson 's death in The Final Count , Irma swears revenge on Drummond and kidnaps his wife — whom he had met in Bulldog Drummond — with the intent of killing him in the ensuing chase . Irma Peterson appears in six of McNeile 's books , and in a further five by Fairlie .
= = Reception = =
The Drummond series proved popular with contemporary audiences , with Bulldog Drummond selling 396 @,@ 302 copies between 1920 and 1939 , exceeding the 100 @,@ 000 @-@ copy benchmark for " best @-@ sellers " . At his peak in the 1920s , McNeile was the highest @-@ paid short story writer in the world , and it was estimated that in the last five years of his life he was earning around £ 10 @,@ 000 a year ; the Daily Mirror estimated that during his writing career he had earned £ 85 @,@ 000 .
When reviewing Bulldog Drummond Strikes Back for The New York Times , the critic observed that " if you like a good knock @-@ down @-@ and @-@ drag @-@ out yarn with excitement and violence on nearly every page , you can 't go wrong on Bulldog Drummond " ; for the novel Bulldog Drummond at Bay , the reviewer considered that " as a piece of fictional melodrama , the book is first rate " . In the British market , The Times Literary Supplement also characterised McNeile as a mass @-@ market thriller writer , which contrasted with its consideration of his earlier works .
Throughout the Drummond stories , much of the language used by McNeile relating to ethnic minorities or Jews is considered by the academic Joan DelFattore to be " intensely conservative by modern standards " ; Green observes that while the characters of other contemporary writers , such as Agatha Christie , " exhibit the inevitable xenophobia and anti @-@ semitism of the period , McNeile 's go far beyond the ' polite ' norms " . J.D. Bourn considers his language to be " rather distasteful " , while the academic Michael Denning observed that " Drummond is a bundle of chauvinisms , hating Jews , Germans , and most other foreigners " . The academic Ion Trewin comments that for the readers of the 1920s and ' 30s , McNeile was seen at the time as " simply an upstanding Tory who spoke for many of his countrymen " .
= = Influences = =
Drummond later became a model for other literary characters created in the 1940s and ' 50s : W. E. Johns used McNeile 's work as a model for his character Biggles , while Ian Fleming stated that James Bond was " Sapper from the waist up and Mickey Spillane below " .
= = Works = =
= = = Novels = = =
All were published through Hodder & Stoughton .
Drummond has also appeared in other works . In 1983 Jack Smithers wrote Combined Forces , and in 1990 Kim Newman — under the name Jack Smithers — wrote the short story " Pitbull Brittan " , which features Drummond . Drummond has also appeared in two graphic novels . In 2004 Moonstone Books released a Bulldog Drummond comic book written by William Messner @-@ Loebs and illustrated by Brett Barkley , while in The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen : Black Dossier , written by Alan Moore and illustrated by Kevin O 'Neill , a thinly disguised , elderly version of Drummond , called " Hugo Drummond " , is one of the three Secret Service agents tasked to hunt down the heroes of the piece .
= = = Stage adaptations = = =
McNeile and Gerald du Maurier adapted the first novel , Bulldog Drummond for the stage , where it was shown at Wyndham 's Theatre during the 1921 – 22 season. du Maurier played the title role in a run of 428 performances . Du Maurier again played the role on 8 November 1932 in a special charity performance at the Royal Adelphi Theatre attended by King George VI . The play also ran in New York during the same season , with A. E. Matthews as Drummond . McNeile also wrote The Way Out , which was staged at the Comedy Theatre , London in January 1930 with Ian Hunter as Drummond . A third Drummond play , Bulldog Drummond Hits Out , was co @-@ written by McNeile and Fairlie . It went on a tour of the UK in 1937 with Henry Edwards as Drummond , and opened on 21 December 1937 at the Savoy Theatre , London , where it had a short run . Fairlie later turned the storyline into the novel Bulldog Drummond on Dartmoor , published in 1938 .
In 1974 the play Bullshot Crummond , by Ron House , was staged with Alan Shearman as Crummond . The play was subsequently made into the 1983 film Bullshot .
= = = Short stories by McNeile = = =
= = = Films = = =
In 1933 Alfred Hitchcock was set to direct a Bulldog Drummond film with a screenplay by Charles Bennett entitled Bulldog Drummond 's Baby . The rights to the character of Drummond were then held by British International Pictures who would not sell the rights to use the character 's for Bennett 's screenplay . Bennett and Hitchcock turned the film into The Man Who Knew Too Much without Drummond .
= = = Radio and television = = =
A Bulldog Drummond radio series ran on the Mutual Broadcasting System from 13 April 1941 to 12 January 1949 . An attempt was made at a revival between 3 January and 28 March 1954 . Drummond was initially portrayed by George Coulouris , before being taken over by Santos Ortega and Ned Wever after 1942 ; Cedric Hardwicke took over in 1954 . A 30 @-@ minute episode of Douglas Fairbanks , Jr . , Presents featured Drummond in " The Ludlow Affair " , first broadcast on UK television on 16 December 1956 . Drummond was played by Robert Beatty ; he was aided by Kelly , played by Michael Ripper . A 1973 BBC documentary Omnibus , " The British Hero " , featured Christopher Cazenove playing Drummond , as well as a number of other such heroic characters , including Richard Hannay , Beau Geste and James Bond .
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= Lydford Castle =
Lydford Castle is a medieval castle in the town of Lydford , Devon , England . The first castle in Lydford , sometimes termed the Norman fort , was a small ringwork built in a corner of the Anglo @-@ Saxon fortified burh in the years after the Norman conquest of England . It was intended to help control Devon following the widespread revolt against Norman rule in 1068 . The Norman fort was abandoned by the middle of the 12th century .
The second castle in Lydford was constructed in 1195 following a wave of law and order problems across England . It included a stone tower with a surrounding bailey , and rapidly became used as a prison and court to administer the laws in the Forest of Dartmoor and the Devon stannaries . The tower was rebuilt in the middle of the 13th century , probably in the 1260s by Richard , the Earl of Cornwall . It was redesigned to resemble a motte and bailey castle , an antiquated design for the period but one that was heavily symbolic of authority and power . In 1342 the castle , still being used as a prison and courtroom , passed to the Duchy of Cornwall , who owned it until the 20th century .
The condition of the castle varied considerably over time , and was repeatedly renovated and then left to deteriorate once again . Nonetheless , other than a period during the English Civil War and the Restoration in the 17th century , Lydford Castle played an important part in stannary and forest administration until the 19th century . The castle acquired a bad reputation for injustice in the 14th century , and complaints about " Lydford Law " persisted for centuries . In the early 19th century , however , Dartmoor Prison was constructed , and Lydford ceased to be the centre for legal administration . The castle fell into ruin by the middle of the century .
In 1932 , Lydford Castle passed into the hands of the state , and in the 21st century is run by English Heritage as a tourist attraction . Historian Andrew Saunders has described the castle as architecturally significant , being " the earliest example of a purpose @-@ built gaol " in England . The earthworks of the Norman fort are owned by the National Trust and are also open to the public .
= = History = =
= = = 1066 – 1150 = = =
The first castle at Lydford was built in the aftermath of the Norman conquest of England in 1066 . In 1068 William the Conqueror intervened in South @-@ West England to put down widespread Anglo @-@ Saxon revolts against Norman rule and set about pacifying the region . William had been responsible for building urban castles across England in the former centres of Anglo @-@ Saxon power and in Devon he constructed new urban castles at Exeter , Totnes , possibly Barnstaple and in the town of Lydford .
Lydford , then called Hlidan , was a type of fortified Anglo @-@ Saxon town called a burh . The castle , in the 21st century called the " Norman fort " , was built on the isolated south @-@ west corner of the burh , soon after 1068 . It had a ringwork design and was only 55 metres ( 180 ft ) by 60 metres ( 200 ft ) in size , protected in part by the existing defences of the burh . A similar pattern of castle building within existing Anglo @-@ Saxon burhs can be seen at Wallingford and Bedford castles . Most of the interior of the castle was used to store grain in large timber and earth buildings . It is uncertain whether these storage facilities were intended for supplying Norman troops or storing grain for wider economic purposes .
This first castle was used only briefly and seems to have been abandoned by the middle of the 12th century . The grain stores were destroyed by fire , but the reason for this is uncertain . By this period , the town of Lydford as a whole was also in serious economic decline .
= = = 1150 – 1239 = = =
= = = = Construction = = = =
In the late 12th century Richard I 's government attempted to promote the growth of Lydford , including revitalising trade in the town . Then , in 1195 , there were widespread problems with law and order across England , including the South @-@ West , and on the basis of this Richard 's government decided to build a fortification for holding royal prisoners in Lydford , further along the west side of the town from the old castle , in a prestigious location next to the town 's church . This fortification is referred to in contemporary documents variously as a firme domus and castelli de Lideford , a " strong house " and " Lydford Castle " respectively .
It is unclear why the decision was taken to build the new castle in a different location within the town . Lydford 's case is not unique , as a similar shift occurred at Canterbury and Gloucester ; generally , such changes in castle location are associated with the destruction of the older defence or changes in political leadership . Archaeologist Andrew Saunders suggests that the new site was chosen because the earlier castle at Lydford was not owned by the Crown in 1195 and was , in any case , in disrepair . £ 74 was spent on the construction of the castle , paid for by Crown revenues from both Devon and Cornwall .
The castle took the form of a stone tower with a surrounding bailey . The bailey was rectangular and in the 21st century measures 180 feet ( 55 m ) by 130 feet ( 40 m ) . The bailey was protected by ramparts and deep ditches on the south @-@ west and north @-@ east sides , with the north @-@ west side protected by the ramparts and valley of the original burh fortifications . The south @-@ east side of the bailey probably formed a small courtyard in front of the tower , in a space now occupied by part of the 13th century earthworks , and was probably the entrance to the original castle .
The tower was a square , free @-@ standing building , 52 feet ( 16 m ) by 52 feet ( 16 m ) and at least two storeys tall ; in the 12th century the tower sat on flat ground with no mound around it . The walls were roughly built from slate and granite , up to 11 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) thick , and pierced by arrow slits . The tower had a spine wall along the middle of the building , dividing each floor into two rooms . The entrance was probably on the first floor of the building . An internal water supply was installed , of which a decorated spout still survives .
= = = = Role in stannary and forest law = = = =
Lydford Castle does not seem to be primarily designed to have a military function , although in 1199 when King John succeeded to the throne he had the castle garrisoned and expensively equipped to prevent any potential unrest breaking out in the region . The castle lacked the usual military features of the time , such as external gatehouses , and its design seems to have been intended to evoke the authority of a traditional defensive fortification rather than to resist an actual attack . Instead , as well as helping to deal with the wider problems in 1195 , the castle appears to have been built with the intention of enforcing the stannary and forest law in Devon . It is possible that the Crown originally intended that the castle took over the stannary law across the whole of Cornwall and Devon , although in practice its role only extended only to governing the Devon stannaries .
Stannary law was a medieval English legal system for governing the tin industry . South @-@ West England , and in particular Devon , was a major producer of tin in the 12th century , produced by independent miners who worked the alluvial deposits across the region . The industry was regulated by the Crown , who taxed mining output and raised revenue from any fines imposed on those who broke the stannary laws . The laws also helped to manage the relationship between the miners and other local people , whose economic interests were often at odds . The output of tin increased from the end of the 12th century onwards , encouraging the Crown to extend its regulation and generate more revenue . In 1198 , William of Wrotham , who controlled Lydford Castle at the start of John 's reign , was appointed as the Warden of the Stannaries , a new office intended to provide additional rigour to the administration of the mining industry . Stannary courts were established in Devon , backed by a team of officials , and , with the creation of the Duchy of Cornwall in the 14th century , the administration of stannary law was delegated to the duchy . From 1198 onwards , Lydford Castle was designated as the prison for supporting the court and its processes .
Forests were special areas of land in medieval England , owned by the Crown and subject to forest law . They were often selected because of their natural resources , and were expected to provide the Crown with a flow of money or raw materials . In 1195 , the Forest of Dartmoor extended across all of Devon , but in 1204 John curtailed the extent of the royal forest , removing much of Devon from Forest Law and leaving the area known in the modern period as Dartmoor . This reduced forest was still subject to the Forest Laws , involving a specialised group of legal officials who met at Lydford Castle to impose fines and other punishments . Probably both Lydford Castle and the forest was given to the Sheriff of Devon , William Brewer , in 1216 . The arrangement changed under Henry III , when the estates were given to Richard , the Earl of Cornwall in 1239 . Legally , this meant that the Forest of Dartmoor was converted to a chase , although the Earls of Cornwall continued to hold law courts at Lydford Castle , enforcing chase laws that closely resembled the former Forest Laws .
= = = 1239 – 1278 = = =
Richard , Edward II 's second son , took possession of Lydford Castle in 1239 as the Earl of Cornwall . Richard took a close interest in developing the town of Lydford , creating an additional market and introducing a new fair in the 1260s . Around this time , the main tower at Lydford Castle was demolished and rebuilt , probably by Richard , possibly following a serious fire in the building . Richard was a wealthy politician and rebuilding the castle in this way would have provided him with an important status symbol in the region .
The previous tower was stripped back , the existing walls levelled off around 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) from the ground and the ground floor arrow slits filled in . Two more storeys were then built on top of the older walls , better executed with a higher proportion of granite stone and thinner , typically around 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) thick . Although the structure remained essentially the same , the new tower was slightly smaller , measuring around 48 feet ( 15 m ) by 47 feet ( 14 m ) . The first floor was only basically designed , with a sequence of rooms of different levels of comfort , and intended to function as the prison , and the second floor was better finished , with a hall and a chamber , and probably operated as the courtroom and provided accommodation for the keeper of the castle .
As part of the work , an earth mound , or motte , 17 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) high , was piled up around the base of the tower . The original ground floor of the castle was now an underground cellar , probably used as a puteus , or pit , for detaining low status prisoners and reached by ladder from the first floor . Some infilling of the ground floor occurred in order to equalise the pressure on the walls from the mound . It is uncertain how many other towers or keeps have similar mounds , as excavation is usually required before the foundations can be examined , but Totnes and Farnham castles are known to have mottes build against the walls of the keep . The reason for building the mound is uncertain , but it was almost certainly not designed as a serious defensive feature . It was instead probably intended as to superficially imitate older motte and bailey designs , with the completed castle echoing these former symbols of power and reinforcing the current political status of its owner .
= = = 1278 – 1642 = = =
Richard 's son , Edmund took over the earldom in 1278 but had little interest in Lydford , preferring Restormel and Lostwithiel ; by his death in 1299 the castle had been left to decay and was in ruins . It reverted to the Crown , and when Edward II made his royal favourite , Piers Gaveston , the Earl of Cornwall in 1307 , Lydford Castle was passed to him . The castle was repaired at the start of the century and was in use once again as a prison . Edward II and Gaveston fell from power in 1327 and Thomas le Ercedekne was temporarily entrusted with the castle and Dartmoor by the new regime . In 1329 the castle was valued at a little over £ 11 . Piers Gaveston 's widow , Margaret de Clare , leased the property to Tavistock Abbey , and it continued to operate as a prison .
Edward , the Black Prince became Duke of Cornwall in 1337 and he acquired Lydford Castle on Margaret 's death in 1342 . Extensive repairs took place over the next three years , and the castle was considered to be well roofed and decorated inside . Over the next two centuries the condition of the castle fluctuated . Around 1390 the castle roof was stripped for its lead , to be used on castles in Cornwall . The castle well was possibly dug during the 15th century . After 1425 , the Crown let it to a range of individuals , including Sir Walter Hungerford and Sir Philip Courteney .
Lydford remained the centre of the forest administration through the 14th and 15th centuries . Despite complaints from non @-@ miners at the start of the 14th century that the prison regime at Lydford Castle was overly lax , by the end of the century the prison had a reputation for poor , grim conditions . The first known rhymes complaining about " Lydford Law " date from 1399 , and continued to be popular for several centuries . In 1510 , Richard Strode , a Member of Parliament campaigning for reform of the Stannary laws , was infamously arrested by Stannary officials and imprisoned in Lydford Castle . He later described how he was kept in an underground room in the keep , fed only bread and water , and encumbered with legcuffs until he paid the keeper to release him from the irons .
After 1485 , the Duchy took the castle back into direct control , and by 1546 it was in poor repair . Renovation work was carried out under Elizabeth I , but a report of 1618 suggested that the castle was unable to function as a prison because of its poor condition , and fresh repair work was carried out in the 1620s and 1630s under Charles I.
= = = 1642 – 1900 = = =
Lydford Castle was involved in the English Civil War that broke out in 1642 between the Royalist supporters of Charles I and Parliament . The castle was used by the Royalist commander Sir Richard Grenville as his main military prison in the region . It had a terrible reputation amongst Parliamentarians , who complained that it was used to summarily execute military prisoners and to extort money from innocent civilians , on fear of imprisonment . At the end of the civil war , the Lydford estate appears to have been sold off by Parliament The castle was assessed by their surveyors to be " almost totally ruined " in 1650 : the roof of the tower was still mostly intact , but the floors and their beams were collapsing , and the whole site , including the bailey , was only worth around £ 80 .
With the Restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660 the castle and the forest were taken back to the ownership of the Duchy . Sir John Granville was made the Rider and Master Forester of Dartmoor and the Lydford Castle courts continued to be held to regulate the Forest . Repairs to the dilapidated building do not appear to have been carried out , however , and in 1704 a report was drawn up for the government , noting that the Stannary laws could not be enforced without a working prison .
Work was carried out between 1616 and 1733 , bringing the castle back into good order . As part of this , the spine wall was rebuilt properly , and the second floor windows enlarged . The courtroom featured a chair for the Stannary court judge , additional seating for the court officials and a railed , public section around the outside of the room . The courtroom also doubled as a hall for village dances and feasts . At the start of the 19th century , however , Sir Thomas Tyrwhitt , the Lord Warden of the Stannaries , began the construction of Dartmoor Prison at Princetown . Dartmoor Prison and Princetown grew increasingly important and courts began to be held there instead of Lydford Castle .
The castle declined once again , the courtroom became unsafe to use and by 1833 , the remaining judicial fittings had been stripped out . In the middle of the 19th century the Duchy of Cornwall rejected proposals to repair the castle in order to bring it back into service as being too expensive , but the castle site was enclosed to prevent injuries to children who might be tempted to play on the stonework . By the 1870s , the town of Lydford was vastly reduced in importance from the medieval period and the castle 's roofs and floors had either collapsed or been removed .
= = = 20th @-@ 21st centuries = = =
The Duchy of Cornwall continued to own Lydford Castle into the 20th century . Albert Richardson , the architect to the Duchy estate , proposed converting the property into a private house in 1912 , but the duchy turned down the project . In 1932 the Duchy gave the castle to the Office of Works . Repairs were carried out in the 1930s and the 1950s , and archaeological investigations were undertaken in the 1960s . In the 21st century , the castle is controlled by English Heritage and operated as a tourist attraction . Historian Andrew Saunders has described the castle as architecturally significant , being " the earliest example of a purpose @-@ built gaol " in England . The earthworks of the Norman fort are owned by the National Trust and are also open to the public . Both castle sites are protected under law as ancient monuments .
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= Typhoon Cimaron ( 2006 ) =
Typhoon Cimaron , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Paeng , was the most intense tropical cyclone to strike the Philippine island of Luzon since Typhoon Zeb in 1998 . Originating from a tropical depression on October 25 , Cimaron developed within an environment strongly favoring tropical cyclogenesis east of the Philippines . On October 28 , the system underwent rapid intensification , culminating in attaining its peak strength with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Estimates from the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ranked the system as a Category 5 @-@ equivalent super typhoon with one @-@ minute sustained winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , though this is argued to have underrepresented the typhoon 's strength . The system moved ashore near Casiguran , Aurora in northern Luzon at peak strength . Crossing the island , Cimaron emerged over the South China Sea where conditions allowed for temporary reorganization . After becoming nearly stationary on November 1 , the typhoon executed a tight anti @-@ cyclonic loop and rapidly weakened . The storm degraded to a tropical depression on November 4 before dissipating three days later off the coast of Vietnam .
Prior to impacting the Philippines , Public Storm Warning Signals # 3 and # 4 , the two highest levels , were raised for several provinces in Luzon . Thousands of residents were urged to evacuate while local authorities prepared services for quick recovery efforts . With Cimaron initially expected to strike Vietnam , officials planned to evacuate 218 @,@ 000 people ; however , Cimaron 's slow motion and demise over open waters resulted in these plans being suspended . Officials in Thailand and southern China also advised residents of possible effects from the storm .
In contrast to the typhoon 's extreme intensity , damage was somewhat limited in the Philippines due to the lower population density of the affected areas . Widespread flooding and landslides caused substantial disruptions to travel and isolated some communities . Thirty @-@ four people were killed in various incidents , mostly from flooding . Nearly 365 @,@ 000 people were affected by the storm and losses amounted to 1 @.@ 21 billion PHP ( US $ 31 million ) . Winds along the periphery of Cimaron fanned a large wildfire near Hong Kong , and moisture from it fueled record @-@ breaking rains in British Columbia , Canada . Relief efforts in the Philippines began soon after the storm 's passage ; however , two other storms struck the country in November , with one resulting in far greater damage . Following a request for international assistance in early December , more than US $ 10 million was provided in relief aid to the Philippines .
= = Meteorological history = =
On October 24 , 2006 , an area of disturbed weather , characterized by flaring convection around a low @-@ level circulation , developed approximately 595 km ( 370 mi ) east of Guam . Situated within a region favoring tropical cyclogenesis , the system consolidated as it tracked generally westward . Late on October 25 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the low as a tropical depression . With poleward outflow improving , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert the following day before initiating advisories on Tropical Depression 22W . Several hours later , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration assigned the storm the local name Paeng as was within their area of responsibility . Situated south of a strong subtropical ridge , the system maintained a general west @-@ northwest track . On October 27 , the depression strengthened into a tropical storm and was assigned the name Cimaron by the JMA . The small storm subsequently underwent a period of rapid intensification as dual outflow channels developed ; the storm reached typhoon status early on October 28 . At the end of this phase on October 29 , Cimaron attained its peak intensity with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 920 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 17 inHg ) .
The JTWC estimated Cimaron to have been a stronger system , attaining its peak intensity as a Category 5 @-@ equivalent super typhoon with one @-@ minute winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) . However , satellite estimates from forecasters within the agency itself , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Satellite Analysis Branch ( SAB ) , the Air Force Weather Agency ( AFWA ) , and Dr. Karl Hoarau of Cergy @-@ Pontoise University stated Cimaron to have been an even stronger system . Using the Dvorak technique – a method of determining a tropical cyclone 's intensity based on satellite appearance – AFWA and SAB yielded a peak value of T7.5 , 285 km / h ( 180 mph ) , while advanced operational values from the JTWC peaked at T7.8 , 305 km / h ( 190 mph ) . Additionally , a forecaster at SAB noted that the lower estimates were likely due to restrictions on the Dvorak technique stemming from Cimaron 's rapid intensification . The forecaster also noted that a second type of estimate gave a maximum value of T8.0 , 315 km / h ( 195 mph ) , the highest rating on the scale .
While at its peak strength , Cimaron displayed two small concentric eyewalls , separated by a few kilometres . The storm later made landfall near Casiguran , Aurora in northern Luzon shortly after 1200 UTC on October 29 ; it became one of the strongest storms to ever hit the region . Interaction with the island 's mountainous terrain caused substantial weakening , though Cimaron maintained typhoon status during its 12 ‑ hour crossing . After emerging over the South China Sea on October 30 , the system initially maintained its west @-@ northwest course . However , the following day , a weakness developed within the ridge previously steering the typhoon , and Cimaron briefly turned north before essentially stalling . During this time , the system reorganized somewhat and reached a secondary peak intensity with winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) on November 2 . While executing a tight clockwise loop , increased wind shear and entrainment of dry air soon caused Cimaron to dramatically weaken . With a new ridge becoming established over China , the weakening system acquired a general southwestward track . Cimaron weakened to a tropical depression on November 4 and ultimately dissipated three days later just off the coast of southeastern Vietnam .
= = Preparations = =
By October 28 , Isabela , southern Cagayan , Quirino , and northern Aurora provinces were placed under Public Storm Warning Signal ( PSWS ) # 3 , the second @-@ highest level . More than 20 provinces overall were placed under varying PSWS levels . Residents living along the coast were urged to evacuate . Early on October 29 , several provinces along Luzon 's east coast were placed under PSWS # 4 , the highest level of alert . During a national radio broadcast President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo urged residents to heed warnings and not to venture out during the storm . Throughout Luzon , schools and government offices were closed on October 29 while residents in mountainous areas were urged to evacuate due to threat of mudslides . The National Transmission Corporation deployed power restoration crews across the region to allow for quick post @-@ storm response . Hospitals in Cimaron 's projected path requested employees to be present in anticipation of an influx of patients . Quick response teams from the Department of Social Welfare and Development were placed on standby for possible deployment . Within evacuation areas , the Philippine National Police was dispatched to prevent people from returning to these areas . Bus companies suspended all services north of Tarlac City and San Jose .
As Cimaron emerged over the South China Sea , officials in Vietnam began preparing for possible effects from the storm . Authorities began evacuating residents in flood @-@ prone areas along the coast from Quảng Bình Khánh Hòa , including 12 @,@ 500 in Thừa Thiên – Huế Province . Fishermen were urged to seek shelter at nearby ports until the storm subsided . The Vietnamese Government also requested the deployment of the nation 's Army , Coast Guard , and Navy to assist in evacuation efforts . Residents still recovering from Typhoon Xangsane in early October were forced to secure their homes and evacuate once again . An estimated 218 @,@ 000 people were planned to be relocated across Vietnam : 68 @,@ 000 in Quảng Nam , 60 @,@ 000 in Quảng Trị , 50 @,@ 000 in Thừa Thiên – Huế , and 40 @,@ 000 in Quảng Bình . Appeals were made to roughly 3 @,@ 500 vessels , with a collective crew count of 32 @,@ 285 , to return to port . The Navy deployed 42 ships for possible search and rescue missions . Following Cimaron 's change in course and cessation of movement , the Vietnamese Government suspended all evacuation plans on November 2 ; however , fishermen were urged to remain at port in fears of repeating the incidents during Typhoon Chanchu in May of that year where over 200 fishermen lost their lives .
Officials in Thailand also monitored the storm as a potential flood threat . Many reservoirs in the nation were above 80 percent capacity and further heavy rains would lead to a major flood event ; the main concerns were for the Bhumibol and Sirikit dams in Tak and Uttaradit provinces , respectively . Authorities in Hainan province , China , warned of possible effects from the storm as well beginning on October 31 . Heavy squalls , with winds of 50 to 100 km / h ( 31 to 62 mph ) were forecast for eastern areas of the island and areas offshore . By November 1 , approximately 20 @,@ 000 fishing vessels returned to port as conditions over the South China Sea deteriorated ; shipping over the Qiongzhou Strait remained unaffected .
= = Impact = =
= = = Philippines = = =
Typhoon Cimaron struck the Philippines with winds estimated at 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) and gusts in excess of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) . Along coastal Aurora Province , a mother and daughter were killed when strong winds destroyed their home . Numerous trees and power lines were felled by the winds as well , causing widespread blackouts in Luzon . The majority of Aurora and Isabela provinces were left without power and telecommunications for more than two weeks . Approximately 90 percent of the homes in Dinapigue were damaged . Heavy rains across the region swelled many rivers , flooding low @-@ lying areas along their banks . Several bridges became impassable and officials had to release water from two major dams to prevent them from overflowing . The most significant flooding occurred along the Allied @-@ Sinocalan and Tagamusing rivers in Pangasinan . Low @-@ lying areas along the Cagayan , Chico , Magat , Pinacanauan , Tuguegarao Pared rivers throughout Cagayan province were also affected by flooding . Numerous roads were blocked off by landslides or washed away by flooding , severely limiting travel . A landslide temporarily isolated four barangays in Nueva Vizcaya . A Provincial Disaster Coordinating Council search and rescue team was later deployed to Kasibu where at least four people were killed by flooding . Fatal landslides took place in Benguet and Kalinga provinces . A traffic accident blamed on the storm in La Union resulted in one death and seven injuries .
Throughout the Philippines , damage amounted to roughly 1 @.@ 21 billion PHP ( US $ 31 million ) , of which 664 million PHP ( US $ 17 million ) was attributed to agriculture . Approximately eight percent of the corn and rice harvest was destroyed . A total of 2 @,@ 605 homes were destroyed while another 18 @,@ 181 were damaged . Across seven provinces , 364 @,@ 733 people were affected by the typhoon , 65 @,@ 585 of whom were significantly impacted . A total of 34 people lost their lives as a result of Cimaron . Additionally , 65 people sustained injuries .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Though the storm remained over open waters after moving over the South China Sea , strong winds stemming from it fanned a large wildfire in Tai Lam Country Park , Hong Kong . At least 136 fires ignited on October 30 during the Chung Yeung Festival . The Tai Lam fire grew to be the largest in over a decade , ultimately charring 450 hectares ( 1 @,@ 112 acres ) and 66 @,@ 000 trees . The storm 's winds coupled with seasonally low humidity made conditions difficult for firefighters trying to suppress the fire . Over the South China Sea , the 128 m ( 420 ft ) long Chinese cargo ship , Tongda 998 , became stranded amid 5 m ( 16 ft ) swells and 75 to 88 km / h ( 47 to 55 mph ) winds after its engine failed . All 18 crewmen were unharmed after the vessel was towed to port in Zhuhai by the rescue ship Dejin .
Moisture from the typhoon also fed an extratropical cyclone , in a process referred to as the Pineapple Express , that brought heavy rains to southern British Columbia , Canada , prompting flood watches for the region Southern areas of the province were deluged by the storm , with some areas receiving 250 to 300 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 to 11 @.@ 8 in ) of rain . The daily rainfall record for November 6 of 20 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 81 in ) at Victoria International Airport was shattered with 50 @.@ 4 mm ( 1 @.@ 98 in ) falling . Widespread flooding occurred as rivers over @-@ topped their banks ; hundreds of homes were inundated , prompting numerous evacuations . The Vedder River reached a 25 @-@ year high and forced the evacuation 200 residences .
= = Aftermath = =
Damage assessments in the Philippines began on October 31 , with aerial surveys being utilized for isolated areas . With numerous roads blocked off or washed away , clearing operations were a priority . The Philippine Red Cross assisted in the immediate aftermath of Typhoon Cimaron , evacuating people in La Union and providing relief goods to more than 16 @,@ 000 people in Aurora . The majority of relief work was handled by local governments , though some assistance from the National Disaster Coordinating Council was received . By November 1 , the estimated cost of humanitarian assistance reached 3 @.@ 2 million PHP ( US $ 81 @,@ 000 ) . Teams from the Red Cross were already deployed in the Philippines due to Typhoon Xangsane in September and were able to quickly respond in Cimaron 's aftermath . Relief efforts for Cimaron were cut short as just two weeks later , Typhoon Chebi struck nearly the same areas . A weaker , though still powerful typhoon , damage from Chebi was relatively limited .
In late November , Typhoon Durian brought even greater devastation to the Philippines and prompted greater need for international assistance . On December 11 , President Arroyo declared a national state of calamity and released 1 billion PHP ( US $ 25 @.@ 6 million ) in relief and rehabilitation funds . Throughout 2006 as a whole , the Philippines was devastated by multiple natural disasters that collectively killed well over 1 @,@ 000 people and left more than US $ 1 @.@ 6 billion in damage . Consequently , the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs appealed for emergency assistance to the nation , in the form of US $ 46 million in funds for the most severely affected areas . The European Commission Humanitarian Aid department also provided € 2 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 9 million ) in emergency funds in relation to the four major typhoons that struck the country , with a focus on areas affected by Typhoon Durian . The Red Cross ultimately provided US $ 9 @.@ 67 million in assistance to the nation in relation to the four typhoons as well as Typhoon Fengshen in June 2008 which struck while relief efforts from the 2006 storms were still ongoing .
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= Big Inch =
The Big Inch and Little Big Inch , collectively known as the Inch pipelines , are petroleum pipelines extending from Texas to New Jersey , built between 1942 and 1944 as emergency war measures in the U.S. Before World War II , petroleum products were transported from the oil fields of Texas to the north @-@ eastern states by oil tanker . After the United States entered the war on 1 January 1942 , this vital link was attacked by German submarines in the Operation Paukenschlag , threatening both the oil supplies to the north @-@ east and its onward transshipment to Great Britain . The Secretary of the Interior , Harold Ickes , championed the pipeline project as a way of transporting petroleum by the more @-@ secure , interior route .
The pipelines were government financed and owned , but were built and operated by the War Emergency Pipelines company , a non @-@ profit corporation backed by a consortium of the largest American oil companies . It was the longest , biggest and heaviest project of its type then undertaken ; the Big and Little Big Inch pipelines were 1 @,@ 254 and 1 @,@ 475 miles long ( 2 @,@ 018 km and 2 @,@ 374 km ) respectively , with 35 pumping stations along their routes . The project required 16 @,@ 000 people and 725 @,@ 000 short tons ( 658 @,@ 000 t ) of materials . It was praised as an example of private @-@ public sector cooperation and featured extensively in US government propaganda .
After the end of the war there were extended arguments over how the pipelines should be used . In 1947 , the Texas East Transmission Corporation purchased the pipelines for $ 143 @,@ 127 @,@ 000 , the largest post @-@ war disposal of war @-@ surplus property . The corporation converted them to transport natural gas , transforming the energy market in the north @-@ east . The Little Big Inch was returned to carry oil in 1957 . The pipelines are owned by Spectra Energy Partners and Enterprise Products and remain in use .
= = Background = =
By the time that the United States entered World War II in 1941 , oil was a vital part of military operations around the world . The United States produced 60 percent of the world 's crude oil , with the state of Texas in the south @-@ west leading this production , producing more than twice as much crude as any other state . The industry comprised a handful of very large producers and more than 3 @,@ 500 smaller operators .
The north @-@ east coast of the United States depended on these supplies of oil , importing both crude and refined products . Across most of Texas , there had been little interest in building pipelines to transport oil , and petroleum was typically moved from the south @-@ west to the north @-@ east coast using a mixture of sea freight and railroad transport . In early 1941 , 70 @,@ 000 barrels of oil were moved on the railroads each day , but this method was expensive , and the bulk of the oil was moved using barges , some with a capacity of up to 15 @,@ 000 barrels , operating up and down the rivers and the Atlantic Coast .
With the outbreak of war , the eastern sea routes of the country were attacked by German U @-@ boat submarines . United States naval defence was very limited and largely obsolete ; between January and April 1942 , among other naval losses , 46 oil tankers were sunk and 16 damaged . The problem was made worse as 50 tankers had been sent to help the UK earlier in 1941 . Insurers began to refuse to underwrite the remaining vessels and the volume of crude oil reaching the north @-@ east from the Texas Gulf dropped .
In response , steps were taken to better protect the tankers from attack , but losses continued to mount until , in April 1942 , they were banned by the Navy from operating the north @-@ east sea routes . The government and industry took steps to maximise the use of the railroads , increasing the amount of oil carried on them more than ten @-@ fold , but there were shortages of rail tank cars , and the existing fleet of cars was in poor condition . Instead , the United States government began to examine options for the use of pipelines to fulfil the demand for petroleum in the north @-@ east .
= = Concept = =
Transporting petroleum by pipeline from the south @-@ west to the north @-@ east was a potentially attractive option for the government as it would be safe from submarine attack and could operate efficiently regardless of the weather . Pipelines had been in use in the industry since 1862 , but by the 1930s they were usually only 8 inches ( 200 mm ) wide , able to deliver 20 @,@ 000 barrels of oil a day ; larger pipes could be built , but due to structural weaknesses they could not operate at the regular pressures . Technologies to build high @-@ pressure pipes at sizes larger than 12 inches ( 300 mm ) began to emerge during the decade before the war , but their adoption was not commercially viable .
The concept of constructing such a pipeline was first proposed in 1940 by the Secretary of the Interior , Harold Ickes , who argued that " the building of a crude oil pipeline from Texas to the East might not be economically sound ; but that in the event of an emergency it might be absolutely necessary " . A consortium led by Standard Oil put forward a bid to build one in spring 1941 , but the plan failed , due to concerns over the amount of steel that would be required for such a project . In May 1941 , Ickes was appointed as the Petroleum Coordinator for National Defense , and in December 1942 became the administrator of the Petroleum Administration for War . New laws were passed to enable the building of pipelines necessary for the war effort , including the compulsory purchasing of land under the right of eminent domain .
Initial planning for the Inch pipelines began on May 15 , 1941 , when a meeting of Ickes and the oil industry commissioned an aerial survey of the possible route . A preliminary design was ready that September , and a consortium of major oil companies formed a new company , National Defense Pipelines , to build a pipeline along the route . The government Supply Priorities and Allocation Board , however , refused to approve the necessary steel , and the consortium 's plan was dissolved shortly before the outbreak of war . After the outbreak of fighting , and the consequent deterioration of the sea routes for transporting oil , industry representatives met in March 1942 to produce a new pipeline strategy , called the Tulsa Plan . This included the construction of the Inch pipelines , backed by the slogan " longlines are lifelines " , for which the steel was finally approved by the War Production Board on June 10 .
Once steel supplies had been agreed , an initial tranche of $ 35 million in funding was provided by the government Reconstruction Finance Corporation , which owned and manage the operation of the pipelines through its subsidiary organizations , the Defense Plants and the Defense Supplies corporations . In turn , the actual construction and operation of the pipelines would be carried out by the War Emergency Pipelines company ( WEP ) , a non @-@ profit corporation backed by a consortium of the largest oil companies in the United States : Atlantic Refining , Cities Service Oil , Consolidated Oil , Gulf Oil , Pan American Petroleum and Transportation , Standard Oil , Tidewater Associated Oil , Shell Oil , Socony @-@ Vacuum Oil , Sun Oil and the Texas Pipe Line Company . The WEP was led by W. Alton Jones and Burt Hull , both with extensive backgrounds in the industry , with Oscar Wolfe as its chief engineer . The company established its offices in Little Rock , Arkansas .
= = Construction = =
= = = Design and management = = =
The Inch pipelines comprised two systems , the Big Inch pipeline and the Little Big Inch pipeline . The Big Inch was a 24 @-@ inch ( 610 mm ) pipeline for crude oil ; it ran from the East Texas Oil Field at Longview , Texas , to Norris City , Illinois , and onto Phoenixville , Pennsylvania , from where it branched into 20 @-@ inch @-@ diameter ( 510 mm ) segments . One served New York and terminated at Linden , New Jersey , and the other served Philadelphia and terminated at Chester Junction , Pennsylvania . The Little Big Inch , a largely parallel 20 @-@ inch @-@ diameter ( 510 mm ) line intended for refined products , ran from Beaumont , Texas , to Little Rock , Arkansas , where it joined the path of the Big Inch , making use of the same pumping stations . From there it ran along the same right @-@ of @-@ way as the Big Inch to New Jersey and Pennsylvania .
The pipeline project was the longest , biggest and heaviest of its kind in the world . In total , the Big Inch pipeline was 1 @,@ 254 miles ( 2 @,@ 018 km ) long , with 222 miles ( 357 km ) of secondary distribution and feeder lines , and had 28 pumping stations along the route , approximately every 50 miles ( 80 km ) . The Little Big Inch was 1 @,@ 475 miles ( 2 @,@ 374 km ) long , with 239 miles ( 385 km ) of secondary lines , and had seven unique pumping stations along its southern leg .
Charles Cathers of the DPC directed the engineering project , with much of the work undertaken by Oscar Wolfe and , on the Little Inch pipeline , F. E. Richardson and L. F. Scherer . A meeting of all of the contractors for the build was held at the start of the July to kickstart the project ; overall , 82 different companies would take on the pipeline work on a " cost @-@ plus " basis , employing over 16 @,@ 000 staff . The construction required the government to acquire permission to build the pipeline across 7 @,@ 500 parcels of land ; of these , the right of eminent domain had to be exercised in 300 cases . Major Jubel Parten , a director in the Petroleum Administration for War , considered the Inch pipelines to be part of “ the most amazing Government @-@ industry cooperation ever achieved ” .
The pipelines were soon given the names " Big Inch " and " Little Big Inch " by the construction teams , on account of their unprecedented diameters . The construction project was extensively advertised , as part of the US government 's war @-@ time propaganda effort . Newsreels ran clips such as Pipeline Goes Through ! and Pipe Dream Comes True @-@ Oil ! , and short @-@ films were made about the construction work , including Pipeline . The pipelines also appeared in the RKO Pathé film Oil is Blood .
= = = Process = = =
The Big Inch pipeline was made from sections of seamless steel pipe up to 44 feet ( 13 m ) long , 3 ⁄ 8 inch ( 9 @.@ 5 mm ) thick and 4 @,@ 200 pounds ( 1 @,@ 900 kg ) in weight . The Little Big Inch used both 5 ⁄ 16 inch ( 7 @.@ 9 mm ) thick seamless steel and electric weld pipe , and a small amount of 1 ⁄ 2 inch ( 13 mm ) thick seamless pipe . In total , 21 @,@ 185 railcar loads of steel piping were laid during the project , the Big Inch alone requiring 360 @,@ 700 short tons ( 327 @,@ 200 t ) of steel .
The pipe was laid in trenches 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) deep and 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) wide , dug out by a combination of ditching machines and manual labor . The pipes were then cleaned by pulling a workman through the inside of them with cloths , and welded together , using both the " stovepiping " method and the roll @-@ weld , or " firing line " , methods . Stovepiping was an older method , in which the welder worked his way around two pipes , which remained stationary ; the newer roll @-@ weld approach instead rotated the pipes , allowing the welder to remain in one position as he worked , with up to seven pipes being welded together at the same time .
Where it was necessary for the pipeline to curve to fit the route , the steel pipes were bent , using either a cold @-@ bending approach , in which tractors would pull and push the pipelines into position , or a hot @-@ bending method , with the pipe heated up by blow @-@ torches and pulled into place using a jig . A new , specialized piece of equipment for bending pipes , the Cummings bending jig , was invented during the Big Inch build , and used on the construction of the Little Big Inch pipeline . To protect the pipeline from corrosion , its outside was then cleaned by machine , and painted in first a layer of coal tar enamel , and then hot coal tar coating , before being wrapped in asbestos felt . Finally the pipeline was lowered into position , taking care not to damage the ends of the pipes ; the larger pipes were so heavy that they required a D @-@ 8 caterpillar tractor equipped with counter @-@ weights to lift them . The trench was then back @-@ filled , completing the process .
The Big Inch pipeline had to pass under 33 rivers and 200 creeks and lakes , as well as under 289 railroad and 626 highway intersections . Specially lined tunnels were bored to lay the pipe under the roads and railroad lines , and specialist trenches dug to lay the pipelines across on the riverbeds and lakes , weighing down the pipeline to stop it floating to the surface . Around 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) of underwater piping was laid in total . In marshy areas , the soft ground was filled in to provide firm foundations for the pipeline to rest on .
The pumping stations for the pipelines were built on parcels of land between 11 acres ( 4 @.@ 5 ha ) and 44 acres ( 18 ha ) in size ; those with storage tanks were between 90 acres ( 36 ha ) and 131 acres ( 53 ha ) big . The plain , utilitarian buildings were initially prefabricated steel constructs , but as supplies grew scarce , wood was used instead . As much as 725 @,@ 000 short tons ( 658 @,@ 000 t ) of materials was needed for the total project .
= = = Completion = = =
Work on the Inch pipelines began immediately after the establishment of the WEP on June 26 , 1942 . They were built in three phases . The first part to be constructed was the Big Inch , its initial leg running to an interim terminal at Norris City , where oil was to be off @-@ loaded to the railroad network . Once this leg was complete , it was extended to its terminus at Phoenixville . When the Big Inch was complete , work began on the third phase of the project , the Little Big Inch .
The first purchase order , for 137 @,@ 500 short tons ( 124 @,@ 700 t ) of 24 @-@ inch @-@ diameter pipe , was placed on July 2 , 1942 . To meet a construction deadline of January 1 , 1943 , the laying of pipe began on August 3 , 1942 , near Little Rock . Other pipeline crews began work immediately on segments elsewhere in Arkansas and Texas . By September 10 all eight pipelaying crews , each consisting of between 300 and 400 men , were in the field working . The schedule called for 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of the Big Inch pipeline to be laid each day . But soon men were laying as much as 9 miles ( 14 km ) a day . In all , roughly 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 5 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 m3 ) of material were excavated . Oil began flowing through the Big Inch Line between Texas and Illinois on New Year 's Eve 1942 . Work on the Little Big Inch then began in 1943 .
The first crude oil arrived at Phoenixville via the Big Inch on August 14 , 1943 , and the first refined product in the Little Big Inch arrived on March 2 , 1944 . The Big Inch carried up to 334 @,@ 456 barrels of crude oil a day , the Little Big Inch 239 @,@ 844 barrels of gasoline ; the lines were among the largest industrial consumers of electricity in the US , requiring 3 @.@ 89 million kilowatt hours a day to pump the oil along the pipes .
= = = Construction process , recorded by John Vachon = = =
= = Post @-@ war sale = =
By the end of the war , there was considerable debate over the future of the pipelines . The major oil companies , such as Standard Oil , campaigned for the conversion of the pipelines for the transfer of natural gas . Demand for natural gas was rising rapidly , and it was produced in large quantities in the Texas oilfields , but could not be got to market in the north @-@ east and was otherwise burnt off uselessly into the atmosphere . The railroad and coal companies , who saw this as likely to introduce additional competition for coal and coal gas , and therefore lower demand for their goods and services , argued against this move . The smaller oil companies proposed continuing to use the pipelines for oil in order to undermine the transport monopolies of the larger corporations .
A government inquiry was undertaken to determine the future use of the pipelines , and took evidence from the various stakeholders , most of whom presented the case that favored their companies or industry . The inquiry concluded that the pipelines should be sold for continued use in transporting petroleum . An auction for the pipelines was announced in 1946 , which was designed to give preference to bidders who intended to use them for moving petroleum . 16 bids were received , with the highest cash bidders being companies hoping to use the pipelines for natural gas . Assessing the different bids proved difficult and the discussions became enmeshed in national politics , with companies seeking support from various Washington politicians . Meanwhile , a threatened national coal strike raised concerns over the availability of natural gas , strengthening the arguments of the natural gas lobby .
A fresh inquiry was declared in November , voiding the previous competition and the Inch Lines were transferred to the War Assets Administration on December 2 , 1946 , for disposal . Pending any final decision on their sale , the lines were leased to the Tennessee Gas Company for use in shipping natural gas as far as Ohio and the Appalachians , but no further east , and only for 12 months . Tennessee Gas did not convert the pipelines in any way for their new role , and simply pumped the gas through the system under its own pressure , moving 138 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 3 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 m3 ) of gas a day in this way .
A second auction was held , with bids for natural gas given equal weight to those wishing to transfer crude oil , although any natural gas bidder would be obliged to maintain the oil pumping stations for use in a national emergency . Ten bids were received and on February 8 , 1947 , the Texas East Transmission Corporation ( TETCO ) was declared successful . Its bid of $ 143 @,@ 127 @,@ 000 would make the disposal the largest sale of war @-@ surplus property to the private sector following World War II .
= = Conversion by TETCO = =
TETCO was the brainchild of corporate lawyers Charles Francis and James Elkins , who convinced the construction specialists George and Herman Brown , and the fuel engineer E. Holley Poe , that buying the Big and Little Inch pipelines could be a lucrative opportunity . The corporation was established specifically for the purposes of the bid , and came to their bidding figure by estimating that the likely competition would bid at $ 130 million ; their own figure exceeded this by 10 percent , and added on $ 127 @,@ 000 to avoid a suspiciously round number . TETCO believed it could afford to make this offer because it intended to reuse the electric motors in the oil pumping mechanisms for moving the natural gas ; it also believed that the price of gas would rise considerably in the post @-@ war markets .
After winning the bidding , TETCO raised the money to pay the government through a combination of bonds and share issues . A further government enquiry was required before the sale was allowed to go through , which was complicated by the reluctance of the state of Pennsylvania to allow the pipelines to be used to pump gas east through its territory . The government of Pennsylvania was influenced by the coal industry , who feared they would lose sales , but it eventually relented and the sale of the pipelines to TETCO was finally completed on November 1 . The value of the company soared , and the original investors saw the value of their holdings increase 63 @-@ fold .
TETCO immediately began to convert the pipelines for permanent use as natural gas transmission lines , under the direction of Baxter Goodrich , their chief engineer . 24 compressor stations were constructed along the pipeline with centrifugal compressors , increasing the capacity of the system to 433 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 12 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 m3 ) of gas a day , and the old oil pumps were retained for reuse in a future crisis . Steel valves replaced the older , less reliable cast iron designs . Demand continued to increase , requiring additional compressor capability , and by January 1949 the pipelines were moving 508 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 14 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 m3 ) a day .
The supply route undermined the local markets for manufactured gas , and the major cities of the north @-@ east rapidly converted to the use of natural gas ; historian David Waples describes how the pipelines contributed to " an extraordinary expansion of natural gas customers and gas company employees after World War II " . The Inch pipelines encouraged the development of further long distance pipelines in the US through the 1960s and 1970s .
= = Later use = =
In 1957 , the operation of the Little Big Inch , and its ownership south of Ohio , was transferred from TETCO to the subsidiary Texas Eastern Petroleum Products Corporation ( TEPPCO ) , and converted back to use for petroleum products . TEPPCO was purchased by Enterprise Products in 2010 . Around 1961 , there was discussion of converting the Big Inch pipeline back to petroleum use , but it continued in use as a gas pipeline . In 1989 , TETCO was taken over by the Panhandle Eastern Corporation , and in 1997 this company was merged with Duke Power , to form the Duke Energy Corporation ; in 2007 , the oil pipelines were spun off from Duke Energy , to form part of Spectra Energy Partners .
The Inch pipelines are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Along the western parts of the pipelines , around 90 percent of the pipes are the original installation , although in the east large parts have since been replaced , largely due to the absence of anti @-@ corrosion protective coatings on the original piping . 62 of the original buildings from 1942 and 1943 remain , including pump @-@ houses , offices , employee houses and garages . The best surviving examples of the original buildings are in Pennsylvania . A " Big Inch pipeline " construction playset was produced as a children 's toy in 1962 by the Marx company .
= = List of pumping stations = =
= = = Big Inch and northern Little Big Inch = = =
Station No. 1 : Longview , Texas
Station No. 2 : Atlanta , Texas
Station No. 3 : Hope , Arkansas
Station No. 4 : Donaldson , Arkansas
Station No. 5 : Little Rock , Arkansas
Station No. 6 : Bald Knob , Arkansas
Station No. 7 : Egypt , Arkansas
Station No. 8 : Fagus , Missouri
Station No. 9 @-@ a : Oran , Missouri
Station No. 9 @-@ b : Gale , Illinois
Station No. 10 : Lick Creek , Illinois
Station No. 11 : Norris City , Illinois
Station No. 12 : Princeton , Indiana
Station No. 13 : French Lick , Indiana
Station No. 14 : Seymour , Indiana
Station No. 15 : Oldenburg , Indiana
Station No. 16 : Lebanon , Ohio
Station No. 17 : Circleville , Ohio
Station No. 18 : Crooksville , Ohio
Station No. 19 : Sarahsville , Ohio
Station No. 20 : Wind Ridge , Pennsylvania
Station No. 21 : Connellsville , Pennsylvania
Station No. 22 : Rockwood , Pennsylvania
Station No. 23 : Chambersburg , Pennsylvania
Station No. 24 : Marietta , Pennsylvania
Station No. 25 : Phoenixville , Pennsylvania
Station No. 26 : Lambertville , New Jersey
Station No. 27 : Linden , New Jersey
= = = Southern part of the Little Big Inch = = =
Station A : Baytown , Texas
Station B : Beaumont , Texas
Station C : Newton , Texas
Station D : Many , Louisiana
Station E : Castor , Texas
Station F : El Dorado , Arkansas
Station G : Fordyce , Arkansas
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= Horace Robertson =
Lieutenant General Sir Horace Clement Hugh Robertson , KBE , DSO ( 29 October 1894 – 28 April 1960 ) was a senior officer in the Australian Army who served in the First World War , the Second World War and the Korean War . He was one of the first graduates of the Royal Military College , Duntroon , to reach the ranks of major general and lieutenant general .
During the First World War , Robertson served with the 10th Light Horse in the Gallipoli Campaign , including the disastrous Battle of the Nek , where much of his regiment was wiped out . He later participated in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign , where he captured a Turkish Army general , and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order .
During the Second World War , Robertson led the 19th Infantry Brigade at the Battle of Bardia and accepted the surrender of the Italian Navy at Benghazi . Later , he commanded the 1st Armoured Division in Western Australia . In the final weeks of the war he commanded troops in the closing stages of the New Britain Campaign and the Aitape – Wewak campaign . At the end of the war , he accepted the surrender of Japanese Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi .
Following the war , he commanded the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in the Occupation of Japan and the British Commonwealth Forces Korea in the Korean War . Robertson was a key figure in establishing the Australian Armoured Corps . Its headquarters in Darwin is named Robertson Barracks in his honour .
= = Early life = =
Horace Clement Hugh Robertson was born in Warrnambool , Victoria , on 29 October 1894 , the sixth child of John Robertson , a state school teacher , and his wife Anne née Grey . Horace was educated at a state school in Outtrim , from May 1905 to April 1910 , when he went to The Geelong College . Horace was nicknamed " Red Robbie " by his fellow schoolboys after his hair colour , in contrast to his older brother John , or " Black Robbie " .
In October 1911 Robertson took the entrance examination for the Royal Military College , Duntroon , and was accepted into the second intake of cadets in 1912 . His class was due to be commissioned on 1 January 1916 , but the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 caused it to be graduated early . He was commissioned as a lieutenant in both the Permanent Military Forces ( PMF ) and the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 3 November 1914 .
On 7 November 1914 , Robertson married Jessie Bonnar in a private service at a registry office in Collingwood . The ceremony was kept secret , because at the time junior officers required the Army 's permission to marry , and at age 20 Robertson would not have received it . Later they would claim that they had been married in 1916 . Their marriage produced no children .
= = First World War = =
Major General William Bridges decided that the Duntroon cadets , none of whom had yet finished their training , should be split up and posted to the various units of the AIF as regimental rather than staff officers . Robertson was posted to the 10th Light Horse as its machine @-@ gun officer . He was one of seven members of his class in the 3rd Light Horse Brigade . By the end of August 1915 , three of them would be dead .
The 10th Light Horse was concentrated at Claremont , Western Australia , before departing for the Middle East on the transport Mashobra in February 1915 . After arriving at Alexandria , Egypt , in March 1915 , the regiment moved to Mena Camp near Cairo . In May , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade began moving , without horses , to Gallipoli , preceded by the machine @-@ gun sections , which embarked at Alexandria on 8 May 1915 . At Gallipoli , the machine guns were brigaded together to provide additional firepower . Robertson 's machine guns were in support during the disastrous Battle of the Nek on 7 August 1915 , during which much of the 10th Light Horse became casualties . Afterwards , Robertson was promoted to captain and became second in command of A Squadron . He assumed command of C Squadron on 28 August , and led it in the fighting at Hill 60 the next day .
The 10th Light Horse was reorganised after returning to Egypt in January 1916 , and Robertson assumed command of B Squadron , with the AIF rank of major from May 1916 . This was as far as he could go , for Duntroon graduates could not be promoted above major in the AIF . This was the result of an AIF policy aimed at giving them a broad a range of experience , which would benefit the post @-@ war Army , while not allowing an accumulation of young officers of high rank , for whom the reduced post @-@ War Army would not have sufficient posts . His substantive rank remained that of lieutenant ; he would not be promoted to the substantive rank of captain in the PMF until 30 September 1920 , and promotion to major would not come until 1 July 1932 . At the Battle of Magdhaba , his colonel was wounded and Robertson took over command of the 10th Light Horse . He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) for his actions during this battle . His citation read :
For distinguished and gallant service in the field . He led a mounted change and was the first officer to enter the enemy 's trenches . He is an officer of exceptional organising and training powers and thoroughly deserves reward .
Robertson 's men took many Turkish prisoners , including a senior officer of engineers who insisted that he would only surrender his sword to the Australian officer in charge . He was disappointed to discover that it was Robertson , a youthful major , but handed it over anyway .
In February 1917 Robertson was attached to the Desert Column as a staff officer . From there , he was sent to staff school in Egypt . However , on 7 March he suffered a broken leg in a riding accident and was hospitalised for two months . He returned to the staff school in May and finally graduated on 17 June . He was then posted to the newly formed Yeomanry Mounted Division as a General Staff Officer ( Grade 3 ) . In March 1918 , he was posted to Headquarters Delta Force in Cairo . This was disbanded in April and Robertson became Deputy Assistant Adjutant General ( DAAG ) at AIF Headquarters in Cairo . In January 1919 , he became Assistant Adjutant General ( AAG ) . He returned to Australia in July 1919 . In addition to his Distinguished Service Order , he was twice mentioned in despatches , and awarded the Order of the Nile ( 4th Class ) by the Sultan of Egypt .
= = Between the wars = =
On returning to Australia , Robertson became brigade major in the 7th Light Horse Brigade . In September 1920 he was posted to the staff of the 3rd Military District and then the 2nd Cavalry Division and the 3rd Division . In April 1922 he sat for and passed the entrance examination to the Staff College , Camberley , where his class included Majors Arthur Percival , John Smyth and Georges Vanier , and Lieutenant Colonel Harry Crerar . Robertson eventually became the first Australian to graduate with an A @-@ grade pass .
Afterwards , Robertson went on to attend a series of shorter training courses in Britain . He attended the School of Musketry at Hythe , Kent ; the Machine Gun School at Netheravon , Wiltshire ; the Artillery College at Woolwich ; the Anti @-@ Gas School at Porton Down ; the Anti @-@ Aircraft School at Westerham , Kent ; and the Royal Tank Corps School at Woolwich . He returned to Australia in 1925 to become Chief Instructor at the Small Arms School at Randwick , New South Wales in 1926 . Following the retirement of General Sir Harry Chauvel in 1930 , Robertson was posted to the 7th Infantry Brigade as its brigade major . In 1931 he became brigade major of the 1st Cavalry Brigade in Queensland . He returned to Sydney in February 1934 as General Staff Officer ( Grade 2 ) at the 2nd District Base . In June 1934 , he was appointed Director of Military Art at the Royal Military College , which had been transferred to Victoria Barracks , Sydney , as a cost @-@ cutting measure during the Great Depression . It returned to Canberra in 1937 , and Robertson returned with it .
Robertson was finally breveted as a lieutenant colonel in June 1936 . The rank became substantive in July 1937 . Like other regular officers , Robertson was opposed to the " Singapore strategy " , and therefore to the defence policy of the government of the day , and said so publicly in the British Army Quarterly . Robertson argued for a local defence of Australia by land and air units . The naval theorist , Admiral Sir Herbert Richmond , responding to Robertson 's arguments in an editorial , pointed out that local defence would fragment the British Empire 's defence effort and could not secure the sea lanes . However , in view of the weakness of the Royal Navy , Richmond was forced to concede that Robertson 's approach was not unreasonable .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Libya = = =
In March 1939 , Robertson was appointed commander of the 7th Military District , which encompassed the Northern Territory . It was his first command since the First World War . He was promoted to the temporary rank of colonel in August 1939 , and this became substantive in November . The job involved cooperation with the Royal Australian Navy and Royal Australian Air Force , and the administration of a company of regular soldiers known as the Darwin Mobile Force . After the Second World War began in September 1939 , Robertson became responsible for supplying the 7th Military District 's quota of volunteers for the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . A strike on the waterfront saw Robertson committing troops to help unload cargo .
On 4 April 1940 , Robertson joined the Second AIF himself , with the rank of brigadier , and was allocated the AIF service number VX20321 . He was appointed to command the 19th Infantry Brigade , which was then being formed from units made surplus by the reduction of the 6th Division from 12 infantry battalions to nine . All three of its battalions , the 2 / 4th , 2 / 8th and 2 / 11th Infantry Battalions , were initially commanded by over @-@ age officers , but the commander of the 2 / 4th was replaced by Ivan Dougherty in August . Initially , Dougherty received a cool reception from Robertson , who was disappointed at being unable to select his own battalion commanders , but Dougherty soon made such a good impression that when Robertson went on leave in October 1940 he recommended that Dougherty act as brigade commander , despite the fact that he was the youngest and most junior of Robertson 's battalion chiefs .
The Battle of Bardia brought to the fore the simmering hostility between regular officers and reservists . Frank Berryman , the 6th Division 's General Staff Officer ( Grade 1 ) , and Alan Vasey , the Deputy Assistant Adjutant and Quartermaster General ( DA & QMG ) , were eager for Robertson to do well and show that Staff Corps officers could make good commanders , and if that could be done at the expense of an old @-@ style reservist like Stanley Savige , so much the better . They pushed for Robertson 's 19th Infantry Brigade , then in reserve , to be committed when the attack by Savige 's 17th Infantry Brigade slowed down . The abrupt manner in which this was done generated antipathy between Robertson and Savige .
The 19th Infantry Brigade then advanced on Tobruk . The attack on this fortified town proceeded along similar lines to that on Bardia , with the 16th Infantry effecting a break @-@ in of the position , but this time the 19th Infantry Brigade was to carry out the exploitation phase . Robertson 's contribution to the plan was to increase its tempo , so that the attack would be carried through without pause , the exploitation being carried out before the initial break @-@ in was complete . Robertson accepted the surrender of the fortress commander , Generale di Corpo d 'Armata Petassi Manella , and later Admiral Messimiliano Vietina , the Italian naval commander . Comments by " a sunburnt red @-@ headed Australian brigadier " made headlines in Britain , where senior officers rarely spoke to the media , but did not endear Robertson to his critics , who felt that his ego was out of control . Following the entry of the 19th Infantry Brigade to Benghazi on 7 February , Robertson declared " give me two stout ships and a bearing on Rome and we 'll dine in the hall of the caesars " .
For this campaign , Robertson was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) , but later that month he was hospitalised for varicose veins in the leg he had broken in 1917 . He was replaced as commander of the 19th Infantry Brigade by Alan Vasey . When Robertson recovered he was given responsibility for the training of AIF reinforcements in the Middle East . Robertson 's service in the field and his long experience in training troops made him an ideal candidate for the post . For his services , Robertson was mentioned in despatches a third time .
= = = Defence of Australia = = =
Around the time of the outbreak of war with Japan , many senior officers with distinguished records in the Middle East were recalled to Australia to lead militia formations and fill important staff posts . One of these was Robertson , who was recalled to take command of the 1st Cavalry Division in January 1942 . In March 1942 , an unusual event occurred . Major Generals Alan Vasey and Edmund Herring , and Brigadier Clive Steele , fearing that Gordon Bennett or John Lavarack was about to be appointed Commander in Chief , approached the Minister for the Army , Frank Forde , with a proposal that in view of the danger of an invasion of Australia , all officers over the age of 50 be immediately retired and Robertson be appointed Commander in Chief . This reflected an extraordinary endorsement of Robertson by his colleagues , but such favourable opinion was not universally held . Sydney Rowell later explained that :
Robbie , although in Sydney , was not unaware of what was going on . The thing that really riled me was Vasey 's saying that " perhaps Robbie 's vices in peace would be virtues in war , to which I replied that " if meanmindedness and disloyalty could be counted as virtues at any time I might be prepared to go along with him . "
The " revolt of the generals " collapsed with the welcome news that Blamey was returning from the Middle East to become Commander in Chief . In the reorganisation of the Army that followed , Robertson was appointed to command the 1st Armoured Division . Initially , the 1st Armoured Division had a key role in the defence of Australia as a mobile reserve , but it was only partly trained and equipped , representing another major challenge to Robertson as a trainer of troops . When the prospect of an invasion of Australia became remote , the 1st Armoured Division was sent to Western Australia in January 1943 , where it became part of Bennett 's III Corps . The area became a backwater and the 1st Armoured Division was slowly broken up and then disbanded . To recoup some of the nation 's investment in training for armoured warfare , Robertson arranged for 25 officers to be seconded to the British 7th Armoured Division in Europe . Following the disbandment of the 1st Armoured Division , Robertson took over command of the 2nd Division , the other division in Western Australia , and then , upon Bennett 's retirement , III Corps in April 1944 . This too was disbanded in June 1944 and Robertson took over Western Command .
Because the Army reached its greatest extent in 1942 and shrank in size thereafter , Blamey was faced with a limited number of senior appointments and more senior officers than he needed to fill them . He faced public and political criticism over " shelving " senior officers , including Robertson . That Robertson and Bennett , two troublesome potential rivals of Blamey 's , had been sent to Western Australia did not escape comment . However , it was always more likely that Robertson would be the one recalled . Nevertheless , Blamey had serious concerns about Robertson 's health , after the latter was hospitalised with internal haemorrhaging in July 1944 and sent to the eastern states to convalesce . While there he joined Vasey and Brigadier Bertrand Coombes , the Commandant of Duntroon , in conducting an inquiry into the future training and organisation of the Royal Military College . Their report , submitted to Blamey in January 1945 , called for a number of reforms , the most significant being that the postings of regular officers should alternate between staff and regimental duties .
= = = New Guinea = = =
In April 1945 , Robertson returned to the field , replacing Alan Ramsay as commander of the 5th Division , which was then engaged in the final stages of the New Britain Campaign . In July , Robertson became commander of the 6th Division , leading it through the final days of the Aitape – Wewak Campaign . On 13 September 1945 , Robertson accepted the surrender of Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi , and his Japanese Eighteenth Army . In December 1945 , Robertson took over command of the First Army , becoming one of a select number of Australians to command such a formation , at least on paper , with the rank of lieutenant general . For the final campaigns , Robertson was mentioned in despatches a fourth time .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
= = = British Commonwealth Occupation Force = = =
Robertson returned to Australia in March 1946 to take over Southern Command . In June he was appointed to replace Lieutenant General John Northcott as commander of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) in the occupation of Japan . Northcott had negotiated the Northcott @-@ MacArthur agreement in January 1946 with General of the Army Douglas MacArthur , which governed the terms and conditions under which the BCOF would occupy part of Japan . They agreed that the BCOF would serve under American command , with American policy being followed . It remained to make the occupation work . Robertson had a poor relationship with the British component commander , Major General David Tennant Cowan , who resented being placed under an Australian officer . " It did not occur to me " , Robertson later wrote , " that officers of the British and Indian armies looked upon us from Australia and New Zealand as they looked upon Indians , and were prepared to do anything to avoid being publicly commanded by us . "
The British government 's principal interest in Japan was to renew pre @-@ war trade concessions , and to secure new ones ; it was particularly interested in the port city of Kobe . The Americans blocked these attempts . Robertson clashed repeatedly with Lieutenant General Sir Charles Gairdner , the official representative of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . Gairdner was nominally senior in rank to Robertson until March 1947 , when Robertson was promoted to the substantive rank of lieutenant general , backdated to January 1944 . Robertson resisted Gairdner 's requests for BCOF aircraft for personal purposes .
= = = Korean War = = =
By mid @-@ 1950 , the BCOF was winding down . All the contingents other than the Australians had departed , and the Australians were preparing to leave . For his services as commander of the BCOF , Robertson was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( Military Division ) ( KBE ) in the King 's Birthday Honours List . Robertson intended to travel to London to be invested by King George VI but his plans were disrupted by the outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950 . Robertson passed on to the Australian government requests from MacArthur for BCOF assistance , which were agreed to . He committed the frigate HMAS Shoalhaven and No. 77 Squadron RAAF but , although authorised to do so , he hesitated to deploy the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment , as he considered the risks too great .
Robertson built up what became the British Commonwealth Forces Korea ( BCFK ) . While the British government had hoped to have the Americans supply all their logistic support , Robertson realised that this was impossible . The US Army was being stretched to its limit just supporting itself and the army of the Republic of Korea , and British Commonwealth equipment was different in many respects . The British Army then scrambled to meet its own logistic needs , creating ad hoc arrangements and requesting support from Robertson and MacArthur . The Chief of the General Staff , Sydney Rowell , sent a cable to his British counterpart , Field Marshal Sir William Slim , warning of " a bugger 's muddle in which the only people to suffer will be the soldiers " . Slim agreed ; a Maintenance Area was established in Korea to support Commonwealth forces there , which drew some resources from American sources , such as petrol , oil and lubricants , engineer stores , casualty evacuation and port operations , and the rest from BCOF in Japan .
Once again , the British government did not wish to entrust its interests in Japan to a foreign officer , so the British Chiefs of Staff appointed Air Vice Marshal Cecil Bouchier as their representative at MacArthur 's headquarters . His brief made it clear that he had no responsibility or authority over the BCOF or Commonwealth forces in Korea . After rashly ordering the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade to Pusan without transport or heavy equipment , much to Robertson 's annoyance , Bouchier did attempt to confine himself to acting solely as a liaison officer . Following the dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur , Robertson held a press conference in which he defended the general and his conduct of the war . This constituted an implicit condemnation of the British government 's policy . Soon after , during the Battle of the Imjin River , Robertson was consulted by the Americans about the possible consequences of the loss of the 1st Battalion , the Gloucestershire Regiment , and he advised them not to endanger the rest of the I Corps line with a rescue attempt . For his services in the Korean War , he was awarded the American Legion of Merit , and the South Korean Order of Military Merit .
= = Later life = =
Robertson was recalled to Australia in November 1951 , replacing Sir Edmund Herring as Director General of Recruiting . In January 1953 , Robertson took over Southern Command again . This put him in uncomfortably close proximity to Rowell , however , and the two clashed over a number of minor issues . Robertson turned 60 on 29 October 1954 , and retired the next day , after racking up 3 @,@ 985 days of active service in 43 years in the Australian Army . From 1954 to 1960 , he was honorary colonel of the Royal Australian Regiment . In retirement Robertson served on the committee of the Metropolitan Golf Club and was president of the Victorian branch of the Royal Empire Society for a time . He commenced writing his memoirs , which he promised would be " the million pound libel " . Unfortunately , the fate of the papers he gathered for it and the unfinished manuscript itself is unknown .
On 28 April 1960 he suffered a ruptured aorta and died at the Repatriation General Hospital , Heidelberg . His sudden death came as a shock to many . A funeral with full military honours was held at Scots ' Church , Melbourne . For pall bearers , he had eight generals : Leslie Beavis , Allan Boase , Cyril Clowes , Hector Edgar , Ragnar Garrett , Edmund Herring , Sydney Rowell and Colin Simpson . Frank Kingsley Norris carried his decorations while the 2nd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment and 1st Armoured Regiment provided honour guards for the largest military funeral since Blamey 's in 1951 . Afterwards , he was buried with his wife , who had died in 1956 , at Springvale Botanical Cemetery . The Robertson Barracks was later named in his honour .
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= Guilty ( Awake ) =
" Guilty " is the third episode of the American police procedural drama television series Awake . The episode first aired on March 15 , 2012 in the United States on NBC , and was simultaneously broadcast on Global in Canada . It was written by series executive producer and showrunner Howard Gordon and consulting producer Evan Katz , and was directed by Jeffrey Reiner . " Guilty " was well received by television critics , who praised its storylines , noting the script to be interesting . The episode garnered 5 @.@ 12 million viewers in the United States and a 1 @.@ 6 / 4 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . It ranked second in its timeslot of the night , behind Private Practice on ABC .
The show centers on Michael Britten ( Jason Isaacs ) , a police detective living in two separate realities after a car accident . In this episode , John Copper ( Clifton Powell ) , a convict that Michael arrested 10 years ago , escapes from jail . Tara ( Michaela McManus ) and Rex ( Dylan Minnette ) go to tennis practice . Cooper hits the car Rex is in , incapacitates Tara , and kidnaps Rex . John kidnaps him for " justice " , claiming that he was innocent . Michael later finds out in the " red reality " , that Jim Mayhew ( William Russ ) had framed him for murder . He wears a wire to set him up , and obtains a confession . Meanwhile , Hannah 's ( Laura Allen ) friends organize a service for Rex 's death in the " red reality " . Michael can 't come because of the " green reality " .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens in the " green reality " ( where Rex is alive and Hannah isn 't ) , with John Cooper ( Clifton Powell ) , a convict that Michael arrested 10 years ago , who is transferred to a medical clinic for dialysis because he is missing a kidney , by Nancy ( Lolly Ward ) . As the guard takes Copper to the car to go back to prison , he complains that the prisoner is getting preferential treatment over his mother , who is on the waiting list . As they arrive at the van , Cooper uses a paralytic vial hidden in his bandages to knock one guard out . He takes his gun , and makes the other security guard shut the door . Cooper claims his has " nothing to lose " . Later , at home , while Rex 's tennis coach Tara ( Michaela McManus ) takes him to tennis practice , Michael gets a call from Isaiah " Bird " Freeman ( Steve Harris ) , his partner , that Cooper had escaped . Rex and Tara are talking about Rex 's guilt about his father , when Cooper hits the car , and puts a chemical thing on Tara , and kidnaps Rex .
Michael and Bird investigate in the case , and Michael , with evidence , finds out where Rex is , and runs away . Meanwhile , Rex wakes up inside of a shed , handcuffed to the floor . He tries to dial 911 on the cell phone but Cooper comes in , interrupting him . Michael speaks to Nancy , who admits that she helped Cooper escape but didn ’ t know he would abduct anyone . She claims that she helped him because he claimed that he was innocent . Tara notes that Cooper had phoned Tara , and told him to go to a payphone near his police station . He goes there , and speaks to Cooper , who tells him to meet him at a warehouse . Cooper then apologizes to Rex , stating that " no son should pay for the sins of the fathers " , and walks out of the shack . Michael meets with him ; he claims that he met him for " justice " , and said that he was innocent . Cooper explains that Rex will die without him , confirming that he will die from dehydration possibly soon . He goes home and takes a sleeping pill , transferring to the " red reality " . Later , in the " red reality " ( where Hannah is alive and Rex isn 't ) , he speaks with Cooper at jail . He says that he didn 't do it , and asks if he knows who did . He claimed that Jim Mayhew , another cop , committed the crime and framed him .
Michael leaves the prison and calls Mayhew , and offers to come over for a beer . However , once Michael comes over , he reminds Mayhew that Bell had a million dollars but only $ 100 @,@ 000 ever turned up . He figures that Mayhew killed Bell , took the money , and planted the gun in Cooper 's house . When Michael demands his share of the stolen money , he kept stating that there was no money . However , as Michael leaves , Mayhew says that he has the remaining money for him . Michael leaves , Mayhew goes to the door , and finds out that the police are there . They arrest him . Michael 's partner in the " red reality " , Efrem Vega ( Wilmer Valderrama ) admits to Michael that he wasn 't sure if his partner had dreamed up the entire thing . Later in the " green reality " , Michael and the team head to the shed to get Rex , and take him to the hospital . In the shed , Rex had left a video message , which Michael had watched . Rex had said that he loved him . Michael wakes up in the " red reality " , and speaks to Hannah about their experiences .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by series executive producer and showrunner Howard Gordon and consulting producer Evan Katz , and was directed by Jeffrey Reiner . It marked both Gordon and Katz 's first writing credit in the series , and director Reiner 's second directing credit , with the last episode he directed being " The Little Guy " , the second episode aired on March 8 , 2012 . This is the first episode that was not written by series creator and executive producer Kyle Killen . The episode is rated TV @-@ 14 on television in the United States .
= = = Casting = = =
The episode featured guest performances from many actors including : Logan Miller , who was cast as Cole , Rex 's best friend . Daniela Bobadilla appeared as Emma , who is Rex 's girlfriend , currently . Bailey Chase , who played as David Walker . Clifton Powell as John Cooper , a man who was falsely accused of a crime ten years earlier . He was framed by Jim Mayhew , played by William Russ . Jim Cantafio appeared as an IA Officer . Lolly Ward as Nancy , a man who had helped Cooper escape from jail . David Pease as Doubting Cop . Enrique Almeida , who was cast as Perez . Kevin Jackson , who appeared as a Homeless Man , and Christopher Judd , who was cast as the Paramedic .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Guilty " was originally broadcast on March 15 , 2012 in the United States on NBC between 10 : 00 pm and 11 : 00 pm , preceded by Up All Night . The episode garnered 5 @.@ 12 million viewers in its original airing the United States , and it ranked second in its timeslot despite airing simultaneously with Private Practice on ABC , and a live airing of the college basketball game , with teams New Mexico and Indiana playing . It acquired a 1 @.@ 6 / 4 rating @-@ share in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that it was seen by 1 @.@ 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode 's ratings had slightly improved over the previous episode , " The Little Guy " , which obtained 4 million viewers . It was simultaneously broadcast on Global in Canada , and was subsequently aired on Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom on May 18 , 2012 . The episode obtained 277 @,@ 000 million viewers in the United Kingdom on its original airing , making it the third most @-@ watched program for that week on the channel behind Game of Thrones and Blue Bloods . Its ratings had slightly dropped from the previous episode .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Guilty " was well received by most television commentators , who praised its storylines . Matt Fowler of IGN gave the episode a complimentary review . He claimed that the episode " effectively ramped up the tension " . Fowler thought that it " might have been a bit too much to accept that poor Rex had to suffer through yet another near @-@ death ordeal " , and that " the episode itself was able to provide genuine thrills mixed with some incredible moments of tenderness " . Fowler noted that Michael fully took " advantage of his unique , tragic , situation by having him purposefully use one world as a source of information to help him solve a case " . Stating that the episode had " top @-@ tier entertainment " , Fowler concluded his review by giving the episode a " 9 out of 10 " , classifying it as " great " . Nick McHatton from TV Fanatic mainly enjoyed this episode . McHatton claimed that Rex 's current behaviour and thoughts are " understandable " and " heart @-@ renching " . He concluded his review by giving the episode a " 4 @.@ 7 out of 5 " score . Caroline Preece from Den of Geek gave praise in the episode . He thought the episode was " built around a gripping premise " . Preece wrote that the series is " still very odd " after the episode . HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall noted many parts of the episode . Sepinwall stated that there was a " notable change in feel or style " from other episodes , because of different writers for the episode . He noted that " the idea of the loved one getting kidnapped feels like a very big card to play this early " , and that " it does fit in with the theme of the show " . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave less praise and enjoyment in the episode . In his " B- " review , he noted that the " premise has been established " . He stated that it is " a clever device " . He argued that the " plotting isn 't helping " the episode . The Voice of TV 's Mary Powers gave the episode a " A- " grade . She called the episode " fabulous " . Carl Cortez from Assignment X gave much praise in the episode . He called it a " twisty / turny adventure " . Cortez claimed that it " feels too early and convenient " for Rex to get kidnapped .
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= Curiosity ( EP ) =
Curiosity is the first EP by Canadian recording artist Carly Rae Jepsen . It was released on February 14 , 2012 , by 604 Records . Initially planned as a full @-@ length album , Curiosity was cut down to a six @-@ song EP just days before its release . Musically , Curiosity is a pop album influenced by several genres such as dance @-@ pop and R & B , while its lyrical content is mostly about love .
Curiosity received generally positive reviews from contemporary music , with many praising the quality of the tracks and labeling it mainstream . Its lead single , " Call Me Maybe " , was a commercial success , topping the charts in several countries and is one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with over 18 million copies sold . The album peaked at number six on the Canadian Albums Chart .
= = Background = =
Jepsen 's second studio album was initially planned to be released on February 14 , 2012 ; however , she chose not to release it because she wanted to make sure she " got the second CD right . I think I got a little nervous about the idea of the sophomore being a little less @-@ than because it 's so rushed . So I wanted to give myself the time to not feel that pressure . " She then worked with songwriter Josh Ramsay and producer Ryan Stewart on most of the album 's tracks . Jepsen 's songwriting process was inspired by her life and friends . After the recording sessions were completed , Curiosity was announced as a full @-@ length album , with a digital release date confirmed for February 14 , 2012 . A few days before its official release , however , the label decided to change the format of the album , turning it into an extended play .
= = Composition = =
The EP opens with " Call Me Maybe " , an upbeat track that draws influences from dance @-@ pop and R & B. The clever lyrics of the song describes the " infatuation and inconvenience of a love at first sight , " as described by Bill Lamb of About.com. During the pre @-@ chorus , the singer states , " Ripped jeans , skin was showing / Hot night , wind was blowing / Where you think you ’ re going , baby ? " As the chorus begins , the background incorporates synthesized string chords , and she sings , " Hey , I just met you , And this is crazy , But here 's my number , So call me maybe . " Melody Lau of Rolling Stone wrote that " Call Me Maybe " is a " Taylor Swift meets Robyn " song . The title track , " Curiosity " , has a similar sound to " Call Me Maybe " , and features heavy dance beats and catchy hooks . In the song , Jepsen sings about being poorly treated by a bad boy , and begs for more of his love . " Picture " is a ballad that focuses on patience in a relationship . Critics noted that the song would work well during the climax of a motion picture due to its lyrical content . " Talk to Me " and " Just a Step Away " were both described as mid @-@ tempo pop songs that alludes to summer love , teen love and that first crush . Fiona Eadie of Cadence Canada noted that in both tracks , Carly is able to transcend the listener " to a porch swing or riding a bicycle along an old dirt road in the countryside ’ s summer sunshine . Her voice sings the highs and lows of love and everything that comes along with it . " The final song is a cover of Joni Mitchell 's " Both Sides Now " . Musically , the song is also an upbeat ballad , and differs from the original version in the sense that Jepsen 's version is " fresh and modern with her unique bubblegum twist . " Critics also added that Jepsen will be able to " attract a new generation to this widely recognized hit " with her " unique version . "
= = Critical reception = =
Curiosity received critical acclaim from contemporary critics . Bill Lamb of About.com began his review stating that it is always interesting to have new artists making music both familiar and fresh . He went to describe the six " electronic pop songs strong , almost too short to be satisfying but immensely repeatable . " Lamb also added that Jepsen 's " style is summery and bright without the emotional bogging down of [ Demi ] Lovato or the flat out drudgery of Jessie J " Allmusic critic Jon O 'Brien stated that , when compared to Jepsen 's previous effort Tug of War ( 2008 ) , the EP " unexpectedly abandons her previous singer / songwriter approach in favor of an unashamed bubblegum sound which harks back to the early 2000s pop princess glory days of Britney , Christina , Jessica , and Mandy . " Fiona Eadie of Cadence Canada described the musical style of the album as " pop . But not in the annoying , auto @-@ tune , and talentless way . Her perfectly pitched voice makes it clear that this girl has real talent . " Eadie summarized her review saying that Curiosity " is filled with music that dances . And it is your choice to listen to it with or without a hairbrush ( a.k.a. microphone ) in front of your bedroom mirror . Overall a great EP . I can ’ t wait to put the top down and blast her tunes all summer . " Jen Appel of idobi Radio commented that , overall , Curiosity is the kind of extended play that brings attention from the teenage public due to its mainstream songs , and added , " if you are looking for fun , lovable songs to make you smile , this is your go @-@ to mix . " Appel only criticized the lyrical content , noting that it is " very childish but seem to work with the music nonetheless . "
= = Singles = =
" Call Me Maybe " was released as the lead single from the EP on September 20 , 2011 . After pop singers Justin Bieber and Selena Gomez tweeted about the song , Jepsen gained international attention and was signed to Schoolboy Records , releasing her single in the United States through the label . The song received generally positive reviews from contemporary critics , who praised its composition and clever lyrical content , while deeming it as the perfect pop song . " Call Me Maybe " has attained commercial success worldwide , topping the charts in several countries , and is one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with over 18 million copies sold . An accompanying music video portrays Jepsen trying to gain attention from her attractive neighbor , who is revealed to be gay at the close of the story . To promote the song , Jepsen has performed on several live televised shows , including on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , where she made her US television debut , and at the MTV Europe Music Awards .
" Curiosity " was released as the second single on May 1 , 2012 . Jepsen shot a video for the song on June 5 , 2012 with director Colin Minihan . The music video was not released , and leaked on November 25 , 2012 . According to the description of the leak , " this video was shelved because it was " too sexy " for her new tween demographic . " On March 26 , 2012 , Jepsen visited WBBM @-@ FM 's Morning Show and performed the two singles . In the last week of January 2013 , the singer filmed an acoustic performance of the song in Tokyo exclusively for Billboard .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
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= W. E. B. Du Bois =
William Edward Burghardt " W. E. B. " Du Bois ( pronounced / duːˈbɔɪz / doo @-@ BOYZ ; February 23 , 1868 – August 27 , 1963 ) was an American sociologist , historian , civil rights activist , Pan @-@ Africanist , author , and editor . Born in Great Barrington , Massachusetts , Du Bois grew up in a relatively tolerant and integrated community . After completing graduate work at the University of Berlin and Harvard , where he was the first African American to earn a doctorate , he became a professor of history , sociology and economics at Atlanta University . Du Bois was one of the co @-@ founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) in 1909 .
Du Bois rose to national prominence as the leader of the Niagara Movement , a group of African @-@ American activists who wanted equal rights for blacks . Du Bois and his supporters opposed the Atlanta compromise , an agreement crafted by Booker T. Washington which provided that Southern blacks would work and submit to white political rule , while Southern whites guaranteed that blacks would receive basic educational and economic opportunities . Instead , Du Bois insisted on full civil rights and increased political representation , which he believed would be brought about by the African @-@ American intellectual elite . He referred to this group as the Talented Tenth and believed that African Americans needed the chances for advanced education to develop its leadership .
Racism was the main target of Du Bois 's polemics , and he strongly protested against lynching , Jim Crow laws , and discrimination in education and employment . His cause included people of color everywhere , particularly Africans and Asians in colonies . He was a proponent of Pan @-@ Africanism and helped organize several Pan @-@ African Congresses to fight for independence of African colonies from European powers . Du Bois made several trips to Europe , Africa and Asia . After World War I , he surveyed the experiences of American black soldiers in France and documented widespread bigotry in the United States military .
Du Bois was a prolific author . His collection of essays , The Souls of Black Folk , was a seminal work in African @-@ American literature ; and his 1935 magnum opus Black Reconstruction in America challenged the prevailing orthodoxy that blacks were responsible for the failures of the Reconstruction Era . He wrote one of the first scientific treatises in the field of American sociology , and he published three autobiographies , each of which contains insightful essays on sociology , politics and history . In his role as editor of the NAACP 's journal The Crisis , he published many influential pieces . Du Bois believed that capitalism was a primary cause of racism , and he was generally sympathetic to socialist causes throughout his life . He was an ardent peace activist and advocated nuclear disarmament . The United States ' Civil Rights Act , embodying many of the reforms for which Du Bois had campaigned his entire life , was enacted a year after his death .
= = Early life = =
William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was born on February 23 , 1868 , in Great Barrington , Massachusetts , to Alfred and Mary Silvina ( née Burghardt ) Du Bois . Mary Silvina Burghardt 's family was part of the very small free black population of Great Barrington and had long owned land in the state . She was descended from Dutch , African and English ancestors . William Du Bois 's maternal great @-@ great @-@ grandfather was Tom Burghardt , a slave ( born in West Africa around 1730 ) , who was held by the Dutch colonist Conraed Burghardt . Tom briefly served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War , which may have been how he gained his freedom during the 18th century . His son Jack Burghardt was the father of Othello Burghardt , who was the father of Mary Silvina Burghardt .
William Du Bois 's paternal great @-@ grandfather was James Du Bois of Poughkeepsie , New York , an ethnic French @-@ American who fathered several children with slave mistresses . One of James ' mixed @-@ race sons was Alexander . He traveled and worked in Haiti , where he fathered a son , Alfred , with a mistress . Alexander returned to Connecticut , leaving Alfred in Haiti with his mother .
Sometime before 1860 , Alfred Du Bois emigrated to the United States , settling in Massachusetts . He married Mary Silvina Burghardt on February 5 , 1867 , in Housatonic . Alfred left Mary in 1870 , two years after their son William was born . Mary Burghardt Du Bois moved with her son back to her parents ' house in Great Barrington until he was five . She worked to support her family ( receiving some assistance from her brother and neighbors ) , until she suffered a stroke in the early 1880s . She died in 1885 .
Great Barrington had a majority European American community , who treated Du Bois generally well . He attended the local integrated public school and played with white schoolmates . As an adult , he wrote about racism which he felt as a fatherless child and the experience of being a minority in the town . But , teachers recognized his ability and encouraged his intellectual pursuits , and his rewarding experience with academic studies led him to believe that he could use his knowledge to empower African Americans . Du Bois graduated from the town 's Searles High School . When Du Bois decided to attend college , the congregation of his childhood church , the First Congregational Church of Great Barrington , raised the money for his tuition .
= = = University education = = =
Relying on money donated by neighbors , Du Bois attended Fisk University , a historically black college in Nashville , Tennessee , from 1885 to 1888 . His travel to and residency in the South was Du Bois 's first experience with Southern racism , which at the time encompassed Jim Crow laws , bigotry , suppression of black voting , and lynchings ; the lattermost reached a peak in the next decade . After receiving a bachelor 's degree from Fisk , he attended Harvard College ( which did not accept course credits from Fisk ) from 1888 to 1890 , where he was strongly influenced by his professor William James , prominent in American philosophy . Du Bois paid his way through three years at Harvard with money from summer jobs , an inheritance , scholarships , and loans from friends . In 1890 , Harvard awarded Du Bois his second bachelor 's degree , cum laude , in history . In 1891 , Du Bois received a scholarship to attend the sociology graduate school at Harvard .
In 1892 , Du Bois received a fellowship from the John F. Slater Fund for the Education of Freedmen to attend the University of Berlin for graduate work . While a student in Berlin , he traveled extensively throughout Europe . He came of age intellectually in the German capital , while studying with some of that nation 's most prominent social scientists , including Gustav von Schmoller , Adolph Wagner , and Heinrich von Treitschke . After returning from Europe , Du Bois completed his graduate studies ; in 1895 he was the first African American to earn a Ph.D. from Harvard University .
= = = Wilberforce and Philadelphia = = =
In the summer of 1894 , Du Bois received several job offers , including one from the prestigious Tuskegee Institute ; he accepted a teaching job at Wilberforce University in Ohio . At Wilberforce , Du Bois was strongly influenced by Alexander Crummell , who believed that ideas and morals are necessary tools to effect social change . While at Wilberforce , Du Bois married Nina Gomer , one of his students , on May 12 , 1896 .
After two years at Wilberforce , Du Bois accepted a one @-@ year research job from the University of Pennsylvania as an " assistant in sociology " in the summer of 1896 . He performed sociological field research in Philadelphia 's African @-@ American neighborhoods , which formed the foundation for his landmark study , The Philadelphia Negro , published in 1899 while he was teaching at Atlanta University . It was the first case study of a black community in the United States . By the 1890s , Philadelphia 's black neighborhoods had a negative reputation in terms of crime , poverty , and mortality . Du Bois 's book undermined the stereotypes with experimental evidence , and shaped his approach to segregation and its negative impact on black lives and reputations . The results led Du Bois to realize that racial integration was the key to democratic equality in American cities .
While taking part in the American Negro Academy ( ANA ) in 1897 , Du Bois presented a paper in which he rejected Frederick Douglass 's plea for black Americans to integrate into white society . He wrote : " we are Negroes , members of a vast historic race that from the very dawn of creation has slept , but half awakening in the dark forests of its African fatherland " . In the August 1897 issue of Atlantic Monthly , Du Bois published " Strivings of the Negro People " , his first work aimed at the general public , in which he enlarged upon his thesis that African Americans should embrace their African heritage while contributing to American society .
= = Atlanta University = =
In July 1897 , Du Bois left Philadelphia and took a professorship in history and economics at the historically black Atlanta University in Georgia . His first major academic work was his book The Philadelphia Negro ( 1899 ) , a detailed and comprehensive sociological study of the African @-@ American people of Philadelphia , based on the field work he did in 1896 – 1897 . The work was a breakthrough in scholarship , because it was the first scientific study of African Americans and a major contribution to early scientific sociology in the U.S. In the study , Du Bois coined the phrase " the submerged tenth " to describe the black underclass . Later in 1903 he popularized the term , the " Talented Tenth " , applied to society 's elite class . Du Bois 's terminology reflected his opinion that the elite of a nation , both black and white , was critical to achievements in culture and progress . Du Bois wrote in this period in a dismissive way of the underclass , describing them as " lazy " or " unreliable " , but he – in contrast to other scholars – he attributed many of their societal problems to the ravages of slavery .
Du Bois 's output at Atlanta University was prodigious , in spite of a limited budget : He produced numerous social science papers and annually hosted the Atlanta Conference of Negro Problems . Du Bois also received grants from the U.S. government to prepare reports about African @-@ American workforce and culture . His students considered him to be a brilliant , but aloof and strict , teacher .
= = = First Pan @-@ African Conference = = =
In 1900 Du Bois attended the First Pan @-@ African Conference , held in London from July 23 to 25 . ( This was just prior to the Paris Exhibition of 1900 " in order to allow tourists of African descent to attend both events . " ) It was organized by men from the Caribbean : Haitians Anténor Firmin and Bénito Sylvain and Trinidadian barrister Henry Sylvester Williams . Du Bois played a leading role , drafting a letter ( " Address to the Nations of the World " ) to European leaders appealing to them to struggle against racism , to grant colonies in Africa and the West Indies the right to self @-@ government and to demand political and other rights for African Americans . By this time , southern states were passing new laws and constitutions to disfranchise most African Americans , an exclusion from the political system that lasted into the 1960s .
At the conclusion of the conference , delegates unanimously adopted the " Address to the Nations of the World " , and sent it to various heads of state where people of African descent were living and suffering oppression . The address implored the United States and the imperial European nations to " acknowledge and protect the rights of people of African descent " and to respect the integrity and independence of " the free Negro States of Abyssinia , Liberia , Haiti , etc . " It was signed by Bishop Alexander Walters ( President of the Pan @-@ African Association ) , the Canadian Rev. Henry B. Brown ( Vice @-@ President ) , Williams ( General Secretary ) and Du Bois ( Chairman of the Committee on the Address ) . The address included Du Bois 's observation , " The problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the colour @-@ line . " He used this again three years later in the " Forethought " of his book , The Souls of Black Folk ( 1903 ) .
= = = Booker T. Washington and the Atlanta Compromise = = =
In the first decade of the new century , Du Bois emerged as a spokesperson for his race , second only to Booker T. Washington . Washington was the director of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama , and wielded tremendous influence within the African @-@ American and white communities . Washington was the architect of the Atlanta Compromise , an unwritten deal he struck in 1895 with Southern white leaders who dominated state governments after Reconstruction . Essentially the agreement provided that Southern blacks , who lived overwhelmingly in rural communities , would submit to the current discrimination , segregation , disenfranchisement , and non @-@ unionized employment ; that Southern whites would permit blacks to receive a basic education , some economic opportunities , and justice within the legal system ; and that Northern whites would invest in Southern enterprises and fund black educational charities .
Despite initially sending congratulations to Washington for his Atlanta Exposition Speech , Du Bois later came to oppose Washington 's plan , along with many other African Americans , including Archibald H. Grimke , Kelly Miller , James Weldon Johnson and Paul Laurence Dunbar – representatives of the class of educated blacks that Du Bois would later call the " talented tenth " . Du Bois felt that African Americans should fight for equal rights and higher opportunities , rather than passively submit to the segregation and discrimination of Washington 's Atlanta Compromise .
Du Bois was inspired to greater activism by the lynching of Sam Hose , which occurred near Atlanta in 1899 . Hose was tortured , burned and hung by a mob of two thousand whites . When walking through Atlanta to discuss the lynching with newspaper editor Joel Chandler Harris , Du Bois encountered Hose 's burned knuckles in a storefront display . The episode stunned Du Bois , and he resolved that " one could not be a calm cool , and detached scientist while Negroes were lynched , murdered , and starved . " Du Bois realized that " the cure wasn 't simply telling people the truth , it was inducing them to act on the truth . "
In 1901 , Du Bois wrote a review critical of Washington 's autobiography Up from Slavery , which he later expanded and published to a wider audience as the essay " Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others " in The Souls of Black Folk . Later in life , Du Bois regretted having been critical of Washington in those essays . One of the contrasts between the two leaders was their approach to education : Washington felt that African @-@ American schools should focus primarily on industrial education topics such as agricultural and mechanical skills , to prepare southern blacks for the opportunities in the rural areas where most lived . Du Bois felt that black schools should focus more on liberal arts and academic curriculum ( including the classics , arts , and humanities ) , because liberal arts were required to develop a leadership elite . However , as sociologist E. Franklin Frazier and economists Gunnar Myrdal and Thomas Sowell have argued , such disagreement over education was a minor point of difference between Washington and Du Bois ; both men acknowledged the importance of the form of education that the other emphasized . Sowell has also argued that , despite genuine disagreements between the two leaders , the supposed animosity between Washington and Du Bois actually formed among their followers , not between Washington and Du Bois themselves . Du Bois himself also made this observation in an interview published in the The Atlantic Monthly in November 1965 .
= = = Niagara Movement = = =
In 1905 , Du Bois and several other African @-@ American civil rights activists – including Fredrick L. McGhee , Jesse Max Barber and William Monroe Trotter – met in Canada , near Niagara Falls . There they wrote a declaration of principles opposing the Atlanta Compromise , and incorporated as the Niagara Movement in 1906 . Du Bois and the other " Niagarites " wanted to publicize their ideals to other African Americans , but most black periodicals were owned by publishers sympathetic to Washington . Du Bois bought a printing press and started publishing Moon Illustrated Weekly in December 1905 . It was the first African @-@ American illustrated weekly , and Du Bois used it to attack Washington 's positions , but the magazine lasted only for about eight months . Du Bois soon founded and edited another vehicle for his polemics , The Horizon : A Journal of the Color Line , which debuted in 1907 .
The Niagarites held a second conference in August 1906 , in celebration of the 100th anniversary of abolitionist John Brown 's birth , at the West Virginia site of Brown 's raid on Harper 's Ferry . Reverdy C. Ransom spoke and addressed the fact that Washington 's primary goal was to prepare blacks for employment in their current society : " Today , two classes of Negroes , [ ... ] are standing at the parting of the ways . The one counsels patient submission to our present humiliations and degradations ; [ ... ] The other class believe that it should not submit to being humiliated , degraded , and remanded to an inferior place [ ... ] it does not believe in bartering its manhood for the sake of gain . "
= = = The Souls of Black Folk = = =
In an effort to portray the genius and humanity of the black race , Du Bois published The Souls of Black Folk ( 1903 ) , a collection of 14 essays . James Weldon Johnson said the book 's effect on African Americans was comparable to that of Uncle Tom 's Cabin . The introduction famously proclaimed that " [ ... ] the problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the color line . " Each chapter begins with two epigraphs – one from a white poet , and one from a black spiritual – to demonstrate intellectual and cultural parity between black and white cultures . A major theme of the work was the double consciousness faced by African Americans : Being both American and black . This was a unique identity which , according to Du Bois , had been a handicap in the past , but could be a strength in the future : " Henceforth , the destiny of the race could be conceived as leading neither to assimilation nor separatism but to proud , enduring hyphenation . "
Jonathon S. Kahn in Divine Discontent : The Religious Imagination of Du Bois shows how Du Bois in his The Souls of Black Folk , represents an exemplary text of pragmatic religious naturalism . On page 12 Kahn writes : " Du Bois needs to be understood as an African American pragmatic religious naturalist . By this I mean that , like Du Bois the American traditional pragmatic religious naturalism , which runs through William James , George Santayana and John Dewey , seeks religion without metaphysical foundations . " Kahn 's interpretation of religious naturalism is very broad but he relates it to specific thinkers . Du Bois 's anti @-@ metaphysical viewpoint places him in the sphere of religious naturalism as typified by William James and others .
= = = Racial violence = = =
Two calamities in the autumn of 1906 shocked African Americans , and contributed to strengthening support for Du Bois 's struggle for civil rights to prevail over Booker T. Washington 's accommodationism . First , President Teddy Roosevelt dishonorably discharged 167 black soldiers because they were accused of crimes as a result of the Brownsville Affair . Many of the discharged soldiers had served for 20 years and were near retirement . Second , in September , riots broke out in Atlanta , precipitated by unfounded allegations of black men assaulting white women . This was a catalyst for racial tensions based on a job shortage and employers playing black workers against white workers . Ten thousand whites rampaged through Atlanta , beating every black person they could find , resulting in over 25 deaths . In the aftermath of the 1906 violence , Du Bois urged blacks to withdraw their support from the Republican Party , because Republicans Roosevelt and William Howard Taft did not sufficiently support blacks . Most African Americans had been loyal to the Republican Party since the time of Abraham Lincoln .
Du Bois wrote the essay , " A Litany at Atlanta " , which asserted that the riot demonstrated that the Atlanta Compromise was a failure . Despite upholding their end of the bargain , blacks had failed to receive legal justice in the South . Historian David Lewis has written that the Compromise no longer held because white patrician planters , who took a paternalistic role , had been replaced by aggressive businessmen who were willing to pit blacks against whites . These two calamities were watershed events for the African @-@ American community , marking the ascendancy of Du Bois 's vision of equal rights .
= = = Academic work = = =
In addition to writing editorials , Du Bois continued to produce scholarly work at Atlanta University . In 1909 , after five years of effort , he published a biography of abolitionist John Brown . It contained many insights , but also contained some factual errors . The work was strongly criticized by The Nation , which was owned by Oswald Villard , who was writing his own , competing biography of John Brown . Du Bois 's work was largely ignored by white scholars . After publishing a piece in Collier 's magazine warning of the end of " white supremacy " , Du Bois had difficulty getting pieces accepted by major periodicals . But he did continue to publish columns regularly in The Horizon magazine .
Du Bois was the first African American invited by the American Historical Association ( AHA ) to present a paper at their annual conference . He read his paper , Reconstruction and Its Benefits , to an astounded audience at the AHA 's December 1909 conference . The paper went against the mainstream historical view , promoted by the Dunning School of scholars at Columbia University , that Reconstruction was a disaster , caused by the ineptitude and sloth of blacks . To the contrary , Du Bois asserted that the brief period of African @-@ American leadership in the South accomplished three important goals : democracy , free public schools , and new social welfare legislation . He asserted that it was the federal government 's failure to manage the Freedmen 's Bureau , to distribute land , and to establish an educational system , that doomed African @-@ American prospects in the South . When Du Bois submitted the paper for publication a few months later in the American Historical Review , he asked that the word Negro be capitalized . The editor , J. Franklin Jameson , refused , and published the paper without the capitalization . The paper was mostly ignored by white historians . Du Bois later developed his paper as his ground @-@ breaking 1935 book , Black Reconstruction , which marshaled extensive facts to support his assertions . The AHA did not invite another African @-@ American speaker until 1940 .
= = NAACP era = =
In May 1909 , Du Bois attended the National Negro Conference in New York . The meeting led to the creation of the National Negro Committee , chaired by Oswald Villard , and dedicated to campaigning for civil rights , equal voting rights , and equal educational opportunities . The following spring , in 1910 , at the second National Negro Conference , the attendees created the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) . At Du Bois 's suggestion , the word " colored " , rather than " black " , was used to include " dark skinned people everywhere . " Dozens of civil rights supporters , black and white , participated in the founding , but most executive officers were white , including Mary Ovington , Charles Edward Russell , William English Walling , and its first president Moorfield Storey .
= = = The Crisis = = =
NAACP leaders offered Du Bois the position of Director of Publicity and Research . He accepted the job in the summer of 1910 , and moved to New York after resigning from Atlanta University . His primary duty was editing the NAACP 's monthly magazine , which he named The Crisis . The first issue appeared in November 1910 , and Du Bois pronounced that its aim was to set out " those facts and arguments which show the danger of race prejudice , particularly as manifested today toward colored people . " The journal was phenomenally successful , and its circulation would reach 100 @,@ 000 in 1920 . Typical articles in the early editions included one that inveighed against the dishonesty and parochialism of black churches , and one that discussed the Afrocentric origins of Egyptian civilization .
An important Du Bois editorial from 1911 helped initiate a nationwide push to induce the Federal government to outlaw lynching . Du Bois , employing the sarcasm he frequently used , commented on a lynching in Pennsylvania : " The point is he was black . Blackness must be punished . Blackness is the crime of crimes [ ... ] It is therefore necessary , as every white scoundrel in the nation knows , to let slip no opportunity of punishing this crime of crimes . Of course if possible , the pretext should be great and overwhelming – some awful stunning crime , made even more horrible by the reporters ' imagination . Failing this , mere murder , arson , barn burning or impudence may do . "
The Crisis carried editorials by Du Bois that supported the ideals of unionized labor but excoriated the racism demonstrated by its leaders , who systematically excluded blacks from membership . Du Bois also supported the principles of the Socialist Party ( he was briefly a member of the party from 1910 to 1912 ) , but he denounced the racism demonstrated by some socialist leaders . Frustrated by Republican president Taft 's failure to address widespread lynching , Du Bois endorsed Democratic candidate Woodrow Wilson in the 1912 presidential race , in exchange for Wilson 's promise to support black causes .
Throughout his writings , Du Bois supported women 's rights , but he found it difficult to publicly endorse the women 's right @-@ to @-@ vote movement because leaders of the suffragism movement refused to support his fight against racial injustice . A Crisis editorial from 1913 broached the taboo subject of interracial marriage : Although Du Bois generally expected persons to marry within their race , he viewed the problem as a women 's rights issue , because laws prohibited white men from marrying black women . Du Bois wrote " [ anti @-@ miscegenation ] laws leave the colored girls absolutely helpless for the lust of white men . It reduces colored women in the eyes of the law to the position of dogs . As low as the white girl falls , she can compel her seducer to marry her [ ... ] We must kill [ anti @-@ miscegenation laws ] not because we are anxious to marry the white men 's sisters , but because we are determined that white men will leave our sisters alone . "
During the years 1915 and 1916 , some leaders of the NAACP – disturbed by financial losses at The Crisis , and worried about the inflammatory rhetoric of some of its essays – attempted to oust Du Bois from his editorial position . Du Bois and his supporters prevailed , and he continued in his role as editor . In a 1919 column titled " The True Brownies " , he announced the creation of The Brownies ' Book , the first magazine published for African American children and youth , which he founded with Augustus Granville Dill and Jessie Redmon Fauset .
= = = Historian and author = = =
The 1910s were a productive time for Du Bois . In 1911 he attended the First Universal Races Congress in London and he published his first novel , The Quest of the Silver Fleece . Two years later , Du Bois wrote , produced , and directed a pageant for the stage , The Star of Ethiopia . In 1915 , Du Bois published The Negro , a general history of black Africans , and the first of its kind in English . The book rebutted claims of African inferiority , and would come to serve as the basis of much Afrocentric historiography in the 20th century . The Negro predicted unity and solidarity for colored people around the world , and it influenced many who supported the Pan @-@ African movement .
In 1915 , Atlantic Monthly carried an essay by Du Bois , " The African Roots of the War " , which consolidated Du Bois 's ideas on capitalism and race . In it , he argued that the scramble for Africa was at the root of World War I. He also anticipated later Communist doctrine , by suggesting that wealthy capitalists had pacified white workers by giving them just enough wealth to prevent them from revolting , and by threatening them with competition by the lower @-@ cost labor of colored workers .
= = = Combating racism = = =
Du Bois used his influential role in the NAACP to oppose a variety of racist incidents . When the silent film The Birth of a Nation premiered in 1915 , Du Bois and the NAACP led the fight to ban the movie , because of its racist portrayal of blacks as brutish and lustful . The fight was not successful , and possibly contributed to the film 's fame , but the publicity drew many new supporters to the NAACP .
The private sector was not the only source of racism : under President Wilson , the plight of African Americans in government jobs suffered . Many federal agencies adopted whites @-@ only employment practices , the Army excluded blacks from officer ranks , and the immigration service prohibited the immigration of persons of African ancestry . Du Bois wrote an editorial in 1914 deploring the dismissal of blacks from federal posts , and he supported William Monroe Trotter when Trotter brusquely confronted Wilson about Wilson 's failure to fulfill his campaign promise of justice for blacks .
The Crisis continued to wage a campaign against lynching . In 1915 , it published an article with a year @-@ by @-@ year tabulation of 2 @,@ 732 lynchings from 1884 to 1914 . The April 1916 edition covered the group lynching of six African Americans in Lee County , Georgia . Later in 1916 , the " Waco Horror " article covered the lynching of Jesse Washington , a mentally impaired 17 @-@ year @-@ old African American . The article broke new ground by utilizing undercover reporting to expose the conduct of local whites in Waco , Texas .
The early 20th century was the era of the Great Migration of blacks from the Southern United States to the Northeast , Midwest and West . Du Bois wrote an editorial supporting the Great Migration , because he felt it would help blacks escape Southern racism , find economic opportunities , and assimilate into American society .
Also in the 1910s the American eugenics movement was in its infancy , and many leading eugenicists were openly racist , defining Blacks as " a lower race " . Du Bois opposed this view as an unscientific aberration , but still maintained the basic principle of eugenics : That different persons have different inborn characteristics that make them more or less suited for specific kinds of employment , and that by encouraging the most talented members of all races to procreate would better the " stocks " of humanity .
= = = World War I = = =
As the United States prepared to enter World War I in 1917 , Du Bois 's colleague in the NAACP , Joel Spingarn , established a camp to train African Americans to serve as officers in the United States military . The camp was controversial , because some whites felt that blacks were not qualified to be officers , and some blacks felt that African Americans should not participate in what they considered a white man 's war . Du Bois supported Spingarn 's training camp , but was disappointed when the Army forcibly retired one of its few black officers , Charles Young , on a pretense of ill health . The Army agreed to create 1 @,@ 000 officer positions for blacks , but insisted that 250 come from enlisted men , conditioned to taking orders from whites , rather than from independent @-@ minded blacks that came from the camp . Over 700 @,@ 000 blacks enlisted on the first day of the draft , but were subject to discriminatory conditions which prompted vocal protests from Du Bois .
After the East St. Louis Riot occurred in the summer of 1917 , Du Bois traveled to St. Louis to report on the riots . Between 40 and 250 African Americans were massacred by whites , primarily due to resentment caused by St. Louis industry hiring blacks to replace striking white workers . Du Bois 's reporting resulted in an article " The Massacre of East St. Louis " , published in the September issue of The Crisis , which contained photographs and interviews detailing the violence . Historian David Levering Lewis concluded that Du Bois distorted some of the facts in order to increase the propaganda value of the article . To publicly demonstrate the black community 's outrage over the St Louis riot , Du Bois organized the Silent Parade , a march of around 9 @,@ 000 African Americans down New York 's Fifth avenue , the first parade of its kind in New York , and the second instance of blacks publicly demonstrating for civil rights .
The Houston riot of 1917 disturbed Du Bois and was a major setback to efforts to permit African Americans to become military officers . The riot began after Houston police arrested and beat two black soldiers ; in response , over 100 black soldiers took to the streets of Houston and killed 16 whites . A military court martial was held , and 19 of the soldiers were hung , and 67 others were imprisoned . In spite of the Houston riot , Du Bois and others successfully pressed the Army to accept the officers trained at Spingarn 's camp , resulting in over 600 black officers joining the Army in October 1917 .
Federal officials , concerned about subversive viewpoints expressed by NAACP leaders , attempted to frighten the NAACP by threatening it with investigations . Du Bois was not intimidated , and in 1918 he predicted that World War I would lead to an overthrow of the European colonial system and to the " liberation " of colored people world @-@ wide – in China , in India , and especially in America . NAACP chairman Joel Spingarn was enthusiastic about the war , and he persuaded Du Bois to consider an officer 's commission in the Army , contingent on Du Bois writing an editorial repudiating his anti @-@ war stance . Du Bois accepted this bargain and wrote the pro @-@ war " Close Ranks " editorial in June 1918 and soon thereafter he received a commission in the Army . Many black leaders , who wanted to leverage the war to gain civil rights for African Americans , criticized Du Bois for his sudden reversal . Southern officers in Du Bois 's unit objected to his presence , and his commission was withdrawn .
= = = After the war = = =
When the war ended , Du Bois traveled to Europe in 1919 to attend the first Pan @-@ African Congress and to interview African @-@ American soldiers for a planned book on their experiences in World War I. He was trailed by U.S. agents who were searching for evidence of treasonous activities . Du Bois discovered that the vast majority of black American soldiers were relegated to menial labor as stevedores and laborers . Some units were armed , and one in particular , the 92nd Division ( the Buffalo soldiers ) , engaged in combat . Du Bois discovered widespread racism in the Army , and concluded that the Army command discouraged African Americans from joining the Army , discredited the accomplishments of black soldiers , and promoted bigotry .
After returning from Europe , Du Bois was more determined than ever to gain equal rights for African Americans . Black soldiers returning from overseas felt a new sense of power and worth , and were representative of an emerging attitude referred to as the New Negro . In the editorial " Returning Soldiers " he wrote : " But , by the God of Heaven , we are cowards and jackasses if , now that the war is over , we do not marshal every ounce of our brain and brawn to fight a sterner , longer , more unbending battle against the forces of hell in our own land . " Many blacks moved to northern cities in search of work , and some northern white workers resented the competition . This labor strife was one of the causes of the Red Summer of 1919 , a horrific series of race riots across America , in which over 300 African Americans were killed in over 30 cities . Du Bois documented the atrocities in the pages of The Crisis , culminating in the December publication of a gruesome photograph of a lynching that occurred during the Omaha , Nebraska race riot .
The most egregious episode during the Red Summer was a vicious attack on blacks in Elaine , Arkansas , in which nearly 200 blacks were murdered . Reports coming out of the South blamed the blacks , alleging that they were conspiring to take over the government . Infuriated with the distortions , Du Bois published a letter in the New York World , claiming that the only crime the black sharecroppers had committed was daring to challenge their white landlords by hiring an attorney to investigate contractual irregularities . Over 60 of the surviving blacks were arrested and tried for conspiracy , in the case known as Moore v. Dempsey . Du Bois rallied blacks across America to raise funds for the legal defense , which , six years later , resulted in a Supreme Court victory authored by Oliver Wendell Holmes . Although the victory had little immediate impact on justice for blacks in the South , it marked the first time the Federal government used the 14th amendment guarantee of due process to prevent states from shielding mob violence .
In 1920 , Du Bois published Darkwater : Voices From Within the Veil , the first of three autobiographies he would write . The " veil " was that which covered colored people around the world . In the book , he hoped to lift the veil and show white readers what life was like behind the veil , and how it distorted the viewpoints of those looking through it – in both directions . The book contained Du Bois 's feminist essay , " The Damnation of Women " , which was a tribute to the dignity and worth of women , particularly black women .
Concerned that textbooks used by African @-@ American children ignored black history and culture , Du Bois created a monthly children 's magazine , The Brownies ' Book . Initially published in 1920 , it was aimed at black children , who Du Bois called " the children of the sun . "
= = = Pan @-@ Africanism and Marcus Garvey = = =
Du Bois traveled to Europe in 1921 to attend the second Pan @-@ African Congress . The assembled black leaders from around the world issued the London Resolutions and established a Pan @-@ African Association headquarters in Paris . Under Du Bois 's guidance , the resolutions insisted on racial equality , and that Africa be ruled by Africans ( not , as in the 1919 congress , with the consent of Africans ) . Du Bois restated the resolutions of the congress in his Manifesto To the League of Nations , which implored the newly formed League of Nations to address labor issues and to appoint Africans to key posts . The League took little action on the requests .
Another important African American leader of the 1920s was Marcus Garvey , promoter of the Back @-@ to @-@ Africa movement and founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association ( UNIA ) . Garvey denounced Du Bois 's efforts to achieve equality through integration , and instead endorsed racial separatism . Du Bois initially supported the concept of Garvey 's Black Star Line , a shipping company that was intended to facilitate commerce within the African diaspora . But Du Bois later became concerned that Garvey was threatening the NAACP 's efforts , leading Du Bois to describe him as fraudulent and reckless . Responding to Garvey 's slogan " Africa for the Africans " slogan , Du Bois said that he supported that concept , but denounced Garvey 's intention that Africa be ruled by African Americans .
Du Bois wrote a series of articles in The Crisis between 1922 and 1924 , attacking Garvey 's movement , calling him the " most dangerous enemy of the Negro race in America and the world . " Du Bois and Garvey never made a serious attempt to collaborate , and their dispute was partly rooted in the desire of their respective organizations ( NAACP and UNIA ) to capture a larger portion of the available philanthropic funding .
Harvard 's decision to ban blacks from its dormitories in 1921 was decried by Du Bois as an instance of a broad effort in the U.S. to renew " the Anglo @-@ Saxon cult ; the worship of the Nordic totem , the disfranchisement of Negro , Jew , Irishman , Italian , Hungarian , Asiatic and South Sea Islander – the world rule of Nordic white through brute force . " When Du Bois sailed for Europe in 1923 for the third Pan @-@ African Congress , the circulation of The Crisis had declined to 60 @,@ 000 from its World War I high of 100 @,@ 000 , but it remained the preeminent periodical of the civil rights movement . President Coolidge designated Du Bois an " Envoy Extraordinary " to Liberia and – after the third congress concluded – Du Bois rode a German freighter from the Canary Islands to Africa , visiting Liberia , Sierra Leone and Senegal .
= = = Harlem Renaissance = = =
Du Bois frequently promoted African @-@ American artistic creativity in his writings , and when the Harlem Renaissance emerged in the mid @-@ 1920s , his article " A Negro Art Renaissance " celebrated the end of the long hiatus of blacks from creative endeavors . His enthusiasm for the Harlem Renaissance waned as he came to believe that many whites visited Harlem for voyeurism , not for genuine appreciation of black art . Du Bois insisted that artists recognize their moral responsibilities , writing that " a black artist is first of all a black artist . " He was also concerned that black artists were not using their art to promote black causes , saying " I do not care a damn for any art that is not used for propaganda . " By the end of 1926 , he stopped employing The Crisis to support the arts .
= = = Socialism = = =
When Du Bois became editor of the Crisis magazine in 1911 , he joined the Socialist Party of America on the advice of NAACP founders Mary Ovington , William English Walling and Charles Edward Russell . However , he supported the Democrat Woodrow Wilson in the 1912 presidential campaign , a breach of the rules , and was forced to resign from the Socialist Party . Du Bois remained : " convinced that socialism was an excellent way of life , but I thought it might be reached by various methods . "
Nine years after the 1917 Russian Revolution , Du Bois extended a trip to Europe to include a visit to the Soviet Union . Du Bois was struck by the poverty and disorganization he encountered in the Soviet Union , yet was impressed by the intense labors of the officials and by the recognition given to workers . Although Du Bois was not yet familiar with the communist theories of Karl Marx or Vladimir Lenin , he concluded that socialism may be a better path towards racial equality than capitalism .
Although Du Bois generally endorsed socialist principles , his politics were strictly pragmatic : In 1929 , Du Bois endorsed Democrat Jimmy Walker for mayor of New York , rather than the socialist Norman Thomas , believing that Walker could do more immediate good for blacks , even though Thomas ' platform was more consistent with Du Bois 's views . Throughout the 1920s , Du Bois and the NAACP shifted support back and forth between the Republican Party and the Democratic Party , induced by promises from the candidates to fight lynchings , improve working conditions , or support voting rights in the South ; invariably , the candidates failed to deliver on their promises .
A rivalry emerged in 1931 between the NAACP and the Communist Party , when the Communists responded quickly and effectively to support the Scottsboro Boys , nine African @-@ American youth arrested in 1931 in Alabama for rape . Du Bois and the NAACP felt that the case would not be beneficial to their cause , so they chose to let the Communist Party organize the defense efforts . Du Bois was impressed with the vast amount of publicity and funds the Communists devoted to the partially successful defense effort , and he came to suspect that the Communists were attempting to present their party to African Americans as a better solution than the NAACP . Responding to criticisms of the NAACP from the Communist Party , Du Bois wrote articles condemning the party , claiming that it unfairly attacked the NAACP , and that it failed to fully appreciate racism in the United States . The Communist leaders , in turn , accused Du Bois of being a " class enemy " , and claimed that the NAACP leadership was an isolated elite , disconnected from the working @-@ class blacks they ostensibly fought for .
= = Return to Atlanta = =
Du Bois did not have a good working relationship with Walter Francis White , president of the NAACP since 1931 . That conflict , combined with the financial stresses of the Great Depression , precipitated a power struggle over The Crisis . Du Bois , concerned that his position as editor would be eliminated , resigned his job at The Crisis and accepted an academic position at Atlanta University in early 1933 . The rift with the NAACP grew larger in 1934 when Du Bois reversed his stance on segregation , stating that " separate but equal " was an acceptable goal for African Americans . The NAACP leadership was stunned , and asked Du Bois to retract his statement , but he refused , and the dispute led to Du Bois 's resignation from the NAACP .
After arriving at his new professorship in Atlanta , Du Bois wrote a series of articles generally supportive of Marxism . He was not a strong proponent of labor unions or the Communist Party , but he felt that Marx 's scientific explanation of society and the economy were useful for explaining the situation of African Americans in the United States . Marx 's atheism also struck a chord with Du Bois , who routinely criticized black churches for dulling blacks ' sensitivity to racism . In his 1933 writings , Du Bois embraced socialism , but asserted that " [ c ] olored labor has no common ground with white labor " , a controversial position that was rooted in Du Bois 's dislike of American labor unions , which had systematically excluded blacks for decades . Du Bois did not support the Communist Party in the U.S. and did not vote for their candidate in the 1932 presidential election , in spite of an African American on their ticket .
= = = Black Reconstruction in America = = =
Back in the world of academia , Du Bois was able to resume his study of Reconstruction , the topic of the 1910 paper that he presented to the American Historical Association . In 1935 , he published his magnum opus , Black Reconstruction in America . The book presented the thesis , in the words of the historian David Levering Lewis , that " black people , suddenly admitted to citizenship in an environment of feral hostility , displayed admirable volition and intelligence as well as the indolence and ignorance inherent in three centuries of bondage . " Du Bois documented how black people were central figures in the American Civil War and Reconstruction , and also showed how they made alliances with white politicians . He provided evidence that the coalition governments established public education in the South , and many needed social service programs . The book also demonstrated the ways in which black emancipation – the crux of Reconstruction – promoted a radical restructuring of United States society , as well as how and why the country failed to continue support for civil rights for blacks in the aftermath of Reconstruction .
The book 's thesis ran counter to the orthodox interpretation of Reconstruction maintained by white historians , and the book was virtually ignored by mainstream historians until the 1960s . Thereafter , however , it ignited a " revisionist " trend in the historiography of Reconstruction , which emphasized black people 's search for freedom and the era 's radical policy changes . By the 21st century , Black Reconstruction was widely perceived as " the foundational text of revisionist African American historiography . "
In the final chapter of the book , " XIV . The Propaganda of History " , Du Bois evokes his efforts at writing an article for the Encyclopædia Britannica on the " history of the American Negro " . After the editors had cut all reference to Reconstruction , he insisted that the following note appear in the entry : " White historians have ascribed the faults and failures of Reconstruction to Negro ignorance and corruption . But the Negro insists that it was Negro loyalty and the Negro vote alone that restored the South to the Union ; established the new democracy , both for white and black , and instituted the public schools . " The editors refused and , so , Du Bois withdrew his article .
= = = Projected encyclopedia = = =
In 1932 , Du Bois was selected by several philanthropies – including the Phelps @-@ Stokes Fund , the Carnegie Corporation , and the General Education Board – to be the managing editor for a proposed Encyclopedia of the Negro , a work Du Bois had been contemplating for 30 years . After several years of planning and organizing , the philanthropies cancelled the project in 1938 , because some board members believed that Du Bois was too biased to produce an objective encyclopedia .
= = = Trip around the world = = =
Du Bois took a trip around the world in 1936 , which included visits to Nazi Germany , China and Japan . While in Germany , Du Bois remarked that he was treated with warmth and respect . After his return to the United States , he expressed his ambivalence about the Nazi regime . He admired how the Nazis had improved the German economy , but he was horrified by their treatment of the Jewish people , which he described as " an attack on civilization , comparable only to such horrors as the Spanish Inquisition and the African slave trade . "
Following the 1905 Japanese victory in the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Du Bois became impressed by the growing strength of Imperial Japan . He considered the victory of Japan over Tsarist Russia as an example of colored peoples defeating white peoples . A representative of Japan 's " Negro Propaganda Operations " traveled to the United States during the 1920s and 1930s , meeting with Du Bois and giving him a positive impression of Imperial Japan 's racial policies . In 1936 , the Japanese ambassador arranged a trip to Japan for Du Bois and a small group of academics .
= = = World War II = = =
Du Bois opposed the U.S. intervention in World War II , particularly in the Pacific , because he believed that China and Japan were emerging from the clutches of white imperialists . He felt that the European Allies waging war against Japan was an opportunity for whites to reestablish their influence in Asia . He was deeply disappointed by the US government 's plan for African Americans in the armed forces : Blacks were limited to 5 @.@ 8 % of the force , and there were to be no African @-@ American combat units – virtually the same restrictions as in World War I. With blacks threatening to shift their support to President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's Republican opponent in the 1940 election , Roosevelt appointed a few blacks to leadership posts in the military . Dusk of Dawn , Du Bois 's second autobiography , was published in 1940 . The title refers to Du Bois 's hope that African Americans were passing out of the darkness of racism into an era of greater equality . The work is part autobiography , part history , and part sociological treatise . Du Bois described the book as " the autobiography of a concept of race [ ... ] elucidated and magnified and doubtless distorted in the thoughts and deeds which were mine [ ... ] Thus for all time my life is significant for all lives of men . "
In 1943 , at age 76 , Du Bois was abruptly fired from his position at Atlanta University by college president Rufus Clement . Many scholars expressed outrage , prompting Atlanta University to provide Du Bois with a lifelong pension and the title of professor emeritus . Arthur Spingarn remarked that Du Bois spent his time in Atlanta " battering his life out against ignorance , bigotry , intolerance and slothfulness , projecting ideas nobody but he understands , and raising hopes for change which may be comprehended in a hundred years . "
Turning down job offers from Fisk and Howard , Du Bois re @-@ joined the NAACP as director of the Department of Special Research . Surprising many NAACP leaders , Du Bois jumped into the job with vigor and determination . During the 10 years while Du Bois was away from the NAACP , its income had increased fourfold , and its membership had soared to 325 @,@ 000 members .
= = Later life = =
= = = United Nations = = =
Du Bois was a member of the three @-@ person delegation from the NAACP that attended the 1945 conference in San Francisco at which the United Nations was established . The NAACP delegation wanted the United Nations to endorse racial equality and to bring an end to the colonial era . To push the United Nations in that direction , Du Bois drafted a proposal that pronounced " [ t ] he colonial system of government [ ... ] is undemocratic , socially dangerous and a main cause of wars " . The NAACP proposal received support from China , Russia and India , but it was virtually ignored by the other major powers , and the NAACP proposals were not included in the United Nations charter .
After the United Nations conference , Du Bois published Color and Democracy : Colonies and Peace , a book that attacked colonial empires and , in the words of one reviewer , " contains enough dynamite to blow up the whole vicious system whereby we have comforted our white souls and lined the pockets of generations of free @-@ booting capitalists . "
In late 1945 , Du Bois attended the fifth , and final , Pan @-@ African Congress , in Manchester , England . The congress was the most productive of the five congresses , and there Du Bois met Kwame Nkrumah , the future first president of Ghana who would later invite Du Bois to Africa .
Du Bois helped to submit petitions to the UN concerning discrimination against African Americans . These culminated in the report and petition called " We Charge Genocide " , submitted in 1951 with the Civil Rights Congress . " We Charge Genocide " accuses the US of systematically sanctioning murders and inflicting harm against African Americans and therefore committing genocide .
= = = Cold War = = =
When the Cold War commenced in the mid @-@ 1940s , the NAACP distanced itself from Communists , lest its funding or reputation suffer . The NAACP redoubled their efforts in 1947 after Life magazine published a piece by Arthur Schlesinger , Jr. claiming that the NAACP was heavily influenced by Communists . Ignoring the NAACP 's desires , Du Bois continued to fraternize with communist sympathizers such as Paul Robeson , Howard Fast and Shirley Graham ( his future second wife ) . Du Bois wrote " I am not a communist [ ... ] On the other hand , I [ ... ] believe [ ... ] that Karl Marx [ ... ] put his finger squarely upon our difficulties [ ... ] " . In 1946 , Du Bois wrote articles giving his assessment of the Soviet Union ; he did not embrace communism and he criticized its dictatorship . However , he felt that capitalism was responsible for poverty and racism , and felt that socialism was an alternative that might ameliorate those problems . The soviets explicitly rejected racial distinctions and class distinctions , leading Du Bois to conclude that the USSR was the " most hopeful country on earth . " Du Bois 's association with prominent communists made him a liability for the NAACP , especially since the FBI was starting to aggressively investigate communist sympathizers ; so – by mutual agreement – he resigned from the NAACP for the second time in late 1948 . After departing the NAACP , Du Bois started writing regularly for the leftist weekly newspaper the National Guardian , a relationship that would endure until 1961 .
= = = Peace activism = = =
Du Bois was a lifelong anti @-@ war activist , but his efforts became more pronounced after World War II . In 1949 , Du Bois spoke at the Scientific and Cultural Conference for World Peace in New York : " I tell you , people of America , the dark world is on the move ! It wants and will have Freedom , Autonomy and Equality . It will not be diverted in these fundamental rights by dialectical splitting of political hairs [ ... ] Whites may , if they will , arm themselves for suicide . But the vast majority of the world 's peoples will march on over them to freedom ! "
In the spring of 1949 , he spoke at World Congress of the Partisans of Peace in Paris , saying to the large crowd : " Leading this new colonial imperialism comes my own native land built by my father 's toil and blood , the United States . The United States is a great nation ; rich by grace of God and prosperous by the hard work of its humblest citizens [ ... ] Drunk with power we are leading the world to hell in a new colonialism with the same old human slavery which once ruined us ; and to a third World War which will ruin the world . " Du Bois affiliated himself with a leftist organization , the National Council of Arts , Sciences and Professions , and he traveled to Moscow as its representative to speak at the All @-@ Soviet Peace Conference in late 1949 .
= = = McCarthyism and Trial = = =
During the 1950s , the U.S. government 's anti @-@ communist McCarthyism campaign targeted Du Bois because of his socialist leanings . Historian Manning Marable characterizes the government 's treatment of Du Bois as " ruthless repression " and a " political assassination " .
The FBI began to compile a file on Du Bois in 1942 , but the most aggressive government attack against Du Bois occurred in the early 1950s , as a consequence of Du Bois 's opposition to nuclear weapons . In 1950 Du Bois became chairman of the newly created Peace Information Center ( PIC ) , which worked to publicize the Stockholm Peace Appeal in the United States . The primary purpose of the appeal was to gather signatures on a petition , asking governments around the world to ban all nuclear weapons .
The U.S. Justice department alleged that the PIC was acting as an agent of a foreign state , and thus required the PIC to register with the federal government . Du Bois and other PIC leaders refused , and they were indicted for failure to register . After the indictment , some of Du Bois 's associates distanced themselves from him , and the NAACP refused to issue a statement of support ; but many labor figures and leftists – including Langston Hughes – supported Du Bois .
He was finally tried in 1951 represented by civil rights attorney Vito Marcantonio . The case was dismissed before the jury rendered a verdict as soon as the defense attorney told the judge that " Dr. Albert Einstein has offered to appear as character witness for Dr. Du Bois " . Du Bois 's memoir of the trial is In Battle for Peace . Even though Du Bois was not convicted , the government confiscated Du Bois 's passport and withheld it for eight years .
= = = Communism = = =
Du Bois was bitterly disappointed that many of his colleagues – particularly the NAACP – did not support him during his 1951 PIC trial , whereas working class whites and blacks supported him enthusiastically . After the trial , Du Bois lived in Manhattan , writing and speaking , and continuing to associate primarily with leftist acquaintances . His primary concern was world peace , and he railed against military actions , such as the Korean War , which he viewed as efforts by imperialist whites to maintain colored people in a submissive state .
In 1950 , at the age of 82 , Du Bois ran for U.S. Senator from New York on the American Labor Party ticket and received about 200 @,@ 000 votes , or 4 % of the statewide total . Du Bois continued to believe that capitalism was the primary culprit responsible for the subjugation of colored people around the world , and therefore – although he recognized the faults of the Soviet Union – he continued to uphold communism as a possible solution to racial problems . In the words of biographer David Lewis , Du Bois did not endorse communism for its own sake , but did so because " the enemies of his enemies were his friends " . The same ambiguity characterized Du Bois 's opinions of Joseph Stalin : in 1940 he wrote disdainfully of the " Tyrant Stalin " , but when Stalin died in 1953 , Du Bois wrote a eulogy characterizing Stalin as " simple , calm and courageous " , and lauding him for being the " first [ to ] set Russia on the road to conquer race prejudice and make one nation out of its 140 groups without destroying their individuality " .
The U.S. government prevented Du Bois from attending the 1955 Bandung conference in Indonesia . The conference was the culmination of 40 years of Du Bois 's dreams – a meeting of 29 nations from Africa and Asia , many recently independent , representing most of the world 's colored peoples . The conference celebrated their independence , as the nations began to assert their power as non @-@ aligned nations during the cold war . In 1958 , Du Bois regained his passport , and with his second wife , Shirley Graham Du Bois , he traveled around the world , visiting Russia and China . In both countries he was celebrated and given guided tours of the best aspects of communism . Du Bois later wrote approvingly of the conditions in both countries . He was 90 years old .
Du Bois became incensed in 1961 when the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the 1950 McCarran Act , a key piece of McCarthyism legislation which required communists to register with the government . To demonstrate his outrage , he joined the Communist Party in October 1961 , at the age of 93 . Around that time , he wrote : " I believe in communism . I mean by communism , a planned way of life in the production of wealth and work designed for building a state whose object is the highest welfare of its people and not merely the profit of a part . "
= = = Death in Africa = = =
Ghana invited Du Bois to Africa to participate in their independence celebration in 1957 , but he was unable to attend because the U.S. government had confiscated his passport in 1951 . By 1960 – the " Year of Africa " – Du Bois had recovered his passport , and was able to cross the Atlantic and celebrate the creation of the Republic of Ghana . Du Bois returned to Africa in late 1960 to attend the inauguration of Nnamdi Azikiwe as the first African governor of Nigeria .
While visiting Ghana in 1960 , Du Bois spoke with its president about the creation of a new encyclopedia of the African diaspora , the Encyclopedia Africana . In early 1961 , Ghana notified Du Bois that they had appropriated funds to support the encyclopedia project , and they invited Du Bois to come to Ghana and manage the project there . In October 1961 , at the age of 93 , Du Bois and his wife traveled to Ghana to take up residence and commence work on the encyclopedia . In early 1963 , the United States refused to renew his passport , so he made the symbolic gesture of becoming a citizen of Ghana . While it is sometimes stated that he renounced his U.S. citizenship at that time , and he did state his intention to do so , Du Bois never actually did . His health declined during the two years he was in Ghana , and he died on August 27 , 1963 , in the capital of Accra at the age of 95 . Du Bois was buried in Accra near his home , which is now the Du Bois Memorial Centre . A day after his death , at the March on Washington , speaker Roy Wilkins asked the hundreds of thousands of marchers to honor Du Bois with a moment of silence . The Civil Rights Act of 1964 , embodying many of the reforms Du Bois had campaigned for his entire life , was enacted a year after his death .
= = Personal life = =
Du Bois was organized and disciplined : His lifelong regimen was to rise at 7 : 15 , work until 5 , eat dinner and read a newspaper until 7 , then read or socialize until he was in bed , invariably before 10 . He was a meticulous planner , and frequently mapped out his schedules and goals on large pieces of graph paper . Many acquaintances found him to be distant and aloof , and he insisted on being addressed as " Dr. Du Bois " . Although he was not gregarious , he formed several close friendships with associates such as Charles Young , Paul Laurence Dunbar , John Hope and Mary Ovington . His closest friend was Joel Spingarn – a white man – but Du Bois never accepted Spingarn 's offer to be on a first name basis . Du Bois was something of a dandy – he dressed formally , carried a walking stick , and walked with an air of confidence and dignity . He was relatively short 5 feet 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 166 cm ) and always maintained a well @-@ groomed mustache and goatee . He was a good singer and enjoyed playing tennis .
Du Bois was married twice , first to Nina Gomer ( m . 1896 , d . 1950 ) , with whom he had two children , a son Burghardt ( who died as an infant ) and a daughter Yolande , who married Countee Cullen . As a widower , he married Shirley Graham ( m . 1951 , d . 1977 ) , an author , playwright , composer and activist . She brought her son David Graham to the marriage . David grew close to Du Bois and took his stepfather 's name ; he also worked for African @-@ American causes . The historian David Levering Lewis wrote that Du Bois engaged in several extramarital relationships . But the historian Raymond Wolters cast doubt on this , based on the lack of corroboration from Du Bois 's alleged lovers .
= = Religion = =
Although Du Bois attended a New England Congregational church as a child , he abandoned organized religion while at Fisk College . As an adult , Du Bois described himself as agnostic or a freethinker , but at least one biographer concluded that Du Bois was virtually an atheist . However , another analyst of Du Bois 's writings concluded that he had a religious voice , albeit radically different from other African @-@ American religious voices of his era , and inaugurated a 20th @-@ century spirituality to which Ralph Ellison , Zora Neale Hurston , and James Baldwin also belong .
When asked to lead public prayers , Du Bois would refuse . In his autobiography , Du Bois wrote : " When I became head of a department at Atlanta , the engagement was held up because again I balked at leading in prayer [ ... ] I flatly refused again to join any church or sign any church creed . [ ... ] I think the greatest gift of the Soviet Union to modern civilization was the dethronement of the clergy and the refusal to let religion be taught in the public schools . " Du Bois accused American churches of being the most discriminatory of all institutions . He also provocatively linked African @-@ American Christianity to indigenous African religions . Du Bois occasionally acknowledged the beneficial role religion played in African @-@ America life – as the " basic rock " which served as an anchor for African @-@ American communities – but in general disparaged African @-@ American churches and clergy because he felt they did not support the goals of racial equality and hindered activists ' efforts .
Although Du Bois was not personally religious , he infused his writings with religious symbology , and many contemporaries viewed him as a prophet . His 1904 prose poem , " Credo " , was written in the style of a religious creed and widely read by the African @-@ American community . Moreover , Du Bois , both in his own fiction and in stories published in The Crisis , often analogized lynchings of African Americans to Christ 's crucifixion . Between 1920 and 1940 , Du Bois shifted from overt black messiah symbolism to more subtle messianic language .
= = Honors = =
The NAACP awarded the Spingarn Medal to Du Bois in 1920 .
Du Bois was awarded the International Lenin Peace Prize by the USSR in 1959 .
The site of the house where Du Bois grew up in Great Barrington , Massachusetts , was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976 .
In 1992 the United States Postal Service honored Du Bois with his portrait on a postage stamp . A second stamp of face value 32 ¢ was issued on February 3 , 1998 as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series .
In 1994 , the main library at the University of Massachusetts Amherst was named after Du Bois .
The Du Bois center at Northern Arizona University is named in his honor .
A dormitory was named after Du Bois at the University of Pennsylvania , where he conducted field research for his sociological study " The Philadelphia Negro " .
A dormitory is named after Du Bois at Hampton University .
Africana : The Encyclopedia of the African and African @-@ American Experience was inspired by and dedicated to Du Bois by its editors Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates , Jr .
Humboldt University in Berlin hosts a series of lectures named in Du Bois 's honor .
Scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Du Bois in his 2002 list of the 100 Greatest African Americans .
In 2005 , Du Bois was honored with a medallion in The Extra Mile , Washington DC 's memorial to important American volunteers .
The liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church remembers Du Bois annually on August 3 .
Du Bois was appointed Honorary Emeritus Professor at the University of Pennsylvania in 2012 .
= = Selected works = =
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= Sectionals =
" Sectionals " is the thirteenth episode of the American television series Glee . It premiered on the Fox network on December 9 , 2009 . The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk , and serves as the mid @-@ season finale for the show 's first season . " Sectionals " sees the glee club win the sectionals round of competition , advancing on to regionals . Glee club member Finn ( Cory Monteith ) discovers he is not the father of his girlfriend Quinn 's ( Dianna Agron ) baby . Football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) plans his wedding with Emma ( Jayma Mays ) on the same day as the sectionals competition . Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) is unable to take the students to sectionals and Emma offers to take them . The episode sees the return of Eve and Michael Hitchcock as rival glee club directors Grace Hitchens and Dalton Rumba .
The episode features covers of six songs , studio recordings of four of which were released as singles , available for digital download , and are also included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 2 . " Sectionals " was watched by 8 @.@ 127 million U.S. viewers , and received mostly positive reviews from critics . The episode 's musical performances attracted praise , as did the development of Will and Emma 's relationship , though Dan Snierson of Entertainment Weekly suggested it may have been preferable to leave their romance unresolved . James Poniewozik of Time felt that by concluding the pregnancy storyline in " Sectionals " , Glee was able to " clear the decks for a second half of the season as the confident show it now is " .
= = Plot = =
As a result of a technicality in the show choir competition rules , glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) is not allowed to accompany New Directions to sectionals . Guidance counsellor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) postpones her own wedding by a few hours so that she can take the club in his place , although her fiancé , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) , feels she is choosing Will over him .
Most of the glee club has learned that Puck ( Mark Salling ) , not Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , is the father of Quinn 's baby . They hide this fact from Rachel ( Lea Michele ) , believing that she will tell Finn . Emma takes over as faculty advisor of the club as they start working on their set list for sectionals . With two group songs selected , Rachel says that she 'll sing the solo ballad ; Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) strenuously objects to this , and sings " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " to wild applause . Rachel agrees that Mercedes deserves to sing the solo and the two hug . Meanwhile , Rachel has deduced that Puck impregnated Quinn and tells Finn ; he attacks Puck and confronts Quinn , who tearfully admits the truth . Angered by their betrayal , Finn quits the club on the eve of sectionals , and has to be replaced by school reporter Jacob Ben Israel ( Josh Sussman ) . New Directions arrive at the event to discover their competitors have received an advance copy of their set list , and are performing all three of their chosen songs . Emma calls Will , who convinces Finn to help his New Directions teammates . Will finds Finn in the locker room , and talks to him about how special he is and that the club needs him .
Emma confronts rival choir directors Grace Hitchens ( Eve ) and Dalton Rumba ( Michael Hitchcock ) , while New Directions chooses new performance pieces for their set list at the last minute . Rachel asks Mercedes to perform another ballad , but Mercedes insists , with the rest of the club agreeing , that Rachel is the best choice to perform " on the fly " . They also decide to include " Somebody to Love " as their closer , but are stuck for a third piece until Finn arrives with new sheet music for the group , ready to perform with them . Rachel gives a solo performance of " Don 't Rain on My Parade " , receiving a standing ovation after finishing . The group then performs " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " by the Rolling Stones , to the applause and cheers of the audience . After their performance , Grace attempts to confess her duplicity to the judges , but they have already unanimously decided that New Directions has won the competition .
Having previously discovered that his wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) was faking her pregnancy , Will tells her he no longer feels the same way he did when they first fell in love . He later attends Ken and Emma 's delayed wedding , only to find that Ken has ended the relationship as a result of Emma 's feelings for Will . She announces her intention to leave McKinley High School , explaining that it will be too painful for her to carry on working with Will and Ken . Back at school , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) suspends cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) for leaking the glee club 's set list , and has Will reinstated as the director of New Directions . The glee club members show Will their trophy and perform " My Life Would Suck Without You " for him . As Emma prepares to leave the school , Will chases after her and stops her with a kiss . Both are happy , but uncertain of what will happen next .
= = Production = =
Glee was originally commissioned by Fox for a thirteen episode run , culminating with " Sectionals " . On September 21 , 2009 , the network announced an extension of the first season , ordering a further nine episodes . " Sectionals " therefore serves as the mid @-@ season finale , with the remainder of the season airing from April 13 , 2010 . Events in " Sectionals " are influenced by the season 's eleventh episode " Hairography " , in which cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester gave New Directions ' competition set @-@ list to their rival glee clubs . Morrison explained that the clubs perform New Directions ' songs first , making it appear that they are copying them , so New Directions " have to do this impromptu thing and fly by the seat of [ their ] pants . " Morrison has called " Sectionals " " the best episode " of the series .
" Sectionals " was written and directed by series creator Brad Falchuk . Recurring characters who appear in the episode are glee club members Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) , Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) and Matt Rutherford ( Dijon Talton ) , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) , school reporter Jacob Ben Israel ( Josh Sussman ) , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) and local news anchor Rod Remington ( Bill A. Jones ) . Anna Camp and Patricia Forte guest star as sectionals judges Candace Dykstra and Donna Landries , Peter Choi is the Emcee , and Thomasina Gross plays Perfect Engleberger , a member of the Jane Addams Academy glee club . " Sectionals " also sees the return of Eve and Michael Hitchcock as rival glee club directors Grace Hitchens and Dalton Rumba . Eve was offered the role of Grace after Whitney Houston declined to appear .
The episode features cover versions of " Don 't Rain on My Parade " by Barbra Streisand , " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " by The Rolling Stones , " My Life Would Suck Without You " by Kelly Clarkson , " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " from Dreamgirls , " Don 't Stop Believin ' " by Journey and " Proud Mary " by Creedence Clearwater Revival . Studio recordings of " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " , " Don 't Rain on My Parade " , " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " and " My Life Would Suck Without You " were released as singles in December 2009 , available for download . They are also included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 2 . " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " charted at number 85 in Canada and 94 in the US , while " Don 't Rain on My Parade " charted at number 59 in Canada and 53 in the US . " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " charted at number 51 in Canada and 71 in the US , and " My Life Would Suck Without You " charted at number 66 in Australia , 40 in Canada and 51 in the US . Jenna Ushkowitz named " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " one of her favorite songs on the album , deeming the original " a classic " and the Glee cover " emotional " as one of the final songs of the original run of episodes . The performance of " My Life Would Suck Without You " showcased choreography from numerous performances from earlier episodes .
= = Reception = =
The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 127 million US viewers . It was the show 's highest @-@ rated episode ever with teenagers , and its season high in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , with a rating / share of 3 @.@ 7 / 9 . In Canada , it was the tenth most watched show for the week of broadcast , attaining 1 @.@ 64 million viewers .
" Sectionals " received mostly positive reviews from critics . TV Guide 's Natalie Abrams felt it ended the beginning of the season on a " high note " , while Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal commented : " You couldn ’ t have asked for a better cliffhanger of a fall finale " . IGN 's Eric Goldman rated the episode 9 / 10 , calling it " very satisfying " , and Gerrick Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times commended it as " fine television . " James Poniewozik of Time wrote : " I 'm not sure I expected or wanted a feel @-@ good ending out of the first half of Glee . But what we got from " Sectionals " left me feeling very good about where the show is going this spring . " In contrast , Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger , felt that the episode brought too many storylines to a head at once , " not allowing all to have as much impact as they might have had the big developments been spaced out " . Sepinwall commented , however , that the acting and especially singing performances were " uniformly strong . "
Musical performances in the episode attracted praise . Aly Semigran of MTV called Riley 's rendition of " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " " goose bump @-@ inducing " , while Goldman commended : " Riley absolutely killed it as Mercedes belted out that song " . In contrast , Poniewozik wrote that it was the one song choice he didn 't like , feeling that it is overused , thus diminishing its impact . Abrams deemed Rachel 's solo performance at sectionals " amazing " , and Flandez recommended : " Watch it again if you ever want to take back three minutes of your life that you ’ ve wasted on something else . " Pardue called the group performance of " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " " energetic [ ... ] casual [ ... ] and very Glee " , but felt it " would have been nice " to feature different singers . Dan Snierson for Entertainment Weekly similarly noted that he would have preferred " more vocal interplay between all group members " . In December 2012 , TV Guide named the rendition of " Don 't Rain on My Parade " one of Glee 's best performances , commenting : " Glee has done Broadway many times , but rarely better than this . "
Critics also commented positively on the development of Will and Emma 's relationship , with Abrams noting that she had been waiting for them to kiss since the pilot episode , and Goldman deeming their coming together " very hard to not feel good about " . Snierson , however , wrote that although there was satisfaction in the episode ending on the kiss , it may have been " more intriguing " to conclude with Will finding Emma 's office empty , questioning whether it was too soon for the two of them to begin a relationship . The end of Quinn 's pregnancy secret was also well received . Poniewozik wrote that the pregnancy storyline had felt as though " the early Glee wasn 't confident that people would be interested in it without these over @-@ the @-@ top soap opera twists . " He noted that in concluding the pregnancy deception in " Sectionals " , Glee : " seemed to clear the decks for a second half of the season as the confident show it now is . "
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= Theodore N. Kaufman =
Theodore Newman Kaufman ( February 22 , 1910 – April 1 , 1986 ) , sometimes given incorrectly as Theodore Nathan Kaufmann , was an American Jewish businessman and writer known for his eliminationist views on Germans .
In 1939 , he published pamphlets as chairman of the American Federation of Peace that argued that Americans should be sterilized so that their children will no longer have to fight in foreign wars .
In 1941 , he wrote and published Germany Must Perish ! which called for the sterilization of the German people and the distribution of the German lands . The text was used extensively in Nazi propaganda , often as a justification for the persecution of Jews and was specifically cited as a reason to round up the Jews of Hanover , Germany .
= = Early life = =
He was born in Manhattan , New York City on February 22 , 1910 to Anton Kaufman and Fannie Newman . His parents had married on March 14 , 1909 . His father had been a reporter for the Berliner Morgen @-@ Zeitung in Berlin , Germany before emigrating to the United States in 1905 . Theodore 's three brothers were Herbert , Julian , and Leonard .
He attended South Side High School in Newark , New Jersey and graduated around 1928 .
In 1934 he was arrested along with his father , Anton Kaufman , for the robbery of Sandor Alexander Balint of Budapest . Balint had developed a process to speed the aging of wine . The Kaufmans had purchased this formula from Balint , but later came to believe that the formula was " worthless " . Theodore Kaufman 's mother died in 1939 .
Kaufman traveled to the Sahara Desert and wrote : " you look at the horizon all day long and feel that you are staring at eternity . " In Biskra he met Clare Sheridan .
Kaufman became the owner of a small advertising agency and ticket agency in South Orange , New Jersey . He published the New Jersey Legal Record . Kaufman founded the Argyle Press of Newark , New Jersey to publish his political pamphlets .
= = Life during World War II = =
Kaufman was a radical intent on preventing American involvement in future wars in Europe . In 1939 , under the auspices of the " American Federation of Peace " , an unknown entity of which he was the president and probably only member , Kaufman produced several publications . One pamphlet , titled " Passive Purchase " advocated the establishment of a two @-@ week period during which Americans would curtail their spending in order to demonstrate public opposition to American intervention in European conflicts . In a section of the pamphlet on the American Federation of Peace 's beliefs , Kaufman advocated for " the strongest possible military defense of the United States " and stated that " by keeping absolutely aloof from foreign wars and entanglements the American People face a truly great future . " That same year , the group also issued publications with more contentious messages , one of which read :
" A possible plea to Congress . ... Have Us All Sterilized ! ... If You Plan On Sending Us To A Foreign War ... Spare Us Any Possibility Of Ever Bringing Children Into This World — Into This Country Of Ours ! "
Two years later he shifted his focus to the forced mass @-@ sterilization of all German men under 65 and the sterilization of most German women under 45 . This would eliminate " inbred Germanism , " he proposed , thus solving a great deal of humanity 's problems . He also promoted the distribution of Germany 's lands among the neighboring countries . His effort was spearheaded by the self @-@ publication of the book Germany Must Perish !
" Since Germans are the perennial disturbers of the world 's peace ... they must be dealt with like any homicidal criminals . But it is unnecessary to put the whole German nation to the sword . It is more humane to sterilize them . The army groups , as organized units , would be the easiest and quickest to deal with . ... The population of Germany , excluding conquered and annexed territories , is about 70 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , almost equally divided between male and female . To achieve the purpose of German extinction it would be necessary to only sterilize some 48 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 -- a figure which excludes , because of their limited power to procreate , males over 60 years of age , and females over 45 . ... Taking 20 @,@ 000 surgeons as an arbitrary number and on the assumption that each will perform a minimum of 25 operations daily , it would take no more than one month , at the maximum , to complete their sterilization . ... The balance of the male civilian population of Germany could be treated within three months . Inasmuch as sterilization of women needs somewhat more time , it may be computed that the entire female population of Germany could be sterilized within a period of three years or less . Complete sterilization of both sexes , and not only one , is to be considered necessary in view of the present German doctrine that so much as one drop of true German blood constitutes a German . Of course , after complete sterilization , there will cease to be a birth rate in Germany . At the normal death rate of 2 per cent per annum , German life will diminish at the rate of 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 yearly . Accordingly in the span of two generations that which cost millions of lives and centuries of useless effort , namely , the elimination of Germanism and its carriers , will have been an accomplished fact . By virtue of its loss of self @-@ perpetuation German Will will have atrophied and German power reduced to negligible importance . "
Although Kaufman 's book had a minimal impact in the United States , it achieved notoriety in Nazi Germany , where propagandists used it as evidence of an international Jewish plan to destroy the German people . On July 24 , 1941 , the Nazi Party 's newspaper , Völkischer Beobachter , published a front @-@ page article on the book titled : " The Product of Criminal Jewish Sadism : Roosevelt Demands the Sterilization of the German People . " The newspaper alleged that Kaufman was a close ally of Samuel Irving Rosenman , a well @-@ known advisor to Franklin Delano Roosevelt and that : " Given the close relationship of the writer to the White House , this monstrous war program can be seen as a synthesis of genuine Talmudic hatred and Roosevelt ’ s views on foreign policy . " At the time , the German leadership was engaged in a propaganda campaign designed to rally popular support for the German invasion of the Soviet Union . Antisemitism in general , and Kaufman 's ideas in particular , became a focus of this campaign .
Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels read the book in early August and immediately grasped its value , writing in his diary : " This Jew did a real service for the enemy [ German ] side . Had he written this book for us , he could not have made it any better . " Under Goebbels ' direction , Germany Must Perish ! continued to receive significant media attention in Germany . Portions of the book were read on national radio , and Goebbels ordered the printing of five million copies of a pamphlet that summarized Kaufman 's ideas .
Nazi propaganda often used Kaufman 's pamphlet as a justification for the persecution of Jews . When the Nazis required German Jews to wear a yellow badge on their clothing on September 1 , 1941 , they published a flyer explaining to the German people that those individuals wearing the star were conspiring to implement Kaufman 's plan for the destruction of Germany . When the Jews of Hanover were forced from their homes on September 8 , 1941 , German authorities cited Kaufman 's book as one of the reasons . Kaufman responded by saying :
" This is just a flimsy pretext for another of the innate cruelties of the German people ... I don 't think it was my book that prompted this barbarity . They employed every possible German cruelty against the Jews long before my book was published . "
The Nazi propaganda ministry continued to publish pamphlets , posters and flyers on Kaufman 's ideas through the end of the war , and also urged newspapers and public speakers to remind Germans of Kaufman 's book . Kaufman 's last major appearance in Nazi propaganda occurred in late 1944 , when a five @-@ page section on him was included in the widely published booklet Never ! , which described a number of alleged plots to destroy Germany . Randall Bytwerk , an historian of communications at Calvin College , concluded that " [ a ] German at the time could not have missed encountering " propaganda about Kaufman .
His final publication through Argyle Press was the March 1942 brochure titled " No More German Wars ! Being an outline for their permanent cessation " . It contained no more writing on the sterilization of Germans or discussion of German land distribution , but made very moderate proposals for democratic re @-@ education of the German population .
He enlisted in the US Army in New Mexico on April 24 , 1942 . His three brothers also served .
Few Americans have ever heard of a prominent fellow @-@ citizen named Kaufmann ... In Germany every child has known of him for a long time . Germans are so well informed about Mr. Kaufmann that the mere mention of his name recalls what he stands for . In one of his recent artlcles Dr. Goebbels wrote , " Thanks to the Jew Kaufmann , we Germans know only too well what to expect in case of defeat . "
= = Post @-@ war years and death = =
After World War II , Kaufman disappeared entirely from public life . One scholar , Berel Lang , a Visiting Professor of Philosophy and Letters at Wesleyan University , failed to locate Kaufman in the records of the city of Newark and in other sources .
He died in April 1986 in East Orange , New Jersey .
= = Writings = =
" Life Liberty Pursuit of Happiness - Where ? In The Graves of European Battle Fields ? " American Federation of Peace , Newark , NJ , ( circa 1938 @-@ 1942 )
A Will and Way to Peace : Passive Purchase Theodore N. Kaufman , American Federation of Peace , Newark , NJ , 1939 , 10 @-@ page pamphlet
Germany Must Perish ! , Argyle Press , Newark , NJ , 1941 , 104 @-@ page brochure
No More German Wars ! Being An Outline For Their Permanent Cessation Argyle Press , Newark , NJ , 1942 , 16 @-@ page brochure alternate link
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= Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down =
Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down is the fourteenth studio album by American musician Ry Cooder . Following his 2008 album I , Flathead , Cooder pursued a more political direction with his songwriting , inspired by the late @-@ 2000s economic crisis and protest songs of the past . Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down was written and produced by Cooder , who recorded its songs at Drive @-@ By Studios , Ocean Studios , and Wireland Studios in California . He played various instruments and worked with musicians such as Flaco Jiménez , Juliette Commagere , Robert Francis , and Jim Keltner .
Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down features topical songs with socio @-@ political subject matter about 21st @-@ century America , including economic disparity , social injustice , politics , war . Its music is rooted in Americana and incorporates traditional styles and musical language from historical sources such as country blues , tejano , and American roots music . The record has been noted by critics for its eclectic musical range , allegorical songs , working @-@ class perspective , and Cooder 's sardonic lyrics .
When Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down was released by Nonesuch Records on August 30 , 2011 , it charted modestly in the United States but relatively higher in Europe . Cooder expressed disillusionment with the music industry in response to the record 's poor commercial performance . Critically , the album was a success , earning him widespread acclaim and comparisons to folk singer @-@ songwriter Woody Guthrie . According to Slant Magazine 's Joseph Jon Lanthier , " the orchestrated indignation of [ the album ] incorporated a protean Greek chorus of economic victims and beat Occupy Wall Street to the punch by several weeks . "
= = Background = =
After an 18 @-@ year hiatus from solo projects , Cooder returned with a trilogy of sociopolitical , Southern California @-@ themed albums , comprising Chávez Ravine ( 2005 ) , My Name Is Buddy ( 2007 ) , and I , Flathead ( 2008 ) . The albums examined various disenfranchised peoples through humorous , scholarly lyrics and esoteric musical styles . After completing the trilogy with I , Flathead in 2008 , Cooder worked on The Chieftains ' 2010 album San Patricio . Cooder became inspired to record Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down by the late @-@ 2000s economic crisis and past protest songs . In interviews prior to the album 's release , Cooder expressed strong anti @-@ Republican and anti @-@ banker sentiments in discussion about the political and economic climate . Before conceiving the album , he wrote and recorded the song " Quicksand " in 2010 , as a response to the controversy spurred by Arizona Senate Bill 1070 and other anti @-@ illegal immigration measures in the United States . In an interview for The Australian , Cooder said of his decision to pursue a more political direction with his songwriting :
I was still working on the Flathead record ; that was during [ George ] Bush 's time . I was looking at things and paying attention to events , politically . So I started trying to write political songs because it 's good to have something you can do other than just sit and fume about everything . After Barack Obama got elected I started thinking about other stories that might be good to do . It occurred to me that the social and political problems that we 've been having , well [ ... ] it 's deja vu all over again , as the man said .
In early 2011 , Cooder was inspired to write the song " No Banker Left Behind " , and subsequently the rest of the album , by a headline about bankers and other affluent people who had profited from the bank bailouts and resulting recession during the late @-@ 2000s . In an interview with Kai Ryssdal on Marketplace , Cooder cited the song as the starting point for writing the album and stated , " ' No Banker Left Behind ' originated with a line from Robert Scheer 's Truthdig blog . I read this pretty regularly , and when I saw this , this metric I thought ' no banker left behind . ' " He compared the album 's content to Woody Guthrie 's songs about the Dust Bowl era during the Great Depression and said of his own songs , " What I like in the idea of these songs is if you follow the logic of each tune — this happened and this happened and you can see that at the end , this is the result , you just didn 't see it this way before , you never thought of Wall Street in terms of Jesse James and bilingual heft . "
Recording sessions for Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down took place at Drive @-@ By Studios in North Hollywood , Ocean Studios in Burbank , and Wireland Studios in Chatsworth , California . The album was written and produced entirely by Cooder , except " Lord Tell Me Why " , which was co @-@ written by session drummer Jim Keltner . Cooder also worked with vocalist Juliette Commagere , accordionist Flaco Jiménez , bassist Robert Francis , vocalist Arnold McCuller , and drummer Joachim Cooder , Cooder 's son . Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down was mixed by Martin Pradler and mastered by recording engineer Bernie Grundman at his Hollywood studio Grundman Mastering . Most of the album was engineered in Pradler 's living room .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down 's music is rooted in Americana and draws on a number of styles , including blues , folk , ragtime , norteño , rock , and country music . For the songs , Cooder adapted musical language from historical sources and incorporated styles from both North and South American traditions . In his interview on Marketplace , he explained his stylistic approach for Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down , stating " to me , these musical styles and sounds are narratives as well . I mean everything about them — if it 's an accordion , horns , the banda horns for the immigrant tunes — they all are part of the story . And you can see it then , you can imagine the Arizona border that 's hot , 120 degrees in the shade , dusty . The banda horns are coming from some truck over there . " According to him , musical settings for certain songs were decided based on their respective compositions , such as when " the words would come to me in ¾ time , that meant corrido , that means accordion ; banda horns because they ’ re exciting . "
Cooder wanted the music of each song to complement the stories in his lyrics and to serve as homages to particular traditional styles . Cooder said that he did not want to " over @-@ think it " and said of his creative process for each song 's distinct style , " It ’ s taken a long time , but it becomes natural to combine an idea you have or a story you want to tell with whatever seems conducive . " Graham Reid of The New Zealand Herald writes that the music " refers to the dustbowl era , rural blues , Tex @-@ Mex ( with accordionist Flaco Jimenez ) and old @-@ time folk . " The Observer 's Neil Spencer comments that it is " grounded in the blues , folk and Tex @-@ Mex the guitarist explored in the 1970s , but its songs belong to modern times . "
Lyrically , the album focuses on socio @-@ political themes of power and its abuses , the struggle for democracy , the trials of the working class , and the goal of equality , with songs composed as either first @-@ person narratives or allegories . The songs deal with contemporary subject matter and topics such as immigration legislation , the emotional and physical effects of war , the dubiousness of politics , social class and race division , and white flight . Cooder 's songwriting is characterized by sardonic lyrics , satire , mordant humor , and wry observations on figures such as bankers , politicians , and militarists . Allmusic 's Thom Jurek characterizes it as " overtly political " and comments that " the depth of Cooder 's rage is quieter but more direct as the album draws to a close . " According to Bud Scoppa of Uncut , the album expands on Cooder 's previous trilogy of sociopolitical albums and their " scholarly but humour @-@ laced examinations " and " arcane musical modes " . Journalist Alec Wilkinson comments that " what [ the album ] shares with them is an indignation over the economic and ethical disparities of American life and the destructive and scoundrely meanness of the privileges given to the rich . "
Nick Cristiano of The Philadelphia Inquirer writes of the lyrics , " Cooder takes deadly aim at rapacious bankers , warmongers , land barons , and the like , showing the devastating impact of their actions on ordinary folk " , adding that " He does this in a manner that mixes the scrappy populism of Woody Guthrie with the first @-@ person narratives of Springsteen in Steinbeckian Ghost of Tom Joad mode . " Robin Denselow of The Guardian notes " bleak or thoughtful lyrics [ set ] against jaunty melodies " and " no elaborate narratives " in the songs , while interpreting the album 's motif to be that of " a broken , divided society and the gap between rich and poor , but with the anger matched against humour . " Neil Spencer of Uncut calls Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down " an impassioned portrait of 21st century America and its injustices " , adding that " like Guthrie , [ Cooder ] nails his targets with droll humour while empathising with society 's underdogs . "
Allmusic 's Steve Huey asserts that the album " reache [ s ] all the way back to his earliest recordings for musical inspiration while telling topical stories about corruption — political and social — the erasure and the rewriting of American history , and an emerging class war . " Peter Kane of Q compares it to Cooder 's 1971 album Into the Purple Valley , which featured Dust Bowl @-@ era songs , and writes that this album 's " protest songs for today 's messed @-@ up world " are " sly and humorous " . Philip Majorins of PopMatters compares the album to other songwriters ' " substantial statements " about the American zeitgeist , including Randy Newman 's Harps and Angels ( 2008 ) , Paul Simon 's So Beautiful or So What ( 2011 ) , and Bob Dylan 's Modern Times ( 2006 ) . However , he distinguishes Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down as " an attempt at the existential , providing an everyman 's view of struggle during economic downturn , class disparity , injustice , and abuse of power " , calling him " a direct voice of protest , both musically and lyrically , that will not be mistaken for being impressionistic . "
= = = Songs = = =
The opening track " No Banker Left Behind " references the financial bailout of 2007 and criticizes bankers and government . Alec Wilkinson of The New Yorker writes that the song " ridicules the considerations extended to the prosperous men and women who grabbed everything not nailed down during the last few years . " It features marching rhythms , mandolin and banjo riffs , and electric guitar . Cooder has described the song 's rhythm as " a kind of clog @-@ dance beat " . " El Corrido Jesse James " is played in waltz time with a horn section and accordion by Flaco Jiménez . The lyrics express a fictitious narrative by American outlaw Jessie James in Heaven , who claims to have never " turned a family from their house " when he was a bank robber . He asks God for his " trusty .44 " to persuade bankers to " put that bonus money back where it belongs " . Cooder discussed the character 's perspective in an interview on BBC Radio 4 's Today , stating :
[ T ] he point here is that Jesse James was a primitive white man from the 19th Century . And in those days the hero was a one @-@ man , one @-@ gun hero . It 's a very popular American myth . But what Jesse doesn 't realise [ in the song ] is that while he 's been up in heaven , the forces massed against him [ ... ] He can 't overcome the growth of the corporate , military @-@ industrial equation . He can 't walk down Wall Street and shoot up the place . No @-@ one would even pay attention to him . The hero is outnumbered and outgunned . The wagons are circling , but what 's he going to do ? What 's anyone going to do ?
" Quick Sand " is a shuffling rock song that addresses the plight of illegal immigrants to Arizona . It depicts six migrants travelling through extreme climates in the Sonoran Desert to reach Devil 's Highway in an attempt to cross the Mexico – United States border . They journey from Tamaulipas and through the mountains along Devil 's Highway . Partway into the journey , the migrants are abandoned by their coyote guide and subsequently lose one another one by one . They experience thirst , hunger , injury , and fear , culminating with the only two surviving migrants being turned away by a vigilante at the border . Cooder said of the route 's background and the narrative in an interview , " [ I ] t 's been a migrant trail for 200 years . People go out there and try to do it on foot , but if you make one mistake and go five minutes out of your way , you become disorientated and dehydrated . And they find these mummified bodies out there . The heat has just baked them through . And the people who live through it often refer to having a vision of the Virgin of Guadalupe flying overhead . This is a very common vision when the dehydration sets in . "
" Humpty Dumpty World " incorporates the marimba with light reggae and Mariachi influences . The song 's lyrics are sung from the perspective of God , who deplores the world He created . He makes note of incitive politicians and craven television commentators , and views it as " a ball of confusion " in the chorus line , " I thought I had built upon a solid rock / But it ’ s just a Humpty Dumpty World " . " Christmas Time This Year " is an anti @-@ war song with a Mexican polka style , with Flaco Jiménez on accordion and Cooder on bajo sexto . Composed as a corrido , the song is about wounded soldiers returning home for Christmas , with dismal lyrics set incongruously to an upbeat Mexican melody . Cooder wrote the song in response to the Walter Reed Army Medical Center neglect scandal and previous stories of neglected soldiers returning from the Iraq War . In " Baby Joined the Army " , a young man laments the departure of his girlfriend , who became uninterested in her town and enlisted in the army with the assurance that " If I get killed in battle , I still get paid . "
" Lord Tell Me Why " is a gospel song with a rolling funk groove , sung from the perspective of a lower class White man who has become disillusioned with the American dream . His ironic lyrics ask in the chorus , " Lord tell me why a white man / Ain 't worth nothin ' in this world no more . " The guitar @-@ based " I Want My Crown " was recorded with an 11 @-@ piece band and has an aggressive blues style , rumba @-@ rock groove , and growling vocals . The song is an indictment of politicians as " Judas men " who sided with oil barons and Republicans , and their greed that leads to war . " I Want My Crown " has been described by one writer as a " Mephistopheles @-@ as @-@ Right @-@ winger character study " .
" John Lee Hooker for President " is a blues song in which Cooder narrates as American blues musician John Lee Hooker visiting the White House . Adopting Hooker 's style and laconic vocal tone , he decides to run for the presidency after disliking what he observed in his visit , naming Jimmy Reed as Vice President , Little Johnny Taylor as Secretary of State , and proposing to have " nine fine @-@ lookin ' womens on the Supreme Court " . According to Cooder , the song was inspired by blues musician Gus Cannon 's 1927 song " Can You Blame the Colored Man " , a satirical piece about Booker T. Washington 's invitation to the White House by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1901 .
" Simple Tools " is a Tex @-@ Mex ballad about the contentment of leading a simple lifestyle , with references to the decline in traditional manual skills and the view of automated work as unfulfilling . Featuring a resounding mix of mandolin and guitar , " If There Is a God " is a satirical narrative about an afterlife in which Heaven is restricted by a government bill to the wealthy . Its lyrics criticize redistricting and Republican Party legislature . The song references " The Bourgeois Blues " by blues and folk musician Lead Belly . In " No Hard Feelings " , Cooder sings from the perspective of a lowly prospector who scolds businessmen for dealing with land exclusively in business terms . He dismisses the rich and elite as " ripples " in history and is willing to tolerate them provided that they avoid conflict .
= = Release and reception = =
Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down was released by Nonesuch Records on August 30 , 2011 , in the United States . It was released in the United Kingdom on September 5 , and on September 9 in other European countries . Its vinyl LP release was on September 13 . The album 's lead single , " Quicksand " , had been released as a digital download on June 29 , 2010 . Cooder donated the proceeds from its sales to the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund . The single 's cover artwork , a piece called Nuthin ' to See Here , Keep on Movin ' ! , was designed by visual artist Vincent Valdez , a frequent collaborator with Cooder . Valdez contributed photography to the album 's liner booklet . Cooder performed with a 17 @-@ piece band at the Great American Music Hall in San Francisco , California on August 31 and September 1 , 2011 , to promote the album . He was not satisfied with the promotional aspect of the shows , however , and it contributed to his general disillusionment with the music industry , which he reflected on in an interview for The Australian :
We had a 16 @-@ piece band and we played great shows to 700 people a night . But none of them bought CDs . None of them . They had a good time but they weren 't motivated to buy CDs . I don 't understand it because I came up in the time of records . Back then the business ran . You still got the tunes out . It was a crooked business , you could get cheated and there could be crooked accounting , but I still prefer it to this new thing where there is no connection to the audience through radio or retail .
In the week of September 24 , 2011 , Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down debuted at number five on the US Billboard Top Folk Albums chart , on which it went on to spend seven weeks . The record also charted at number 123 on the Billboard 200 , number 28 on the Top Rock Albums , number 15 on the Tastemaker Albums , a chart that ranks top @-@ selling albums " based on an influential panel of indie stores and small regional chains . " In the United Kingdom , Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down debuted at number 26 on the UK Albums Chart , selling 6 @,@ 000 copies in its first week there ; it spent two weeks on the chart .
Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down received widespread acclaim from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 92 , based on 14 reviews . It was called one of Cooder 's best records by Uncut magazine 's Nigel Williamson and Martin Chilton of The Daily Telegraph . AllMusic editor Thom Jurek deemed it Cooder 's " most overtly political album ... and one of his funniest , most musically compelling ones , too " , while Daniel Paton from musicOMH said much of the record was " highly satisfying satire ( although also often sensitive and affecting ) , combining Cooder ’ s transparent love for a wide range of roots music with his engagement with politics . " Andy Gill of The Independent was impressed by how Cooder used similar characters throughout the songs in new ways , calling the album his best since 2005 's Chávez Ravine . Cooder received comparisons to Woody Guthrie in reviews written by Phil Sutcliffe of Mojo , who found the lyrics sharply written , and Neil Spencer from The Observer , who called Cooder " a Woody Guthrie for our times " and the record " a fierce state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ nation album " . In the opinion of PopMatters critic Philip Majorins , the record would not have a significant impact because of the public 's predominantly commercial tastes and a " cynical " cultural climate , but concluded , " Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down could have tremendous cathartic power for [ those ] who are aware of history and its knack for repeating itself . For those who are willing , this is a good place to start an education . "
At the end of 2011 , Uncut named Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down the year 's 20th best album , while Robert Christgau ranked it number 37 on his list for The Barnes & Noble Review . The record was also nominated for the 2012 Grammy Award for Best Americana Album , while Cooder was nominated in the category of Best Artist for the 2012 Songlines Music Awards .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Ry Cooder .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= Losing My Religion ( Grey 's Anatomy ) =
" Losing My Religion " is the twenty @-@ seventh and final episode of the second season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , and the show 's 36th episode overall . Written by Shonda Rhimes and directed by Mark Tinker , the episode was originally broadcast with " Deterioration of the Fight or Flight Response " , in a two @-@ hour season finale event on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States on May 15 , 2006 . Grey 's Anatomy centers around a group of young doctors in training . In this episode , Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) and her fellow interns have to plan a prom for Dr. Richard Webber 's ( James Pickens , Jr . ) niece Camille Travis ( Tessa Thompson ) . Further storylines include Dr. Preston Burke ( Isaiah Washington ) recovering from his gunshot wound and Denny Duquette 's ( Jeffrey Dean Morgan ) death following his seemingly successful heart transplant surgery .
The episode marked Sara Ramirez 's ( Dr. Callie Torres ) final appearance with recurring billing , as she would be upgraded to a series regular in season three . Morgan , Ramirez , Thompson , Brooke Smith , Sarah Utterback , Loretta Devine , and Chris O 'Donnell reprised their roles as guest stars , while Hallee Hirsh and Tiffany Hines made their first and only appearances . The episode received mixed to negative reviews from television critics , who disapproved of the storyline involving Grey and Shepherd and the show 's lack of repercussions for the interns , but lauded Dr. Cristina Yang 's ( Sandra Oh ) storyline along with Heigl 's performance . " Losing My Religion " was also included in several " best episodes " lists . Upon its initial airing , the episode was viewed 22 @.@ 50 million Americans , garnered an 8 @.@ 0 / 22 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , ranking fifth for the week in terms of viewership , and registering as the week 's second highest @-@ rated drama .
= = Plot = =
Dr. Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) and Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) finish Dr. Preston Burke 's ( Isaiah Washington ) surgery to remove a pseudo @-@ aneurysm in the subclavian artery that threatened the functioning of his arm and which was caused by a gunshot wound . At the same time , Dr. Erica Hahn ( Brooke Smith ) successfully transplants a heart into Denny Duquette ( Jeffrey Dean Morgan ) . The interns face Webber , who orders them to plan a prom for his dying niece , Camille Travis ( Tessa Thompson ) , until the one who cut Duquette 's left ventricular assist device ( LVAD ) comes forward . With the instructions of Camille 's friends , Claire ( Hallee Hirsh ) and Natalie ( Tiffany Hines ) , they prepare the prom as they each struggle with their own personal problems . Trying to recover from his injury , Burke finds a tremor in his right hand .
Dr. Meredith Grey 's ( Ellen Pompeo ) love interest Dr. Finn Dandrige ( Chris O 'Donnell ) , the vet of Doc — the dog she shares with Shepherd — informs her that Doc has had several seizures due to his bone cancer and that she and Shepherd have to make a decision . Webber interrogates the interns individually about Duquette 's LVAD wire , but only learns about their personal problems instead . Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) finally accepts Duquette 's marriage proposal . At Dandridge 's office , Grey and Shepherd , joined by Dr. Addison Montgomery @-@ Shepherd ( Kate Walsh ) , decide to put Doc to sleep .
The hospital staff begins to arrive at the prom and Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) and Dr. George O 'Malley ( T. R. Knight ) discuss the status of their relationship , which leads to the former admitting her love and commitment . During the dance , Grey and Shepherd escape Dandridge and Montgomery to have a heated argument that leads to sexual intercourse . In the meantime , as Duquette waits for Stevens alone in his room , he experiences a sudden sense of pain , and unexpectedly dies . While Webber is sitting in the operating room gallery and reflecting on his career , Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) announces Duquette 's death .
News of the death spreads , and the interns hurry to his room to find a shocked Stevens , lying on the bed , clinging to his still form . As they each try to comfort her , the cause of his death is revealed to have been a blood clot that led to a fatal stroke . Stevens says that if she had taken less time to dress , she would have arrived at his room sooner and could have been with him while he died . Dr. Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) then talks to Stevens , picking her up and hugging her . Afterward , Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) , who did not know how to handle Burke 's situation , goes to his room and puts her hand on his to show him her support . As the episode ends , Stevens confesses to Webber that she was the one responsible for the LVAD wire cut , and claiming she cannot be a surgeon , quits the program . After everyone begins going their separate ways , Grey remains torn on who she should follow : Shepherd or Dandridge .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by series creator Shonda Rhimes and directed by filmmaker Mark Tinker , while Ed Ornelas edited it . It was the last episode to feature Sara Ramirez as a guest star , as she began receiving star billing in the season three premiere . Morgan , Ramirez , Thompson , Smith , Utterback , Devine , and O 'Donnell reprised their roles as Duquette , Torres , Travis , Hahn , Harper , Adele , and Dandridge , respectively , while Hirsh and Hines made their first and only appearances as Claire and Natalie , respectively . The soundtrack of the episode consisted of Pete Droge 's " Under the Waves " , Dressy Bessy 's " Side 2 " , Amos Lee 's " Colors " , Masha Qrella 's " Destination Vertical " , Kate Havnevik 's " Grace " , and Snow Patrol 's " Chasing Cars " . The American profile of Northern Irish band Snow Patrol increased after their single was used in this episode . Lead singer Gary Lightbody was initially uncertain about licensing a song for the soundtrack , but has since admitted that the publicity had a positive effect .
Rhimes entitled the episode " Losing My Religion " because she felt " that is what happens to each intern in this episode . Each intern lets go of the things they 've held onto all season . George lets go of loving Meredith . Cristina lets go of her well @-@ checked emotions . Izzie is forced to let go of her idealism . And that leads to her letting go of medicine . Alex lets go of his rage against Izzie . And Meredith ... well , Meredith just lets go . " The costumes were designed by Mimi Melgaard ; Rhimes noted that everyone was dressed in dark funeral colors to the prom , except Stevens who was dressed in pink . Stevens ' dress was an Amsale creation . Monologues done by the five main characters were used in this episode . Rhimes commented : " this was something we 'd never done and I wasn 't sure would work . But you place those pages into the hands of the actors and each and every one of them layered their characters ' souls right into the dialogue . " The episode 's theme was the prom ; Rhimes said she wanted to do it since the beginning of the season .
= = Reception = =
" Losing My Religion " was originally broadcast on May 15 , 2006 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) , along with " Deterioration of the Fight or Flight Response " . The episodes were watched by a total of 22 @.@ 50 million Americans . It represents a slight decrease in comparison to the episode airing the previous night , " 17 Seconds " , which garnered 22 @.@ 60 million viewers . The episode received an 8 @.@ 0 / 22 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , ranking fifth for the week in terms of viewership , and registering as the week 's second highest @-@ rated drama . The episode 's rating outranked CBS 's The New Adventures of Old Christine and CSI : Miami , the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) ' s The Apprentice , and the Fox Broadcasting Company 's 24 .
The episode received mixed to negative reviews among critics . Joel Keller of The Huffington Post expressed mixed opinions on the episode , putting the emphasis on Yang 's development , whom he deemed " transformed " by the end of the episode . He applauded Torres ' evolution throughout the episode , and also praised Heigl 's performance and dress . Keller criticized the non @-@ realism of the punishment the interns received , Grey and Shepherd 's storyline being tiresome , and the cliffhanger , calling it a " lame cliché " . Writing for the Chicago Tribune , Maureen Ryan gave a negative review of the episode , stating : " overall , the whole thing just fell a little flat . " Though Ryan appreciated the scene of Doc 's death , she was critical of Torres ' underdevelopment , the lack of chemistry with O 'Malley , and her prom dress . Abigail Chao of Television Without Pity was also critical of Torres ' dress , but liked Heigl 's pink dress . She also applauded Karev 's intervening to calm Stevens down , and agreed that Grey 's cliffhanger was not good .
Eyder Peralta of The Houston Chronicle criticized Stevens ' ethics for cutting Duquette 's LVAD wire , writing that she " should not be practising medicine " . Alan Sepinwall , a former television columnist for The Star @-@ Ledger , commented favorably on Karev " finally displaying some humanity " in the scene following Duquette 's death . He was critical of Shepherd 's arc , however , and on the absence of severe consequences for Stevens having cut the LVAD wire , an action he called " insane and dangerous " . This episode was included on the list for the " 25 Sexiest TV Shows on DVD " by magazine Entertainment Weekly . It was also listed in Entertainment Weekly 's " 20 Unforgettable Proms " and in Starpulse 's " Top Ten TV Proms " . AOL TV placed the hook @-@ up scene involving Grey and Shepherd on its Top 20 of TV 's Sexiest Scenes . In 2009 , TV Guide ranked " Losing My Religion " # 63 on its list of the 100 Greatest Episodes . In 2013 , the magazine named Duquette 's death one of TV 's Most Heartbreaking Deaths . In December 2011 , Wetpaint named " Losing My Religion " one of the five best episodes of the series .
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= M @-@ 44 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 44 is a 37 @.@ 463 @-@ mile ( 60 @.@ 291 km ) state trunkline highway in the western region of the US state of Michigan . It runs northward from the intersection of M @-@ 11 ( 28th Street ) and M @-@ 37 toward the Rockford area . The highway then turns eastward to Belding , and it ends six miles ( 10 km ) north of Ionia at M @-@ 66 . M @-@ 44 is known in Grand Rapids as the " East Beltline " and intersects with its related highway , Connector M @-@ 44 , in Plainfield Township . This highway runs concurrently with M @-@ 37 between M @-@ 11 and Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) .
As a state highway , M @-@ 44 dates back to around July 1 , 1919 , and it was routed along a section of its modern route at that time . The eastern end was altered in the late 1920s , and the western end was extended to the Grand Rapids area in the 1970s . For over 20 years , M @-@ 44 was truncated to remove the M @-@ 37 concurrency . Since 2003 though , the highway has terminated at the intersection with 28th Street .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 44 starts at the intersection of 28th Street and East Beltline Avenue in Kentwood . M @-@ 11 runs east and west along 28th Street and M @-@ 37 runs south along Broadmoor Avenue as the continuation of East Beltline . M @-@ 44 and M @-@ 37 run together on East Beltline Avenue north from this intersection , which is also the location of the Woodland Mall in Kentwood . From here north , M @-@ 37 / M @-@ 44 runs along a four @-@ lane divided boulevard through the campus of Calvin College . East Beltline passes through suburban residential areas near the east end of Reeds Lake and M @-@ 21 's western terminus at Fulton Street . Just north of this intersection is an interchange with I @-@ 96 at exit 38 . M @-@ 37 leaves the roadway to run along I @-@ 96 while M @-@ 44 continues northward along East Beltline Avenue . All of M @-@ 44 to this point is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roadways important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
North of the interchange , M @-@ 44 passes the Frederik Meijer Gardens and Sculpture Park and the campus of Cornerstone University . The area around the highway is mixed businesses and office parks north to Knapp Street , and then residential north of there . At Plainfield Avenue , M @-@ 44 meets Conn . M @-@ 44 and crosses the Grand River . M @-@ 44 turns eastward near the south side of Rockford and runs through suburban residential areas near Lake Bella Vista , Silver and Bostwick lakes . East of here , the environs transition to rural farmland and the highway crosses the Kent – Ionia county line between Grattan and Cooks Corners , where it meets M @-@ 91 west of Belding . The highway continues east through town , where it crosses the Flat River , and ends at M @-@ 66 north of Ionia .
= = History = =
M @-@ 44 was first designated by July 1 , 1919 beginning at M @-@ 13 ( later US 131 ) from Rockford to Belding . Near Orleans , M @-@ 44 turned south into town and ended at M @-@ 21 in Ionia . The segment near Orleans was realigned to end at M @-@ 14 ( now M @-@ 66 ) in Woods Corners in 1929 . M @-@ 44 was extended concurrently along US 131 to end at the intersection of the East Beltline and 28th Street near Grand Rapids . Two other highways were also routed on the East Beltline : M @-@ 21 south of Fulton Street and M @-@ 37 south of Cascade Road . The US 131 , M @-@ 21 and M @-@ 37 concurrencies only lasted until 1964 when M @-@ 21 was moved to I @-@ 196 and M @-@ 37 was shifted to the new US 131 freeway .
US 131 was moved to its freeway north of Grand Rapids in 1969 . The Northland Drive segment of US 131 / M @-@ 44 was redesignated as only M @-@ 44 , and the Plainfield Avenue segment became Conn . M @-@ 44 . M @-@ 37 was rerouted as well up East Beltline from M @-@ 11 concurrently with M @-@ 44 to I @-@ 96 . In 1977 , this junction at I @-@ 96 became the official western terminus of M @-@ 44 , with the M @-@ 44 signs along East Beltline Avenue removed . Then in 2003 , the signs along the East Beltline were restored and the route extended back to its former terminus .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Connector route = =
M @-@ 44 Connector , or Conn . M @-@ 44 , is a 4 @.@ 185 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 735 km ) connector route state trunkline highway running along Plainfield Avenue in the Grand Rapids area . It connects I @-@ 96 / M @-@ 37 near Lamberton Lake with M @-@ 44 running along East Beltline Avenue near the Grand River . In between , the highway passes through a commercial area . North of 5 Mile Road , Plainfield Avenue takes on a more suburban residential character . There are more business again at the northern end by Versluis Lake . Conn . M @-@ 44 was formed in 1969 when the US 131 freeway was completed from I @-@ 96 / M @-@ 37 to 14 Mile Road near Rockford . US 131 along Plainfield Avenue was redesignated as Conn . M @-@ 44 to connect I @-@ 96 / M @-@ 37 with M @-@ 44 .
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= Road to Rhode Island =
" Road to Rhode Island " is the 13th episode of the second season and the first episode of the ' Road To ... ' series of the American animated television series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on May 30 , 2000 . In the episode , Brian volunteers to bring Stewie home from his grandparents ' house in California , but the two miss their plane and must travel on foot for a cross @-@ country journey back home . Meanwhile , Peter becomes addicted to watching a collection of marriage counseling videos hosted by a pornstar .
The episode was directed by Dan Povenmire and was written by Gary Janetti . It guest starred Victoria Principal as Dr. Amanda Rebecca , Danny Smith and Wally Wingert as various characters . Series creator Seth MacFarlane conceived the idea for this episode , and was inspired by the 1940s Road to ... series of comedy films which starred Bing Crosby , Bob Hope , and Dorothy Lamour . The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics . It was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less than One Hour ) , but lost to The Simpsons episode " Behind the Laughter " .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with a flashback set seven years ago , where it is revealed that Brian was born in a puppy mill and taken from his mother . Back in the present , Brian tells his psychiatrist about the experience . Afterwards , Brian volunteers to pick up Stewie from his vacation at his grandparents ' summer home in Palm Springs , California , where Stewie frames a maid for stealing to amuse himself at dinner . At the airport bar , Brian gets very drunk and , when Stewie comes to retrieve him , their plane tickets are stolen . They stop at a rundown motel , where Stewie tries calling home , but fails because he believes his phone number is 867 @-@ 5309 . The next day , they have to escape and hotwire a car because their credit card was rejected . To get home , Stewie and Brian masquerade as crop dusters to steal a plane , which they immediately wreck . As the pair continue hitchhiking back to Quahog , they pass by a puppy mill near Austin , Texas , Brian 's birthplace . Upon arrival , they discover that Brian 's mother was taxidermied and turned into a table by the puppy mill owners as a memorial . With Stewie 's reluctant help , Brian gives his mother a proper burial . The pair eventually complete their journey home by riding in an open boxcar , where Brian attempts to apologize to Stewie for all of the trouble he has put both of them through , only to have Stewie reply that he actually enjoyed it . Reconciled , they perform a musical duet " Off On the Road to Rhode Island " as the train takes them home . When Stewie and Brian return home , Lois asks Stewie about the trip , and Stewie covers up for Brian by saying the trip was " Smooth sailing through calm seas " . Lois leaves and Brian tells Stewie that he is thankful to Stewie for covering for him , and asks Stewie if there 's anything he can do to repay him . At first it appears that Stewie wishes to make him his servant by providing an example with an episode of The Brady Bunch , although it turns out that Stewie wants Brian to tape that episode for him .
Meanwhile , Lois urges Peter to watch relationship videos with her , but the videos turn out to be pornography hosted by Dr. Amanda Rebecca , who strips after asking the women to leave the room . Peter becomes addicted to the videos , much to Lois ' chagrin . She gets herself on the end of one of the tapes in black lingerie and entices Peter . While kissing , Peter rewinds the tape , playing the part of Lois taking her robe off over and over .
= = Production = =
" Road to Rhode Island " was directed by Dan Povenmire and was written by Gary Janetti . It featured guest appearances from Victoria Principal as Dr. Amanda Rebecca , Danny Smith and Wally Wingert as various characters . This was the first episode directed by Povenmire . Family Guy creator Seth MacFarlane granted Povenmire substantial creative freedom for directing episodes . Povenmire said that MacFarlane would tell him , " We 've got two minutes to fill . Give me some visual gags . Do whatever you want . I trust you . " Povenmire praised MacFarlane 's management style for letting him have fun . Several years after the episode was written , in DVD commentary for the eighth and ninth season of the show , Gary Janetti , the writer of the episode , recalled that the original title of the episode was intended to be simply " Brian & Stewie " , but was changed by series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane , who wanted there to be a " Road to " episode each season . The name of the episode was then changed to " Road to Rhode Island " , with the original name later being used for the landmark 150th episode of the show , also entitled " Brian & Stewie " , and written by Janetti .
This is the first episode of the " Road to " episodes of the series which air through various seasons of the show . The episodes are a parody of the seven " Road to " comedy films starring Bing Crosby , Bob Hope , and Dorothy Lamour . MacFarlane , a fan of the film series , came up with the idea . The musical number in the episode is sung to the tune of " ( We 're Off on the ) Road to Morocco " from the film Road to Morocco .
= = = Edits = = =
During the airport section of the episode , there is a scene that has subsequently cut from some editions / airings of the show , involving Osama bin Laden . In the scene , Stewie , when approaching airport security , realizes that his bag is full of weapons . He then breaks into song , singing " On the Good Ship Lollipop " to distract the X @-@ ray scanners . He then says , " Let 's hope Osama bin Laden doesn 't know show tunes . " At that time , Osama is pictured in another line , distracting the scanners by singing " I hope I get it " from A Chorus Line . Even though the episode was made a year and a half before 9 / 11 , it was still controversial , and was left out of the original DVD release in the US . However , the scene was left intact on the " Freakin ' Sweet Collection . "
= = Reception = =
In his 2009 review , Ahsan Haque of IGN , rating the episode 10 / 10 , praised the episode , saying : " Great writing , hilarious jokes , a catchy musical , and a story that 's both hilarious and touching at the same time – Family Guy doesn 't get much better than this . " It is one of the only two Family Guy episodes that has ever been given a " Masterpiece " ( 10 / 10 ) rating by IGN , leading many to consider this episode as the greatest in Family Guy 's history . IGN also placed the episode at the top of their list of " Stewie and Brian 's Greatest Adventures " .
The episode was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming less than One Hour ) , but lost to The Simpsons episode " Behind the Laughter " .
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= Pilot ( Millennium ) =
" Pilot " is the pilot episode of the crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on October 25 , 1996 . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter , and directed by David Nutter . " Pilot " featured guest appearances by Paul Dillon , April Telek and Stephen J. Lang .
Offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) , a member of the private investigative organisation Millennium Group , retires to Seattle with his family after a breakdown caused him to quit working for the Federal Bureau of Investigation . Using his incredible profiling skills , Black helps in an effort to catch a vicious murderer who believes he is fulfilling apocalyptic prophecies .
" Pilot " was filmed over the course of a month in Vancouver , British Columbia , and was inspired by the writings of Nostradamus and William Butler Yeats . Airing in the timeslot previously occupied by Carter 's first series , The X @-@ Files , the episode received a high Nielsen household and syndication rating and was generally positively received by fans and critics alike .
= = Plot = =
In a strip club in downtown Seattle , an unnamed man known to the club workers as " The Frenchman " ( Paul Dillon ) is mumbling poetic phrases and hallucinating blood pouring over a blonde stripper , with a wall of fire surrounding her . Later that night , the stripper is murdered . Just arriving in Seattle is Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) and his family . Frank spots a newspaper about the local murder , and immediately contacts his old colleague Bob Bletcher . Frank joins the investigation as an advisor of the Millennium Group , a private investigative group composed of retired law enforcement agents .
When he views the body , Frank gets various vivid visions of the crime . His knowledge of various details unknown to the others unsettles Bletcher . Frank and a fellow member of the Millennium Group named Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) officially join the investigation .
In the meantime , the killer is hunting for his next victim . While unknown to him , the murderer is trapped in a world of grotesque hallucinations . Later that night , local police officers spot his latest victim . Frank visits the crime scene , which gives him a vision of the crime , again startling his colleague Bletcher . Later on , Frank presents his finding to the local homicide department , saying that the murderer is obsessed with apocalyptic prophecies and maddened by twisted sexual guilt .
After Frank presents his finding , Bletcher demands Frank give him the stripper girl 's " rape & murder on VHS . " . Frank tells him he can see what the killer sees . After telling him , Frank rushes to hospital when his daughter , Jordan Black ( Brittany Tiplady ) is stricken with a high fever . Getting another vision , Frank leaves the hospital and gathers local law enforcement officers to another victim .
This follows with Frank tracking down the killer to the local police department 's own evidence lab . In a mad rage the killer attacks Frank , but Bletcher shows up and shoots the killer , saving Frank 's life . After clearing up the case with the local authorities , Frank returns home and opens up a newly arrived anonymous piece of mail containing pictures of his family .
= = Production = =
" Pilot " was written by series creator Chris Carter . Beyond creating the concept for Millennium , Carter would write a total of six other episodes for the series in addition to " Gehenna " — three in the first season , and a further three in the third season . Director David Nutter would also go on to direct several episodes in the first season of the series — " Gehenna " , " 522666 " and " Loin Like a Hunting Flame " .
" Pilot " was filmed over the course of a month , which was an unheard @-@ of length of time for a single television episode . The episode was shot in Vancouver , British Columbia in early spring to give it a " gray " and " bleak " look . The decision to film in Vancouver was to give the show the same dark feel as its sister show The X @-@ Files , which had also been created by Carter . The strip club , Ruby Tip , was inspired by a club in Seattle named the Lusty Lady , which is located on that city 's main street . Director David Nutter had been a long @-@ time staff member of The X @-@ Files crew . Carter said the episode was " directed beautifully by David Nutter who added to the project in so many ways , even as it came on , things that he saw visually that were able to actually change and make the script more concise " . Although " Pilot " did not open with a literary quote as the series would do from the next episode onwards , its plot heavily features the 1919 poem " The Second Coming " by Irish poet William Butler Yeats .
Carter called it a " pleasure " to cast Kate Luyben and April Telek , because they were " good " -looking , which he felt was a refreshing change from frequently casting " character actors " on The X @-@ Files . Luyben would later make an appearance on The X @-@ Files and played a prominent role on Harsh Realm . The idea behind the character " The Frenchman " came from a prophecy by Nostradamus . According to Carter , " the idea that there is something approaching at the millennium , this series being produced I think four years before the end of the century , that we were headed toward something grave and foreboding " . The name of recurring character Bob Bletcher came from an attorney Carter had worked with previously . Another name , Giebelhouse was another name Carter had gotten from his childhood years . Carter said " This idea of the hard @-@ boiled detective is a kind of cliché " . But felt that the characters came " very real to life " , when compared to real law enforcement personnel .
Millennium was given the Friday night timeslot previously occupied by The X @-@ Files , prompting Carter to quip that his earlier series was " being abducted " . However , Millennium received higher viewing figures during its first season than The X @-@ Files had done , while the latter show 's fourth season , the one airing concurrently to Millennium , saw its ratings reach their highest to that point .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Pilot " was first broadcast on the Fox network on October 25 , 1996 ; and gathered a total viewership of 17 @.@ 72 million in the United States . In the " adults 18 – 49 " demographic , the episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 , with a 27 share ; meaning it was viewed by nine percent of television @-@ equipped households and 27 percent of those actively watching television . The rating across all demographics was 11 @.@ 9 . The episode 's broadcast set the record at the time for the most @-@ watched program on Fox .
Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handeln rated the episode a B , finding it to be " weirdly prescient of the crime dramas we wallow in today " . Handlen felt that episode 's tone was so " overwrought " as to be " hilarious " , but still found the series to be " uncompromising " and " compelling " . Handlen also noted similarities to the films Manhunter and Seven in both the episode 's plot and the series ' premise . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 5 / 5 , calling it " perhaps the most perfect opening episode to a one @-@ hour suspense thriller ... ever conceived " . Gibron also praised the casting of Henriksen and O 'Quinn in the series . An Entertainment Weekly preview for the episode noted that some of its scenes were " the grimmest ... in prime @-@ time history " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , calling it " bleak and confrontational " though finding that its symbolism was " too boldly stated " . Comparing the series to its sister show , The X @-@ Files , Shearman and Pearson noted that Henriksen portrays his role " with a confidence that makes him immediately a more credible character than Mulder or Scully would be for an entire season " . Writing for The Register @-@ Guard , Renee Graham called the episode " as lurid a television show as you 're ever going to see " , adding that it seemed " just too horrific to be enjoyable " . However , Graham noted that the episode was " by far the superior show " compared to the similar series Profiler , which aired around the same time .
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= Flag of Japan =
The national flag of Japan is a white rectangular flag with a large red disc representing the sun in the center . This flag is officially called Nisshōki ( 日章旗 , " sun @-@ mark flag " ) in Japanese , but is more commonly known as Hinomaru ( 日の丸 , " circle of the sun " ) .
The Nisshōki flag is designated as the national flag in the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem , which was promulgated and became effective on August 13 , 1999 . Although no earlier legislation had specified a national flag , the sun @-@ disc flag had already become the de facto national flag of Japan . Two proclamations issued in 1870 by the Daijō @-@ kan , the governmental body of the early Meiji period , each had a provision for a design of the national flag . A sun @-@ disc flag was adopted as the national flag for merchant ships under Proclamation No. 57 of Meiji 3 ( issued on February 27 , 1870 ) , and as the national flag used by the Navy under Proclamation No. 651 of Meiji 3 ( issued on October 27 , 1870 ) . Use of the Hinomaru was severely restricted during the early years of the American occupation after World War II ; these restrictions were later relaxed .
The sun plays an important role in Japanese mythology and religion as the Emperor is said to be the direct descendent of the sun goddess Amaterasu and the legitimacy of the ruling house rested on this divine appointment and descent from the chief deity of the predominant Shinto religion . The name of the country as well as the design of the flag reflect this central importance of the sun . The ancient history Shoku Nihongi says that Emperor Monmu used a flag representing the sun in his court in 701 , and this is the first recorded use of a sun @-@ motif flag in Japan . The oldest existing flag is preserved in Unpō @-@ ji temple , Kōshū , Yamanashi , which is older than the 16th century , and an ancient legend says that the flag was given to the temple by Emperor Go @-@ Reizei in the 11th century . During the Meiji Restoration , both the sun disc and the Rising Sun Ensign of the Imperial Japanese Navy became major symbols in the emerging Japanese Empire . Propaganda posters , textbooks , and films depicted the flag as a source of pride and patriotism . In Japanese homes , citizens were required to display the flag during national holidays , celebrations and other occasions as decreed by the government . Different tokens of devotion to Japan and its Emperor featuring the Hinomaru motif became popular during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War and other conflicts . These tokens ranged from slogans written on the flag to clothing items and dishes that resembled the flag .
Public perception of the national flag varies . Historically , both Western and Japanese sources claimed the flag was a powerful and enduring symbol to the Japanese . Since the end of World War II ( the Pacific War ) , the use of the flag and the national anthem Kimigayo has been a contentious issue for Japan 's public schools . Disputes about their use have led to protests and lawsuits . The flag is not frequently displayed in Japan due to its association with ultranationalism . To Okinawans , the flag represents the events of World War II and the subsequent U.S. military presence there . For some nations that have been occupied by Japan , the flag is a symbol of aggression and imperialism . The Hinomaru was used as a tool against occupied nations for purposes of intimidation , asserting Japan 's dominance , or subjugation . Several military banners of Japan are based on the Hinomaru , including the sunrayed Naval Ensign . The Hinomaru also serves as a template for other Japanese flags in public and private use .
= = History = =
= = = Before 1900 = = =
The exact origin of the Hinomaru is unknown , but the rising sun seems to have had some symbolic meaning since the early 7th century ( the Japanese archipelago is east of the Asian mainland , and is thus where the sun " rises " ) . In 607 , an official correspondence that began with " from the Emperor of the rising sun " was sent to Chinese Emperor Yang of Sui . Japan is often referred to as " the land of the rising sun " . In the 12th @-@ century work , The Tale of the Heike , it was written that different samurai carried drawings of the sun on their fans . One legend related to the national flag is attributed to the Buddhist priest Nichiren . Supposedly , during a 13th @-@ century Mongolian invasion of Japan , Nichiren gave a sun banner to the shogun to carry into battle . The sun is also closely related to the Imperial family , as legend states the imperial throne was descended from the sun goddess Amaterasu .
One of Japan 's oldest flags is housed at the Unpo @-@ ji temple in Yamanashi Prefecture . Legend states it was given by Emperor Go @-@ Reizei to Minamoto no Yoshimitsu and has been treated as a family treasure by the Takeda clan for the past 1 @,@ 000 years , and at least it is older than 16th century .
The earliest recorded flags in Japan date from the unification period in the late 16th century . The flags belonged to each Daimyo and were used primarily in battle . Most of the flags were long banners usually charged with the mon ( family crest ) of the Daimyo lord . Members of the same family , such as a son , father , and brother , had different flags to carry into battle . The flags served as identification , and were displayed by soldiers on their backs and horses . Generals also had their own flags , most of which differed from soldiers ' flags due to their square shape .
In 1854 , during the Tokugawa shogunate , Japanese ships were ordered to hoist the Hinomaru to distinguish themselves from foreign ships . Before then , different types of Hinomaru flags were used on vessels that were trading with the Americans and Russians . The Hinomaru was decreed the merchant flag of Japan in 1870 and was the legal national flag from 1870 to 1885 , making it the first national flag Japan adopted .
While the idea of national symbols was strange to the Japanese , the Meiji Government needed them to communicate with the outside world . This became especially important after the landing of U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry in Yokohama Bay . Further Meiji Government implementations gave more identifications to Japan , including the anthem Kimigayo and the imperial seal . In 1885 , all previous laws not published in the Official Gazette of Japan were abolished . Because of this ruling by the new cabinet of Japan , the Hinomaru was the de facto national flag since no law was in place after the Meiji Restoration .
= = = Early conflicts and the Pacific War = = =
The use of the national flag grew as Japan sought to develop an empire , and the Hinomaru was present at celebrations after victories in the First Sino @-@ Japanese and Russo @-@ Japanese Wars . The flag was also used in war efforts throughout the country . A Japanese propaganda film in 1934 portrayed foreign national flags as incomplete or defective with their designs , while the Japanese flag is perfect in all forms . In 1937 , a group of girls from Hiroshima Prefecture showed solidarity with Japanese soldiers fighting in China during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , by eating " flag meals " that consisted of an umeboshi in the middle of a bed of rice . The Hinomaru bento became the main symbol of Japan 's war mobilization and solidarity with her soldiers until the 1940s .
Japan 's early victories in the Sino @-@ Japanese War resulted in the Hinomaru again being used for celebrations . It was seen in the hands of every Japanese during parades .
Textbooks during this period also had the Hinomaru printed with various slogans expressing devotion to the Emperor and the country . Patriotism was taught as a virtue to Japanese children . Expressions of patriotism , such as displaying the flag or worshiping the Emperor daily , were all part of being a " good Japanese . "
The flag was a tool of Japanese imperialism in the occupied Southeast Asian areas during Second World War : people had to use the flag , and schoolchildren sang Kimigayo in morning flag raising ceremonies . Local flags were allowed for some areas such as the Philippines , Indonesia , and Manchukuo . In Korea which was part of the Empire of Japan , the Hinomaru and other symbols were used to declare that the Koreans were subjects of the empire .
To the Japanese , the Hinomaru was the " Rising Sun flag that would light the darkness of the entire world . " To Westerners , it was one of the Japanese military 's most powerful symbols .
= = = U.S. occupation = = =
The Hinomaru was the de facto flag throughout World War II and the occupation period . During the occupation of Japan after World War II , permission from the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers ( SCAPJ ) was needed to fly the Hinomaru . Sources differ on the degree to which the use of the Hinomaru flag was restricted ; some use the term " banned ; " however , while the original restrictions were severe , they did not amount to an outright ban .
After World War II , an ensign was used by Japanese civil ships of the United States Naval Shipping Control Authority for Japanese Merchant Marines . Modified from the " E " signal code , the ensign was used from September 1945 until the U.S. occupation of Japan ceased . U.S. ships operating in Japanese waters used a modified " O " signal flag as their ensign .
On May 2 , 1947 , General Douglas MacArthur lifted the restrictions on displaying the Hinomaru in the grounds of the National Diet Building , on the Imperial Palace , on the Prime Minister 's residence and on the Supreme Court building with the ratification of the new Constitution of Japan . Those restrictions were further relaxed in 1948 , when people were allowed to fly the flag on national holidays . In January 1949 , the restrictions were abolished and anyone could fly the Hinomaru at any time without permission . As a result , schools and homes were encouraged to fly the Hinomaru until the early 1950s .
= = = Postwar to 1999 = = =
Since World War II , Japan 's flag has been criticized for its association with the country 's militaristic past . Similar objections have also been raised to the current national anthem of Japan , Kimigayo . The feelings about the Hinomaru and Kimigayo represented a general shift from a patriotic feeling about " Dai Nippon " – Great Japan – to the pacifist and anti @-@ militarist " Nihon " . Because of this ideological shift , the flag was used less often in Japan directly after the war even though restrictions were lifted by the SCAPJ in 1949 .
As Japan began to re @-@ establish itself diplomatically , the Hinomaru was used as a political weapon overseas . In a visit by the Emperor Hirohito and the Empress Kōjun to the Netherlands , the Hinomaru was burned by Dutch citizens who demanded that either he be sent home to Japan or tried for the deaths of Dutch prisoners of war during the Second World War . Domestically , the flag was not even used in protests against a new Status of Forces Agreement being negotiated between U.S. and Japan . The most common flag used by the trade unions and other protesters was the red flag of revolt .
An issue with the Hinomaru and national anthem was raised once again when Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympic Games . Before the Olympic Games , the size of the sun disc of the national flag was changed partly because the sun disc was not considered striking when it was being flown with other national flags . Tadamasa Fukiura , a color specialist , chose to set the sun disc at two thirds of the flag 's length . Fukiura also chose the flag colors for the 1964 as well as the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano .
In 1989 , the death of Emperor Hirohito once again raised moral issues about the national flag . Conservatives felt that if the flag could be used during the ceremonies without reopening old wounds , they might have a chance to propose that the Hinomaru become the national flag without being challenged about its meaning . During an official six @-@ day mourning period , flags were flown at half staff or draped in black bunting all across Japan . Despite reports of protesters vandalizing the Hinomaru on the day of the Emperor 's funeral , schools ' right to fly the Japanese flag at half @-@ staff without reservations brought success to the conservatives .
= = = Since 1999 = = =
The Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem was passed in 1999 , choosing both the Hinomaru and Kimigayo as Japan 's national symbols . The passage of the law stemmed from a suicide of the principal of Sera High School in Sera , Hiroshima , Ishikawa Toshihiro , who could not resolve a dispute between his school board and his teachers over the use of the Hinomaru and Kimigayo . The Act is one of the most controversial laws passed by the Diet since the 1992 " Law Concerning Cooperation for United Nations Peacekeeping Operations and Other Operations " , also known as the " International Peace Cooperation Law " .
Prime Minister Keizō Obuchi of the Liberal Democratic Party ( LDP ) decided to draft legislation to make the Hinomaru and Kimigayo official symbols of Japan in 2000 . His Chief Cabinet Secretary , Hiromu Nonaka , wanted the legislation to be completed by the 10th anniversary of Emperor Akihito 's enthronement . This is not the first time legislation was considered for establishing both symbols as official . In 1974 , with the backdrop of the 1972 return of Okinawa to Japan and the 1973 oil crisis , Prime Minister Tanaka Kakuei hinted at a law being passed enshrining both symbols in the law of Japan . In addition to instructing the schools to teach and play Kimigayo , Kakuei wanted students to raise the Hinomaru flag in a ceremony every morning , and to adopt a moral curriculum based on certain elements of the Imperial Rescript on Education pronounced by the Meiji Emperor in 1890 . Kakuei was unsuccessful in passing the law through the Diet that year .
Main supporters of the bill were the LDP and the Komeito ( CGP ) , while the opposition included the Social Democratic Party ( SDPJ ) and Communist Party ( JCP ) , who cited the connotations both symbols had with the war era . The CPJ was further opposed for not allowing the issue to be decided by the public . Meanwhile , the Democratic Party of Japan ( DPJ ) could not develop party consensus on it . DPJ President and future prime minister Naoto Kan stated that the DPJ must support the bill because the party already recognized both symbols as the symbols of Japan . Deputy Secretary General and future prime minister Yukio Hatoyama thought that this bill would cause further divisions among society and the public schools . Hatoyama voted for the bill while Kan voted against it .
Before the vote , there were calls for the bills to be separated at the Diet . Waseda University professor Norihiro Kato stated that Kimigayo is a separate issue more complex than the Hinomaru flag . Attempts to designate only the Hinomaru as the national flag by the DPJ and other parties during the vote of the bill were rejected by the Diet . The House of Representatives passed the bill on July 22 , 1999 , by a 403 to 86 vote . The legislation was sent to the House of Councilors on July 28 and was passed on August 9 . It was enacted into law on August 13 .
On August 8 , 2009 , a photograph was taken at a DPJ rally for the House of Representatives election showing a banner that was hanging from a ceiling . The banner was made of two Hinomaru flags cut and sewn together to form the shape of the DPJ logo . This infuriated the LDP and Prime Minister Tarō Asō , saying this act was unforgivable . In response , DPJ President Yukio Hatoyama ( who voted for the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem ) said that the banner was not the Hinomaru and should not be regarded as such .
= = Design = =
Passed in 1870 , the Prime Minister 's Proclamation No. 57 had two provisions related to the national flag . The first provision specified who flew the flag and how it was flown ; the second specified how the flag was made . The ratio was seven units width and ten units length ( 7 : 10 ) . The red disc , which represents the sun , was calculated to be three @-@ fifths of the hoist width . The law decreed the disc to be in the center , but it was usually placed one @-@ hundredth ( 1 ⁄ 100 ) towards the hoist . On October 3 of the same year , regulations about the design of the merchant ensign and other naval flags were passed . For the merchant flag , the ratio was two units width and three units length ( 2 : 3 ) . The size of the disc remained the same , however the sun disc was placed one @-@ twentieth ( 1 ⁄ 20 ) towards the hoist .
When the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem passed , the dimensions of the flag were slightly altered . The overall ratio of the flag was changed to two units width by three units length ( 2 : 3 ) . The red disc was shifted towards dead center , but the overall size of the disc stayed the same . The background of the flag is white and the sun disc is red ( 紅色 , beni iro ) , but the exact color shades were not defined in the 1999 law . The only hint given about the red color that it is a " deep " shade .
Issued by the Japan Defense Agency ( now the Ministry of Defense ) in 1973 ( Showa 48 ) , specifications list the red color of the flag as 5R 4 / 12 and the white as N9 in the Munsell color chart . The document was changed on March 21 , 2008 ( Heisei 20 ) to match the flag 's construction with current legislation and updated the Munsell colors . The document lists acrylic fiber and nylon as fibers that could be used in construction of flags used by the military . For acrylic , the red color is 5.7R 3 @.@ 7 / 15 @.@ 5 and white is N9.4 ; nylon has 6.2R 4 / 15 @.@ 2 for red and N9.2 for white . In a document issued by the Official Development Assistance ( ODA ) , the red color for the Hinomaru and the ODA logo is listed as DIC 156 and CMYK 0 @-@ 100 @-@ 90 @-@ 0 . During deliberations about the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem , there was a suggestion to either use a bright red ( 赤色 , aka iro ) shade or use one from the color pool of the Japanese Industrial Standards .
= = Use and customs = =
When the Hinomaru was first introduced , the government required citizens to greet the Emperor with the flag . There was some resentment among the Japanese over the flag , resulting in some protests . It took some time for the flag to gain acceptance among the people .
During World War II in Japanese culture , it was a popular custom for friends , classmates , and relatives of a deploying soldier to sign a Hinomaru and present it to him . The flag was also used as a good luck charm and a prayer to wish the soldier back safely from battle . One term for this kind of charm is Hinomaru Yosegaki ( 日の丸寄せ書き ) . One tradition is that no writing should touch the sun disc . After battles , these flags were often captured or later found on deceased Japanese soldiers . While these flags became souvenirs , there has been a growing trend of sending the signed flags back to the descendants of the soldier .
The tradition of signing the Hinomaru as a good luck charm still continues , though in a limited fashion . The Hinomaru Yosegaki could be shown at sporting events to give support to the Japanese national team . Another example is the hachimaki headband , which was white in color and had the red sun in the middle . During World War II , the phrases " Certain Victory " ( 必勝 , Hisshō ) or " Seven Lives " was written on the hachimaki and worn by kamikaze pilots . This denoted that the pilot was willing to die for his country .
Before World War II , all homes were required to display Hinomaru on national holidays . Since the war , the display of the flag of Japan is mostly limited to buildings attached to national and local governments such as city halls ; it is rarely seen at private homes or commercial buildings , but some people and companies have advocated displaying the flag on holidays . Although the government of Japan encourages citizens and residents to fly the Hinomaru during national holidays , they are not legally required to do so . Since the Emperor 's 80th Birthday on December 23 , 2002 , the Kyushu Railway Company has displayed the Hinomaru at 330 stations .
Starting in 1995 , the ODA has used the Hinomaru motif in their official logo . The design itself was not created by the government ( the logo was chosen from 5 @,@ 000 designs submitted by the public ) but the government was trying increase the visualization of the Hinomaru through their aid packages and development programs . According to the ODA , the use of the flag is the most effective way to symbolize aid provided by the Japanese people .
= = Culture and perception = =
According to polls conduced by mainstream media , most Japanese people had perceived the flag of Japan as the national flag even before the passage of the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem in 1999 . Despite this , controversies surrounding the use of the flag in school events or media still remain . For example , liberal newspapers such as Asahi Shimbun and Mainichi Shimbun often feature articles critical of the flag of Japan , reflecting their readerships ' political spectrum . To other Japanese , the flag represents the time where democracy was suppressed when Japan was an empire .
The display of the Hinomaru at homes and businesses is also debated in Japanese society . Because of the association of the Hinomaru with uyoku dantai ( right wing ) activists , reactionary politics , or hooliganism , some homes and businesses do not fly the flag . There is no requirement to fly the flag on any national holiday or special events . The town of Kanazawa , Ishikawa , has proposed plans in September 2012 to use government funds to buy flags with the purpose of encouraging citizens to fly the flag on national holidays . The Japanese Communist Party is vocally against the flag .
Negative perceptions of the Hinomaru exist in former colonies of Japan as well as within Japan itself , such as in Okinawa . In one notable example of this , on October 26 , 1987 , an Okinawan supermarket owner burned the Hinomaru before the start of the National Sports Festival of Japan . The flag burner , Shōichi Chibana , burned the Hinomaru not only to show opposition to atrocities committed by the Japanese army and the continued presence of U.S. forces , but also to prevent it from being displayed in public . Other incidents in Okinawa included the flag being torn down during school ceremonies and students refusing to honor the flag as it was being raised to the sounds of Kimigayo . In the capital city of Naha , Okinawa , the Hinomaru was raised for the first time since the return of Okinawa to Japan to celebrate the city 's 80th anniversary in 2001 . In the People 's Republic of China and South Korea , both of which had been occupied by the Empire of Japan , the 1999 formal adoption of the Hinomaru was met with reactions of Japan moving towards the right and also a step towards re @-@ militarization . The passage of the 1999 law also coincided with the debates about the status of the Yasukuni Shrine , US @-@ Japan military cooperation and the creation of a missile defense program . In other nations that Japan occupied , the 1999 law was met with mixed reactions or glossed over . In Singapore , the older generation still harbors ill feelings toward the flag while the younger generation does not hold similar views . The Philippines government not only believed that Japan was not going to revert to militarism , but the goal of the 1999 law was to formally establish two symbols ( the flag and anthem ) in law and every state has a right to create national symbols . Japan has no law criminalizing the burning of the Hinomaru , but foreign flags cannot be burned in Japan . Some people have humorously drawn an analogy between the Japanese flag and the appearance of a menstruation stain on a white bedsheet .
= = Protocol = =
According to protocol , the flag may fly from sunrise until sunset ; businesses and schools are permitted to fly the flag from opening to closing . When flying the flags of Japan and another country at the same time , the Japanese flag takes the position of honor and the flag of the guest country flies to its right . Both flags must be at the same height and of equal size . When more than one foreign flag is displayed , Japan 's flag is arranged in the alphabetical order prescribed by the United Nations . When the flag becomes unsuitable to use , it is customarily burned in private . The Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem does not specify on how the flag should be used , but different prefectures came up with their own regulations to use the Hinomaru and other prefectural flags .
= = = Mourning = = =
The Hinomaru flag has at least two mourning styles . One is to display the flag at half @-@ staff ( 半旗 , Han @-@ ki ) , as is common in many countries . The offices of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs also hoist the flag at half @-@ staff when a funeral is performed for a foreign nation 's head of state .
An alternative mourning style is to wrap the spherical finial with black cloth and place a black ribbon , known as a mourning flag ( 弔旗 , Chō @-@ ki ) , above the flag . This style dates back to the death of Emperor Meiji on July 30 , 1912 , and the Cabinet issued an ordinance stipulating that the national flag should be raised in mourning when the Emperor dies . The Cabinet has the authority to announce the half @-@ staffing of the national flag .
= = = Public schools = = =
Since the end of World War II , the Ministry of Education has issued statements and regulations to promote the usage of both the Hinomaru and Kimigayo at schools under their jurisdiction . The first of these statements was released in 1950 , stating that it was desirable , but not required , to use both symbols . This desire was later expanded to include both symbols on national holidays and during ceremonial events to encourage students on what national holidays are and to promote defense education . In a 1989 reform of the education guidelines , the LDP @-@ controlled government first demanded that the flag must be used in school ceremonies and that proper respect must be given to it and to Kimigayo . Punishments for school officials who did not follow this order were also enacted with the 1989 reforms .
The 1999 curriculum guideline issued by the Ministry of Education after the passage of the Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem decrees that " on entrance and graduation ceremonies , schools must raise the flag of Japan and instruct students to sing the " Kimigayo " ( national anthem ) , given the significance of the flag and the song . " Additionally , the ministry 's commentary on the 1999 curriculum guideline for elementary schools note that " given the advance of internationalization , along with fostering patriotism and awareness of being Japanese , it is important to nurture school children 's respectful attitude toward the flag of Japan and Kimigayo as they grow up to be respected Japanese citizens in an internationalized society . " The ministry also stated that if Japanese students cannot respect their own symbols , then they will not be able to respect the symbols of other nations .
Schools have been the center of controversy over both the anthem and the national flag . The Tokyo Board of Education requires the use of both the anthem and flag at events under their jurisdiction . The order requires school teachers to respect both symbols or risk losing their jobs . Some have protested that such rules violate the Constitution of Japan , but the Board has argued that since schools are government agencies , their employees have an obligation to teach their students how to be good Japanese citizens . As a sign of protest , schools refused to display the Hinomaru at school graduations and some parents ripped down the flag . Teachers have unsuccessfully brought criminal complaints against Tokyo Governor Shintarō Ishihara and senior officials for ordering teachers to honor the Hinomaru and Kimigayo . After earlier opposition , the Japan Teachers Union accepts the use of both the flag and anthem ; the smaller All Japan Teachers and Staffs Union still opposes both symbols and their use inside the school system .
= = Related flags = =
= = = Military flags = = =
The Japan Self @-@ Defense Forces ( JSDF ) and the Japan Ground Self @-@ Defense Force use a version of the sun disc design with eight red rays extending outward , called Hachijō @-@ Kyokujitsuki ( 八条旭日旗 ) . A gold border lies partially around the edge .
A well @-@ known variant of the sun disc design is the sun disc with 16 red rays in a Siemens star formation , which was also historically used by Japan 's military , particularly the Imperial Japanese Army and the Imperial Japanese Navy . The ensign , known in Japanese as the Jyūrokujō @-@ Kyokujitsu @-@ ki ( 十六条旭日旗 ) , was first adopted as the War flag on May 15 , 1870 , and was used until the end of World War II in 1945 . It was re @-@ adopted on June 30 , 1954 , and is now used as the war flag and naval ensign of the Japan Ground Self @-@ Defense Force ( JGSDF ) and the Japan Maritime Self @-@ Defense Force ( JMSDF ) . In the surrounding Asian countries that were occupied by Japan , this flag still carries a negative connotation . The JMSDF also employs the use of a masthead pennant . First adopted in 1914 and readopted in 1965 , the masthead pennant contains a simplified version of the naval ensign at the hoist end , with the rest of the pennant colored white . The ratio of the pennant is between 1 : 40 and 1 : 90 .
The Japan Air Self @-@ Defense Force ( JASDF ) , established independently in 1952 , has only the plain sun disc as its emblem . This is the only branch of service with an emblem that does not invoke the rayed Imperial Standard . However , the branch does have an ensign to fly on bases and during parades . The ensign was created in 1972 , which was the third used by the JASDF since its creation . The ensign contains the emblem of the branch centered on a blue background .
Although not an official national flag , the Z signal flag played a major role in Japanese naval history . On May 27 , 1905 , Admiral Heihachirō Tōgō of the Mikasa was preparing to engage the Russian Baltic Fleet . Before the Battle of Tsushima began , Togo raised the Z flag on the Mikasa and engaged the Russian fleet , winning the battle for Japan . The raising of the flag said to the crew the following : " The fate of Imperial Japan hangs on this one battle ; all hands will exert themselves and do their best . " The Z flag was also raised on the aircraft carrier Akagi on the eve of the Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , in December 1941 .
= = = Imperial flags = = =
Starting in 1870 , flags were created for the Japanese Emperor ( then Emperor Meiji ) , the Empress , and for other members of the imperial family . At first , the Emperor 's flag was ornate , with a sun resting in the center of an artistic pattern . He had flags that were used on land , at sea , and when he was in a carriage . The imperial family was also granted flags to be used at sea and while on land ( one for use on foot and one carriage flag ) . The carriage flags were a monocolored chrysanthemum , with 16 petals , placed in the center of a monocolored background . These flags were discarded in 1889 when the Emperor decided to use the chrysanthemum on a red background as his flag . With minor changes in the color shades and proportions , the flags adopted in 1889 are still in use by the imperial family .
The current Emperor 's flag is a 16 @-@ petal chrysanthemum , colored in gold , centered on a red background with a 2 : 3 ratio . The Empress uses the same flag , except the shape is that of a swallow tail . The crown prince and the crown princess use the same flags , except with a smaller chrysanthemum and a white border in the middle of the flags . The chrysanthemum has been associated with the Imperial throne since the rule of Emperor Go @-@ Toba in the 12th century , but it did not become the exclusive symbol of the Imperial throne until 1868 .
= = = Subnational flags = = =
The 47 prefectures of Japan each have a flag resembling the national flag insofar as consisting of a symbol , called a mon , charged on a monocolored field ( with the exception of Ehime , which uses a symbol on a bicolor background ) . There are several prefecture flags , such as Hiroshima 's , that match their specifications to the national flag ( 2 : 3 ratio , mon placed in the center and is 3 ⁄ 5 the length of the flag ) . Some of the mon display the name of the prefecture in Japanese characters ; others are stylized depictions of the location or another special feature of the prefecture . An example of a prefectural flag is that of Nagano , where the orange katakana character ナ ( na ) appears in the center of a white disc . One interpretation of the mon is that the na symbol represents a mountain and the white disc , a lake . The orange color represents the sun while the white color represents the snow of the region .
Municipalities can also adopt flags of their own . The designs of the city flags are similar to the prefectural flags : a mon on a monocolored background . An example is the flag of Amakusa in Kumamoto Prefecture : the city symbol is composed of the Katakana character ア ( a ) and surrounded by waves . This symbol is centered on a white flag , with a ratio of 2 : 3 . Both the city emblem and the flag were adopted in 2006 .
= = = Derivatives = = =
In addition to the flags used by the military , several other flag designs were inspired by the national flag . The former Japan Post flag consisted of the Hinomaru with a red horizontal bar placed in the center of the flag . There was also a thin white ring around the red sun . It was later replaced by a flag that consisted of the 〒 postal mark in red on a white background .
Two recently designed national flags resemble the Japanese flag . In 1971 , Bangladesh gained independence from Pakistan , and it adopted a national flag that had a green background , charged with an off @-@ centered red disc that contained a golden map of Bangladesh . The current flag , adopted in 1972 , dropped the golden map and kept everything else . The Government of Bangladesh officially calls the red disc a circle ; the red color symbolizes the blood that was shed to create their country . The island nation of Palau uses a flag of similar design , but the color scheme is completely different . While the Government of Palau does not cite the Japanese flag as an influence on their national flag , Japan did administer Palau from 1914 until 1944 . The flag of Palau is an off @-@ centered golden @-@ yellow full moon on a sky blue background . The moon stands for peace and a young nation while the blue background represents Palau 's transition to self @-@ government from 1981 to 1994 , when it achieved full independence .
The Japanese naval ensign also influenced other flag designs . One such flag design is used by the Asahi Shimbun . At the bottom hoist of the flag , one quarter of the sun is displayed . The kanji character 朝 is displayed on the flag , colored white , covering most of the sun . The rays extend from the sun , occurring in a red and white alternating order , culminating in 13 total stripes . The flag is commonly seen at the National High School Baseball Championship , as the Asahi Shimbun is a main sponsor of the tournament . The rank flags and ensigns of the Imperial Japanese Navy also based their designs on the naval ensign .
= = Similar flags = =
Australian Aboriginal Flag
Flag of Bangladesh
Flag of Greenland
Flag of Laos
Flag of Macedonia
Flag of Niger
Flag of Palau
Flag of Zaire
= = = Legislation = = =
= = = Japanese = = =
Flag protocol
Website on the standards of the Imperial family
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= Construction of the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System =
The construction of the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System included over 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) of oil pipeline , 12 pump stations , and a new tanker port . Built largely on permafrost during 1975 – 77 between Prudhoe Bay and Valdez , Alaska , the $ 8 billion effort required tens of thousands of people , often working in extreme temperatures and conditions ; the invention of specialized construction techniques ; and the construction of a new road , the Dalton Highway .
The first section of pipe was laid in 1975 after more than five years of legal and political arguments . Allegations of faulty welds drew intense scrutiny from local and national observers . A culture grew around the unique working conditions involved in constructing the pipeline , and each union that worked on the project had a different function and stereotype . Thirty @-@ two Alyeska Pipeline Service Company employees and contract workers were killed during the project . The main construction effort lasted until 1977 ; the first barrel of oil was delivered on July 28 of that year . Several more pump stations , added as oil flow increased , were completed through 1980 .
= = Survey and design = =
Intensive geological sampling and survey work of the pipeline route started in spring 1970 . Aerial photograph were taken , examined , and a preliminary route was detailed . Small survey parties physically visited the route and hammered stakes into the ground . The work was difficult ; animal dangers forced the crews to be armed , and they also had to cope with the remote area and limited infrastructure . In places , the foliage was so dense that trees had to be cut down and progress was limited to 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 km ) per day . The surveyed route passed through several mountain passes : Atigun Pass , Isabel Pass , Thompson Pass , and Keystone Canyon . In the latter location , surveyors had to rappel down cliffs in order to perform their work .
Surveyors and planners also had to deal with the Denali Fault , a major cause of earthquakes , and with large amounts of permafrost . In 1969 , the unincorporated Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System group drilled a series of core samples north of the Brooks Range that demonstrated how ubiquitous the permafrost was along the route . This forced the design of an elevated pipeline , which was tested in a 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) loop built near Barrow . This elevation required the pipeline to be insulated , since extreme cold temperatures caused the metal to become brittle , even when hot oil was being pumped through the pipeline .
After ecological objections forced subterranean pipeline crossings ( in order to allow caribou to cross ) , engineers developed a system by which the ground near the pipeline would be refrigerated by chilled brine . These refrigerated sections also would be placed in Styrofoam @-@ lined trenches and covered with gravel for their insulation value . Altogether , 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) of the pipeline was designed to be built underground in this way . In other places , a lack of permafrost meant it could simply be placed underground without a special refrigeration plant . Large amounts of gravel were needed for all sections of the pipeline as insulation to keep the heat of above @-@ ground structures from melting the permafrost . Gravel also was needed to build the construction and maintenance road , and surveyors located 470 sites across Alaska where the needed 65 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 50 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of gravel could be located .
The Pipeline Authorization Act required the pipeline to be able to withstand the maximum earthquake ever recorded in the area it was built . When crossing the Denali Fault , Teflon @-@ coated sliders were designed to allow the pipeline to move side @-@ to @-@ side in an earthquake . To protect against forward @-@ and @-@ backward shocks and to allow for thermal expansion , the pipeline wasn 't designed as a straight line . Instead , it was intended to be laid in an S @-@ shape , and the bends would allow for expansion and movement without breaking .
Because most of the pipeline was built above permafrost , each of the pipes holding up the raised sections of pipeline contained a sealed tube of ammonia . As the permafrost below the pipeline warms , the ammonia absorbs the heat and rises to a radiator on top of each stanchion . The ammonia is cooled by the outside air , condenses , and falls back to the bottom of the tube , where the process repeats .
The surveyed route crossed hundreds of streams and rivers . To cross these with the pipeline , engineers designed concrete " jackets " to surround the pipe and weight it down so it would sink to the bottom of the stream or river . Because oil is lighter than water , the pipeline would float without the concrete jackets . Dredging rivers and burying the pipeline in the streambed was not allowed due to environmental concerns . In several places — either out of fear of disturbing the river or because of the river 's characteristics — pipeline bridges were constructed . The most notable of these are over the Yukon River and the Tanana River . To protect against corrosion in these wet environments , the pipeline was designed with cathodic protection .
In terms of spill prevention , the pipeline was designed with one @-@ way valves ( so oil moving ahead could not leak out of a hole behind a certain point ) , computer @-@ aided leak detection , and other features . The pipeline was designed to be pressurized , so any leak would be instantly detected by a loss of pressure at one of the pump stations , which could sound an alarm and halt the flow of oil quickly .
When it was proposed , the pipeline was scheduled to start at a capacity of 0 @.@ 6 million barrels per day ( 95 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) , with capacity to be expanded to 1 @.@ 2 million barrels per day ( 190 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) in two years , and to 2 million barrels per day ( 320 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) at an indeterminate time . The oil embargo scrapped these plans , and it was intended that the pipeline be built with an initial capacity of 1 @.@ 2 million barrels per day ( 190 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) . This required eight pumping stations ( instead of five ) to be ready at startup , greatly increasing the manpower required .
= = = Valdez Marine Terminal = = =
The Valdez Marine Terminal , the southern end of the pipeline , was planned for a site across the Port Valdez fjord from Valdez proper . Initial studies predicted bedrock would be six feet below the surface of the ground , but when excavation began , it was discovered that bedrock actually was sixty feet down , requiring the removal of 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of overburden . The terminal itself was designed to be built with four tanker berths and space for a fifth , should it become necessary . Holding tanks were planned that had a capacity equal to that of the pipeline , allowing the whole pipeline to be emptied if required . As required by the Pipeline Authorization Act , a ballast @-@ water filtration system had to be designed as well . This system removes oil from tankers ' ballast water so it is not released into Prince William Sound — something fishermen feared when the pipeline was proposed .
= = Preparation = =
Shortly after the permit was signed , convoys of equipment on snow tractors began heading north , using hardened snow roads and an ice bridge over the Yukon River to reach the seven construction camps that had been dormant since 1970 . In the 83 days from mid @-@ January to the time the snow and ice melted in mid @-@ April , 680 workers moved 34 @,@ 000 short tons ( 31 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 kg ) to the seven camps , and built five more camps and five temporary airstrips .
In February , as the ice bridge and snow road were carrying tracked vehicles north , Alyeska awarded a contract to design the construction and maintenance road . Michael Baker , Jr . , Inc . , a firm in Pennsylvania , was awarded the contract . To cross the Yukon River , the state of Alaska designed a bridge and paid two @-@ thirds of its cost . The remaining third was paid by Alyeska , and the bridge was built by Manson @-@ Osberg @-@ Ghemm . On April 5 , the contracts to build the road were picked . In total , the new Dalton Highway cost $ 185 million to build , and four companies shared that cost . Construction of the Dalton Highway started on April 29 , and at the peak of the effort , Alyeska and the four subcontractors had more than 3 @,@ 400 workers deployed from the Yukon River to Prudhoe Bay . A massive airlift was created to supply the road construction effort ; more than 700 flights per day — 170 @,@ 000 in total — were required before the road was finished on September 29 . In just 154 days , a 360 @-@ mile gravel road had been built . Final grading had to be done and more than 20 small permanent bridges had to be built , but by November , the road was open to traffic crossing the Yukon River on another ice bridge .
= = = Management = = =
To supervise the construction of the pipeline , Alyeska appointed two construction management contractors to oversee all the other subcontractors in the project . Bechtel Corporation , from San Francisco , was named the management contractor for the pipeline itself . Fluor Alaska Inc . , a division of Fluor Corp. , was named the management contractor for the pumping stations and Valdez Marine Terminal , which was the most complex single section of the pipeline , since it involved the transfer of oil from the pipeline to seagoing oil tankers .
Neither of those two companies actually did the construction work . That job was handed off to a series of subcontractors , each of whom had responsibility on one ( or two ) of six sections of the pipeline ( seven , if the marine terminal is included ) . Bidding on the subcontracting jobs opened at the end of March , and the contracts were announced on June 12 , 1974 .
On Section One , which ran 153 miles ( 246 km ) from Valdez to the Sourdough pipeline camp , River Construction Corporation , a division of Morrison @-@ Knudsen , was given the contract . For Section Two , which covered 149 miles ( 240 km ) from Sourdough to north of Delta Junction , Perini Arctic Associates , a joint venture of Perini Corporation , Majestic Construction , Wiley Oilfield Hauling Ltd . , and McKinney Drilling Company . Section Three covered 144 miles ( 232 km ) from Delta Junction , past Fairbanks , and almost to the Yukon . The contract for this section was given to H.C. Price , a group formed by H.C. Price Company ( usually known as PPCO ) , R.B. Potashnick , Codell Construction Company , and Oman Construction Company .
Section Four was 143 miles ( 230 km ) from south of the Yukon to Coldfoot . It was contracted to Associated @-@ Green , a group formed by Associated Pipeline Contractors , Inc. and Green Construction Company . The group also was one of the main contractors for construction of the Dalton Highway . Section Five covered the distance from Coldfoot to Toolik pipeline camp , and Section Six went from Toolik to Prudhoe Bay . Together , the two sections covered 210 miles ( 340 km ) , and they both were under the supervision of Arctic Constructors , a venture of Brown & Root Inc . , Ingram Corporation , Peter Kiewit Sons Inc . , Williams Brothers Alaska , Inc . , and H.B. Zachry Company .
In Valdez , where Fluor had supervision , the work also was divided among several contractors . Site preparation work was done by Morrison @-@ Knudsen . Chicago Bridge & Iron Company built the tank farms , the tanker berths were built by Kiewest ( a venture of Peter Kiewit Sons and Willamette @-@ Western Corporation ) , and General Electric insulated the pipes . Fluor also had supervision of the construction of the pumping stations , which were generally built by the contractors working on a specific section of the pipeline .
= = = Pipeline camps = = =
When the contracts were announced , Alyeska already had 12 pipeline construction camps either built or under construction . These camps were all north of the Yukon , however , and camps had to be built along the entire length of the project . Alyeska planned for 29 construction camps , but 31 were created . Seven were built along the pipeline south of the Yukon , and one was built at each of the 12 pump stations along the length of the route .
The camps were built on thick beds of gravel laid down to insulate the underlying permafrost and to prevent pollution . At the conclusion of the construction project , the gravel was removed , theoretically removing oil leaks and other pollution with it . Atop the gravel were prefabricated modular buildings either flown to the site or trucked across the Dalton Highway . The standardized structures could house 28 people , and two typically were bolted together to create two " wings " . All were one @-@ story , except at Valdez and at the pump station camps , where modules were laid atop one another because of space concerns . In addition to the gravel insulation , both buildings and utility conduits were raised above the ground to avoid heating permafrost .
The camps housed from 250 people ( at each pump station ) to 3 @,@ 500 people ( at Valdez ) . A typical pump station camp cost $ 6 million to build , while the typical mainline camps cost about $ 10 million to build . The camps had beds for 16 @,@ 500 workers and were collectively referred to as " Skinny City " by workers . The name came from the fact that the " city " was 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) long , but only a few hundred feet wide .
Overall construction headquarters was at Fort Wainwright near Fairbanks , where Alyeska leased land and buildings from the U.S. Army . Vacant barracks were converted into housing , and vacant offices were given to oil workers . As air traffic increased , Alyeska arranged for the use of Fort Wainwright 's airfield to relieve the burden on Fairbanks International Airport . The camp at Wainwright was the only one that did not use prefabricated buildings .
= = Workers = =
The Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System was built entirely with unionized labor . Because construction was slumping in the United States at large , the pipeline drew workers from across the country . These workers had to follow a strict hiring process based on union seniority and the labor that was needed . Priority was given to hiring Alaska residents and Alaska Natives , and no strikes were permitted by a labor agreement between Alyeska and the unions . In exchange for abiding by these restrictions , workers were paid extremely well and received fringe benefits . According to the labor contract , every worker was guaranteed 40 hours ' pay per week , even if weather made work impossible . In addition , subcontractors had cost @-@ plus contracts with Alyeska for staffing , so there was no incentive to keep staffing levels low . These factors often led to more people being assigned to a job than there was work to do in an attempt to make up time lost to weather delays . At the peak of construction in fall 1975 , more than 28 @,@ 000 people were working on the pipeline . Fourteen to 19 percent of the workers were minorities , and 5 to 10 percent were women . Because of the high turnover on the project , more than 70 @,@ 000 people worked on at least a part of the pipeline .
= = = Welders = = =
The welders who worked on the pipeline itself came from Pipeliners Local 798 out of Tulsa , Oklahoma , which specialized in providing welders for large @-@ scale pipeline projects . Members of the Plumbers and Steamfitters Union performed all welding that was not a part of the pipeline itself , including pump stations , feeder pipelines , and work at the Valdez Marine Terminal . The welders were the highest paid of all the workers on the pipeline , with a normal rate of $ 18 @.@ 25 per hour . To be hired on the pipeline project , welders had to go through an intensive certification process that involved a series of test welds . If a welder failed any of the test welds , he was not hired and was not allowed to try again for several weeks .
Most 798ers were characterized by a Southern accent , cowboy boots , and unique welder 's hats . They were the only people to weld the 48 @-@ inch ( 120 cm ) pipe of the main pipeline , and outside observers characterized them as arrogant and " redneck " . As a fellow welder stated at the time , " Take your typical 798 pipeline welder and feed him a few drinks , and he 'll probably tell you that he 's God 's greatest gift to welding . " This attitude generated resentment from other pipeline workers , and the conflict caused large @-@ scale brawls . In some instances , Alaska State Troopers had to be flown to pipeline camps in order to break up small riots . Toward the end of the pipeline project , a series of bumper stickers was produced with the slogan " Happiness is 10 @,@ 000 Okies going south with a Texan under each arm . "
= = = Teamsters = = =
The Teamsters Union was by far the largest and most notable contributor of workers to the pipeline project . Teamsters worked in the transportation and supply aspects of the project . All trucks were driven by Teamsters , supply warehouses were run by Teamsters , and the buses that transported workers from camps to job sites were run by Teamsters . Teamsters Local 959 , with more than 23 @,@ 000 employees at its peak , was by far the most dominant labor force on the pipeline project . There were frequent allegations of corruption by Teamsters on the project , and the Anchorage Daily News won a Pulitzer Prize for a 15 @-@ part series on the rise of Local 959 and its influence on state politics . Repeated allegations of links to organized crime were never backed up by evidence , but two Teamsters leaders were murdered in 1976 while investigating drug activity on the pipeline project . Teamsters workers strongly denied any involvement with organized crime , and pointed to the fact that 80 percent of the Teamsters in the project had college degrees or professional and management experience .
The Teamsters ' control of tools and equipment in warehouses they ran led to conflicts with other workers . In a few instances , Teamsters were assaulted by workers from other unions . In other instances , the Teamsters used their position to extract concessions from Alyeska and the subcontractors . Although they were forbidden from striking , they were allowed to halt work for safety meetings , and this excuse was used on a handful of occasions . The most notable of these was in February 1975 , after a series of serious truck accidents on the Elliott Highway , which connected to the newly built Dalton . The Elliott , which had not been upgraded , was a treacherous drive for trucks hauling 80 feet ( 24 m ) of pipe . After his attempts to get Alyeska to upgrade the road were rebuffed , Teamster leader Jesse Carr stopped all truck traffic in the state for four days of safety meetings . Alyeska and the state promised upgrades to the road , and the traffic resumed .
= = = Operators = = =
The International Union of Operating Engineers ( called Operators for short ) represented the men and women who sat at the controls of the heavy equipment used on the construction of the pipeline . This equipment included bulldozers , cranes , drilling rigs , and sidebooms — a cross between a bulldozer and a crane that could lay a section of pipe in a trench parallel to its tracks . Because most of the heavy equipment was unheated , six operators were typically assigned to each piece of equipment , allowing for frequent breaks . A popular joke on the pipeline was that the sole qualification to be an Operator was , " Must be able to sit on a sideboom at 40 below and not freeze up . " More seriously , one laborer wrote , was that there was nothing more terrifying than to be in a trench and have a drunken or unskilled Operator handling the pipe that was being laid in the trench .
= = = Laborers = = =
The Laborers International Union represented the bulk of the less @-@ skilled labor on the project . Laborers , as they were commonly known , did most of the odd jobs on the project : digging trenches in areas inaccessible by heavy equipment , drilling holes for the pipeline 's Vertical Support Members , spreading gravel , crushing rock , and moving supplies by hand . Laborers Local 942 out of Fairbanks was the most prominent Laborers group on the project , and because no special skills were required for the jobs it filled , the Laborers Union attracted most of the people who came to Alaska specifically for the pipeline project . As one Laborer put it , they were people " simply looking for the easiest way possible of getting through the day . "
Because the Laborers had more applicants than jobs available , the process for getting a job on the pipeline through Laborers Local 942 was a multi @-@ tiered process . There were multiple levels of eligibility , based on the amount of seniority a person had . A @-@ level members had the first pick of jobs , but they had to have worked at least 800 hours with the union in the previous year . B @-@ level members had to have worked between 100 and 800 hours with the union . C @-@ level members had to have at least two years of experience outside of Alaska or be an Alaska resident for at least one year . D @-@ level was for everyone else , and D @-@ level people rarely got jobs . That didn 't stop people from trying . At 11 a.m. on January 1 , 1974 , shortly before the pipeline right @-@ of @-@ way was signed , more than 100 people spent the night outside the Fairbanks office of the Laborers Union , waiting for the first choice of jobs when the office opened .
= = = Pipeline life = = =
Life during the pipeline construction project was characterized by long hours , poor conditions , and limited entertainment compensated by excellent benefits and pay . Each worker was handed a small booklet of 23 camp rules , but the rules ( including no alcohol or smoking ) were frequently broken and became the target of ribald humor .
Within the living quarters , the atmosphere resembled that of a college dormitory . Housekeeping and laundry services were provided , but the quarters were small and little entertainment was available . Television broadcasts were delayed two days because of the need to fly tapes from California , and most workers had to develop their own forms of entertainment . In the winter , some took to skiing or sightseeing ; in the summer , some went hiking . In general , however , little time was available for recreation because of the long hours worked by most people .
In the first years of the project , workers were regularly treated to prime rib , steak dinners , and other exotic fare due to a cost @-@ plus contract between the food preparers and the subcontractors . In later years , these cost @-@ plus contracts were replaced , and institutional cooking and box lunches became common , but the food on the project was prized by many workers . As soon as the haul road , later named the Dalton Highway , was built , the food and the overtime for some unions changed . The highway construction was charged to the federal and state governments and was supposed to be cost plus . There were no more steak nights one to two times a week and the Australian rock lobster tails disappeared . The International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers ( IBEW ) LU 1547 was one union that had overtime on Sundays changed from double time to time @-@ and @-@ one @-@ half upon completion of the haul road .
In 1976 , workers ' pay averaged between $ 11 and $ 18 per hour , depending on the position . With workweeks averaging between 70 and 84 hours per week , the problem for many workers became what to do with so much extra money . Teamster Jerry Thornhill , a typical worker , wrote to Money magazine , asking for advice . Thornhill detailed a pay rate of $ 57 @,@ 000 per year at a time when members of Congress earned $ 42 @,@ 500 annually , professional football players averaged $ 40 @,@ 000 , and U.S. vice president Nelson Rockefeller earned $ 62 @,@ 500 . The large amounts of money in the pipeline camps and a lack of entertainment caused frequent gambling games that sometimes involved tens of thousands of dollars . Instead of gambling , other workers saved their money for monthlong vacations to Hawaii or other warm climates , then returned to work with no money remaining .
= = Laying pipe = =
The first section of the Trans @-@ Alaska pipeline was laid on March 27 , 1975 , in the Tonsina River . Several forty @-@ foot sections of pipe were welded together and coated in concrete prior to the ceremony . Twelve sidebooms ( bulldozers with side @-@ mounted cranes ) together lifted 1 @,@ 900 feet ( 580 m ) of pipe , which was laid in a trench dug perpendicular to the riverbed . Bulldozers filled in the exposed trench with gravel , restoring the river 's original contours . This process was repeated a few miles south , where the pipeline crossed the Little Tonsina River . By the end of April , the first 1 @,@ 800 feet ( 550 m ) of elevated pipeline also was built in the same area .
In 1975 , the first year of pipelaying , Alyeska set a goal of completing 45 percent of the 800 @-@ mile route . This would not be laid in a straight line , since it was expected that river crossings would take longer to complete than portions of the pipeline on dry land . Work on the pumping stations and the Valdez Marine Terminal , which had begun in the fall of 1974 , also was expected to take longer than laying pipe . Conversely , work on those two projects could proceed during the winter , when pipelaying could not take place due to the frozen ground .
Laying pipe took several stages . First , the right of way had to be cleared with chainsaws , bulldozers , and scrapers who followed the rough route laid out by the initial surveyors . These crews were followed by another group of surveyors and engineers who determined whether the pipeline could be laid in the planned spot , or if it had to be moved because of permafrost , soft ground , or other considerations . State and federal surveillance officers , working with the engineers , could give the OK to move the path of the pipeline as much as 200 feet to the right or left in order to avoid obstacles .
After the path was finalized came the augers and drillers for the holes that served as foundations for the Vertical Support Members that held up the pipe . These holes were drilled and filled with a mix of water , gravel and dirt before a VSM was dropped into each hole . Because of the frozen ground , the gravel and dirt froze as hard as concrete , sealing the VSMs in place . The VSMs were laid in parallel , two at a time , and each had a semicircular rest for the pipeline segments . These were carried in 40 @-@ foot or 80 @-@ foot segments by crane or sideboom to the appropriate location , lowered into place , then welded together . The welds were then inspected via X @-@ ray by quality control engineers who followed the welders .
The construction progressed under the management of Frank Moolin , Jr . , an engineer who had worked on refinery projects in Singapore and the construction of the Bay Area Rapid Transit system prior to being named senior project manager . Moolin became known for his work ethic and his hard @-@ driving style . It was said that he was the first person in the office and the last to leave at the end of the day . The Engineering News @-@ Record reported " He demands total dedication , saying , ' Your wife had a baby ; so what ? ' " when it named him the construction industry 's Man of the Year in 1976 . To spur progress on the pipeline , he started the " Alyeska Sweepstakes , " in which each of the five contractors working on the pipeline were compared to each other based on how much of their share they completed on time . In his biggest decision , he canceled Bechtel 's contract as management contractor because he felt the company was adding too much bureaucracy between Alyeska and the pipeline contractors . A historian later called the decision " one of the most humiliating defeats " in the history of Bechtel .
In October , snow and cold weather brought most of the pipeline laying to a halt for the year . Employment rose from 12 @,@ 000 workers in the spring to more than 21 @,@ 000 in the summer and down to 7 @,@ 000 at Christmas . Alyeska estimated that the pipeline laying was about 50 percent complete : 390 miles ( 630 km ) of pipeline were welded and in place . But work on the pump stations and in Valdez lagged ; the project as a whole was only 35 percent complete when the pumps were factored in .
= = Speeding up construction = =
During the winter of 1975 – 1976 , Moolin pronounced himself dissatisfied with progress , but promised improvements . " We 've learned an awful lot . This year ( 1975 ) was a pull @-@ ourselves @-@ up @-@ by @-@ our @-@ bootstraps operation . We didn 't really have our organization set until July , and it wasn 't working at top effectiveness until October . " To take advantage of that " top effectiveness " , Moolin set an ambitious goal for 1976 construction : " We 're expecting to have all of the line installed , insulated , and hydro @-@ tested by November 1 , " he said in January . That goal was ambitious , because most of the work that had been done to that point was on floodplains and flat terrain . Still left to tackle were difficult construction projects in Atigun Pass and Keystone Canyon . " In some areas , we did eat our cake last year , " Moolin said .
Even though winter shut down all pipelaying on the right of way , work on the pump stations and in Valdez continued without stop . At Pump Station 1 , in Prudhoe Bay , temperatures reached lower than − 70 ° F ( − 57 ° C ) , but the work continued . Because the pump station was the origin point for the main pipeline , it also had to process the feeder lines coming from oil wells . The pump station camp had a population of 270 workers through the winter , and it would peak in the summer with 430 workers .
= = = Welding controversy = = =
As the weather warmed and work resumed on the main pipeline , Alyeska administrators were distracted by a controversy about pipeline welds that had been done the previous year . In September 1975 , a former employee of Ketchbaw Industries filed suit against the company , alleging that he had been laid off because he would not participate in a conspiracy to falsify quality control X @-@ Rays of pipeline welds . The Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline was unique among pipeline projects to that point in that it required all welds of the main pipeline to be verified by X @-@ Ray . This was a time @-@ consuming process , and the quality @-@ control procedures continually lagged behind the welders .
At the end of 1975 , Alyeska terminated Ketchbaw 's contract and took responsibility for analyzing weld X @-@ Rays itself . The controversy continued , however , as Kelley 's lawsuit moved forward , a Ketchbaw manager was found dead of cyanide poisoning , and photographs of welds were stolen from a pump station construction camp . Alyeska began a review of all 30 @,@ 800 welds that had been done in 1975 , and submitted its report to the Interior Department in April 1976 . In May , it submitted its technical analysis and a report on repair work under way . The review produced a list of 3 @,@ 955 questionable welds — 10 percent of 1975 's work .
Alyeska reported that about half were too minor to affect the running of the pipeline , but questions lay with more than a thousand welds that might be dangerous . Re @-@ examining the welds would be extremely difficult , since those sections of pipeline were sealed ( and in many cases buried ) . By July , the U.S. Congress began holding hearings into the welding problems . President Gerald Ford sent a team to Alaska to oversee and examine Alyeska 's work . At the recommendations of this team and to avoid further investigations , Alyeska began repairing the welds on its own . By September , more than 3 @,@ 000 of the questionable welds had been redone or certified as safe . Alyeska asked for waivers on the remaining 612 welds , and more hearings resulted . By the end of November , only 34 welds were still at issue . The leader of Ford 's team ordered 31 of the welds to be dug up and re @-@ done . Waivers were granted for only three welds , all of which were buried 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) under the Koyukuk River south of the Brooks Range . Proof of the integrity of questionable welds were evaluated by a unique solution in Section Five north of the Brooks Range . On either side of the Sagavanirktok River , the above ground pipeline was cut upon and 48 inch fans installed to circulate air . Then a team of 12 men and inspectors riding on wheeled sleds pulled by a modified John Deere lawnmower entered the pipe . Welds were counted during the passage . After arriving at the questionable weld under the Sagavanirktok River , an ultrasound was taken on the inside of the pipe . Then the team exited the pipe on the opposite side and the ultrasound was taken back to camp for evaluation . Alyeska estimated the total cost of redoing the welds to be $ 55 million .
= = = Atigun , Keystone , and Sag River = = =
Many of the suspected faulty welds were in Section Five of the pipeline construction project — the northernmost 200 miles ( 320 km ) . This area also included two of the major problems encountered during the 1976 construction season : Atigun Pass and the Sagavanirktok River ( also known as Sag River ) . The pipeline had been laid in a trench beneath the river in the late fall of 1975 . Because it had been laid so late in the season , the trench fill material had frozen and it was impossible to fill the submerged trench containing the pipeline . Spring snowmelt flooded the river and battered the submerged portion of pipe . In June , the battered pipeline broke free of its moorings and a 1 @,@ 700 @-@ foot ( 518 m ) section of concrete @-@ coated pipe floated to the surface of the river . Because doing repair work would interfere with the migration of Arctic char , the Alaska Department of Fish and Game allowed only 24 hours for the project . After preparing the site , it took just four hours for a replacement trench to be dug , a pipe welded and laid in the trench , and the trench to be filled in .
At Atigun Pass , to the south of the Sag River , workers had to deal with a different set of challenges . In 1975 , surveyors discovered the pass was filled with permafrost and glacial soils . But because the pass is the site of frequent avalanches , an elevated pipeline was not possible . The solution was to design a reinforced , insulated ditch to lay the pipeline in . The result was a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 83 km ) long concrete box lined with 21 inches ( 53 cm ) of Styrofoam . The problem then became one of building it before the first snow started falling in October .
At the opposite end of the pipeline , just north of Valdez , engineers coped with the difficulties posed by Keystone Canyon . The canyon was the only route to Valdez , but it was occupied by the Richardson Highway and the Lowe River ; no room was available for the pipeline . The only solution was to avoid the canyon by building the pipeline through the Chugach Mountains and at the rim of the canyon . Winter work was made impossible by the more than 300 inches ( 760 cm ) of snow that fell in the winter of 1975 @-@ 1976 , and when the snow melted , construction workers had to figure out how to travel up a 60 percent grade , then lay the pipeline on it . A rock @-@ crushing plant was built at the canyon 's rim to avoid the need to carry gravel up the steep grade , but problems still persisted . Not even bulldozers could traverse the grade without a team of two helping each up the grade in turn . A bulldozer had to be modified to carry 80 @-@ foot ( 20 @.@ 4 @-@ meter ) sections of pipe up the grade , but even then , most of the sections and equipment had to be lifted by helicopter to the canyon rim . Similar techniques had to be used at nearby Thomson Pass , and both sections required the entire 1976 construction season to complete .
= = = Pump stations and marine terminal = = =
Work at the pump stations and marine terminal , which had not stopped during the winter , continued throughout the 1976 construction season . Pump Station 6 , just south of the Yukon River , had to be redesigned after excavation revealed ice @-@ rich permafrost below the site . Five pump stations needed at startup ( when throughput was lower ) received their pumps , turbines , and piping . As they were completed , the pump stations received hydrostatic testing , in which portions of pipe were filled with water and subjected to pressures in excess of the eventual operating conditions . Following this testing , the initial five pump stations were disconnected from the main pipeline and had oil run through them on a continuous loop . " It 's very similar to your new automobile , " one worker said . " You drive it around for ten days so that any components that are going to fail are given time to fail . " Work on additional pump stations , which would not be needed until the pipeline was brought to full capacity , was not pressed forward .
At Valdez , construction was two @-@ thirds complete by September as 4 @,@ 200 workers hurried to complete the marine terminal . Because of loose soil found at the job site , enormous retaining walls had to be constructed to secure the ground below some of the 58 structures that were completed by the end of the year . During the first week of November , the first ship docked at the newly built Valdez quays . It was not a tanker but a ship bringing more construction material . In December , the first signal was sent from the Valdez operations center — where two new control computers had been installed — to Pump Station 2 on the North Slope .
Although the project made strides toward completion in 1976 , it did not meet Moolin 's goal of having all pipe installed , insulated , and tested by winter . The final section of main pipeline was welded in place on December 6 , but not all of the pipeline was tested before winter set in . At the end of 1976 , the project was 92 percent complete . The pipeline was 97 @.@ 5 percent complete , the pump stations were 92 percent done , and the marine terminal stood at 83 percent . Because the terminal was the lagging portion of the project , its full work crew continued operations through the winter and into 1977 .
= = Finishing the line = =
Few tasks were left to complete when the 1977 construction season began . Most of the pump stations had been turned over to operating personnel by construction workers , and environmental mitigation and cleanup was in full swing as Alyeska repaired tundra damage caused by construction . Associated @-@ Green , which had performed its construction tasks well , was assigned the job of finishing the final touches on the main pipeline . The last 160 miles of hydrostatic testing were done , 33 remedial welds were completed , and 45 miles of pipe were insulated , among other tasks . Because the pace of construction was much slower than in 1976 , fewer workers were needed . Fewer than 11 @,@ 000 were employed at the peak of 1977 work , about half of 1976 's total . On May 31 , the final pipeline weld took place .
Additional tasks remained still to be completed , but the pipeline could be put into operation without them . The 2 @,@ 290 @-@ foot ( 700 m ) E. L. Patton Yukon River Bridge was not completed until October 1979 ; until then , traffic utilized a series of ferries across the river . Additional pump stations also were constructed between 1977 and 1980 , as oil flow increased .
= = = Camp cleanup = = =
As part of the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act , Alyeska was required to remove most traces of the 31 pipeline construction camps . Seven camps closed in November 1976 , and six more closed before the 1977 construction season started . All told , 20 camps went up for sale . One was sold to the University of Alaska for use as an Arctic research facility , while another was converted for use as a truck stop and motel .
In addition to removing its camps , Alyeska also had to dispose of the heavy equipment used to build the pipeline . In January 1977 , Alyeska listed more than 20 @,@ 000 pieces of equipment for sale . The New York Times called the auction of surplus equipment " one of the biggest going @-@ out @-@ of @-@ business sales in history . "
= = Turning on TAPS = =
In April 1977 , Alyeska filed a notice that it intended to start filling the pipeline sometime between June 20 and July 1 . Engineers had to face several problems when filling the pipeline . First was the need to balance temperatures : Filled by air , the steel pipeline was about 20 ° F ( − 7 ° C ) degrees . The oil emerging from wells at Prudhoe Bay was more than 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ) degrees , and there was a danger that if it was introduced before intermediate warming , the pipeline could crack because of thermal expansion . The second problem came when the pipeline needed to be purged of air in order to reduce the danger of fire or explosion . Usually , a pipeline is filled with water first , and the oil pushes the water ahead of it , purging the pipeline as it goes . In Alaska , there was a fear that the water would freeze in the pipeline , damaging it . This problem was solved when pressurized nitrogen was used instead of water .
On June 20 , 1977 , the first section of pipeline was pressurized with nitrogen , and oil was introduced behind it . Because of the cold temperature of the pipeline and the slow rate at which oil was introduced , it took 31 days for the first oil to travel from Prudhoe to Valdez . " As oil cools down , it becomes thicker , " explained one worker . " Our oil at first had a viscosity very similar to asphalt . Another problem was faced when the oil traveled downslope from Atigun Pass . To avoid a situation where the oil front could gain momentum from the downhill slope and rapidly crash into a pipeline section or pump and damage it , regulator valves were used to slow the rate at which the nitrogen ahead of the oil could move . This procedure was used at the other downhill slopes at startup .
As the oil advanced through the pipeline , it was paced by a series of inspectors who traveled along the pipeline route to ensure the weight of the oil did not cause the pipeline to settle or create problems on bridges as the unbalanced weight of the oil front passed over them . This first inspection crew was followed by a second , and others patrolled the pipeline regularly as the oil front passed down the line . The first oil arrived in Valdez on July 28 , 1977 , at 11 : 02 p.m. The oil was only 45 ° F ( 7 ° C ) , but it gradually warmed as the system reached a thermal equilibrium . After the initial startup , the pipeline was intended to run continuously . Said an engineer : " We start up this pipeline once ... It will stay onstream then forever ... ' forever ' being the life of the oil field . "
The startup was not without incident . On July 4 , a nitrogen leak was detected at milepost 489 @.@ 2 . The flow of oil stopped for three days as workers repaired a pipe elbow that cracked because of the temperature difference between the pipe and the supercooled nitrogen . On July 8 , oil flowed through a shut @-@ off pump at Pump Station 8 as workers replaced a strainer . The resulting spray mixed with ambient air and was ignited by a stray spark . One worker was killed and five others were injured in the resulting explosion , which also shut down the station until March 1978 . On July 19 , a heavy equipment accident caused a pipeline break that leaked 1 @,@ 800 barrels per day ( 290 m3 / d ) of oil .
The startup process and construction as a whole came to an end on August 1 , 1977 when the tanker ARCO Juneau sailed out of Valdez with the first load of oil from the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System .
= = Cost = =
When the TAPS group initially proposed the pipeline in 1969 , the proposed cost was $ 900 million , and the pipeline would be completed by 1972 . By January 1970 , the projected cost had risen from $ 900 million to $ 2 billion . In October 1973 , Alyeska further refined its figures and anticipated a cost of between $ 3 @.@ 1 billion and $ 3 @.@ 5 billion , with the potential for a billion more . One year later , Alyeska released its most detailed cost estimate to that point : $ 5 @.@ 982 billion . By June 1975 , that figure had again risen to $ 6 @.@ 4 billion . At the time , it was estimated that $ 3 billion of the cost rise to that point was due to inflation , while another $ 2 billion was due to environmental costs . In July 1976 , amid the second year of construction , the project 's cost was raised to $ 7 @.@ 7 billion . The increase , Alyeska reported , was due to material and freight costs , repairs needed to poorly built sections of pipeline , and contingency estimates .
The final construction cost was tallied at $ 8 billion , but this figure does not include interest on investment loans or the cost of improvements and repairs after 1977 . The Valdez Marine Terminal alone cost $ 1 @.@ 4 billion . The percentage of the pipeline owned by various companies has changed over time , but as of 2009 , the primary owner was BP , which controls 46 @.@ 93 percent of the pipeline . Second is ConocoPhillips Transportation Alaska Inc. with 28 @.@ 29 percent , followed in order by ExxonMobil ( 20 @.@ 34 percent ) , Koch Alaska Pipeline Company ( 3 @.@ 08 percent ) , and Unocal Pipeline Company ( 1 @.@ 36 percent ) .
The pipeline also has had a human toll . Thirty @-@ two Alyeska or contract workers were killed during the construction project . That figure does not include common carrier fatalities . Since the pipeline began operating in 1977 , 10 people have been killed while working for Alyeska or one of its contractors .
= = Additional sources = =
Allen , Lawrence J. The Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline . Vol 1 : The Beginning . Vol 2 : South to Valdez . Seattle ; Scribe Publishing Co . 1975 and 1976 .
Alyeska Pipeline Service Co . Alyeska : A 30 @-@ Year Journey . Alyeska Pipeline Service Co . , 2007 .
Dobler , Bruce . The Last Rush North . Boston ; Little , Brown and Co . , 1976 .
Fineberg , Richard A. A Pipeline in Peril : A Status Report on the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline . Ester , Alaska ; Alaska Forum for Environmental Responsibility , 1996 .
Hanrahan , John and Gruenstein , Peter . Lost Frontier : The Marketing of Alaska . New York ; W.W. Norton , 1977 .
Kruse , John A. Fairbanks Community Survey . Fairbanks ; Institute of Social and Economic Research , 1976 .
Lenzner , Terry F. The Management , Planning and Construction of the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System . Washington , D.C. ; Report to the Alaska Pipeline Commission .
McGinniss , Joe . Going to Extremes . New York ; Alfred A. Knopf , 1980 .
McPhee , John . Coming Into the Country . New York : Farrar , Straus and Giroux , 1976 .
Romer , John and Elizabeth . The Seven Wonders of the World : A History of the Modern Imagination . New York ; Henry Holt and Co . , 1995 .
= = = Video = = =
Armstrong , John . Pipeline Alaska . Pelican Films , 1977 .
Davis , Mark . The American Experience : The Alaska Pipeline . PBS , Season 18 , Episode 11 . April 24 , 2006 .
World 's Toughest Fixes : Alaska Oil Pipeline . National Geographic Channel . Season 2 , Episode 10 . August 20 , 2009 .
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