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= Battle of Île Ronde =
The Battle of Île Ronde was a minor naval engagement between small French Navy and British Royal Navy squadrons off Île de France , now named Mauritius , in the early stages of the French Revolutionary Wars . The battle was fought over control of the waters around Île de France , which was under blockade from the British squadron as French warships and privateers operating from the island posed a significant threat to vital British trade routes connected to British India and China .
In an attempt to neutralise the island , the British commander in the region , Peter Rainier ordered the 50 @-@ gun HMS Centurion and 44 @-@ gun HMS Diomede to institute a blockade , which began in October 1794 . Concerned by food shortages and a rebellious slave population the French naval commander Jean @-@ Marie Renaud led his small squadron comprising frigates Cybèle and Prudente and three smaller vessels to drive off the British squadron . On 22 October , the squadrons met off Île Ronde , an islet off northern Île de France .
The battle lasted two and a quarter hours , in which Centurion and Cybèle fought a close duel which left both ships badly damaged . Supported by the remainder of the squadron , Cybèle successfully withdrew under fire , but Centurion , without support from the distant Diomede was also forced to retire for repairs . Unable to continue the blockade the British force returned to India , allowing food supplies to reach Île de France . Due to the necessity for campaigns against Dutch Ceylon and the Dutch East Indies , the British blockade was not renewed , but the French were unable to take advantage due to increasing civil unrest among the island 's population .
= = Background = =
War between the French Republic and Great Britain began on 1 February 1793 , news arriving among the French and British East Indian colonies on 11 June 1793 . The strongest French positions in the Indian Ocean were the islands of Île de France and Réunion , which lay substantially to the west of the British bases at Bombay and Madras in British India . A small French frigate squadron , supported by smaller warships and privateers operated from the islands posing a considerable threat to British maritime trade in the Indian Ocean .
To counter the threat the British commander in the region , Captain Peter Rainier ordered two of his ships to blockade the island during the summer of 1794 . Rainer 's force comprised the 50 @-@ gun fourth rate ship 50 @-@ gun HMS Centurion under Captain Samuel Osborne and the large 44 @-@ gun frigate HMS Diomede under Captain Matthew Smith . Together the ships sailed from Madras on 30 August 1794 , stopping at the allied port of Trincomalee in Dutch Ceylon and the undefended French @-@ controlled island of Rodrigues before arriving off Île de France in October .
Île de France had been in a state of turmoil since the French Revolution and in 1792 the republican party on the island seized control . In 1794 suspected royalists were arrested , including the naval commander Saint @-@ Félix , their executions forestalled by the arrival of news that the French Convention had abolished slavery . Only the intervention of Governor Malartic prevented unrest . The preoccupation of the naval authorities had prevented any offensive operations and the reduced squadron , now commanded by Captain Jean @-@ Marie Renaud , remained in Port Louis .
= = Battle = =
Despite the upheaval on shore , the arrival of the British blockade squadron provoked Renaud into taking action . Although the defences of Île de France were well prepared under Malartic 's orders , food supplies were running low , with only rice still available in quantity . The potential for famine and consequent social unrest among the slave population was severe and Renaud sailed immediately to intercept Centurion and Diomede . The French squadron comprised the 40 @-@ gun frigate Cybèle under Captain Pierre Tréhouart , the 36 @-@ gun Prudente under Renaud and the 14 @-@ gun brig Courier under Lieutenant Garreau . The force was accompanied by the 20 @-@ gun privateer corvettes Jean @-@ Bart and Rosalie was well as the aviso Sans @-@ Culottes . The ships ' crews were heavily augmented by volunteers , including a young Robert Surcouf on Cybèle , as well as a detachment of soldiers .
Renaud 's squadron sailed on 19 October , seeking the British to the north of the island . At 11 : 00 on 22 October , close to the uninhabited islet of Île Ronde northwest of Île de France the British ships were sighted . Osborne issued orders to advance on the French squadron , Renaud responding by forming his ships in a line of battle and advancing to meet Osborne . Prudente led the French line , closely followed by Cybèle , Jean @-@ Bart and Courier , Osborne focusing on the former and ordering Smith to engage the latter . Firing began at 15 : 29 when Prudente unleashed a close range broadside at Centurion , followed immediately by fire from the ships of both sides . Centurion was damaged in the opening exchanges and by 16 : 00 had most of her sails and rigging torn . At this Renaud ordered his squadron to pull back to leeward out of range , each firing on Centurion as they passed .
As Cybèle came within range of Centurion the frigate 's fire brought down the British ship 's mizen topmast and fore topgallantmast . Return fire from Centurion managed however to sufficiently damage the French ship that she was unable to retreat in the light winds and the two largely immobilised ships began a close range duel . For more than an hour the exchange continued , Renaud unable to intervene from leeward and Smith repeatedly refusing Osborne 's orders to support his ship , Diomede remaining at long range and contributing an intermittent and inaccurate fire on the distant Cybèle . At 17 : 15 a light breeze enabled Tréhouart to slowly pull his ship towards Renaud 's force despite the loss of the main topgallantmast . At 17 : 45 , with Prudente close by , the main topmast fell on Cybèle , which had 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water in the hold , but Osborne , outnumbered and with his ship damaged reluctantly withdrew . The threat lifted , Renaud was able to take Cybèle under tow and retire in the direction of Île de France , followed distantly and ineffectually by Diomede until night fell .
= = = Combatant summary = = =
In this table , " Guns " refers to all cannon carried by the ship , including the maindeck guns which were taken into consideration when calculating it 's rate , as well as any carronades carried aboard . Broadside weight records the combined weight of shot which could be fired in a single simultaneous discharge of an entire broadside .
= = Aftermath = =
The immediate result of the battle was inconclusive , both squadrons retiring with one ship damaged apiece . French losses had been heavy , with 15 killed and 20 wounded on Prudente , the latter including Renaud and 22 killed and 62 wounded on Cybèle . One sailor was killed and five wounded on Jean @-@ Bart and no casualties were reported on Courier . By contrast , Centurion had only three men killed and 23 wounded and Diomede none at all , but the damage to Osborne 's ship was more severe ; while Renaud could repair and resupply his ships in nearby Port Louis , repairs to Centurion could only be affected in India , several thousand miles away . Osborne was thus forced to abandon the blockade and retire , Centurion to Bombay and Diomede to Madras .
The action brought repercussions for Smith , whose failure to support Osborne was noted ; although Smith claimed that he was simply maintaining the line of battle , it subsequently emerged that the captains had engaged in a personal dispute in result of which Smith had decided to refuse Osborne 's orders . After his behaviour had featured in Osborne 's initial dispatch , Smith challenged his account and Osborne demanded a court @-@ martial held to investigate . This panel decided that Smith 's behaviour was unacceptable and he was dismissed from the Navy , by which time he had lost Diomede , wrecked on a rock in Trincomalee Bay on 2 August 1795 during the invasion of Ceylon . Although Smith appealed his sentence and was restored to the captain 's list in 1798 he was never again called to service and retired in 1806 .
British historians have considered that Smith 's refusal to participate probably cost Osborne the battle . William James wrote that his behaviour was " the principle reason that Cybèle , at least , was not made a prize of by the British " . C. Northcote Parkinson considers the action " indecisive " but concurs with James ' assessment that Smith 's intervention could have resulted in a British victory but instead that " the first encounter of the war between the French and English in the East Indies had resulted in what was tantamount to defeat for the latter " .
On Île de France the relief of the blockade meant that shipping , particularly American vessels laden with food supplies from Tamatave on Madagascar , could reach the island and the threatened famine was averted . French privateers were also again free to operate against British trade , particularly in the Bay of Bengal . With Renaud 's squadron still at Port Louis , Rainier considered renewing the blockade , but was dissuaded by the dangers of the monsoon season and a false report that a squadron of French ships of the line was soon due to arrive on Île de France . In 1795 he was distracted by the sudden need to guard against the Dutch East India colonies following the French conquest of the Netherlands , and he supervised the invasion of Ceylon and operations against the Dutch East Indies . By the time his attention turned once more to Île de France , it had been heavily reinforced in early 1796 by a frigate squadron commanded by Contre @-@ amiral Sercey .
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= Jean @-@ Marie Defrance =
Jean @-@ Marie Defrance ( 1771 – 1855 ) was a French General of the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars . He was also a member of the Council of Five Hundred ( the lower house of the legislative branch of the French government under The Directory ) , and a teacher at the military school of Rebais , Champagne .
Defrance had an extensive and successful military career in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars . After the First Battle of Zurich , he refused a battlefield promotion to brigadier general , asking instead for a cavalry regiment ; he received command of the 12th Regiment of Chasseurs @-@ a @-@ Cheval ( light cavalry ) as Chef @-@ de @-@ Brigade , a rank equivalent to colonel . He led this brigade in the campaigns of 1799 – 1800 in southwestern Germany and northern Italy . By 1805 , he had been promoted to brigadier general . At the Battle of Austerlitz and the Battle of Jena @-@ Auerstadt , he commanded a cavalry brigade of carabiniers in Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty 's First Division . By the Battle of Borodino in September 1812 , he had been promoted to general of division , commanding the 4th Cuirassier Division of Nansouty 's reserves , where they charged the Shevardino redoubt . He fought his way across Germany to the Rhine River after the French loss at Leipzig and participated in the Six Days Campaign .
In the Hundred Days , he commanded part of Jean Maximilien Lamarque 's Army of the West . At the second Bourbon Restoration , he retained his titles and honors and subsequently held several command posts until retirement in 1829 . He died in 1855 .
= = Family = =
Jean @-@ Marie Defrance was born on 21 September 1771 at Vassy , in the Champagne province and died 6 July 1855 . On his mother 's side , he was the grandson of the French writer Pierre Chompré ( 1698 – 1760 ) ; his father , Jean @-@ Claude Defrance , was the medical doctor at the Royal Military School of Rebais , in Champagne . Jean @-@ Marie Defrance married the daughter of the richest jeweler in Paris , by the name Foncier .
= = Military career = =
Defrance was stationed in Saint @-@ Domingue during the first Haitian revolt and served in the volunteers Cape Dragoons . On his return to France in 1792 , he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the cavalry regiment royal @-@ étranger . After serving in the Army of the North , he was appointed adjutant @-@ general brigadier in the Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse . He also served in the Council of the Five Hundred .
Defrance also served in the Swiss Campaign of 1799 as divisional Chief of Staff of the 1st Division of Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan 's Army of the Danube ; after the losses at the battles of Ostrach and Stockach in March 1799 , the Army of the Danube was combined with the Army of Helvetia , under the command of Andre Massena . Defrance continued in his capacity as divisional chief of staff . At the First Battle of Zurich in June 1799 , he was appointed on the field as brigadier general , an honor which he declined , asking instead to be given command of a cavalry regiment . He received command of the 12th Regiment of Chasseurs @-@ a @-@ Cheval . As Chef @-@ de @-@ Brigade , the equivalent of colonel in France 's revolutionary @-@ era field army , Defrance went to Italy and participated in the actions leading up to the Battle of Marengo . During the winter of 1800 – 1801 , he campaigned in the Grisons in Switzerland and returned to France after the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801 .
= = = Career during the Napoleonic Wars = = =
In 1803 , with Napoleon 's military reorganization , the title Chef @-@ de @-@ Brigade reverted to colonel ; Defrance retained his command of the 12th Regiment of Chasseurs @-@ a @-@ Cheval . He was named Officer of the Légion d 'honneur on 14 June 1804 . On 1 February 1805 , he accepted a promotion to brigadier general and commanded a brigade in the Danube campaign against Austria and Russia at the battles of Ulm and Austerlitz .
In 1806 , he campaigned against Kingdom of Prussia and Russia at the Battle of Jena @-@ Auerstadt . There , and at the Battle of Friedland on 14 June 1807 , he commanded a carabinier brigade — the first and second regiments — in Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty 's First Division . Napoleon raised him to Count of the Empire on 2 July 1808 . At the Battle of Wagram ( 1809 ) , he again commanded the carabinier brigade .
The confiscation of the Prussian cavalry and draft stock required supervision to integrate the acquisitions into the Grande Armée . After completing several terms as an inspector general of cavalry , Defrance was appointed general of division in August 1811 and joined Joachim Murat 's Cavalry in February 1812 for Napoleon 's Invasion of Russia . At the Battle of Borodino , he commanded 4th Cuirassier Division , which included three brigades and two horse artillery units of 12 guns . These were assigned to Nansouty 's Reserves and assaulted the Shevardino redoubt on 5 – 6 September .
During the Saxon campaign , Defrance was appointed Inspector General for the Grande Armée . He also commanded the 4th Heavy Cavalry Division at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813 , and one of his brigades remained at Lindenau to cover a possible retreat .
In January 1814 , for the last few months of Napoleon 's rule , Defrance commanded four regiments of Imperial Guard and fought in the action of 11 February at Montmirail , during the Six Days Campaign . On 7 March , with much smaller force than his opponent , he repulsed the Russian assault at Rheims , but on 12 March was forced to relinquish the city as more Coalition troops arrived . The following day , he attacked the Russian cavalry , but was again forced to withdraw when faced with superior numbers .
= = Late military career = =
During the first Bourbon Restoration , Louis XVIII appointed Defrance as inspector general of cavalry . During the Hundred Days , Napoleon 's brief return to France , Jean @-@ Marie Defrance commanded part of the Armée de l 'Ouest . This Army of the West was also called the Army of the Vendée and the Army of the Loire . Under overall command of Jean Maximilien Lamarque , one of Napoleon 's fiercest supporters , it was formed to suppress potential Royalist insurrection in the Vendée region of France . Defrance did not participate in the Battle of Rocheserviere , in which Lemarque 's army brutally crushed the anticipated Vendéen uprising . He remained instead at his post of the 18th military division , inspecting the cavalry depots in the upper Loire . Defrance retained his rank after the second restoration and commanded the First Military Division in Paris from 1819 to 1822 . He also taught at the military school in Rebais .
Defrance 's name is engraved on the east side of the Arc de Triomphe .
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= California Southern Railroad =
The California Southern Railroad was a subsidiary railroad of the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railway ( Santa Fe ) in Southern California . It was organized July 10 , 1880 , and chartered on October 23 , 1880 , to build a rail connection between what has become the city of Barstow and San Diego , California .
Construction began in National City , just south of San Diego , in 1881 , and proceeded northward to the present day city of Oceanside . From there , the line turned to the northeast through Temecula Canyon , then on to the present cities of Lake Elsinore , Perris and Riverside before a connection to the Southern Pacific Railroad ( SP ) in Colton . Following a frog war where the SP refused to let the California Southern cross its tracks , a dispute that was resolved by court order in favor of the California Southern , construction continued northward through Cajon Pass to the present day cities of Victorville and Barstow . The line , completed on November 9 , 1885 , formed the western end of Santa Fe 's transcontinental railroad connection to Chicago . Portions of the original line are still in use today as some of the busiest rail freight and passenger routes in the United States .
= = History = =
The California Southern was organized on July 10 , 1880 , as a means to connect San Diego to a connection with the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad at an as @-@ yet undetermined point . Among the organizers were Frank Kimball , a prominent landowner and rancher from San Diego who also represented the Chamber of Commerce and the Board of City Trustees of San Diego , Kidder , Peabody & Co . , one of the main financial investment companies involved in the Santa Fe , B.P. Cheney , L.G. Pratt , George B. Wilbur and Thomas Nickerson who was president of the Santa Fe . The organizers set a deadline of January 1 , 1884 , to complete the connection , a deadline that was later adjusted due to problems in the construction of the Atlantic and Pacific that forced it to stop at Needles , California .
The California Southern built its track northward from a point in National City , south of San Diego . The route , portions of which are still in use , connected the present day cities of National City , San Diego , Fallbrook , Temecula , Lake Elsinore , Perris , Riverside , San Bernardino , Colton , Cajon ( not to be confused with El Cajon ) , Victorville and Barstow .
In Barstow , then known as Waterman , the California Southern would connect to another Santa Fe subsidiary , the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad . The Atlantic and Pacific was chartered in 1866 to build a railroad connection westward from Springfield , Missouri , connecting Albuquerque , New Mexico , then along the 35th parallel to the Colorado River . From there , the railroad was to continue to the Pacific Ocean following whatever proved to be the best route . The route was scheduled to be completed by July 4 , 1878 . However , the Southern Pacific was able to get a clause favorable to their own interests inserted into the charter :
" ... the Southern Pacific Railroad ... is hereby authorized to connect with the said Atlantic and Pacific railroad formed under this act , at such point , near the boundary line of the State of California , as they shall deem most suitable for a railroad line to San Francisco . "
Southern Pacific had already established a connection to Mojave , so their crews built eastward from there through Barstow ( then called Waterman ) to Needles , California , completing the connection across the Colorado River on August 3 , 1883 . The California segment was leased to the Santa Fe in August 1884 , and fully acquired by the Santa Fe under foreclosure in 1897 .
= = = San Diego = = =
The California Southern began construction in National City on land originally acquired by Frank Kimball . The railroad 's main yards and locomotive maintenance shops were located here , and until the connection was made with Barstow , all tools and equipment ordered by the railroad arrived here by ship around Cape Horn from points in the eastern United States , while the wooden ties arrived by ship from Oregon . Surveys and construction between National City and San Diego were well underway by March 1881 . The railroad reached Fallbrook and opened between there and San Diego in January 1882 .
In 1881 and 1882 , the California Southern received ten locomotive shipments by sea at National City . The last three of these , delivered in November 1882 aboard the ship Anna Camp , have been identified as the last three locomotives ever delivered to the United States Pacific coast after traveling around Cape Horn .
= = = Temecula Canyon = = =
To connect to the Atlantic and Pacific line in the quickest way possible , surveyors and engineers for the California Southern pushed the route through Fallbrook and Temecula — bypassing what was , at the time , the pueblo of Los Angeles . The railroad , however , didn 't understand the nature of Southern California 's dry washes . Local inhabitants warned the railroad of the dangers of building through such an area , that it could become a raging torrent of water , but the railroad built through the canyon anyway .
Despite the warnings , track work through the canyon proceeded at a quick pace . They completed the line to Fallbrook on January 2 , 1882 , then to Temecula on March 27 , 1882 .
Many parts of the canyon had suffered storms . In February 1884 , a storm hit . The train was delayed and the canyon walls brought boulders crashing down on the rails . On February 3 , the train was unable to get through . A few days later , the wires were down . The train from Colton to San Diego could not get through . Disaster was averted because a local resident , Charlie Howell , hurried up the tracks from his family homestead near Willow Glen and managed to stop the train . A series of devastating washouts on the section through Temecula Canyon occurred amid heavy rain storms that flooded the area starting on February 16 , 1884 , just six months after the first trains operated the entire route between San Diego and San Bernardino . The storms brought more than 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) of rain in a four @-@ week period . Two thirds of the mainline through the canyon were washed out with ties seen floating as far as 80 miles ( 129 km ) away in the ocean . Temporary track repairs were made after the first storms , but later in the month , additional rains and flooding washed out the entire route through the canyon . Repairs were estimated at nearly $ 320 @,@ 000 , a figure that could not be recouped effectively .
The canyon was finally bypassed completely with the completion of the Surf Line on August 12 , 1888 , and the line through the canyon was relegated to branch line status . By 1900 it had been abandoned by AT & SF . Finally , the 1928 construction of Railroad Canyon Dam submerged the section of track between Elsinore and Perris beneath Railroad Canyon Lake ( now known as Canyon Lake ) .
= = = The crossing at Colton = = =
Construction of the California Southern was repeatedly interrupted by Santa Fe 's rival , Southern Pacific Railroad ( SP ) . In one instance , the California Southern was set to build a level junction across the SP tracks in Colton , a move that would end Southern Pacific 's monopoly in Southern California .
The Colton Crossing was the site of one of the more notable frog wars in American railroad history . In the summer of 1882 , tensions reached their boiling point when construction of tracks for the California Southern reached Colton , California . In an attempt to forcibly prevent the California Southern Railroad crews from completing construction , the Southern Pacific ( SP ) parked and then slowly moved a locomotive and gondola along the SP track at the location of the planned crossing . In addition , the SP hired armed men , including the famous Virgil Earp , to guard the tracks . Before the violence could get out of hand , Governor Robert Waterman ordered San Bernardino County Sheriff J.B. Burkhart to enforce the state court order . Waterman personally ordered Earp and the crowd to comply with the court order . Earp backed down and told the SP engineer to move the locomotive . The crossing was built , ending the Southern Pacific 's monopoly in Southern California .
= = = Cajon Pass = = =
The first structure that the California Southern used as a depot in San Bernardino was a converted boxcar . Building north from San Bernardino , the California Southern was able to piggyback on the survey work done by the Los Angeles and Independence Railroad up to a point near Cajon .
The original grade of the line up the pass rose at a 2 @.@ 2 % slope between San Bernardino and Cajon , where the grade steepened to 3 % until reaching the summit 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) further . The route over Cajon Pass was completed with a " last spike " on November 9 , 1885 , and the first train to use the pass carried a load of rails southward from Barstow on November 12 to be installed near Riverside . The first through train from Chicago via Santa Fe lines arrived in San Diego on November 17 , 1885 .
Construction of the original route through Cajon Pass was overseen by Jacob Nash Victor , who by this time had become General Manager of the California Southern . He operated the first train through the pass in 1885 , proclaiming " No other railroad will ever have the nerve to build through these mountains . All who follow will prefer to rent trackage from us . " Victor 's assertion remained true for a while as the San Pedro , Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad ( which later became part of Union Pacific Railroad ) signed an agreement to operate over the California Southern track via trackage rights on April 26 , 1905 , but Victor was proven wrong eighty years later when SP built the Palmdale Cutoff in 1967 at a slightly higher elevation through the pass . In honor of his work through the pass , the city of Victorville was named after Victor .
= = = Consolidation = = =
To reach Los Angeles , the Santa Fe leased trackage rights over the Southern Pacific from San Bernardino on November 29 , 1885 , at $ 1 @,@ 200 per mile per year . Naturally , the Santa Fe sought ways to reduce the fees . On November 20 , 1886 , the Santa Fe incorporated the San Bernardino and Los Angeles Railway to build a rail connection between its namesake cities . California Southern track crews performed the construction work , and the first train on the new line arrived in Los Angeles on May 31 , 1887 .
During construction , Santa Fe officials worked to consolidate the many subsidiary railroads in Southern California to reduce costs . At a stockholder meeting on April 23 , the eight railroads and their prominent stockholders , minus the California Southern , voted in favor of consolidation , and the California Central Railway was formed as a result on May 20 , 1887 . After the consolidation , although the California Southern remained a separate subsidiary , the National City shops were downgraded and the services provided there were moved to the newly constructed shops in San Bernardino . One of the first official lists of stations on the California Southern and California Central railroads published on July 13 , 1887 , shows the California Southern divided operationally into two divisions : the San Diego division covered the territory between National City and Colton ; from there , the San Bernardino Division covered the route through Cajon Pass to Barstow .
The Santa Fe underwent a massive financial overhaul in 1889 . The major investors in Boston , Massachusetts , were mostly replaced by investors from New York and London at the annual meeting on May 9 . The investors replaced the company 's board of directors with a new board that included George C. Magoun ( who would later be linked with the company 's 1893 receivership ) . The new investors disliked the number of subsidiary companies and sought to further consolidate them . The California Southern , California Central and Redondo Beach Railway companies were consolidated into the Southern California Railway on November 7 , 1889 . The California Central had consolidated with the Los Angeles and San Gabriel Valley Railroad in 1887 , giving it ROW through the San Gabriel Valley . The Santa Fe finally purchased outright the holdings of the Southern California railroad on January 17 , 1906 , ending the railway 's subsidiary status and making it fully a part of the Santa Fe railroad .
= = Company officers = =
Presidents of the California Southern Railroad were :
Benjamin Kimball 1880
Thomas Nickerson 1880 @-@ 1885
George B. Wilbur 1885 @-@ 1887
George O. Manchester 1887- _ _
= = Visible remnants = =
Much of the right @-@ of @-@ way graded and used by the California Southern is still in use . Several structures built for or by the railroad , or in some cases their remains , can still be seen . Some of the buildings that remain are still in use in their primary purposes .
The two ends of the former railroad are still in use as of 2013 . The section between Barstow and Riverside through Cajon Pass , which includes the disputed crossing in Colton , remains one of the busiest rail freight corridors in the United States , seeing trains of BNSF Railway and Union Pacific Railroad as well as Amtrak 's daily Southwest Chief passenger train . At Cajon the concrete pads that served as the foundations for the railroad 's station facilities and water tanks there remain long after the buildings atop them were removed . The Santa Fe realigned the track at several places during the 20th century to straighten curves along Cajon Creek ( between Cajon and San Bernardino ) , lower grades for eastbound trains with the 1913 addition of a separate track through what has come to be known as Sullivan 's Curve , and to reduce some curvature and lower the pass 's summit elevation by 50 ft ( 15 m ) .
The maintenance shops in San Bernardino are still in use by BNSF Railway , although not to the extent that they were used in the 20th century . The San Bernardino station that was opened by the California Southern was destroyed by fire on November 16 , 1916 . It was replaced in 1918 by the Santa Fe with the current structure that now serves Metrolink 's San Bernardino Line commuter trains on runs that terminate at Los Angeles Union Station . Until the introduction of weekend service on the 91 Line in July 2014 , limited service from San Bernardino to Riverside was provided by some San Bernardino Line trains , and the Metrolink Riverside Line terminates at the Riverside station although it reaches the station via a more southerly route . South of Riverside the track is still in place to Perris , where the Orange Empire Railway Museum has a connection to the mainline . This section is being rehabilitated to the Perris Valley Line , an extension of Metrolink 91 Line service to stations at Hunter Park , March Air Reserve Base , Perris , and South Perris .
At the southern end the section between San Diego and Oceanside also sees heavy use by Amtrak California 's Pacific Surfliner trains as well as those of the San Diego Coaster . As part of the Santa Fe 's rail network , it was part of what has come to be known as the Surf Line . As of January 2006 , this line is the second busiest passenger rail line in the United States .
Although San Diego 's Union Station replaced the railroad 's original station there in 1915 , the California Southern 's station and office building in National City has been preserved and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
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= Salt =
Common salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride ( NaCl ) , a chemical compound belonging to the larger class of salts ; salt in its natural form as a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite . Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater , where it is the main mineral constituent . The open ocean has about 35 grams ( 1 @.@ 2 oz ) of solids per litre , a salinity of 3 @.@ 5 % .
Salt is essential for human life , and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes . The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues . Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings , and salting is an important method of food preservation .
Some of the earliest evidence of salt processing dates to around 8 @,@ 000 years ago , when people living in an area in what is now known as the country of Romania were boiling spring water to extract the salts ; a salt @-@ works in China dates to approximately the same period . Salt was prized by the ancient Hebrews , the Greeks , the Romans , the Byzantines , the Hittites and the Egyptians . Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea , along specially built salt roads , and across the Sahara in camel caravans . The scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over salt and use it to raise tax revenues . Salt is also used in religious ceremonies and has other cultural significance .
Salt is processed from salt mines , or by the evaporation of seawater ( sea salt ) or mineral @-@ rich spring water in shallow pools . Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine , and is used in many industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride , plastics , paper pulp and many other products . Of the annual global production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt , only about 6 % is used for human consumption . Other uses include water conditioning processes , deicing highways , and agricultural use . Edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti @-@ caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency . As well as its use in cooking and at the table , salt is present in many processed foods .
Sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute . Excessive salt consumption can increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases , such as hypertension , in children and adults . Such health effects of salt have long been studied . Accordingly , numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods . The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2 @,@ 000 mg of sodium , equivalent to 5 grams of salt per day .
= = History = =
Humans have always tended to build communities either around sources of salt , or where they can trade for it .
All through history the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization . The word " salary " comes from the Latin word for salt because the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt , which was quite literally worth its weight in gold . In Britain , the suffix " -wich " in a placename means it was once a source of salt , as in Sandwich and Norwich . The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north , because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name , natron .
Even before this , what is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata , in Bulgaria , which was a salt mine , providing the area now known as the Balkans with salt since 5400 BC . Even the name Solnisata means " salt works " .
While people have used canning and artificial refrigeration to preserve food for the last hundred years or so , salt has been the best @-@ known food preservative , especially for meat , for many thousands of years . A very ancient salt @-@ works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a salt spring in Lunca , Neamț County , Romania . Evidence indicates that Neolithic people of the Precucuteni Culture were boiling the salt @-@ laden spring water through the process of briquetage to extract the salt as far back as 6050 BC . The salt extracted from this operation may have had a direct correlation to the rapid growth of this society 's population soon after its initial production began . The harvest of salt from the surface of Xiechi Lake near Yuncheng in Shanxi , China , dates back to at least 6000 BC , making it one of the oldest verifiable saltworks .
There is more salt in animal tissues such as meat , blood and milk , than there is in plant tissues . Nomads who subsist on their flocks and herds do not eat salt with their food , but agriculturalists , feeding mainly on cereals and vegetable matter , need to supplement their diet with salt . With the spread of civilization , salt became one of the world 's main trading commodities . It was of high value to the ancient Hebrews , the Greeks , the Romans , the Byzantines , the Hittites and other peoples of antiquity . In the Middle East , salt was used to ceremonially seal an agreement , and the ancient Hebrews made a " covenant of salt " with God and sprinkled salt on their offerings to show their trust in him . An ancient practice in time of war was salting the earth : scattering salt around in a defeated city in order to prevent plant growth . The Bible tells the story of King Abimelech who was ordered by God to do this at Shechem , and various texts claim that the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus Africanus ploughed over and sowed the city of Carthage with salt after it was defeated in the Third Punic War ( 146 BC ) .
Salt may have been used for barter in connection with the obsidian trade in Anatolia in the Neolithic Era . Herodotus described salt trading routes across Libya back in the 5th century BC . In the early years of the Roman Empire , roads such as the Via Salaria were built for the transportation of salt from the salt pans of Ostia to the capital . Salt was included among funeral offerings found in ancient Egyptian tombs from the third millennium BC , as were salted birds , and salt fish . From about 2800 BC , the Egyptians began exporting salt fish to the Phoenicians in return for Lebanon cedar , glass and the dye Tyrian purple ; the Phoenicians traded Egyptian salt fish and salt from North Africa throughout their Mediterranean trade empire .
In Africa , salt was used as currency south of the Sahara , and slabs of rock salt were used as coins in Abyssinia . Moorish merchants in the 6th century traded salt for gold , weight for weight . The Tuareg have traditionally maintained routes across the Sahara especially for the transportation of salt by Azalai ( salt caravans ) . The caravans still cross the desert from southern Niger to Bilma , although much of the trade now takes place by truck . Each camel takes two bales of fodder and two of trade goods northwards and returns laden with salt pillars and dates .
Salzburg , Hallstatt , and Hallein lie within 17 km ( 11 mi ) of each other on the river Salzach in central Austria in an area with extensive salt deposits . Salzach literally means " salt river " and Salzburg " salt castle " , both taking their names from the German word Salz meaning salt and Hallstatt was the site of the world 's first salt mine . The town gave its name to the Hallstatt culture that began mining for salt in the area in about 800 BC . Around 400 BC , the townsfolk , who had previously used pickaxes and shovels , began open pan salt making . During the first millennium BC , Celtic communities grew rich trading salt and salted meat to Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome in exchange for wine and other luxuries . The word salary originates from Latin : salarium which referred to the money paid to the Roman Army 's soldiers for the purchase of salt . The word salad literally means " salted " , and comes from the ancient Roman practice of salting leaf vegetables .
Wars have been fought over salt . Venice fought and won a war with Genoa over the product , and it played an important part in the American Revolution . Cities on overland trade routes grew rich by levying duties , and towns like Liverpool flourished on the export of salt extracted from the salt mines of Cheshire . Various governments have at different times imposed salt taxes on their peoples . The voyages of Christopher Columbus are said to have been financed from salt production in southern Spain , and the oppressive salt tax in France was one of the causes of the French Revolution . After being repealed , this tax was reimposed by Napoleon when he became emperor to pay for his foreign wars , and was not finally abolished until 1945 . In 1930 , Mahatma Gandhi led at least 100 @,@ 000 people on the " Dandi March " or " Salt Satyagraha " , in which protesters made their own salt from the sea thus defying British rule and avoiding paying the salt tax . This civil disobedience inspired millions of common people , and elevated the Indian independence movement from an elitist movement to a national struggle .
= = Chemistry = =
Salt is mostly sodium chloride , the ionic compound with the formula NaCl , representing equal proportions of sodium and chlorine . Sea salt and freshly mined salt ( much of which is sea salt from prehistoric seas ) also contain small amounts of trace elements ( which in these small amounts are generally good for plant and animal health ) . Mined salt is often refined in the production of table salt ; it is dissolved in water , purified via precipitation of other minerals out of solution , and re @-@ evaporated . During this same refining process it is often also iodized . Salt crystals are translucent and cubic in shape ; they normally appear white but impurities may give them a blue or purple tinge . The molar mass of salt is 58 @.@ 443 g / mol , its melting point is 801 ° C ( 1 @,@ 474 ° F ) and its boiling point 1 @,@ 465 ° C ( 2 @,@ 669 ° F ) . Its density is 2 @.@ 17 grams per cubic centimetre and it is readily soluble in water . When dissolved in water it separates into Na + and Cl − ions and the solubility is 359 grams per litre . From cold solutions , salt crystallises as the dihydrate NaCl · 2H2O . Solutions of sodium chloride have very different properties from those of pure water ; the freezing point is − 21 @.@ 12 ° C ( − 6 @.@ 02 ° F ) for 23 @.@ 31 wt % of salt , and the boiling point of saturated salt solution is around 108 @.@ 7 ° C ( 227 @.@ 7 ° F ) .
= = Edible salt = =
Salt is essential to the health of humans and animals , and is one of the five basic taste sensations .
Salt is used in many cuisines around the world , and is often found in salt shakers on diners ' eating tables for their personal use on food . Salt is also an ingredient in many manufactured foodstuffs . Table salt is a refined salt containing about 97 to 99 percent sodium chloride . Usually , anticaking agents such as sodium aluminosilicate or magnesium carbonate are added to make it free @-@ flowing . Iodized salt , containing potassium iodide , is widely available . Some people put a desiccant , such as a few grains of uncooked rice or a saltine cracker , in their salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help break up salt clumps that may otherwise form .
= = = Fortified table salt = = =
Some table salt sold for consumption contain additives which address a variety of health concerns , especially in the developing world . The identities and amounts of additives vary widely from country to country . Iodine is an important micronutrient for humans , and a deficiency of the element can cause lowered production of thyroxine ( hypothyroidism ) and enlargement of the thyroid gland ( endemic goitre ) in adults or cretinism in children . Iodized salt has been used to correct these conditions since 1924 and consists of table salt mixed with a minute amount of potassium iodide , sodium iodide or sodium iodate . A small amount of dextrose may also be added to stabilize the iodine . Iodine deficiency affects about two billion people around the world and is the leading preventable cause of mental retardation . Iodized table salt has significantly reduced disorders of iodine deficiency in countries where it is used .
The amount of iodine and the specific iodine compound added to salt varies from country to country . In the United States , the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) recommends [ 21 CFR 101 @.@ 9 ( c ) ( 8 ) ( iv ) ] 150 micrograms of iodine per day for both men and women . US iodized salt contains 46 – 77 ppm ( parts per million ) , whereas in the UK the iodine content of iodized salt is recommended to be 10 – 22 ppm .
Sodium ferrocyanide , also known as yellow prussiate of soda , is sometimes added to salt as an anticaking agent . The additive is considered safe for human consumption . Such anti @-@ caking agents have been added since at least 1911 when magnesium carbonate was first added to salt to make it flow more freely . The safety of sodium ferrocyanide as a food additive was found to be provisionally acceptable by the Committee on Toxicity in 1988 . Other anticaking agents sometimes used include tricalcium phosphate , calcium or magnesium carbonates , fatty acid salts ( acid salts ) , magnesium oxide , silicon dioxide , calcium silicate , sodium aluminosilicate and calcium aluminosilicate . Both the European Union and the United States Food and Drug Administration permitted the use of aluminium in the latter two compounds .
In " doubly fortified salt " , both iodide and iron salts are added . The latter alleviates iron deficiency anaemia , which interferes with the mental development of an estimated 40 % of infants in the developing world . A typical iron source is ferrous fumarate . Another additive , especially important for pregnant women , is folic acid ( vitamin B9 ) , which gives the table salt a yellow color . Folic acid helps prevent neural tube defects and anaemia , which affect young mothers , especially in developing countries .
A lack of fluorine in the diet is the cause of a greatly increased incidence of dental caries . Fluoride salts can be added to table salt with the goal of reducing tooth decay , especially in countries that have not benefited from fluoridated toothpastes and fluoridated water . The practice is more common in some European countries where water fluoridation is not carried out . In France , 35 % of the table salt sold contains added sodium fluoride .
= = = Other kinds = = =
Unrefined sea salt contains small amounts of magnesium and calcium halides and sulfates , traces of algal products , salt @-@ resistant bacteria and sediment particles . The calcium and magnesium salts confer a faintly bitter overtone , and they make unrefined sea salt hygroscopic ( i.e. , it gradually absorbs moisture from air if stored uncovered ) . Algal products contribute a mildly " fishy " or " sea @-@ air " odour , the latter from organobromine compounds . Sediments , the proportion of which varies with the source , give the salt a dull grey appearance . Since taste and aroma compounds are often detectable by humans in minute concentrations , sea salt may have a more complex flavor than pure sodium chloride when sprinkled on top of food . When salt is added during cooking however , these flavors would likely be overwhelmed by those of the food ingredients . The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw sea and rock salts do not contain enough iodine salts to prevent iodine deficiency diseases .
Different natural salts have different mineralities depending on their source , giving each one a unique flavour . Fleur de sel , a natural sea salt from the surface of evaporating brine in salt pans , has a unique flavour varying with the region from which it is produced . In traditional Korean cuisine , so @-@ called " bamboo salt " is prepared by roasting salt in a bamboo container plugged with mud at both ends . This product absorbs minerals from the bamboo and the mud , and has been claimed to increase the anticlastogenic and antimutagenic properties of doenjang ( a fermented bean paste ) .
Kosher salt , though refined , contains no iodine and has a much larger grain size than most refined salts . This can give it different properties when used in cooking , and can be useful for preparing kosher meat . Some kosher salt has been certified to meet kosher requirements by a hechsher , but this is not true for all products labelled as kosher salt .
Pickling salt is ultrafine to speed dissolving to make brine . Gourmet salts may be used for specific tastes .
= = = Salt in food = = =
Salt is present in most foods , but in naturally occurring foodstuffs such as meats , vegetables and fruit , it is present in very small quantities . It is often added to processed foods ( such as canned foods and especially salted foods , pickled foods , and snack foods or other convenience foods ) , where it functions as both a preservative and a flavoring . Dairy salt is used in the preparation of butter and cheese products . Before the advent of electrically powered refrigeration , salting was one of the main methods of food preservation . Thus , herring contains 67 mg sodium per 100 g , while kipper , its preserved form , contains 990 mg . Similarly , pork typically contains 63 mg while bacon contains 1 @,@ 480 mg , and potatoes contain 7 mg but potato crisps 800 mg per 100 g . The main sources of salt in the diet , apart from direct use of sodium chloride , are bread and cereal products , meat products and milk and dairy products .
In many East Asian cultures , salt is not traditionally used as a condiment . In its place , condiments such as soy sauce , fish sauce and oyster sauce tend to have a high sodium content and fill a similar role to table salt in western cultures . They are most often used for cooking rather than as table condiments .
= = = Sodium consumption and health = = =
Table salt is made up of just under 40 % sodium by weight , so a 6 g serving ( 1 teaspoon ) contains about 2 @,@ 300 mg of sodium . Sodium serves a vital purpose in the human body : via its role as an electrolyte , it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly , and it is one factor involved in the osmotic regulation of water content in body organs ( fluid balance ) . Most of the sodium in the Western diet comes from salt . The habitual salt intake in many Western countries is about 10 g per day , and it is higher than that in many countries in Eastern Europe and Asia . The high level of sodium in many processed foods has a major impact on the total amount consumed . In the United States , 75 % of the sodium eaten comes from processed and restaurant foods , 11 % from cooking and table use and the rest from what is found naturally in foodstuffs .
Because consuming too much salt increases risk of cardiovascular diseases , health organizations generally recommend that people reduce their dietary intake of salt . High salt intake is associated with a greater risk of stroke , total cardiovascular disease and kidney disease . A reduction in sodium intake by 1 @,@ 000 mg per day may reduce cardiovascular disease by about 30 percent . In adults and children with no acute illness , a decrease in the intake of sodium from the typical high levels reduces blood pressure . A low salt diet results in a greater improvement in blood pressure in people with hypertension .
The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2 @,@ 000 mg of sodium ( which is contained in 5 g of salt ) per day . Guidelines by the United States recommend that people with hypertension , African Americans , and middle @-@ aged and older adults should limit consumption to no more than 1 @,@ 500 mg of sodium per day and meet the potassium recommendation of 4 @,@ 700 mg / day with a healthy diet of fruits and vegetables .
While reduction of salt intake to less than 2 @,@ 300 mg per day is recommended by developed countries , one review recommended that salt intake be no less than 1 @,@ 200 mg ( contained in 3 g ) per day , as it is an essential nutrient required from the diet . Another review indicated that reducing sodium intake to lower than 2 @,@ 300 mg per day may not be beneficial .
= = Non @-@ dietary uses = =
Only about 6 % of the salt manufactured in the world is used in food . Of the remainder , 12 % is used in water conditioning processes , 8 % goes for de @-@ icing highways and 6 % is used in agriculture . The rest ( 68 % ) is used for manufacturing and other industrial processes , and sodium chloride is one of the largest inorganic raw materials used by volume . Its major chemical products are caustic soda and chlorine , which are separated by the electrolysis of a pure brine solution . These are used in the manufacture of PVC , plastics , paper pulp and many other inorganic and organic compounds . Salt is also used as a flux in the production of aluminium . For this purpose , a layer of melted salt floats on top of the molten metal and removes iron and other metal contaminants . It is also used in the manufacture of soaps and glycerine , where it is added to the vat to precipitate out the saponified products . As an emulsifier , salt is used in the manufacture of synthetic rubber , and another use is in the firing of pottery , when salt added to the furnace vaporises before condensing onto the surface of the ceramic material , forming a strong glaze .
When drilling through loose materials such as sand or gravel , salt may be added to the drilling fluid to provide a stable " wall " to prevent the hole collapsing . There are many other processes in which salt is involved . These include its use as a mordant in textile dying , to regenerate resins in water softening , for the tanning of hides , the preservation of meat and fish and the canning of meat and vegetables .
= = Production = =
Food grade salt accounts for only a small part of salt production in industrialized countries ( 7 % in Europe ) , although worldwide , food uses account for 17 @.@ 5 % of total production .
In 2013 , total world production of salt was 264 million tonnes , the top five producers being China ( 71 million ) , the United States ( 40 million ) , India ( 18 million ) , Germany ( 12 million ) and Canada ( 11 million ) .
The manufacture of salt is one of the oldest chemical industries . A major source of salt is seawater , which has a salinity of approximately 3 @.@ 5 % . This means that there are about 35 grams ( 1 @.@ 2 oz ) of dissolved salts , predominantly sodium ( Na + ) and chloride ( Cl − ) ions , per kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lbs ) of water . The world 's oceans are a virtually inexhaustible source of salt , and this abundance of supply means that reserves have not been calculated . The evaporation of seawater is the production method of choice in marine countries with high evaporation and low precipitation rates . Salt evaporation ponds are filled from the ocean and salt crystals can be harvested as the water dries up . Sometimes these ponds have vivid colours , as some species of algae and other micro @-@ organisms thrive in conditions of high salinity .
Elsewhere , salt is extracted from the vast sedimentary deposits which have been laid down over the millennia from the evaporation of seas and lakes . These are either mined directly , producing rock salt , or are extracted in solution by pumping water into the deposit . In either case , the salt may be purified by mechanical evaporation of brine . Traditionally , this was done in shallow open pans which were heated to increase the rate of evaporation . More recently , the process is performed in pans under vacuum . The raw salt is refined to purify it and improve its storage and handling characteristics . This usually involves recrystallization during which a brine solution is treated with chemicals that precipitate most impurities ( largely magnesium and calcium salts ) . Multiple stages of evaporation are then used to collect pure sodium chloride crystals , which are kiln @-@ dried . Some salt is produced using the Alberger process , which involves vacuum pan evaporation combined with the seeding of the solution with cubic crystals , and produces a grainy @-@ type flake . The Ayoreo , an indigenous group from the Paraguayan Chaco , obtain their salt from the ash produced by burning the timber of the Indian salt tree ( Maytenus vitis @-@ idaea ) and other trees .
One of the largest salt mining operations in the world is at the Khewra Salt Mine in Pakistan . The mine has nineteen storeys , eleven of which are underground , and 400 km ( 250 mi ) of passages . The salt is dug out by the room and pillar method , where about half the material is left in place to support the upper levels . Extraction of Himalayan salt is expected to last 350 years at the present rate of extraction of around 385 @,@ 000 tons per annum .
= = Usage in religion = =
Salt has long held an important place in religion and culture . At the time of Brahmanic sacrifices , in Hittite rituals and during festivals held by Semites and Greeks at the time of the new moon , salt was thrown into a fire where it produced crackling noises . The ancient Egyptians , Greeks and Romans invoked their gods with offerings of salt and water and some people think this to be the origin of Holy Water in the Christian faith . In Aztec mythology , Huixtocihuatl was a fertility goddess who presided over salt and salt water .
Salt is considered to be a very auspicious substance in Hinduism and is used in particular religious ceremonies like house @-@ warmings and weddings . In Jainism , devotees lay an offering of raw rice with a pinch of salt before a deity to signify their devotion and salt is sprinkled on a person 's cremated remains before the ashes are buried . Salt is believed to ward off evil spirits in Mahayana Buddhist tradition , and when returning home from a funeral , a pinch of salt is thrown over the left shoulder as this prevents evil spirits from entering the house . In Shinto , salt is used for ritual purification of locations and people ( harae , specifically shubatsu ) , and small piles of salt are placed in dishes by the entrance of establishments for the two @-@ fold purposes of warding off evil and attracting patrons .
In the Hebrew Bible , there are thirty @-@ five verses which mention salt . One of these is the story of Lot 's wife , who was turned into a pillar of salt when she looked back at the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah ( Genesis 19 : 26 ) as they were destroyed . When the judge Abimelech destroyed the city of Shechem , he is said to have " sown salt on it , " probably as a curse on anyone who would re @-@ inhabit it ( Judges 9 : 45 ) . The Book of Job contains the first mention of salt as a condiment . " Can that which is unsavoury be eaten without salt ? or is there any taste in the white of an egg ? " ( Job 6 : 6 ) . In the New Testament , six verses mention salt . In the Sermon on the Mount , Jesus referred to his followers as the " salt of the earth " . The apostle Paul also encouraged Christians to " let your conversation be always full of grace , seasoned with salt " ( Colossians 4 : 6 ) . Salt is mandatory in the rite of the Tridentine Mass . Salt is used in the third item ( which includes an Exorcism ) of the Celtic Consecration ( cf . Gallican Rite ) that is employed in the consecration of a church . Salt may be added to the water " where it is customary " in the Roman Catholic rite of Holy water .
In Judaism , it is recommended to have either a salty bread or to add salt to the bread if this bread is unsalted when doing Kiddush for Shabbat . It is customary to spread some salt over the bread or to dip the bread in a little salt when passing the bread around the table after the Kiddush . To preserve the covenant between their people and God , Jews dip the Sabbath bread in salt . In Wicca , salt is symbolic of the element Earth . It is also believed to cleanse an area of harmful or negative energies . A dish of salt and a dish of water are almost always present on an altar , and salt is used in a wide variety of rituals and ceremonies .
= = Books = =
Kurlansky , Mark ( 2002 ) . Salt : A World History . New York : Walker & Co . ISBN 0 @-@ 8027 @-@ 1373 @-@ 4 . OCLC 48573453 .
Multhauf , Robert ( 1996 ) . Neptune 's Gift : A History of Common Salt . The Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0801854699 .
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= SMS Heimdall =
SMS Heimdall was the fourth vessel of the six @-@ member Siegfried class of coastal defense ships ( Küstenpanzerschiffe ) built for the German Imperial Navy . Her sister ships were Siegfried , Beowulf , Frithjof , Hildebrand , and Hagen . Heimdall was built by the Kaiserliche Werft Wilhelmshaven shipyard between 1891 and 1894 , and was armed with a main battery of three 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns . She served in the German fleet throughout the 1890s and was rebuilt in 1900 – 1902 . She served in the VI Battle Squadron after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , but saw no action . Heimdall was demobilized in 1915 and used as a barracks ship thereafter . She was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1921 .
= = Design = =
Heimdall was 79 meters ( 259 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 14 @.@ 9 m ( 49 ft ) and a maximum draft of 5 @.@ 74 m ( 18 @.@ 8 ft ) . She displaced 3 @,@ 741 long tons ( 3 @,@ 801 t ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two vertical 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by four coal @-@ fired boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 14 @.@ 6 kn ( 27 @.@ 0 km / h ; 16 @.@ 8 mph ) and a range of approximately 1 @,@ 490 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 760 km ; 1 @,@ 710 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Heimdall had a crew of 20 officers and 256 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with three 24 cm K L / 35 guns mounted in three single gun turrets . Two were placed side by side forward , and the third was located aft of the main superstructure . They were supplied with a total of 204 rounds of ammunition . The ship was also equipped with eight 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 guns in single mounts . Heimdall also carried four 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes , all in swivel mounts on the deck . One was at the bow , another at the stern , and two amidships . The ship was protected by an armored belt that was 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) amidships , and an armored deck that was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . The conning tower had 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick sides . Heimdall 's armor consisted of new Krupp steel , a more effective type of armor than the compound steel the other members of the class received .
= = Service history = =
Heimdall was laid down in 1891 at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven . She was launched on 27 July 1892 , and completed on 7 April 1894 . In 1897 , Heimdall participated in the annual summer maneuvers in the IV Division , along with Frithjof and Hagen . Her other three sisters were assigned to the III Division . Heimdall participated in the 1900 summer maneuvers , where she and Siegfried , Hildebrand , and Ägir simulated the hostile fleet . She served on active duty with the fleet until 1901 , when she was taken into drydock at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel for an extensive reconstruction . The ship was lengthened to 86 @.@ 13 m ( 282 @.@ 6 ft ) , which increased displacement to 4 @,@ 436 t ( 4 @,@ 366 long tons ; 4 @,@ 890 short tons ) . Her old boilers were replaced with eight new Marine type boilers , and a second funnel was added . Her secondary battery was increased to ten 8 @.@ 8 cm guns , and the 35 cm torpedo tubes were replaced with three 45 cm ( 18 in ) tubes . Work was completed by 1902 .
After emerging from her modernization , she returned to service with the fleet , assigned to the II Squadron , alongside Hildebrand , Hagen , and Beowulf . She remained in the fleet until the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , when she was mobilized into the VI Battle Squadron for coastal defense , along with her sister ships . On 31 August 1915 , the VI Battle Squadron was demobilized , and Heimdall 's crew was transferred to other warships . She was then used as a barracks ship in for U @-@ boat crews , along with crews for the coastal defense flotillas stationed on the Ems river . On 17 June 1919 , she was stricken from the naval register . The navy planned to convert Heimdall into a salvage ship , but the plan fell through and she was instead sold and broken up for scrap in 1921 in Rönnebeck .
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= Thomas Bryan Martin =
Thomas Bryan Martin ( 1731 – 1798 ) was an 18th @-@ century English American land agent , justice , legislator , and planter in the colony ( and later U.S. state ) of Virginia and in present @-@ day West Virginia . Martin was the land agent of the Northern Neck Proprietary for his uncle Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( 1693 – 1781 ) and served two terms in the House of Burgesses .
Martin was born in Kent in 1731 , and was the grandson of Thomas Fairfax , 5th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( 1657 – 1710 ) through his mother , Frances Fairfax Martin . Raised in humble surroundings in England , Martin relocated to Virginia in 1751 to assist his uncle , Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( known as Lord Fairfax ) , in administering the Northern Neck Proprietary , which encompassed up to 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 km2 ) . Martin resided with his uncle on their frontier Greenway Court estate in present @-@ day Clarke County , Virginia . He earned the affections of Lord Fairfax on account of his energetic nature and loyalty , and through Martin 's growing influence Lord Fairfax relocated the proprietary 's base of operations to Greenway Court in 1762 and made Martin steward and land agent of the proprietary .
Martin took an active role in political and civil affairs within the proprietary 's domain . He served as a vestryman for the Anglican Frederick Parish , and upon the creation of Hampshire County in 1754 , he presided as the county 's first justice and was further appointed the County Lieutenant . He later represented Hampshire County in the House of Burgesses from 1756 to 1758 and serving with George Washington , represented Fredrick County from 1758 until 1761 . Martin was appointed a trustee of the frontier towns of Winchester , Stephensburg ( present @-@ day Stephens City ) , and Bath ( present @-@ day Berkeley Springs ) . He was also appointed as the colonel of the Frederick County militia . Though not in the best of health , Martin was relied upon by the settlers of the proprietary to use his considerable resources in response to Native American attacks . Following the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War , Martin refused reappointment by Governor Patrick Henry as a justice of the Frederick County Commission of Peace . Afterward , Martin retreated from civil service entirely , and retired to Greenway Court .
He maintained a low profile during the war , and his uncle Lord Fairfax was treated with respect and consideration despite being the only resident peer in the American colonies . Following the death of Lord Fairfax in 1781 , Martin 's brother Reverend Denny Martin Fairfax inherited the Northern Neck Proprietary , and Martin was given the Greenway Court estate . He took his uncle 's housekeeper Mrs. Crawford as his mistress and died unmarried in 1798 . Martin bequeathed his Greenway Court estate and an adjoining 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) to his housekeeper Betsy Powers . Martin 's brother Denny Fairfax was unable to properly maintain the proprietary and conveyed the remaining lands in 1797 , thus terminating the Fairfax and Martin families ' interests in the proprietary before it was formally dissolved in 1806 . The city of Martinsburg , West Virginia , was named for Martin by his friend Adam Stephen .
= = Early life and family = =
Thomas Bryan Martin was born in Kent , England , in 1731 and was the son of Denny Martin ( 1695 – 1762 ) of Salts Manor and his wife Frances Fairfax Martin ( 1703 – 1791 ) . His father and mother married in Loose , Kent . Martin 's mother was the daughter of Thomas Fairfax , 5th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( 1657 – 1710 ) and his wife Catherine Colepeper Fairfax , and thus a sister of Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( 1693 – 1781 ) and Robert Fairfax , 7th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( 1707 – 1793 ) . His grandmother Catherine Colepeper Fairfax was the daughter of Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper and his wife Margaretta van Hesse , who was from a Dutch noble family . Martin was named in honor of his uncle Thomas . He was baptized into the Anglican faith as " Thomas Brian " in Loose on April 11 , 1731 . Martin and his siblings were raised amid humble surroundings in England . He had seven siblings , including four brothers and three sisters :
Edward Martin ( 1723 – 1775 )
John Martin ( 1724 – 1746 )
Reverend Denny Martin ( later Fairfax , 1725 – 1800 )
Frances Martin ( 1727 – 1813 )
Sibylla Martin ( 1729 – 1816 )
Philip Martin ( 1733 – 1821 )
Anna Susanna Martin ( 1736 – 1817 )
= = Northern Neck Proprietary administration = =
Martin 's uncle Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( known as Lord Fairfax ) owned the Northern Neck Proprietary land grant , which he had inherited from Martin 's great @-@ grandfather Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper in 1719 . The proprietary constituted up to 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 km2 ) of Virginia 's Northern Neck and a vast area spanning west to the North Branch Potomac River headwaters . The Northern Neck Proprietary had been awarded by Charles II of England to seven of his supporters in 1649 , and again in 1688 by official patent . One of these seven supporters , Lord Colepeper , acquired the right to the entire proprietary in 1681 , and his grandson , Lord Fairfax , inherited the land grant upon his death . Lord Fairfax dispatched his first cousin William Fairfax ( 1691 – 1757 ) to replace Robert Carter I as the steward and land agent for the Northern Neck Proprietary , a position in which Fairfax served until his death in 1757 . In 1750 , Martin 's uncle Lord Fairfax established himself at his hunting plantation Greenway Court estate near present @-@ day White Post in Clarke County with the intention of administering the proprietary himself . Lord Fairfax had previously reserved this land as his private residence in 1747 , then known as " the Quarter " . With his cousin William Fairfax acting as land agent , Lord Fairfax sought additional assistance in managing the proprietary and scrutinized which of his family members from England would be up to the task . Lord Fairfax first considered his brother Robert , then his brother @-@ in @-@ law Denny Martin , and in 1751 , he finally decided upon enlisting the assistance of his twenty @-@ year @-@ old nephew and Denny Martin 's son , Thomas Bryan Martin .
Lord Fairfax sent for Martin , who arrived in Virginia from England aboard the Hatley on May 24 , 1751 , accompanied by William Fairfax , who had been seeking an appointment to a position in England . Martin and Fairfax arrived in Williamsburg , where they dined with Fairfax 's fellow Virginia Governor 's Council member John Blair , Sr. , and visited the Governor 's Palace and the Capitol before beginning their journey toward the Northern Neck on May 31 . Following his arrival at the Northern Neck Proprietary , Martin settled at Greenway Court with his uncle that autumn . Due to his humble upbringing , Martin quickly adapted to frontier life at Greenway Court . He soon earned the affections of Lord Fairfax on account of his energetic nature , his loyalty , and his good eyesight , which greatly assisted his myopic uncle . On May 21 , 1752 , shortly after Martin had come of age on his twenty @-@ first birthday , Lord Fairfax granted Greenway Court to his nephew , along with 8 @,@ 840 acres ( 35 @.@ 8 km2 ) of limestone lands on the west bank of the Shenandoah River across from Leeds Manor , which were " to be known and called by the name of the Manor of Greenway Court " and subject to an annual quit @-@ rent fee of " a good buck and doe " due on the feast day of Saint Michael the Archangel . Greenway Court had taken its name from the Culpeper family 's manor in Kent .
Desiring a larger role for himself in the proprietary 's administration , Martin sought to influence his uncle into reorganizing the management of the proprietary . At Martin 's suggestion , Lord Fairfax relocated the proprietary 's base of operations 56 miles ( 90 km ) northwest from Belvoir to an expressly built land office depository and archive at Greenway Court in 1762 . Prior to this move , a small land office had been in operation at Greenway Court . Following William Fairfax 's death in 1757 , his son George William Fairfax ( 1729 – 1787 ) had succeeded him as steward and land agent of the proprietary . Martin succeeded Fairfax as the steward and land agent of the proprietary in 1762 . Fairfax 's replacement by Martin , the transfer of the land office and Martin 's increased influence over Lord Fairfax caused bitter feelings from George William Fairfax , as evidenced by his letters during this period . Fairfax and his wife Sally Cary Fairfax returned to England in 1773 prior to the American Revolutionary War and did not return afterward .
While residing at Greenway Court , Martin would have preferred more comfortable quarters than the rustic estate , as their living situation there was originally supposed to have been only temporary until the construction of a grander estate . In 1767 , Martin wrote that plans for further construction and improvements at Greenway Court " remain in status quo and in quo state they are likely to remain , ... we are building castles , tho ' not on earth where one is greatly wanted , but castles in the air . " Martin 's uncle Robert Fairfax remarked on the primitive life at Greenway Court among " strange , brutish people ... past all conception " . For the next thirty years , until Lord Fairfax 's death in 1781 , Martin remained at Greenway Court and shared in the loneliness and solitude of his " self @-@ exiled " uncle . While established at Greenway Court , Martin engaged in agricultural pursuits . In 1768 , Martin described tobacco as the crop " which is our all " . Like many other planters and farmers in the Shenandoah Valley , Martin had transitioned to the farming of wheat by 1792 , at which time he wrote to his brother in England , " Are you all starving that you give such prices for our flour ; farming is now my object . "
= = Political and civic affairs = =
In addition to his management of the proprietary , Martin began taking an active role in political and civil affairs within his uncle 's domain . Following an act of the Virginia General Assembly in February 1752 , the Anglican Frederick Parish was authorized to hold an election for twelve parish vestrymen before June 15 of that year . Martin was elected as a vestryman , alongside his uncle Lord Fairfax and Gabriel Jones . Martin and his fellow vestrymen set about expanding and enlarging the Anglican presence within the parish .
In 1754 , upon the creation of Hampshire County , Martin presided as the inaugural justice of the county 's court . Under the act establishing the county , the first county court was to have been held in June 1754 ; however , the first court was not held until December 1757 . The first court to be held was , in addition to Martin , composed of justices James Simpson , William Miller , Solomon Hedges , and Nathaniel Kuykendall with Gabriel Jones serving as the Clerk of Court . In 1755 , Martin was further appointed as the County Lieutenant of Hampshire County . Martin was then elected alongside Thomas Walker to the House of Burgesses representing Hampshire County from 1768 to 1758 . In 1758 , Martin and George Washington challenged the incumbents and ran for election to represent Frederick County in the House of Burgesses against Hugh West and Thomas Swearingen . Martin and Washington received considerable support from Lord Fairfax , and the leading Anglican cleric in Frederick County , William Meldrum . Washington received the most votes with 310 , followed by Martin with 240 votes , 199 votes for West , and 45 votes for Swearingen . Martin and Washington served alongside one another representing Frederick County until 1761 . Martin chose not to run for reelection and retired from legislative politics in 1761 .
In September 1758 , the Virginia General Assembly appointed Martin as one of the trustees of Winchester . Martin was further appointed as a trustee of the town of Stephensburg ( present @-@ day Stephens City ) . His uncle Lord Fairfax , John Hite , Gabriel Jones , Robert Rutherford , Lewis Stephens , and James Wood were also appointed trustees of the towns alongside Martin . When the town of Bath ( present @-@ day Berkeley Springs ) received its charter from the Virginia General Assembly in October 1776 , Martin was appointed as a trustee alongside Bryan Fairfax , Philip Pendleton , Robert Rutherford , Samuel Washington , Warner Washington , Alexander White , and others .
Martin was also appointed as the colonel of the Frederick County militia . While Martin was not in the best of health , he could be relied upon by the settlers of the proprietary to use his considerable resources to act promptly during an emergency , especially in response to attacks by Native Americans .
By the outbreak of the American Revolution , Martin was serving as an appointed justice on the Commission of Peace for Frederick County . Martin was reappointed as a justice of the peace by Governor Patrick Henry , along with William Booth and Warner Washington , but all three men declined to serve another term . Martin did not swear in to the committee because he refused to serve under the new revolutionary regime , initially believing that American independence from Great Britain was a futile effort . The committee had also been actively arresting Loyalists , which may have influenced Martin 's decision to turn down his reappointment . Martin retreated from performing civil service entirely , and afterward retired to Greenway Court . Prior to his death , Martin became an active Freemason .
= = American Revolution and Lord Fairfax 's death = =
As a Loyalist , Martin maintained a low profile following the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War . By 1778 , the Virginia General Assembly had abolished quit @-@ rents , but in recognition of Lord Fairfax 's loyalty , the Northern Neck Proprietary was made an exception . Lord Fairfax was treated with respect and consideration by the assembly , and despite being the only resident peer in the American colonies , he was accorded all the privileges of a Virginia citizen . Following the death of Lord Fairfax in 1781 , his will was recorded on March 5 , 1782 , and conveyed his title to the remnants of his American properties , including the Northern Neck Proprietary , to Martin 's elder brother Reverend Denny Martin , who then assumed the surname and coat of arms of Fairfax . Lord Fairfax devised his property and title to Denny Martin on the condition that he apply to the Parliament of Great Britain for an act to authorize him to inherit the title of Lord Fairfax of Cameron . Martin was appointed by his uncle , along with Gabriel Jones and Peter Hog , as an executor of his will and estate . Martin inherited the plantation Lord Fairfax had purchased from John Borden consisting of 600 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 km2 ) . Martin was also bequeathed the Greenway Court estate and " all the stock of cattle , sheep , hogs , implements of husbandry , household goods and furniture " there . Martin and his brothers Denny and Philip also inherited all Lord Fairfax 's slaves . Martin 's uncle and Lord Fairfax 's brother Robert Fairfax appealed his claim to the title of Lord Fairfax of Cameron to Parliament , and succeeded as the 7th Lord Fairfax of Cameron .
On account of his residency in England , Denny Fairfax appointed Martin and Jones as managers of the proprietary . Martin and Jones placed advertisements in newspapers petitioning proprietary tenants to bring their claims against the Lord Fairfax estate forward and prove them . The descendants of William Fairfax continued to assert back claims against the estates of Lord Fairfax , which had been rendered by William Fairfax prior to 1757 . In order to absolve himself of these back claims , Denny Fairfax renounced his appointments of Martin and Jones , and instead appointed Bryan Fairfax , 8th Lord Fairfax of Cameron as the sole steward of the proprietary in an official transposition in London on September 21 , 1784 .
Because Denny Fairfax was a British subject residing in England , he had no legal rights under American jurisdiction ; thus , he and his British relatives were considered " alien enemies " and his landholdings were confiscated under escheat laws . In 1785 , the Virginia General Assembly ordered that all records , books , and documents pertaining to the proprietary 's lands be confiscated by the state of Virginia and removed to the Virginia State Land Registrar 's Office in Richmond . Virginia seized the remaining proprietary lands that had not yet been granted , and citizens that had already acquired grants from the proprietary were permitted to keep their land . Land values in the Northern Neck continued to increase in value , which Martin noted in a 1790 letter . The higher land prices caused many residents of the proprietary to sell their lands and relocate further into the frontier , which Martin commented : " The emigration of inhabitants is ... astonishing . "
= = Later life and death = =
Following the death of Lord Fairfax in 1781 , Martin took his uncle 's housekeeper Mrs. Crawford as his mistress , and fathered a daughter by her . Mrs. Crawford remained Martin 's mistress for several years until her death . Their daughter married British captain Francis Geldart ; however , she died without issue soon after their marriage , and Martin gave Geldart 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) of Greenway Court and a number of slaves . Following the death of his daughter , Martin employed housekeeper Betsy Powers at Greenway Court . Martin died unmarried in 1798 , and his will dated July 24 , 1794 , was proved on October 1 , 1798 . In it , he bequeathed his Greenway Court estate and an adjoining 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) to his housekeeper Betsy Powers . Powers also inherited " all houses thereon , household goods ( except plate and watch ) , one half of stock of horses , cattle , sheep and hogs and choice of ten slaves " . Martin 's living sisters Frances , Sybilla , and Anna Susanna Martin received " all moneys , and remainder of personal property " not bequeathed to Powers . Each of the executors of Martin 's will received ten guineas . Martin bequeathed the remainder of his property and the 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) of Greenway Court , should Powers have predeceased him , to his will executors Gabriel Jones , Robert Mackey , and John Sherman Woodcock to divide into parcels and sell , the profits from which were to be given to Martin 's sisters . Powers also received a chariot , harness , and 160 acres ( 0 @.@ 65 km2 ) in Stafford County near Falmouth . Following Martin 's death , Powers married W. Carnagy .
Due to his advanced age and his inability to relocate to America , Martin 's brother Denny Fairfax was unable to properly protect and maintain his American possessions and conveyed by deed on August 30 , 1797 , to James Markham Marshall " all and every of those divers tracts , pieces and parcels of land , being part and parcel of the proprietary of the Northern Neck of Va . , with all beneficial right and interest of whatsoever nature the same may be " . This conveyance thus terminated the Fairfax and Martin families ' interest in the proprietary . In 1799 , the Virginia General Assembly authorized Marshall as the legal titleholder of Fairfax 's remaining landholdings . The Northern Neck Proprietary was officially dissolved in 1806 when Virginia again became its legal owner .
The legality of Virginia 's confiscation of the Northern Neck Proprietary lands continued to be contested in state and federal courts long after Denny Martin Fairfax 's death in 1800 . The Virginia Supreme Court upheld the state 's confiscation and conveyance of the proprietary 's lands , arguing that the terms of the Jay Treaty with the Kingdom of Great Britain did not address the disputed proprietary . In 1813 , the United States Supreme Court reviewed the Virginia Supreme Court 's decision in Fairfax 's Devisee v. Hunter 's Lessee , 11 U.S. 603 , and ruled that the treaty did in fact cover the dispute , and remanded the case back to the state supreme court . The Virginia Supreme Court ruled that the U.S. Supreme Court did not have authority over cases originating in state courts . The state supreme court 's refusal to accept the U.S. Supreme Court 's mandate was appealed in 1816 in Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee , 14 U.S. 304 . The U.S. Supreme Court reversed the state court 's decision on appeal and ruled that Article Three of the United States Constitution granted the U.S. Supreme Court jurisdiction and authority over state courts on matters involving federal law . Chief Justice John Marshall was forced to recuse himself from ruling in Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee as he and his brother James had previously contracted with Denny Martin Fairfax to purchase the disputed proprietary lands .
= = Legacy = =
Proprietor Adam Stephen , a close personal friend of Martin , had the town of Martinsburg in Berkeley County formally established by the Virginia General Assembly in 1778 . Stephen named the town in honor of his friend Martin .
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= John Maulbetsch =
John F. " Johnny " Maulbetsch ( June 20 , 1890 – September 14 , 1950 ) was an All @-@ American football halfback at Adrian College in 1911 and for the University of Michigan Wolverines from 1914 to 1916 . He is also a member of the College Football Hall of Fame .
After playing with an independent football team in Ann Arbor and at Adrian College , Maulbetsch became one of the most famous American football players in 1914 while playing for the University of Michigan . Maulbetsch became known as the " Human Bullet " because of his unusual low , line @-@ plunging style of play , and was also known as the " Featherweight Fullback " because of his light weight and small size . After his performance against Harvard in 1914 , in which some reports indicated he gained more than 300 yards , eastern writers , including Damon Runyan , wrote articles touting Maulbetsch . Maulbetsch was also selected by Walter Camp to his All @-@ American team .
In 1915 , Maulbetsch underwent surgery for appendicitis and did not perform to the same level as he had in 1914 . He made a comeback as a senior in 1916 and was again one of the leading players in college football .
Between 1917 and 1920 , Maulbetsch was the head football coach at Phillips University . With Maulbetsch 's name recognition , he was able to recruit big name talent to Phillips , including future Pro Football Hall of Famer Steve Owen , and future United States Olympic Committee President Doug Roby . Maulbetsch quickly turned Phillips into one of the top programs in the southwest , as his teams beat Oklahoma and Texas and lost only one game in the 1918 and 1919 seasons . Maulbetsch was later the football coach at Oklahoma A & M ( later known as Oklahoma State ) and Marshall College in the 1920s . He has been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame , and the University of Michigan awards the John F. Maulbetsch Award each year to a freshman football player based on desire , character , and capacity for leadership and future success both on and off the football field .
= = Ann Arbor High School and the Independents = =
Maulbetsch was born and grew up in Ann Arbor , Michigan . He attended Ann Arbor High School where he led the football team to consecutive state championships in 1908 and 1909 . One account of the 1908 playoffs noted : " Ann Arbor 's smashing play in the first half was wholly due to Maulbetsch , Ann Arbor 's fullback , and his terrific line bucking . He clearly outshone his team mates . "
After graduating from high school , Maulbetsch joined the Ann Arbor Independents , a football team made up of Michigan " varsity eligibles " and " townies . " Maulbetsch was once reportedly called upon to drive across the goal line for the Independents in a game in which a large crowd , including a farmer with his plow @-@ horse , gathered in the end zone . " Head down and legs working like piston rods , Maulbetsch plowed ahead until head struck the plow horse amidships . Down went the horse Mauly on top of him . "
= = College football player = =
= = = Transfer from Adrian College = = =
Maulbetsch started his college football career at age 21 , leading Adrian College to an 8 – 0 record in 1911 , including a 15 – 0 win over the University of Michigan freshman team . Maulbetsch 's performance drew the attention of Michigan Coach Fielding H. Yost . After watching Maulbetsch dominate Michigan 's freshman team , Yost concluded : " If I could get that kid into Michigan and keep him up in his studies I ’ d make an All @-@ American place for him his first year . " Yost persuaded Maulbetsch to transfer , and he played with " the scrubs " in 1912 . Yost told the press at the time he had " another ( Willie ) Heston " in Maulbetsch .
= = = 1914 season = = =
Maulbetsch did not play for the varsity team until the fall of 1914 when he was 24 years old . Before the season began , Maulbetsch was " touted as one of the fastest halfbacks who ever donned moleskins . He weighs 155 pounds , is built low , has a powerful pair of shoulders and his dashes are characterized by lightning speed . " Another pre @-@ season account said he was " a wonder as a line plunger and a wizard in the open field . " From the outset , considerable attention was paid to his unusual running style . Observers noted " the peculiar manner in which he runs . . . . He has a corkscrew style of dashing , and even when tackled squarely has such a sturdy pair of legs that his assailant is usually carried back several yards . "
Michigan opened the season with a 58 – 0 win over DePauw , followed by a 69 – 0 victory over Case Institute of Technology . Maulbetsch was the offensive star against Case , as he twice " carried several would @-@ be tackles across the goal . " Playing Vanderbilt the following week , Maulbetsch had runs of 25 and 35 yards , scored two touchdowns , " was worked overtime and probably advanced the pigskin more than any two other players . " After starting the season 5 – 0 , Michigan lost three of four games against top eastern schools : Syracuse , Harvard , Penn , and Cornell .
= = = 1914 Harvard game = = =
Maulbetsch 's breakthrough came on October 31 , 1914 , in front of 30 @,@ 000 fans at Harvard . The game was one of the most anticipated matches of the year . A special train brought Michigan fans to Cambridge , Massachusetts , and hundreds of Michigan alumni from the East were on hand as " reinforcements . " Though Harvard prevailed , 7 – 0 , Maulbetsch was the big story in papers across the country . Writers from Ring Lardner to Damon Runyon told the story of Maulbetsch 's performance . Lardner said : " If anyone tells you the East plays the best brand of football , Maulbetsch shot that theory full of holes . " According to Runyon , the Wolverines used " the mighty Maulbetsch as their battering ram " , and he " gained enough ground against Harvard to bury a German army corps . " Football writer Frank G. Menke said : " No westerner ever created half the stir in the east as did this Michigander . . . His peculiar , baffling style of attack , backed by phenomenal strength almost always earned for him gains of 5 to 20 yards every time he was called upon to carry the ball . " Another writer noted Maulbetsch 's skill as a " line breaker " as he " carried the ball repeatedly through the Harvard line and into the secondary defense with bullet @-@ like rushes that upset tackler after tackler . " Maulbetsch was responsible for four @-@ fifths of Michigan 's ground gains , and on several occasions his dives reportedly " had so much power that he dove right through a double line of crimson players and went sprawling on the ground twelve to twenty feet clear of the double line . "
While every report indicates that Maulbetsch had a big day , the accounts vary dramatically as to exactly how many yards he gained . Frank Menke reported after the game that Maulbetsch gained 300 yards . A 1938 newspaper account said he " gained 350 yards from scrimmage . " Yet , his 1951 obituary indicated he gained 133 yards in 30 attempts .
Despite Maulbetsch 's efforts , Michigan was never able to punch the ball across the goal line . Many blamed Michigan 's quarterback who switched to another back every time after Maulbetsch " took the ball to the shadow of the Crimson goal posts . " In answer to the question why Michigan was unable to score , Frank Menke said : " Ask the fellow who quarterbacked for Michigan that day . His actions were too mystifying for the spectators to figure out . "
When Harvard reneged on an agreement to play a game in Ann Arbor in 1915 , sports writers concluded it was to avoid facing Maulbetsch again . Said one reporter : " When faih Hahvahd [ sic ] saw what Maulbetsch did in the first clash , it decided it cared to see no more of him . He was too rough . "
= = = " Human Bullet " = = =
Much of the attention on Maulbetsch focused on his diminutive size and unique running style . At 5 ft 7 in ( 1 @.@ 70 m ) , and 155 lb ( 70 kg ) , Maulbetsch was a small back , even by the standards of his day . And his running style saw him bend his torso and propel himself like a projectile into the opposing line . Indeed , he won several nicknames based on his size , running style , and fighting spirit , including the " Human Bullet , " " Mauly " , the " Human Shrapnel " , the " Featherweight Fullback " , the " Michigan Cannon Ball , " and the " German bullet . " Comparisons of Maulbetsch to military armaments were common . In addition to the " bullet " , " shrapnel " , and " cannonball " nicknames , the Syracuse Herald observed : " Standing up in front of a Krupp gun has its dangers , but it is not to be compared with the dangers of standing in front of Maulbetsch when he is going full speed ahead . "
Maulbetsch 's style was described as " line @-@ plunging . " A New York newspaper noted : " When the ball is snapped to him he almost doubles himself up , and , with his head aimed at the knees of the opposing line , he dives head first . Those who have seen Maulbetsch in action marvel at the great momentum he can get up in two or three steps . " Noted football writer Walter Eckersall said : " Mauly is a little fellow , being built close to the ground . They say that when he plunges at the line his head is almost on a level with his shoe tops – that he hits so low that it 's well nigh impossible to stop him . " An Iowa newspaper wondered how it was possible " for a man to smash into a line of human bodies with the force that Maulbetsch does and come out of the game without a broken neck . "
Maulbetsch was said to run " so low that he could dash under an ordinary table without losing his feet . " At a coaching conference in the 1920s , a coach doubted the table @-@ ducking story and challenged Maulbetsch . The doubter later recalled : " I began ribbing him about this table @-@ ducking stuff and finally offered to bet him he couldn ’ t do it . Well , we got a table up in a room , Johnny tucked a water pitcher under his arm and backed against the wall . Darned if he didn ’ t do it , the only thing , that water pitcher broke in a million pieces . " Asked about the incident , Maulbetsch said it was true , except one part . Maulbetsch insisted there wasn ’ t a nick on the pitcher .
= = = Maulbetsch makes All @-@ American = = =
After the loss to Harvard in 1914 , Michigan rebounded with a 34 – 3 win over Penn . Walter Eckersall reported that the Wolverines were " led by the redoubtable Johnny Maulbetsch . " Despite being " a marked man " by the Penn defense , he was not thrown for a loss in the entire game , and he scored three touchdowns . Before Michigan lost to Cornell in the final game of the season , a scandal arose when it was revealed that the owner of an Ann Arbor pool room , Joe Reinger , had written a letter intimating that he could buy Maulbetsch and Michigan 's quarterback to throw the Cornell game , and win US $ 50 @,@ 000 from students willing to bet on Michigan . The letter was turned in to the Michigan athletic officials , and Reinger went to the athletic office " to try to hush the matter up . " Reinger became abusive and was thrown out of the office by Coach Yost . The incident caused " the biggest stir of the season on the campus , " as students demolished Reinger 's pool room , and police had to guard Reinger 's residence against threatening demonstrations that continued to " a late hour . " Although Michigan did lose to Cornell , Maulbetsch was said to be " practically the only successful ground gainer for Michigan . " Over the course of the 1914 season , Maulbetsch was said to have scored about half of Michigan 's 252 points . A Wisconsin newspaper noted that , " when it comes time to write a resume of the 1914 football season " , Maulbetsch 's play " will live in the minds of men . . . for years to come . " As a reward for his efforts , Maulbetsch was named a first @-@ team All @-@ American at the end of the 1914 season .
= = = Pie and coffee diet = = =
As public attention focused on Maulbetsch as " the greatest line @-@ plunger of a decade , " the press could not get enough of Maulbetsch , even interviewing his family . His sister revealed that Maulbetsch had a fondness for home cooking and received permission from the team trainer to eat at his family 's Ann Arbor home . " Now , Johnny 's sister explains that each day his mother baked two pies for the athlete 's supper , and that in addition he had everything else his appetite craved , including coffee . " Confronted by reporters about the revelation , Maulbetsch replied : " The story was slightly exaggerated . I rarely ate more than one and one half pies for dinner . " Joking references to Maulbetsch 's diet continued when it was reported in 1915 that he was suffering from " acute indigestion . " One reporter quipped , " Those much advertised pies of his maw 's evidently aren ’ t as great training dope as they were cracked up to be . " It turned out that the indigestion was appendicitis , and Maulbetsch was hospitalized at St. Joseph 's Sanitarium in Ann Arbor in April 1915 , where he underwent an operation .
= = = 1915 season = = =
As the 1915 season was set to get underway , Coach Yost reported , " Johnny told me he was feeling fine when I saw him recently , although he doesn ’ t weigh as much as he used to . " Despite Yost 's hopes , Maulbetsch fell far short of the prior year 's performance in 1915 . He was several pounds lighter after the illness and surgery , and it was noted that " a few pounds means much to a man of Maulbetsch 's weight . " In the opening game against Lawrence , Maulbetsch scored three touchdowns , but he was " woefully weak on interference . " Playing against Mount Union , Maulbetsch made several big gains , including a 50 @-@ yard touchdown run in the third quarter . His difficulties returned in the season 's third game against Marietta , as " Maulbetsch was powerless to stop the Marietta forward pass , all of the successful ones being directed toward his side of the line . "
After The Michigan Daily criticized his performance following the Marietta game , Maulbetsch " threatened to desert the Michigan squad and give up football for good . " It reportedly took Yost several hours to coax Maulbetsch to report for practice again , and in the next game against Case , Maulbetsch did not play until the third quarter . In the season 's first big game , Michigan was soundly beaten by Michigan Agricultural College , 24 – 0 , and most of Maulbetsch 's runs " didn ’ t even get as far as his own line . " In the final four games of the season , matters got worse for Michigan and Maulbetsch , as the team went 0 – 3 – 1 , scoring only 14 points in four games .
In Maulbetsch 's defense , some writers noted the weakness of the Michigan line , often allowing rushers into the backfield before Maulbetsch even had the ball . But some of those same observers noted that " Mauly " was not carrying the ball " at his usual pace . " Sports writer Frank Menke described Maulbetsch 's 1915 performance this way : " [ The ] Wolverine halfback skidded from the heights of greatness to the level of mediocre . . . . The lines that he had crumpled like eggshells a year before stood up under his charges , often dumping him back for losses . The once ' unstoppable ' Maulbetsch not only was stopped but forced to retract . " Despite the subpar performance in 1915 , Michigan 's varsity letter @-@ winners elected him captain of the team for 1916 .
= = = 1916 comeback = = =
Maulbetsch made a strong comeback in 1916 . Instead of spending the summer recovering from appendicitis , he spent the summer working as an assistant barkeeper on a steamship plying between Chicago and St. Joseph , Michigan . Maulbetsch spent his afternoons swimming and running sprints up and down the beach . On one trip , a giant coal passer claimed to be the strongest man in the world , and Maulbetsch agreed to a wrestling match on the boat . " The coal passer rushed the stripling , who ducked , caught his opponent about the waist and crushed him to the deck . When the giant woke , he wanted to know if the boat hit a rock . " As the season started , The New York Times wrote : " Michigan 's come @-@ back football team , headed by Bullet Maulbetsch , is going to be an eleven to be reckoned with on the gridiron this Fall . " Maulbetsch returned to his prior form , and one of the writers who had criticized him in 1915 said " the great Michigander using the same method of attack , has repeatedly broken in fragments this year the lines that he couldn ’ t dent in 1915 . "
= = Professional football = =
After the 1916 football season ended , Maulbetsch considered his options . There was a report that he had been engaged as a high school football coach ( and math instructor ) in Toledo , Ohio . Even more prevalent were reports that he had signed to play for a professional football team . Professional football was still in its infancy in 1917 , and landing a well @-@ known star would have been a boost to any of the budding franchises . In January 1917 newspapers reported that Maulbetsch had signed a contract to play professional football for Detroit Tigers owner , Frank Navin . Navin was supporting efforts to organize a professional football league in all the important Midwestern cities , including a Detroit franchise to play at Navin Field . As late as November 1917 , newspapers reported Maulbetsch had played professional football after graduating and was offered " a handsome fee " to play with the Akron Burkhardts in November 1917 . Although professional football records prior to 1920 are scarce , it appears unlikely that Maulbetsch played professional football , as press accounts show he was working as a college football coach starting in 1917 .
= = Head football coach = =
= = = Building Phillips University into a football power ( 1917 – 1920 ) = = =
In June 1917 , Maulbetsch announced that he had accepted a position as the football coach ( and professor of chemistry ) at Phillips University in Enid , Oklahoma . Phillips was a small , private school without a well @-@ known athletic program . In the fall , Enid residents were " leaving their work every afternoon to watch [ Maulbetsch ] and his husky young Oklahoma youths work out on campus . " Within a year , Maulbetsch turned Phillips into one of the strongest teams in the southwest .
Maulbetsch landed his first big recruit before leaving Ann Arbor . While playing at Michigan , Maulbetsch became friends with Doug Roby , a football player at the Michigan Military Academy , and one of the state 's top recruits . Roby followed Maulbetsch to Phillips and later went on to become a member of the International Olympic Committee in the 1950s and 1960s and president of the United States Olympic Committee from 1965 to 1968 . Maulbetsch 's next find was future Pro Football Hall of Famer Steve Owen , who later spent 23 years with the New York Giants . Maulbetsch saw Owen watching football practice from under a tree and told him : " A fellow your size ought to be out for the squad . " Owen showed up the next day and , when Maulbetsch used him to illustrate blocking fundamentals , Owen threw a block into Maulbetsch that threw him five yards through the air . Maulbetsch was satisfied , and Owen had a spot on the team . Because Phillips was not part of a conference , it was not subject to any eligibility limitations , an advantage Maulbetsch was accused of exploiting . A third key player recruited by Maulbetsch was an Native American halfback named Levi , and dubbed " Big Chief " by Phillips fans .
Having recruited top talent to Enid , Maulbetsch 's teams lost only one game in 1918 and 1919 , including a 10 – 0 – 1 record in 1919 . In 1917 and 1918 , Phillips came into the limelight when they beat the Oklahoma Sooners and the Henry Kendricks College team that had swept the west without allowing another team to score . Maulbetsch arranged a game against the Texas Longhorns in 1919 , the first meeting between the schools . When the game was announced The San Antonio Light reported : " Phillips University has one of the strongest teams in the Southwest . The only team to beat them in the past two years is Oklahoma and last year Phillips beat the Sooners 13 – 7 . " The report credited Maulbetsch for securing success at an institution little known in athletics before he arrived . The University of Texas had not lost a game since 1917 when the Phillips " Haymakers " arrived in Austin , Texas on October 11 , 1919 . Maulbetsch 's team shocked the Longhorns , holding them scoreless and winning the contest , 10 – 0 . One Texas newspaper reported that Phillips had " whitewashed the Longhorns in their own corral . "
Others in Texas concluded that Phillips ’ success was the result of lax or non @-@ existent eligibility policies . The lack of eligibility rules almost certainly did play a part in Phillips ’ success . When Phillips joined the Southwest Conference in 1920 , it became bound by the conference 's eligibility rules , and the team was outscored 97 – 0 in conference play against Texas A & M ( 47 – 0 ) , Texas ( 27 – 0 ) , Arkansas ( 20 – 0 ) , and Texas Christian ( 3 – 0 ) . The Galveston Daily News noted that Maulbetsch 's 1920 team could not " compare with the strong team " he surprised Texas with in 1919 . At the end of the 1920 season , Phillips withdrew from the Southwest Conference , and Maulbetsch accepted a new position at Oklahoma A & M.
= = = Head coach at Oklahoma A & M ( 1921 – 1928 ) = = =
In January 1921 , Maulbetsch was hired as the head coach at Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College ( now Oklahoma State ) in Stillwater , Oklahoma . He served as the coach at Oklahoma A & M from 1921 to 1928 , where his teams posted a 28 – 37 – 6 ( .437 ) record . In 1924 , his team went 6 – 1 – 2 and shut out Oklahoma ( 6 – 0 ) , Arkansas ( 20 – 0 ) and Kansas ( 3 – 0 ) . Maulbetsch 's Aggies also shut out Phillips that year , 13 – 0 . After the season , attempts were made to lure him to Washington University in St. Louis , Missouri , but Maulbetsch said he was satisfied with his position in Stillwater .
Maulbetsch arranged a game in Ann Arbor against his alma mater to start the 1926 season . Michigan beat the Aggies , 42 – 3 . Despite an overall record of 3 – 4 – 1 , Oklahoma A & M won its first conference football championship by going 3 – 0 – 1 in games against Missouri Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Association opponents . Maulbetsch also drew attention in 1926 for his disciplinary methods . When the team lost two games due to fumbles , he ordered eight of his backfield players to carry footballs with them to classes throughout the week and instructed other team members to try knocking the balls from under their arms . The penalty for losing a ball was " a hard run around the stadium . " He also ordered one of his ends to wear boxing gloves after he poked an opposing player in the eye .
The Aggies won only one game against seven defeats in 1928 . In late November , the day after a 46 – 0 loss to Oklahoma , newspapers reported that " reliable sources " had said Maulbetsch intended to resign . Maulbetsch immediately denied the rumor , saying : " I have not resigned . I am aware that a faction here is trying to get me out , but I do not intend to throw up the sponge . " In December , pressure to fire Maulbetsch grew , and one Oklahoma newspaper observed : " Coach Maulbetsch of the A. & M. football team is the object of attacks from many sides because of the rather poor showing made by his team during the past season . They are looking for a goat and just now Johnnie is cast in that role . Regardless of his past record , those who demand victory at any price and by any means whatsoever , are insisting that he be fired forthwith and a man be placed in the position who , by fair means or foul , will gather in a team that will win victories and never lose a game . " Ultimately , Maulbetsch resigned at the end of May 1929 as Oklahoma A & M 's coach in football , baseball , and basketball . It was announced that he would spend the remaining year of his contract on a leave of absence at half pay .
= = = Head coach at Marshall College ( 1929 – 1930 ) = = =
In July 1929 , Maulbetsch was hired by Marshall College in Huntington , West Virginia to become head coach in charge of football and track . When Marshall 's " Thundering Herd " got off to a 4 – 1 start , Maulbetsch won praise in the West Virginia press , but Marshall finished the season 1 – 2 – 1 in the second half . And in 1930 , the Marshall team went 3 – 5 – 1 , including a 65 – 0 loss to Penn State . Maulbetsch resigned as Marshall 's coach in January 1931 ; his only comment at the time was that he had " other plans . "
= = Later years and legacy = =
After retiring from football , Maulbetsch bought a drug store in Huntington , West Virginia . During World War II , Maulbetsch took a job building B @-@ 24 Liberator bombers at Ford Motor Company 's famed Willow Run Plant near Ypsilanti , Michigan . From 1946 until his death , he owned an automobile sales company in Adrian , Michigan . Maulbetsch died of cancer in 1950 at his home in Ann Arbor . He was survived by his widow , Ida , a son John Maulbetsch , and a daughter Barbara . Maulbetsch had been married to Ida ( maiden name Ida Elizabeth Cappon ) since May 27 , 1917 .
Maulbetsch was inducted posthumously into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1973 . Since 1956 , the John F. Maulbetsch Award has been given at the University of Michigan after spring practice to a freshman football candidate on the basis of desire , character , capacity for leadership and future success both on and off the football field . The award was established by Frederick C. Matthaei – a former classmate of Maulbetsch who went on to become a Regent of the University . The award has been a good indicator of future success , as past recipients include Jim Mandich ( 1967 ) , Rick Leach ( 1976 ) , Charles Woodson ( 1996 ) , Marlin Jackson ( 2002 ) , and Jake Long ( 2004 ) . Maulbetsch Avenue in Ypsilanti Township is presumably named after Maulbetsch .
= = Head coaching record = =
= = = Football = = =
= = = Baseball = = =
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= Order of Canada =
The Order of Canada ( French : Ordre du Canada ) is a Canadian national order , admission into which is the second highest honour for merit in the system of orders , decorations , and medals of Canada . It comes second only to membership in the Order of Merit , which is the personal gift of Canada 's monarch .
To coincide with the centennial of Canadian Confederation , the three @-@ tiered order was established in 1967 as a fellowship that recognizes the outstanding merit or distinguished service of Canadians who make a major difference to Canada through lifelong contributions in every field of endeavour , as well as the efforts by non @-@ Canadians who have made the world better by their actions . Membership is accorded to those who exemplify the order 's Latin motto , desiderantes meliorem patriam , meaning " they desire a better country " , a phrase taken from Hebrews 11 : 16 . The three tiers of the order are Companion , Officer , and Member ; specific individuals may be given extraordinary membership and deserving non @-@ Canadians may receive honorary appointment into each grade .
The monarch — at present Elizabeth II — is Sovereign of the order and the serving governor general , currently David Lloyd Johnston , is its Chancellor and Principal Companion and administers the order on behalf of the reigning king or queen . Appointees to the order are recommended by an advisory board and formally inducted by the governor general or the sovereign . As of October 2015 , 6 @,@ 531 people have been appointed to the Order of Canada , including scientists , musicians , politicians , artists , athletes , business people , and film stars , benefactors , and others . Some have resigned or have been removed from the order , while other appointments have been controversial . Appointees are presented with insignia and receive the right to armorial bearings .
= = Creation = =
The process of founding the Order of Canada began in early 1966 and came to a conclusion on 17 April 1967 , when the organization was instituted by Queen Elizabeth II , on the advice of the Canadian prime minister , Lester B. Pearson , who was assisted with the establishment of the order by John Matheson . The association was officially launched on 1 July 1967 , the 100th anniversary of Canadian Confederation , with Governor General Roland Michener being the first inductee to the order — to the level of Companion — and on 7 July of the same year , 90 more people were appointed , including Vincent Massey , Louis St. Laurent , Hugh MacLennan , David Bauer , Gabrielle Roy , Donald Creighton , Thérèse Casgrain , Wilder Penfield , Arthur Lismer , M. J. Coldwell , Edwin Baker , Alex Colville , and Maurice Richard . During a visit to London , United Kingdom , later in 1967 , Michener presented the Queen with her Sovereign 's badge for the Order of Canada , which she first wore during a banquet in Yellowknife in July 1970 .
From the Order of Canada grew a Canadian honours system , thereby reducing the use of British honours ( i.e. those administered by the Queen in her British privy council ) . Among the civilian awards of the Canadian honours system , the Order of Canada comes third , after the Cross of Valour and membership in the Order of Merit , which is within the personal gift of Canada 's monarch . By the 1980s , Canada 's provinces began to develop their own distinct honours and decorations .
= = Grades = =
The Canadian monarch , seen as the fount of honour , is at the apex of the Order of Canada as its Sovereign , followed by the governor general , who serves as the fellowship 's Chancellor . Thereafter follow three grades , which are , in order of precedence : Companion , Officer , and Member , each having accordant post @-@ nominal letters that members are entitled to use ; each incumbent governor general is also installed as the Principal Companion for the duration of his or her time in the viceregal post . Additionally , any governor general , viceregal consort , former governor general , former viceregal consort , or member of the Canadian Royal Family may be appointed as an extraordinary Companion , Officer , or Member . Promotions in grade are possible , though this is ordinarily not done within five years of the initial appointment , and a maximum of five honorary appointments into any of the three grades may be made by the governor general each year . As of March 2016 , there have been twenty one honorary appointments .
There were originally , in effect , only two ranks to the Order of Canada : Companion and the Medal of Service . There was , however , also a third award , the Medal of Courage , meant to recognize acts of gallantry . This latter decoration fell in rank between the other two levels , but was anomalous within the Order of Canada , being a separate award of a different nature rather than a middle grade of the order . Without ever having been awarded , the Medal of Courage was on 1 July 1972 replaced by the autonomous Cross of Valour and , at the same time , the levels of Officer and Member were introduced , with all existing holders of the Medal of Service created as Officers . Lester Pearson 's vision of a three @-@ tiered structure to the order was thus fulfilled .
Companions of the Order of Canada ( post @-@ nominals : CC , in French : Compagnon de l 'ordre du Canada ) have demonstrated the highest degree of merit to Canada and humanity , on either the national or international scene . Up to 15 Companions are appointed annually , with an imposed limit of 165 living Companions at any given time , not including those appointed as extraordinary Companions or in an honorary capacity . As of October 2015 , there are 143 living Companions , none being honorary . Since 1994 , substantive members are the only regular citizens who are empowered to administer the Canadian Oath of Citizenship .
Officers of the Order of Canada ( post @-@ nominals : OC , in French : Officier de l 'ordre du Canada ) have demonstrated an outstanding level of talent and service to Canadians , and up to 64 may be appointed each year , not including those inducted as extraordinary Officers or in an honorary capacity , with no limit to how many may be living at one time . As of October 2015 , there were 1 @,@ 123 living Officers , none being honorary .
Members of the Order of Canada ( post @-@ nominals : CM , in French : Membre de l 'ordre du Canada ) have made an exceptional contribution to Canada or Canadians at a local or regional level , group , field or activity . As many as 136 Members may be appointed annually , not including extraordinary Members and those inducted on an honorary basis , and there is no limit on how many Members may be living at one time . As of October 2015 , there were 2 @,@ 225 living Members , none being honorary .
= = Insignia = =
Upon admission into the Order of Canada , members are given various insignia of the organization , all designed by Bruce W. Beatty , who " broke new ground in the design of insignia of Orders within The Queen 's realms " and was himself made a member of the order in 1990 ; Beatty attended every investiture ceremony between 1967 and early 2010 . The badge belonging to the Sovereign consists of a jewelled , 18 @-@ carat gold crown of rubies , emeralds , and sapphires , from which is suspended a white , enamelled , hexagonal snowflake design , with six equal leaves and diamonds between each . At the centre is a disc bearing a maple leaf in pavé @-@ laid rubies on a white enamel background , surrounded at its edge by a red enamel ring ( annulus ) bearing the motto of the order . The Chancellor wears the badge of a Companion and is , upon installation as governor general , granted a livery collar for wear at Order of Canada investiture ceremonies .
The badges for inductees are of a similar design to the sovereign 's badge , though without precious stones , and slight differences for each grade . For Companions , the emblem is gilt with a red enamel maple leaf in the central disk ; for Officers , it is gilt with a gold maple leaf ; and for Members , both the badge itself and the maple leaf are silver . All are topped by a St. Edward 's Crown , symbolizing that the order is headed by the sovereign , and the reverse is plain except for the word CANADA .
The ribbon is white and bordered in red stripes , similar to the Canadian national flag ; the chest ribbon is the same for each grade , save for a metallic maple leaf in the centre , the colour of which matches that on the badge of the grade that the wearer was appointed to . For civilian wear , a lapel pin is worn on the jacket , which is designed as a miniature of the medallion .
Wear of the insignia is according to guidelines issued by the Chancellery of Honours , which stipulate that the badges be worn before most other national orders — that is , at the end of an individual 's medal bar closest to the centre of the chest or at the wearer 's neck — with only the Victoria Cross , the Cross of Valour , and the badge of the Order of Merit permitted to be worn before the badges of the Order of Canada . Those in the grades of Companion or Officer may wear their badges on a neck ribbon , while those in the Member group display their insignia suspended by a ribbon from a medal bar on the left chest . Protocol originally followed the British tradition , wherein female appointees wore their Order of Canada emblem on a ribbon bow positioned on the left shoulder . These regulations were altered in 1997 , and women may wear their insignia in either the traditional manner or in the same fashion as the men .
With the patriation in 1988 of oversight of arms to Canada through the Canadian Heraldic Authority , the constitution of the Order of Canada was amended to include the entitlement of all inductees to petition the Chief Herald of Canada for personal armorial bearings , should they not already possess any . Companions may receive supporters , and all members may have the escutcheon ( shield ) of their arms encircled with a red ribbon bearing the order 's motto in gold , and from which is suspended a rendition of the holder 's Order of Canada badge . The Queen , Sovereign of the Order of Canada , approved the augmentation of her royal arms for Canada with the order 's ribbon in 1987 .
= = = Possession and sale = = =
The constitution of the Order of Canada states that the insignia remain property of the Crown , and requires any member of the order to return to the chancellery their original emblem should they be upgraded within the order to a higher rank . Thus , while badges may be passed down as family heirlooms , or loaned or donated for display in museums , they cannot be sold by any individual other than the monarch with the proper advice and consent of her ministers . Over the decades , however , a number of Order of Canada insignia have been put up for sale , the first being the Companion 's badge of Major Coldwell , who was appointed in 1967 ; his badge was sold at auction in 1981 , an act that received criticism from government officials .
In 2007 , it was revealed that one of the first ever issued insignia of the Order of Canada , a Medal of Service awarded originally to Quebec historian Gustave Lanctot , was put up for sale via e @-@ mail . Originally , the anonymous auctioneer , who had purchased the decoration for $ 45 at an estate sale in Montreal , attempted to sell the insignia on eBay ; however , after the bidding reached $ 15 @,@ 000 , eBay removed the item , citing its policy against the sale of government property , including " any die , seal or stamp provided by , belonging to , or used by a government department , diplomatic or military authority appointed by or acting under the authority of Her Majesty . " Rideau Hall stated that selling medals was " highly discouraged " , however the owner continued efforts to sell the insignia via the internet . Five years later , a miniature insignia presented to Tommy Douglas was put on auction in Ontario as part of a larger collection of Douglas artifacts . Douglas 's daughter , Shirley Douglas , purchased the set for $ 20 @,@ 000 .
= = Eligibility and appointment = =
Any of the three levels of the Order of Canada are open to all living Canadian citizens , except all federal and provincial politicians and judges while they hold office . The order recognizes the achievement of outstanding merit or distinguished service by Canadians who made a major difference to Canada through lifelong contributions in every field of endeavour , as well as the efforts made by non @-@ Canadians who have made the world better by their actions . Membership is thus accorded to those who exemplify the order 's Latin motto , taken from Hebrews 11 : 16 of the Bible , desiderantes meliorem patriam , meaning " they desire a better country . " Each of the six to eight hundred nominations submitted each year , by any person or organization , is received by the order 's Advisory Council , which , along with the governor general , makes the final choice of new inductees , typically by consensus rather than a vote ; a process that , when conceived , was the first of its kind in the world . Appointees are then accepted into the organization at an investiture ceremony typically conducted by the governor general at Rideau Hall , although the Queen or a provincial viceroy may perform the task , and the ceremony may take place in other locations . Since the 1991 investiture of Ted Rogers , Order of Canada instalment ceremonies have been broadcast on various television channels and the Internet ; recipients are given a complimentary video recording of their investiture ceremony from Rogers Cable .
= = = Advisory Council = = =
The task of the Advisory Council is to evaluate the nominations of potential inductees , decide if the candidates are worthy enough to be accepted into the order , and make recommendations to the governor general , who appoints the new members . The council is chaired by the Chief Justice of Canada , and includes the Clerk of the Queen 's Privy Council , the Deputy Minister of Canadian Heritage , the Chair of the Canada Council for the Arts , the President of the Royal Society of Canada , the Chair of the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada , and five members of the order who sit on the council for a three @-@ year period . If a nomination involves a non @-@ Canadian citizen , the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs is invited by the Advisory Council to offer evaluation . Decisions of the council and new appointments to and dismissals from the Order of Canada are announced to the Canada Gazette .
As of October 2015 , the members of the Advisory Council are :
The Right Honourable Beverley McLachlin PC – Chief Justice of Canada ( Chair )
Kim Baird CM
Dr. David Barnard – Chair , Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada
Dr. Graham Bell FRSC – President , Royal Society of Canada
Janice Charette , Clerk of the Privy Council and Secretary to the Cabinet
George T.H. Cooper CM QC
Graham Flack – Deputy Minister , Canadian Heritage
Monique Frize OC
Pierre Lassonde CM – Chair , Canada Council for the Arts
Monique F. Leroux CM OQ
H. Sanford Riley CM
W. Brett Wilson CM SOM
= = = Refusal = = =
Few have declined entry into the Order of Canada ; as of 1997 , 1 @.@ 5 percent of offered appointments to the order had been refused . The identities of those individuals who have declined induction since the 1970s are kept confidential , so the full list is not publicly known . Some , however , have spoken openly about their decisions , including Robert Weaver , who stated that he was critical of the " three @-@ tier " nature of the order ; Claude Ryan and Morley Callaghan , who both declined the honour in 1967 ; Mordecai Richler , who twice declined ; and Marcel Dubé , Roger Lemelin , and Glenn Gould , who all declined in 1970 . However , all the above individuals , save for Gould and Weaver , later did accept appointment into the order . Others have rejected appointment on the basis of being supporters of the Quebec sovereignty movement — such as Luc @-@ André Godbout , Rina Lasnier , and Geneviève Bujold — while Alice Parizeau , another supporter of Quebec sovereignty , was criticized for accepting entry into the order despite her beliefs .
Victoria Cross recipient Cecil Meritt cited the fact that he already held Canada 's highest decoration as a reason not to be admitted to the Order of Canada . Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , was in 1982 offered appointment to the order as an honorary Companion ; however , he refused on the grounds that , as the consort of the Queen , he was a Canadian and thus entitled to a substantive appointment . In 1993 , the Advisory Council proposed an amendment to the constitution of the Order of Canada , making the sovereign 's spouse automatically a Companion , but Prince Philip again refused , stating that if he was to be appointed , it should be on his merits . Congruent with these arguments , he in 1988 accepted without issue a substantive induction as a Companion of the Order of Australia . In 2013 , the constitution of the Order of Canada was amended in a way that permitted the substantive appointment of Royal Family members and Prince Philip accepted induction as the first extraordinary Companion of the Order of Canada on 26 April 2013 . Former Premier of Newfoundland Joey Smallwood declined appointment as a Companion because he felt that , as a self @-@ proclaimed Father of Confederation , he deserved a knighthood . Smallwood was never knighted and later accepted induction as a Companion .
= = = Resignation and removal = = =
Resignations from the order can take place only through the prescribed channels , which include the member submitting to the Secretary General of the Order of Canada a letter notifying the chancellery of his or her desire to terminate their membership , and only with the governor general 's approval can the resignation take effect . On 1 June 2009 , the governor general accepted the resignations of astronomer and inventor René Racine , pianist Jacqueline Richard , and Cardinal Jean @-@ Claude Turcotte ; on 11 January 2010 , did the same for Renato Giuseppe Bosisio , an engineering professor , and Father Lucien Larré ; and on 19 April 2010 for Frank Chauvin . It was also reported that other constituents of the Order of Canada had , in reaction to Henry Morgentaler 's induction into their ranks , indicated that they would return or had returned their emblems in protest , including organizations such as the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate and Madonna House Apostolate doing so on behalf of deceased former members .
Members may be removed from the order if the Advisory Council feels their actions have brought the society into disrepute . In order for this to be done , the council must agree to take action and then send a letter to the person both telling of the group 's decision and requesting a response . Anyone removed from the order is required to return their insignia . As of October 2015 , six people have been removed from the Order of Canada : Alan Eagleson , who was dismissed after being jailed for fraud in 1998 ; David Ahenakew , who faced calls for his removal due to anti @-@ Semitic comments he made in 2002 ; T. Sher Singh , after the Law Society of Upper Canada found him guilty of professional misconduct and revoked his license to practice law ; Steve Fonyo , due to " his multiple criminal convictions , for which there are no outstanding appeals " ; Garth Drabinsky , who was found guilty of fraud and forgery in Ontario and has been a fugitive from American law for related crimes ; and Lord Black of Crossharbour , who was convicted in the United States in 2007 of fraud and obstruction of justice . In 2013 , Norman Barwin resigned from the order as a result of the Advisory Council moving forward with his pending removal due to his being found guilty of professional misconduct .
= = = Controversial appointments = = =
The advisory board attempts to remain apolitical and pragmatic in its approach to selecting new members of the Order of Canada , generally operating without input from ministers of the Crown ; political interference has occurred only once , when in 1978 Paul Desmarais 's investiture was delayed for six months by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau . However , some of the committee 's selections have caused controversy . For instance , the admission in 2001 of sex educator Sue Johanson , host of the long @-@ running Sunday Night Sex Show , as a Member stirred controversy among some of Canada 's Christian organizations , as Johanson had taught teenagers methods of safe sex alongside abstinence . Similarly , the acceptance of birth control advocate Elizabeth Bagshaw and gay rights campaigner Brent Hawkes also incited debate .
Abortion activist Henry Morgentaler 's appointment to the order on 1 July 2008 not only marked the first time the Advisory Council had not been unanimous in its decision , but also proved to be one of the most controversial appointments in the order 's history , drawing both praise from abortion rights groups and the ire of Members of Parliament , groups opposing abortion , and religious leaders . The latter organized protests outside of Rideau Hall on 9 July , while compatriots did the same in front of Government House in St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador , the official residence of that province 's lieutenant governor . Several members of the order resigned or returned their insignia .
One former police detective , Frank Chauvin , along with a Catholic anti @-@ abortion activist , filed suit against the Order of Canada Advisory Council , demanding that the minutes of the meeting relating to Morgentaler be made public . The appointment of Morgentaler prompted former Liberal Member of Parliament Clifford Lincoln to write that the workings of the Advisory Council were " mysterious " , citing what he theorized to be inbuilt partiality and conflict of interest as reasons why Margaret Somerville , whom Lincoln had twice nominated to the Advisory Council , was turned down for appointment , yet Morgentaler was accepted . Journalist Henry Aubin in the Montreal Gazette opined that the council 's rejection of Somerville , her personal opposition to same @-@ sex marriage , and the acceptance of Brent Hawkes , Jane Rule , and Jean Chrétien , all regarded as supporting same @-@ sex unions , as well as the appointment of a controversial figure such as Morgentaler , were all signs that the Advisory Council operated with partisan bias . Aubin also pointed to the presence on the council of members of the Royal Society of Canada , an organization into which Somerville was received .
= = Proposed amendments = =
At a 2006 conference on Commonwealth honours , Christopher McCreery , an expert on Canada 's honours , raised the concern that the three grades of the Order of Canada were insufficient to recognize the nation 's very best ; one suggestion was to add two more levels to the order , equivalent to knighthoods in Australian and British orders . The order of precedence also came under scrutiny , particularly the anomaly that all three grades of the Order of Canada supersede the top levels of each of the other orders ( except the Order of Merit ) , contrary to international practice .
In June 2010 , McCreery suggested reforms to the Order of Canada that would avert the awkwardness around appointing those in Canada 's royal family as full members of the order : He theorized that the Queen , as the order 's Sovereign , could simply appoint , on ministerial advice , anyone as an extra member , or the monarch could issue an ordinance allowing for her relations to be made regular members when approved . Similarly , McCreery proposed that a new division of the order could be established specifically for governors general , their spouses , and members of the Royal Family , a version of which was adopted in 2013 .
= = Additional honours = =
At certain periods , holders of the order were presented with other awards , usually commemorative medals . Thus far , two commemoratives have been given automatically to every living member of the Order of Canada : the Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal in 1977 and the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal in 2012 .
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= Ontario Highway 403 =
King 's Highway 403 ( pronounced " four @-@ oh @-@ three " ) , or simply Highway 403 , is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that travels between Woodstock and Mississauga , branching off from and reuniting with Highway 401 at both ends and travelling south of it through Hamilton and Mississauga . It is concurrent with the Queen Elizabeth Way ( QEW ) for 22 km ( 14 mi ) from Burlington to Oakville . Highway 403 is also known as the Chedoke Expressway within Hamilton . Although the Highway 403 designation was first applied in 1963 to a short stub of freeway branching off of the QEW , the entire route was not completed until August 15 , 1997 , when the Brantford to the then @-@ still independent Town of Ancaster section was opened to traffic . The section of Highway 403 between Woodstock and Burlington was formally dedicated as the Alexander Graham Bell Parkway on April 27 , 2016 .
The majority of Highway 403 is surrounded by suburban land use , except west of Ancaster , where it passes through agricultural land ; Brantford is the only urban area through this section . In Hamilton , Highway 403 descends the Niagara Escarpment . It wraps around the northern side of Burlington Bay to encounter the QEW . From there , it travels straight through Burlington and Oakville with the QEW , departing to the north at the Mississauga – Oakville boundary . The freeway then crosses through the centre of Mississauga in an east – west direction , serving its city centre , before turning north . It continues north of Highway 401 as Highway 410 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Woodstock to Burlington = = =
Highway 403 begins at a junction with Highway 401 on the outskirts of Woodstock . The eastbound lanes split from eastbound Highway 401 , whereas the westbound lanes merge into westbound Highway 401 . It travels along the back lot lines of the second concession south of former Highway 2 . It passes beneath Oxford County Road 55 ( formerly Highway 53 ) and curves southeast . After crossing into the third concession , it curves back to the east . The highway travels straight for several kilometres , meeting with the southern leg of Highway 24 , which travels south to Simcoe .
The highway crosses the Grand River to the south of Paris , then passes over former Highway 2 as it enters into Brantford . As it passes through Brantford , the highway angles southeast and passes beneath the northern leg of Highway 24 and then the Wayne Gretzky Parkway . The route exits the small city to the east and curves northeast shortly thereafter . It travels between Jerseyville Road and former Highway 2 to Ancaster , jogging to avoid cutting through Dunmark Lake . As the freeway enters Ancaster , it once again crosses former Highway 2 and dips through the southern side of the town .
East of Ancaster , the freeway passes through a short greenbelt , with Hamilton Golf and Country Club lying to the north . A divided segment of Highway 6 meets the freeway and continues concurrently with it through Hamilton ; to the south , Highway 6 travels to John C. Munro International Airport , Caledonia and Jarvis at Highway 3 . Continuing east , Highway 403 and Highway 6 curve north into Hamilton and meet the Lincoln M. Alexander Parkway before abruptly curving to the east and descending the Niagara Escarpment . Scenic views of Hamilton , its harbour , and Lower Princess Falls are located along this steep descent . At the bottom of the escarpment the highway travels through a narrow , heavily developed corridor alongside former Highway 8 . It passes beneath multiple bridges in a depressed trench , eventually curving north at a sharp corner and passing beneath more bridges . This section features a reduced speed limit of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) as opposed to 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) . The highway returns to ground level alongside the Chedoke Creek , a now @-@ channelized river from which the freeway may take its name .
As the freeway continues north , it crosses an isthmus between Hamilton Harbour and Cootes Paradise alongside several roads which it has served to replace . It circles around the northern shore of Hamilton Harbour and returns to an eastward orientation . The concurrency with Highway 6 ends at an interchange where Highway 403 continues east and Highway 6 travels north towards Guelph . The freeway continues straight for several kilometres and meets the Queen Elizabeth Way and Highway 407 at the Freeman Interchange .
= = = Oakville to Mississauga = = =
Highway 403 travels concurrently with the QEW for 22 @.@ 6 km ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) between Freeman and Oakville , a straight section surrounded almost entirely by commercial units and warehouses . At the Ford Assembly Plant near the Halton – Peel regional boundary , Highway 403 branches off from the QEW and heads north for 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) along the western edge of Mississauga . At that point it again meets Highway 407 . Both freeways interchange , but curve to avoid each other . Highway 407 continues to the north and west , while Highway 403 curves east to follow alongside a hydro corridor through the centre of Mississauga . From this interchange to Highway 401 , high @-@ occupancy vehicle ( HOV ) lanes are present in the shoulder lanes for vehicles with at least one passenger . Sandwiched between residential subdivisions on both sides , the freeway passes beneath Erin Mills Parkway and crosses the Credit River .
On the other side of the river , the freeway skirts to the north of downtown Mississauga , as well as the Square One Shopping Centre . It passes beneath Hurontario Street ( once a section of Highway 10 ) and begins to widen before abruptly curving to the north as it approaches Cawthra Road . As the curve ends , the freeway widens further into ten lanes . This short section of highway passes beneath Eglinton Avenue and begins to diverge into a sprawling interchange approaching Highway 401 . Access to Highway 410 , which continues northward to Brampton , is provided from the collector lanes .
= = History = =
Highway 403 , although one of the first divided highways conceived for Ontario , is one of the most recently completed freeways in the province ; the multiple segments of the route did not become continuous until 2002 . Planning for the route was underway by 1958 , with the completion of the Freeman Bypass along the QEW providing a three @-@ legged junction for the new freeway . Sections of Highway 403 through Hamilton opened between December 1963 and September 1969 . An isolated section known as the Brantford Bypass was opened in October 1966 , and would remain unconnected to other freeways for over 20 years . Plans for a third segment through Mississauga were contemplated throughout the 1960s , but were not finalized until late 1977 , after which construction began . Portions opened at both ends in 1980 and 1981 , while the central gap , crossing the Credit River , was completed in December 1982 .
Construction to bridge the gaps in Highway 403 between Ancaster and Woodstock was carried out over three major phases . The first phase was a short extension of the Brantford Bypass beginning in 1975 . Later , work began to connect that extension with Highway 401 near Woodstock , opening in 1988 . The last phase , between Ancaster and Brantford , was opened in 1997 . The final discontinuity , between Burlington and Oakville , was signed as a concurrency with the QEW in 2002 . Originally , this section was to have travelled along the corridor occupied by Highway 407 , until budget shortfalls in 1995 resulted in a change of plans .
= = = Predecessors = = =
The corridor that connects London and Hamilton has always been considered important to Ontario . In late October 1793 , Captain Smith and 100 Queen 's Rangers returned from carving The Governor 's Road 32 km ( 20 mi ) through the thick forests between Dundas and the present location of Paris . John Graves Simcoe was tasked with defending Upper Canada from America following the revolution and with opening the virgin territory to settlement . After establishing a " temporary " capital at York , Simcoe ordered an inland route constructed between Cootes Paradise at the tip of Lake Ontario and his proposed capital of London . By the spring of 1794 , the road was extended as far as La Tranche , now the Thames River . Today , most of this route forms part of former Highway 2 and former Highway 5 .
The paving of the divided four @-@ lane Middle Road , with gentle curves , a grass median and grade @-@ separated interchanges , would set the stage for the freeway concept . It was the first intercity freeway in North America when it opened in June 1939 . Thomas McQueston , the new minister of the Department of Highways and the man most responsible for the Middle Road , decided to apply the concept to sections of Highway 2 plagued with congestion . A portion east of Woodstock was rebuilt in this fashion , but World War II would put an end to the ambitions of McQueston , at least temporarily .
= = = Initial construction = = =
The end of the Korean War heralded the resuming of freeway construction in Ontario ; the advances in machinery more than made up for lost time . The construction of Highway 401 across the province took first priority . However , the opening of the section from Highway 4 near London to Highway 2 east of Woodstock on May 31 , 1957 would complete part of the route required between London and Hamilton . By 1958 , planning on the Chedoke Expressway , or Controlled Access Highway 403 was well underway , though plans for a four lane freeway between Woodstock and Hamilton were around as early as 1954 . The opening of the Freeman Bypass of the QEW in August 1958 provided a connection point for a new freeway , and construction began the same day that the Burlington Bay Skyway opened : October 31 , 1958 . Highway 403 between Longwood Road ( Highway 2 ) and the QEW was opened to traffic on December 1 , 1963 at a length of 9 @.@ 0 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) . Work was already underway on the next section of the route that would extend it to Aberdeen Avenue . That section opened on July 9 , 1965 , extending the freeway by 3 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) .
Meanwhile , to the west , work had begun on a bypass of Brantford . The new freeway passed north of the city between Paris Road in the west and the junction of Highway 2 and Highway 53 in the east , a distance of 10 @.@ 3 km ( 6 @.@ 4 mi ) ; it opened October 31 , 1966 . A portion of the Brantford Bypass was itself bypassed in 1997 when the final section of Highway 403 was completed and is known as Garden Avenue . However , the Brantford Bypass would remain an isolated section of Highway 403 for over 20 years .
In Hamilton , work was underway on an extension of the Chedoke Expressway to Mohawk Road , crossing the Niagara Escarpment . This tedious project , which required extensive rock blasting , was soon accompanied by further construction from Mohawk Road to Highway 2 near Ancaster . Both projects were completed together and originally scheduled to be opened with a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony on August 22 , 1969 . However , local residents complained that the new section lacked any barriers preventing children from wandering onto the highway , postponing the ceremony until August 27 as temporary snow fencing was erected . This proved inadequate and protests grew more vocal over the following week . Several petitions were presented to Deputy Highway Minister H. Howden on August 26 , and the ceremonies were promptly cancelled . Over the following week , the Minister of Highways George Gomme met with residents and reached a compromise whereby a 24 – hour patrol was established to watch for children until a proper fence could be constructed . The route was subsequently opened on September 3 , without any ceremony . This completed the Hamilton section of Highway 403 .
= = = Mississauga = = =
Planning for the segment of Highway 403 through Mississauga dates back to the late 1950s when the Hamilton Expressway appeared on the Metropolitan Toronto 's regional transportation plan . It was to be a continuation of the Richview Expressway , which was ultimately never built , continuing from Toronto to Hamilton . The plan featured the expressway 's eastern terminus at the Highway 401 and Highway 427 interchange . As Toronto 's anti @-@ expressway movement gained momentum , provincial plans shifted the Hamilton Expressway to the west near Etobicoke Creek . In 1962 , the right @-@ of @-@ way alongside the hydro corridor between Burlington and Etobicoke Creek was protected after traffic studies indicated the need for a future freeway . On May 25 , 1965 , the Department of Highways unveiled the Toronto Region Western Section Highway Planning Study . The plan designated Highway 403 north from Burlington and then parallel with the QEW to Highway 401 near Highway 27 .
By the time construction was actually underway , plans had been completely modified to connect the overburdened QEW at Oakville with Highway 401 at the new Highway 410 interchange . This interchange was a better connection point for Highway 403 , but would also require the widening of Highway 401 from six lanes to twelve . Plans were submitted and approved in December 1977 by Mississauga city council , and construction began .
The new freeway opened in sections during the early 1980s . The first section between Cawthra Road and Highway 401 was opened August 18 , 1980 . This was followed by a short section from Highway 5 ( Dundas Street ) south to the QEW at Ford Drive , which opened in mid @-@ 1981 . Later that year , an extension to Erin Mills Parkway was opened on November 17 , 1981 . The final section to be opened took the longest to complete , involving construction of two bridges over the Credit River valley ; it opened on December 2 , 1982 . The cost of the entire 22 km ( 13 @.@ 7 mi ) Mississauga segment was $ 87 million .
Around the same period , the Ministry of Transportation began to study upgrading Highway 401 to a collector – express system between Renforth Drive and Highway 403 , and along Highway 403 between Highway 401 and Highway 10 . This took place between late 1982 and the summer of 1985 ; the existing outermost ramps from Highway 403 to Highway 401 eastbound were re @-@ designated to serve collector traffic , as a pair of flyover ramps were added inside the interchange to serve motorists in the express lanes .
The right @-@ of @-@ way originally intended for Highway 403 between Cawthra Road and Etobicoke Creek was eventually used for a controlled access arterial extension called Eastgate Parkway , which was planned beginning in 1982 . The extension was built between 1988 and 1994 , incorporating a portion of Fieldgate Drive at the eastern end . The first section , between Cawthra Road and Dixie Road , opened in early 1991 . This was followed several years later by the section from Dixie Road to Eglinton Avenue that opened in late 1994 .
In the fall of 1991 , alongside the widening of Highway 410 into a full freeway , construction began on the connecting ramps between Highway 403 and Highway 410 , which pass under the existing bridge structures for Highway 401 collector traffic , while new overpasses were constructed in the centre for Highway 401 express lanes . The loop ramp from Highway 410 southbound to Highway 401 eastbound was replaced by a semi @-@ directional high @-@ speed flyover , while a new directional ramp and semi @-@ direction flyover were added to serve westbound Highway 401 commuters . Prior to the opening of this link , traffic from both freeways was forced onto eastbound Highway 401 . The 2 @.@ 2 km ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) link opened on November 2 , 1992 at a cost of $ 7 @.@ 3 million .
= = = Bridging the gaps = = =
In 1975 , construction began on a westward extension of the Brantford Bypass , from Highway 2 ( Paris Road ) to Rest Acres Road , which would become Highway 24 . This work consisted of the twin bridges over the Grand River and an interchange at Rest Acres Road . The Canadian National Railway underpass west of Highway 2 was built by the railway . By the beginning of 1978 , this work was completed . Work resumed west of Highway 24 during the spring of 1982 to connect with Highway 401 near Woodstock in order to relieve the high traffic volumes along Highway 2 . This included interchanges at Brant County Road 25 and Highway 53 . A section from Highway 24 to County Road 25 was opened in November 1984 , followed by the section west of there to Highway 53 one year later . Construction of the gap between Highway 53 and Highway 401 began in late 1985 , followed by the Highway 401 overpass for the westbound lanes , which began in 1987 . Transportation minister Ed Fulton ceremoniously opened the new freeway connection on September 26 , 1988 , completing the Woodstock to Brantford link .
Highway 403 was briefly left with three discontinuous sections : Woodstock – Brantford , Ancaster – Burlington , and Oakville – Mississauga . Between Brantford and Ancaster , traffic was defaulted onto Highway 2 , a four @-@ lane road with numerous private driveways and at @-@ grade intersections . On March 24 , 1987 , Chris Ward , MPP for Wentworth North officially announced that construction of the missing link between Brantford and Ancaster would begin in 1989 . Construction did not actually begin until the summer of 1990 . It included interchanges at Garden Avenue , Highway 52 and Highway 2 . A continuous construction program was carried out over the next seven years , with the link opening on August 15 , 1997 . Highway 2 , which was the only parallel route before the completion of Highway 403 , was subsequently downloaded to regional jurisdiction .
= = = Controversy = = =
Though some officials considered Highway 403 to be a perfect example of a freeway construction process , it was not built without its share of controversy . In addition to the previously mentioned issues that occurred in 1969 , portions of the freeway through Mississauga were built alongside established communities , leading to angry homeowners associations pressuring the province for noise mitigation measures and compensation .
In the late 1980s and early 1990s , the Mississauga section of Highway 403 was the site of more than two dozen fatal accidents over a five @-@ year period , one of the highest rates in North America at the time , despite being up to modern road standards . This led Peel Regional Police and the media to nickname it the ' Death Highway ' . In particular , the stretch from Mavis Road to Erin Mills Parkway has been the site of numerous accidents . Highway 403 features a downward slope as motorists head eastbound towards the Mavis Road interchange ; drivers complain of having to slam the brakes when traffic comes to a standstill , leading to rear @-@ end collisions . There is also glare from the sun that causes vision problems throughout the day .
= = = Recent construction = = =
The Hamilton @-@ Brantford and Mississauga sections of Highway 403 were initially planned to be linked up along the corridor that is now occupied by Highway 407 . However , these plans were altered by the Bob Rae government in 1995 , due to budgetary constraints . It was also announced that the Mississauga section of Highway 403 would be renumbered as Highway 410 . Ultimately , this never came to pass . Consequently , Highway 403 was signed concurrently along the Queen Elizabeth Way in 2002 , remedying the discontinuity .
In early 2001 , high @-@ mast lighting was scheduled to be added to the previously unlit Mississauga section between Highway 407 and Eastgate Parkway . In 2003 , the right shoulders between Erin Mills Parkway and Mavis Road were widened for GO Transit and Mississauga Transit to run express bus services . These projects preceded the widening of Highway 403 between Highway 407 and Highway 401 / 410 , through which a high @-@ occupancy vehicle ( HOV ) lane was added in each direction ; the project started in summer of 2004 and these opened on December 13 , 2005 . The HOV lanes and the dividing Ontario Tall Wall concrete barrier were constructed using the existing right @-@ of @-@ way provided by the grass median . Highway 403 between Woodstock and Burlington was formally dedicated as the Alexander Graham Bell Parkway on April 27 , 2016 .
Sufficient right @-@ of @-@ way exists at the Highway 401 / 403 / 410 junction for a loop ramp from Highway 403 eastbound to Highway 401 westbound , and a directional ramp for the opposite movement . This would give Highway 401 eastbound traffic direct access to Cawthra Road , making it a full four @-@ way interchange . These links are to be completed as Highway 401 is widened to a 12 @-@ lane collector @-@ express system west of the interchange .
= = Exit list = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 403 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
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= Viewing Party =
" Viewing Party " is the eighth episode of seventh season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 134th episode overall . Written by Jon Vitti and directed by Ken Whittingham , the episode aired on NBC in the United States on November 11 , 2010 .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) and Gabe Lewis ( Zach Woods ) invite the office over to Gabe 's house for a Glee viewing party . Michael Scott cannot handle the fact that the office workers think of Gabe as their boss instead of him . Growing more jealous of Gabe and Erin 's relationship , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) goes to extremes in order to impress her . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) helps Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) with Cece , much to her husband Jim 's chagrin .
The episode featured several direct references to the Fox series Glee , in addition to various other cultural references . " Viewing Party " was viewed by 7 @.@ 15 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 6 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49 , marking a decrease in the ratings when compared to the previous week . The episode was also the highest @-@ ranked NBC series of the night , and it received moderately positive reviews from critics with one main detractor ; many reviewers enjoyed the character interaction and development , although Alan Sepinwall derided the entry for being dull .
= = Plot = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) becomes frustrated when Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) refers to Gabe Lewis ( Zach Woods ) as his boss . Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) and Gabe invite the office over to Gabe 's house for a Glee viewing party . When the show starts , Michael and Gabe get into an argument over how high the volume should be . After taking turns raising and lowering the volume , Michael retreats to Gabe 's bedroom , hoping that his employees will follow him there . Meanwhile , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) has been having a hard time with getting her daughter Cece to go to sleep at night , so Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) picks her up to try to calm her down . Pam is stunned that Cece becomes completely quiet in Dwight 's hands .
Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) changes the channel from the Glee episode so he can check sports scores . Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) asks Jim to change the channel back to Glee , but discovers that Erin had neglected to record the episode . To avoid his co @-@ workers ' anger , Jim goes into the bedroom to see Dwight holding a sleeping Cece . Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) comes in and demands that Dwight meet her outside for fulfillment of their sex contract . Determined to put an end to Cece 's " reverse cycling " , Pam persuades Dwight to stay with the baby under the condition that Jim feeds Dwight pizza and beer while Pam goes outside to tell Angela that Dwight cannot see her .
Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) is growing increasingly jealous of Gabe 's relationship with Erin . While observing Gabe 's room , Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) tells him that a Chinese virility supplement that Gabe keeps in his room is incredibly potent . Once alone Andy drinks the entire bottle of the supplement , which makes him intoxicated , prompting him to admit his jealousy to Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) . Phyllis volunteers to talk to Erin and find out if she is having sex with Gabe , but as Phyllis is fairly intoxicated herself , her inquiries segue into an explicit account of her sexual experiences with her husband Bob , which mortifies Erin . Andy 's intoxication turns into sickness , and he ultimately retreats to Gabe 's room and vomits on the bed .
Becoming irritated that no one joined in him in walking out on Gabe , Michael goes outside and pulls the cable connection , causing it to turn off . Hysteria erupts , and Michael becomes self @-@ conscious over the commotion he has caused . He goes outside to fix the cable . There he is discovered by Erin , who throughout the evening has been trying to encourage Michael to bond with Gabe . Michael , still indignant over the idea that his office views Gabe as his boss , is initially irritated by her efforts , but eventually realizes that Erin views him as a father figure . He jokes around and tells her to go to her room , leading to a bonding moment between the two . As he leaves the party , Michael brings Gabe into the joke by threatening to kill him if he breaks Erin 's heart .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jon Vitti , a long @-@ time writer of The Simpsons . It was his first writing credit for The Office after joining the staff the show in the seventh season as a consulting producer . It was directed by Ken Whittingham , who has directed several episodes of The Office previously .
The Season Seven DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Gabe inviting Stanley to his party and Stanley 's reaction , Michael making fun of Gabe and then noting in a talking head that he does not really know Gabe , Michael raiding Gabe 's kitchen cabinet for additional items to add to his pizza , Michael comparing himself to Tom Hanks in the 1988 film Big and Gabe to Hanks in the 1993 film Philadelphia , Michael trying his pizza , only to spit it out , and Pam and Jim marveling at CeCe sleeping .
= = Cultural references = =
Gabe compares the Scranton Strangler to the Waco siege ; Erin incorrectly believes he is mispronouncing " wacko " . Jim notes that the Scranton Strangler car chase , witnessed in the episode 's cold opening , is on the same level as " Balloon Boy " and Michael Jackson 's funeral . The Glee episode viewed during the party was the season two episode " Duets " . When turning up the volume at the party , he comments , " Turn it up to eleven . Spinal Cord " , an obvious mis @-@ reference to This Is Spinal Tap . Michael comments that his favorite character on Glee is " the invalid " , a reference to character Artie Abrams . Abrams is played by Kevin McHale . McHale appeared in the season four episode of The Office , " Launch Party " , as the pizza delivery boy .
= = Reception = =
" Viewing Party " aired on NBC on November 11 , 2010 . In its original American broadcast , it was viewed by an estimated 7 @.@ 15 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 6 rating / 10 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that 3 @.@ 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old households watched the episode , and ten percent of that demographic had their televisions tuned to the channel at any point . The Baltimore NBC affiliate carried the Ravens / Falcons NFL game , so ratings for the regular Thursday NBC programming were lower than usual .
Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B " . He compared it to the earlier seventh season episode " Sex Ed " , writing that both featured " a Michael story wherein a large collection of unfortunate behaviors is capped off with a moment of sincerity " ; however , McNutt criticized this narrative structure , calling it " a bit cheap " . Despite this , he felt that Dwight 's subplot " was successful in that it strayed true to the office dynamic " , and that the actual viewing of the Glee episode was a " highlight " because it showcased the characters " fall [ ing ] into some really fun ( and familiar tropes . " Bonnie Stiernberg of Paste magazine awarded the episode an 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 , and called it " a solid episode " . She argued that " it left me wanting to tune in next week and see what ’ ll happen next " , largely because of the " surprising " amount of character development .
Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode four out of five stars . He was complimentary towards the main plot , and he felt empathy towards Michael because he felt that " Gabe is the absolute worst " . In addition , Forcella wrote that Pam and Jim 's subplot " had its moments , as well " , and called the scene featuring Jim feeding Dwight pizza " fantastic " . Not all reviews were glowing , however . Alan Sepinwall gave the episode a critical review , calling it " dreadful " . Although he said it was better than " Christening " , he felt that " so , so much of the episode didn 't work " . Sepinwall felt that the major problem with the episode was that it was " lifeless " and " light on jokes " , and only featured " Michael being petulant and crabby for a whole episode " , rather than featuring him in a character study . He concluded that " Ellie Kemper and Steve Carell almost were able to save the episode in the closing moments with Erin 's reaction to Michael declaring that he 's not her father , [ but ] it came far too late in an episode that was more concerned with Andy vomit humor . "
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= Bart Gets an " F " =
" Bart Gets an " F " " is the first episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 11 , 1990 . In the episode , Bart fails four consecutive history exams and the school psychiatrist recommends that Bart repeat the fourth grade . Bart vows that he will start to do better and attempts to get the resident class genius Martin Prince to help him , but after that backfires , Bart prays for help . That night , Springfield is hit with a massive blizzard and the school is closed , giving Bart another day to study .
The episode was written by David M. Stern and directed by David Silverman . Mayor Quimby makes his first appearance and the episode was the first to feature a new opening sequence . " Bart Gets an " F " " was the third episode produced for the second season , but it was chosen to be the season premiere because it prominently featured Bart.
Due to the success of the first season of The Simpsons , Fox decided to switch the show 's time slot to Thursday at 8 : 00 p.m. EST where it would air opposite of NBC 's The Cosby Show , the number one show at the time . Through the summer , several news outlets published stories about the supposed " Bill vs. Bart " rivalry and heavily hyped the first episode of the second season . Several critics predicted that " Bart Gets an " F " " would do considerably worse in the ratings than The Cosby Show . However , the final Nielsen rating for the episode was 18 @.@ 4 and a 29 % share of the audience , finishing second in its time slot behind The Cosby Show , which had an 18 @.@ 5 rating and 29 % share . It finished eighth in the weekly ratings , but was watched by an estimated 33 @.@ 6 million viewers , making it the number one show in terms of actual viewers that week . It became the highest rated and most watched program in the history of the Fox Network and remained in that position until January 1 , 1995 . As of 2016 it is still the highest rated episode in the history of The Simpsons .
The episode has received positive reviews from television critics and was ranked 31st on Entertainment Weekly 's 1999 list of " The 100 Greatest Moments in Television " .
= = Plot = =
Bart presents a book report at Springfield Elementary School on Treasure Island , but it is blatantly obvious he did not read the book . After school , Mrs. Krabappel tells Bart his grades have steadily gotten worse and warns him about an upcoming exam on Colonial America , but Bart does not pay attention , and puts off studying . The next day at school , Bart feigns illness and that night , Lisa warns Bart he cannot evade his responsibilities forever , but Bart calls Milhouse for the test answers . After school the next day , an overconfident Bart hands in his test , only to get a poor score that is even worse than Milhouse 's substandard test and have Mrs. Krabappel take remedial action .
Homer and Marge are called in to meet with Mrs. Krabappel and school psychiatrist Dr. J. Loren Pryor . Dr. Pryor says that Bart is an underachiever and recommends that he should repeat the fourth @-@ grade . Homer and Marge consider that holding Bart back might not be such a bad idea . However , Bart is against this idea , and vows that he will start to do better and will pass . Left with little time to study on his own , Bart prays to God and asks that something miraculous happen to make him miss school the next day so he can have more time to study . That night , Springfield is hit with a massive blizzard , and the schools are closed .
After receiving word of the school closures , Bart prepares for a fun snow day . However , Lisa reminds him of his prayer , and Bart decides to make good with God by studying while everyone is outside having fun . The next day , he finishes the test and asks Mrs. Krabappel to grade it immediately . She does so , and tells him that he gets a 59 , failing by just one point . However , Bart becomes upset at having failed despite all his efforts . Mrs Krabappel is initially stunned and tries to console him but Bart when compares his failure to George Washington 's surrender of Fort Necessity to the French in 1754 , Mrs. Krabappel is impressed at this obscure historical reference , realizes that Bart has put more effort and gives him an extra point for demonstrating applied knowledge , pushing his grade up to a D minus , enough to pass . Proud without thinking , Bart runs throughout Springfield , exclaiming to people that he actually passed .
= = Production = =
" Bart Gets an " F " " was the first episode of The Simpsons to be written by David M. Stern . It was directed by David Silverman . Over the summer of 1990 , Bart 's rebellious nature was characterized by some parents and conservatives as a poor role model for children while several American public schools banned T @-@ shirts featuring Bart next to captions such as " I 'm Bart Simpson . Who the hell are you ? " and " Underachiever ( ' And proud of it , man ! ' ) " Several critics thought that the episode was a response to these controversies . However , executive producer James L. Brooks responded that it was not , but added , " we 're mindful of it . I do think it 's important for us that Bart does badly in school . There are students like that . Besides , I 'm very wary of television where everybody is supposed to be a role model . You don 't run across that many role models in real life . Why should television be full of them ? " Sam Simon commented that " there are themes to the shows we did last year , important themes , I think it 's a tribute to how well we executed them that nobody realized we had a point . Bart says " Cowabunga " for the second time ( the first time being in " The Telltale Head " ) , which was commonly associated with Bart through its use as a T @-@ shirt slogan . Mayor Quimby makes his first appearance in this episode , without his trademark sash that says " Mayor " . The sash was later added because the writers feared that viewers would not recognize him .
The episode was the first to feature a new opening sequence , which was shortened by fifteen seconds from its original length of roughly 1 minute , 30 seconds . The opening sequence for the first season showed Bart stealing a " Bus Stop " sign ; whilst the new sequence featured him skateboarding past several characters who had been introduced during the previous season . Starting with this season , there were three versions of the opening : a full roughly 1 minute 15 second long version , a 45 @-@ second version and a 25 @-@ second version . This gave the show 's editors more leeway . David Silverman believes that the animators began to " come into their own " as they had gotten used to the characters and were able to achieve more with character acting . During the scene where Bart delivers a speech where he states he is " dumb as a post " , Silverman wanted to cut from several angles very quickly to give a sense of anxiety . Martin Prince 's design was changed several times during the episode . There was a different model that had larger eyes and wilder hair designed for the scene where Martin betrays Bart and runs off . Silverman describes the " Snow Day " sequence as one of the hardest things he ever had to animate . It features several long pans which shows many different characters engaging in various activities and was difficult to time correctly . Bart 's fantasy where he sees the founding fathers of the United States uses muted colors and variations of red , white and blue . Silverman also had to work hard to make Bart cry without making his design look too off @-@ putting , and this is the reason why he was shown covering his face with a piece of paper .
= = First broadcast = =
= = = Move to Thursday = = =
The first season of The Simpsons had finished as high as 4th in the weekly ratings and was the Fox network 's first series to rank among a season 's top 30 highest @-@ rated shows and Bart quickly became one of the most popular characters on television in what was termed " Bartmania " . Due to the success of the first season of the show , the Fox Network decided to switch The Simpsons ' timeslot in hopes that it would steal ratings from NBC 's " powerhouse " line up , generate more advertising revenue , and result in higher ratings for Beverly Hills , 90210 and Babes , which would follow the show . The show was moved from its from 8 : 00 p.m. EST Sunday night slot to the same time on Thursday , where it would compete with NBC 's The Cosby Show , the number one show at the time . Many of the producers of The Simpsons , including James L. Brooks , were against the move . The show had been in the top 10 while airing on Sunday and they felt the move would destroy its ratings . He commented that " Suddenly a show that was a hit is fighting for its survival , [ ... ] We 're not fighting ' Cosby , ' we just want to get healthy ratings . There have been two weeks in my life when a show I was associated with was number one in the ratings , and on Sunday night , we had a chance to be the number one show in the country . I don 't think we have a chance on Thursday night . "
" Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish " was the first episode produced for the season , but " Bart Gets an " F " " aired first because Bart was popular at the time and the producers had wanted to premiere with an episode involving him . It aired opposite the fourth episode of the seventh season of The Cosby Show titled " Period of Adjustment " , which saw the addition of Erika Alexander to the cast . The first 13 episodes of The Simpsons had been rerun several times through the summer , and Fox heavily promoted the first new episode since May , and news outlets published stories about the supposed " Bill vs. Bart " rivalry .
= = = Nielsen rating = = =
Reruns of The Simpsons which aired in the Thursday time slot against new episodes of The Cosby Show were ranked as low as 73rd in the weekly ratings ( compared with third place for The Cosby Show ) . Several critics predicted that " Bart Gets an " F " " would do considerably worse in the ratings than The Cosby Show . Greg Dawson of the Orlando Sentinel wrote that he would " bet dollars to plain @-@ cake doughnuts ( a Homer pet peeve ) that even a fresh Simpsons won 't come within five rating points of Cosby , which could get a 30 share in a power blackout . " Fox executive Peter Chernin said that they were hoping to establish a foothold on Thursday night and that " if we 're really lucky and very fortunate , we 're going to come in second place . "
Early overnight ratings figures for the original broadcast of the episode in 24 cities projected that The Simpsons had a 19 @.@ 9 Nielsen Rating and 30 % share of the audience while The Cosby Show had a 19 @.@ 3 Nielsen Rating and 29 % share . However , the final rating for " Bart Gets an " F " " was an 18 @.@ 4 and a 29 % share of the audience , finishing second in its time slot behind The Cosby Show , which had an 18 @.@ 5 rating and 29 % share . At the time , NBC had 208 television stations , while Fox only had 133 . It finished eighth in the weekly ratings , tied with Who 's the Boss ? , while The Cosby Show finished seventh . The rating is based on the number of household televisions that were tuned into the show , but Nielsen Media Research estimated that 33 @.@ 6 million viewers watched the episode , making it the number one show in terms of actual viewers that week ( The Cosby Show was watched by 28 @.@ 5 million , finished seventh ) . It became the highest rated and most watched program in the history of the Fox Network . It remained in that position until January 1 , 1995 , when a National Football League playoff game between the Minnesota Vikings and Chicago Bears achieved a Nielsen Rating of 21 @.@ 0 . As of 2016 it is still the highest rated episode in the history of The Simpsons .
= = Cultural references = =
Bart 's slapdash book report was on the Robert Louis Stevenson novel Treasure Island , while Martin presents Ernest Hemingway 's The Old Man and the Sea . Later on , Martin makes remarks about the forecastle of the Pequod in reference to Moby Dick .
During " Snow Day " , the citizens of Springfield sing " Winter Wonderland " .
The scene where everyone in Springfield gathers around the town circle , holds hands and begins singing is a reference to How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! .
" Hallelujah " , the chorus from George Frideric Handel 's Messiah , can be heard when it starts snowing .
In Bart 's fantasy of the improbable snowing on the 4th of July , he imagines Benjamin Franklin proclaiming he has invented the " First Ever Sled " , on which it is painted " Don 't Sled on Me " , an obvious reference to the Don 't Tread on Me banner .
= = Reception = =
The episode has received positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote , " A cracking opener to the second season - especially memorable for the sequence in which Bart prays for school to be cancelled the following day only to find himself exiled from the ensuing winter wonderland . " Virginia Mann of The Record felt that it was " not as wildly funny as last season 's best episodes , [ but still ] well @-@ done , humorous , and , at times , poignant . " The episode was praised for its emotional scenes . Tom Shales wrote that the episode is " not only funny , it 's touching " and praised it for its scenes where Bart prays , writing " There are few if any other entertainment shows on television that get into philosophical matters even this deeply . The Simpsons can be as thoughtful as a furrow @-@ browed Bill Moyers pontification - yet infinitely more amusing . " Hal Boedeker of The Miami Herald felt that it " pulls off a finale that 's thoughtful without being preachy , tender without being sappy . Despite the tears , the show keeps its edge . And the way TV usually smears on the schmaltz , that 's quite an achievement . " Phil Kloer of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution wrote " The episode does a good job of emphasizing the importance of studying without getting gooky . For all the talk about the anarchy of " The Simpsons , " the show sometimes has smuggled in an occasional message , as it does again . " In his book The Gospel According to the Simpsons , Mark I. Pinsky writes that " Bart Gets an " F " " offers the most detailed portrayal of the dynamic of prayer on The Simpsons . " Steve L. Case later included the episode in his book Toons That Teach , a list of 75 cartoons that help teach biblical lessons . Internet comedian , Doug Walker , considers the episode to be the best of the entire series because he found it to be the most dramatic , funny , realistic , and relatable .
The episode was ranked 31st on Entertainment Weekly 's list of " The 100 Greatest Moments in Television " , writing that it " stands as classic irreverent family TV " . In 2007 , Larina Adamson , a supervising producer on The Simpsons , named " Bart Gets an ' F ' " as her favorite episode of the series . In 2010 BBC named " Bart Gets an " F " " as one of the ten most memorable episodes of the show , calling it " insightful and poignant " .
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= MediEvil : Resurrection =
MediEvil : Resurrection is a 2005 Gothic action @-@ adventure video game developed by SCE Cambridge Studio and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation Portable . It is a re @-@ imagining of the first instalment in the series , MediEvil . It was first released as a launch title on 1 September 2005 in Europe and 13 September 2005 in North America . It was also re @-@ released for the PlayStation Network in 2008 . The game is set in the medieval Kingdom of Gallowmere and centres around the charlatan protagonist , Sir Daniel Fortesque , as he makes an attempt to stop antagonist Zarok 's invasion of the kingdom whilst simultaneously redeeming himself . The game also features a variety of voice talents , including Tom Baker as the narrator and the Grim Reaper .
Development of the game began in 2003 with the original intention of releasing the game for the PlayStation 2 . Sony Computer Entertainment Europe commissioned SCE Cambridge Studio to develop a launch title for the PlayStation Portable . Due to time constraints , the Cambridge studio was given only a year to develop the game , thus they decided to remake the original MediEvil . The game was met with mixed reviews upon release , with critics mainly praising the game 's humour , voice talent and graphics but was criticised for lack of innovation and cumbersome camera controls .
= = Gameplay = =
Gameplay is similar to that of the original game in which players control Sir Daniel Fortesque as he travels through Gallowmere to stop the evil Zarok . Dan can utilise a variety of weapons , including close range weapons such as swords and axes to long ranged weapons such as throwing knives and crossbows . If Dan defeats enough enemies to collect the Chalice of Souls hidden throughout each level , he will be able to travel to the Hall of Heroes , where a legendary hero rewards him by giving him a new weapon or other helpful items . Dan possesses a single life bar throughout the game , which can be sustained by collecting Life Bottles throughout the game which can be replenished by energy vials and Life Fountains . The remastered version also includes some exclusive arcade @-@ style minigames which can also be played over online multiplayer .
MediEvil : Resurrection features many alterations to the original structure and content , such as the addition of the " Anubis Stone " sub @-@ plot which has never appeared in the original . Various levels and characters designs are altered drastically from the original , with some levels removed altogether . Resurrection 's altered plot is given a much more humorous and light @-@ hearted setting as opposed to the Gothic horror @-@ comedy of the first instalment . Unlike the original , there is no alternate ending ; Dan still enters eternal slumber regardless of whether he collects all of the chalices .
= = Plot = =
In the year 1286 , an evil sorcerer named Zarok plotted to take over the kingdom of Gallowmere with his undead army . It is told in legend that the King of Gallowmere 's champion , Sir Daniel Fortesque , led his army to victory and managed to kill Zarok before succumbing to his mortal wounds . In reality however , Dan was in fact struck down by the first arrow fired in the battle , with the king choosing to cover it up and declare Dan the " Hero of Gallowmere " . Zarok , meanwhile , was forced into hiding and was presumed dead . 100 years later , in 1386 , Zarok reappears , casting a spell over Gallowmere to awake his undead army and steal the souls of the living . However , in the process , he unwittingly revives the corpse of Dan , who has over time become a skeletal corpse , missing his jaw and the eye he lost in the battle of Gallowmere . Shortly after waking up , Dan is accompanied by Al @-@ Zalam , a genie whose powers were robbed by Zarok . Having been unable to ascend to the Hall of Heroes due to his failures in life , Dan uses this opportunity to defeat Zarok , save Gallowmere and earn his place as a true hero .
As Dan travels across Gallowmere , collecting pieces of an artefact called the ' Anubis Stone ' along the way , fighting his way through Zarok 's hordes and confronting all manners of beasts , he soon arrives at Zarok 's lair , fighting off Zarok 's skeletal warriors using the souls of his old allies retrieved by collecting the Chalices . After also managing to defeat Zarok 's champion , Lord Kardok , Zarok turns into a powerful monster , but Dan manages to defeat him . As Zarok sets his lair to self @-@ destruct , Dan is rescued by Al @-@ Zalam and the two escape , leaving Zarok 's magical influence over the land thwarted . With the magic cast on him also wearing off as a result , Dan returns to his burial chamber where he once again enters eternal slumber .
= = Development = =
Development of MediEvil : Resurrection began in 2003 at SCE Cambridge Studio . The senior management team of Sony Computer Entertainment Europe wanted a launch game for the PlayStation Portable console and ordered the studio to develop the game in time for the console 's release . Due to the short notice , the studio was given only a year to develop a game , thus it was decided that a remake of the original MediEvil would be suitable as developing an original title would take more time to develop .
Despite the success of the previous games in the MediEvil series , only three original team members were involved in the making of MediEvil : Resurrection . Chris Sorrell , the creator of MediEvil , stressed in a retrospective interview that he would have preferred to direct Resurrection if he was not at the time instructed to direct the video @-@ game adaptation of 24 . Since the release of Resurrection , Sorrell expressed disappointment with the changes made to the game and the fact that his superiors did not allow him to direct it , but praised the team 's ability for working under a time constraint . Piers Jackson was instead appointed as the producer for Resurrection . He directed the overall development of the title , working closely with a new design team led by Dominic Cahalin . Mitch Phillips , who was the character animator for the previous two instalments , was appointed as lead artist for the game . Phillips , along with Paul Arnold and Andrew Barnabas , the musical duo more commonly known as " Bob & Barn " , who composed the original soundtrack for MediEvil , were the only people from the original team to return .
According to Piers Jackson , the thrust of the design was to produce a title that could showcase the full abilities of the PlayStation Portable , including its built @-@ in Wi @-@ Fi capabilities . Jackson also asserted that Resurrection was an entirely different game from the original ; whilst the studio had taken the basic story and some of the locations from the original game , all the code , graphics and voice actors were changed . New additions to Resurrection included an expanded plot , added mini @-@ games , multiplayer facilities and a cloud save function . During late stages of development , the studio attempted to preserve ideas that they thought worked well in the original , though their uses were altered or repositioned to keep the game fresh even to those who had played the original . The addition of the ' Anubis Stone ' sub @-@ plot was to strengthen the story arc and the creation of Al @-@ Zalam was to act as Dan 's internal monologue as well as the player 's guide .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack in Resurrection is orchestrated , unlike the first instalment . Approximately half of the themes from the original were removed while new themes were created to fit with the new levels . The music is split into two halves ; the cues from the first half are largely reminiscent of a select number of cues from the original game with the addition of extra thematic elements to strengthen them . The other half of the music is original and composed exclusively for Resurrection . The new soundtrack was composed by Bob & Barn and features performances from members of the City of Prague Philharmonic Orchestra that was recorded in the Czech Republic . The orchestra , headed by Nic Raine , consisted of approximately 80 performers and in addition benefits from a 32 piece choir , also recorded in the same venue . This follows the tradition of SCE Cambridge Studio 's previous orchestral game Primal , which was also recorded in Prague by the same performers .
= = Reception = =
MediEvil : Resurrection received mixed reviews upon release . It received an aggregate score of 69 % from GameRankings and a score of 66 from Metacritic . General criticisms from reviewers were directed at the camera controls , which was cited as being particularly poor during combat sequences , and occasionally being the cause for frame rate drops . Jason Allen of IGN noted that the camera angles were " not as bad " during open areas of the game , but became " rather clumsy in the middle of a heated battle " . Kristan Reed of Eurogamer expressed similar concerns with the camera work , stating that the camera was " sloppy " and that it proved particularly difficult during combat , when enemies were to suddenly appear off screen .
The combat was also criticised for its poor hit detection . Greg Mueller of GameSpot noted that the poor collision detection turned most of the combat sequences to a " frustrating and tedious " experience . Reed similarly criticised the combat system , citing that the system is " unremarkable on the basic level " and was disappointed with the lack of technical additions to the game . Allen also expressed concern with the fighting mechanics , stating that every melee attack was inaccurate and " clumsy " , combined with cumbersome camera work .
The graphics and voice talent were the most praised aspects of the game , especially Tom Baker 's role as the narrator and Grim Reaper . Mueller praised the soundtrack and dialogue , stating that the best part of the game " is easily the sound " , and that the voice of any character fits their role " perfectly " , making them more interesting than " the average voice @-@ over " . Reed also praised Baker 's role in the game , stating that voice @-@ overs and audio were the most enjoyable experiences in Resurrection , also citing that Baker 's voice performance was " majestic " and " eccentric " . Chris Scantleberry of GameSpy felt that the overall dialogue was heavy on the stereotypical accent , but was assured that players would enjoy the " electric atmosphere " of MediEvil , which he often compared to that of Tim Burton 's The Nightmare Before Christmas .
Chris Sorrell and Jason Wilson , co @-@ creators of MediEvil , had also expressed disappointment with the game . Neither of them had any involvement with MediEvil : Resurrection , and when they were asked about the game during a retrospective interview with RetroGamer , Wilson felt disheartened with having to watch something he " cherished " to be altered with decisions he thought were " questionable " . Sorrell felt similar disappointment in the redesign of the game and there were a number of aspects of it that he disagreed with . He did , however , praise the development team of Resurrection , stating that they did " an awesome job " considering the time constraints they were up against .
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= Infamous Second Son =
Infamous Second Son ( stylized as inFAMOUS Second Son ) is an open world action @-@ adventure video game developed by Sucker Punch Productions and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 4 . The game was released worldwide on March 21 , 2014 . Like in previous Infamous games , the player @-@ controlled protagonist possesses superpower abilities that players use in combat and when traveling across the city . The story follows protagonist Delsin Rowe fighting the Department of Unified Protection ( D.U.P. ) in a fictionalized Seattle . Over the course of the game , Delsin acquires new powers and becomes either good or evil as player choices influence his morality .
Sucker Punch began planning the game as early as 2010 , when they began discussion with Sony to bring the Infamous series onto a new generation of hardware . They provided feedback to Sony on what hardware evolutions they would like to see on the PlayStation 4 system . Second Son was considered a fresh start for the series because it features a new protagonist . Delsin Rowe 's superpowers were designed to feel fluid and suited to the open world design .
Infamous Second Son was met with generally positive reviews ; critics praised its gameplay , dynamic combat , visuals and design , while criticism was aimed at the game 's morality system , which some found to be dated and binary , as well as the game 's repetitive side missions . The story was met with a mixed response , with some critics finding the narrative and characters to be a step backwards from previous installments in the series , while others viewing the writing as an improvement over its predecessors . Infamous Second Son was a commercial success , and sold over a million copies within nine days , making it the fastest @-@ selling entry within the Infamous franchise .
= = Gameplay = =
In Infamous Second Son , players control the main character Delsin Rowe from a third @-@ person perspective and freely roam open world Seattle . Players parkour @-@ style climb vertical surfaces like high @-@ rise buildings . Delsin is a Conduit , which allows him to use superpower abilities by manipulating materials such as smoke , neon , video , and concrete . These materials can be weaponized ( such that Delsin can perform melee attacks or fire projectiles from his fingertips ) or used to deftly navigate the game world ( such as using neon to dash up buildings ) . Using powers depletes a meter in the head @-@ up display ( HUD ) , which can be replenished by drawing from power sources such as smoke from exploded vehicles . Delsin earns new powers as he progresses through the story , which sees him fight against the Department of Unified Protection ( D.U.P. ) during missions . Each time Delsin gains a new power set he must destroy mobile D.U.P. command centers to learn the basic abilities that correspond to it . Delsin upgrades and acquires new abilities by spending Blast Shards that have been collected , they are scattered throughout Seattle . Players become more powerful in combat by expanding Delsin 's suite of abilities .
Players may choose to act in either a good or evil way . Examples including healing civilians , doing drug busts , and stopping suspect brutality for good , or killing civilians , obliterating enemies and completing missions with evil karma for bad . Several times throughout the story , Delsin finds himself in a scenario where he must make a good or evil choice , such as whether to encourage Conduit vigilante Abigail " Fetch " Walker to stop slaying drug dealers , or to train her to become a more prolific killer . Player choices influence outcomes in some later missions . In combat , Delsin may use his abilities to incapacitate foes or obliterate them with headshots . He may choose to open fire on innocent civilians . Delsin 's choices manifest in a logo displayed on his jacket and the HUD , which features a blue ( good ) and red ( evil ) bird . Performing actions that are villainous gradually change the logo so that the red bird dominates the other , with the opposite happening with heroism . This is a visual representation of Delsin 's Karma level , that increases as good or evil depending on his choices . As his Karma level increases , Delsin can acquire new powers that correspond to his play @-@ style ( e.g. very destructive powers with high levels of evil Karma ) and his jacket also changes . If you have good karma , the jacket completely changes white whereas if evil the jacket turns red . A continual streak of either good or evil actions fills up a bar in the HUD , which then lets Delsin perform a powerful finishing move called a Karma Bomb .
When not completing story missions , players can explore the city and complete activities such as tagging graffiti spots or assassinating D.U.P. secret agents . The city is split into districts that are all initially controlled by the D.U.P. , but Delsin gradually liberates each district by completing activities . When D.U.P. control of a district falls below 30 percent , Delsin can enter a District Showdown that requires him to eliminate a wave of D.U.P. forces , eradicating D.U.P. presence there .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Second Son takes place in 2016 , seven years after Infamous 2 's Conduit protagonist Cole MacGrath sacrifices himself to cure humanity of a plague and destroy The Beast . Cole uses the powerful Ray Field Inhibitor weapon , which kills him and most of the other Conduits . The United States government establishes the D.U.P. to hunt down and capture the world 's remaining Conduits , dubbing Conduits with the pejorative " Bio @-@ Terrorists " . The protagonist is Delsin Rowe ( Troy Baker ) , a graffiti artist and the local delinquent of the Akomish reservation . Delsin has the unique Conduit ability of Power Absorption , allowing him to use other Conduits ' powers . His brother , Reggie ( Travis Willingham ) , is the local sheriff , and often arrests Delsin for his acts of vandalism . Both are Akomish Native Americans , whose territory lies at the shore of Salmon Bay , Washington . The antagonist is Brooke Augustine ( Christine Dunford ) , the director of the D.U.P. and a Conduit with power over Concrete . Her actions in the Akomish reservation drive Delsin to travel to Seattle , now under lockdown by D.U.P. forces . Delsin and Reggie encounter three other Conduits : Henry " Hank " Daughtry ( David Stanbra ) , a convict with control over Smoke ; Abigail " Fetch " Walker ( Laura Bailey ) , an ex @-@ junkie who uses her Neon powers to hunt down the illegal drug dealers in Seattle ; and Eugene Sims ( Alex Walsh ) , a reclusive video gamer who uses his Video ( digital materialization ) powers to save suspected Conduits from the D.U.P.
= = = Story = = =
After Reggie catches Delsin vandalizing a billboard , their subsequent argument is interrupted when a military truck carrying three Conduit prisoners crashes on the Akomish reservation . Two of the Conduits escape . Delsin pulls the third , Hank , out of the wreckage , and inadvertently absorbs his smoke powers . Shocked and frightened , Delsin pursues Hank in an effort to figure out what has happened and how to control his powers . However , they are both cornered by Brooke Augustine . She encases Hank in concrete and questions Delsin , suspecting him of hiding something . Delsin can choose to either tell Augustine the truth about his powers or reveal nothing . Regardless , Augustine renders him unconscious before moving on to the other tribe members .
Delsin awakens a week later and discovers that Augustine has tortured the rest of the tribe in an unsuccessful bid to gain information . However , she has left them to gradually die from concrete shards buried into their bodies , including their leader Betty ( Karen Austin ) . Reggie , who was spared from the torture , learns that the only way to remove the shards is to use Augustine 's power on them . Delsin realizes that he can absorb Conduit powers and resolves to go to Seattle to take Augustine 's powers and save the tribe . Reggie reluctantly accompanies Delsin to keep an eye on him . They reach Seattle and find that it has been put under strict martial law by the D.U.P. in order to find the other escaped Conduits . With Reggie 's help , Delsin battles D.U.P. forces and tracks down core fragments to develop his powers . He eventually encounters the other two escaped Conduits , Fetch and Eugene , and absorbs their powers . After both confrontations , Delsin defends the Conduits from Reggie , who initially views them as " freaks " , and can choose to either redeem or corrupt them .
Now possessing three powers , Delsin encounters Hank , who has escaped again . Hank tells Delsin that Fetch and Eugene have been captured by the D.U.P. , and are being held on an artificial concrete island in Puget Sound . However , the situation turns out to be a trap set by Augustine . Reggie appears and rescues Delsin with a rocket launcher . While the brothers free Fetch and Eugene , Augustine encases Reggie 's feet in concrete and blasts them off the platform . As they dangle above the ocean , Reggie realizes that Delsin cannot save both of them , tells him that he is proud of him , and lets Delsin 's hand go and falls to his death . Distraught and enraged , Delsin climbs back up onto the platform and battles Augustine , destroying the entire island .
Augustine flees back to the D.U.P. headquarters . Delsin tracks Hank down to the docks , where he is fleeing from D.U.P. forces . Hank begs for forgiveness , saying that he only worked with Augustine because she threatened to hurt his daughter . Delsin can choose to either kill Hank , or let him escape Seattle with his daughter . Aided by Fetch and Eugene , Delsin rallies an assault on the D.U.P. headquarters . After breaking through the building 's defenses , Delsin confronts Augustine and reveals to her that he has figured out she staged the Conduit escape at Akomish to instill fear in the population and give the D.U.P. a reason to continue their regime . Augustine lets Delsin absorb her powers , and tells him that she wants to save the Conduits by imprisoning and protecting them from the population . Delsin battles and eventually defeats Augustine with his new concrete powers .
If Delsin has good Karma , he spares Augustine and exposes her crimes to the world . She is arrested and the D.U.P. disbands . Delsin , Fetch and Eugene convince the humans that they can peacefully coexist with the Conduits . All of the imprisoned Conduits are freed . Delsin returns to the reservation and heals the tribe members , then paints a mural dedicated to Reggie .
If Delsin has evil Karma , he kills Augustine and , together with Fetch and Eugene , takes control of Seattle . He releases all of the imprisoned Conduits and absorbs their powers . Upon returning to the reservation , Delsin is met by a wheelchair @-@ bound Betty who banishes him from the tribe for the killings in Seattle . Shocked and angered , Delsin destroys the entire reservation .
= = Development and release = =
= = = Origins and PlayStation 4 = = =
Sucker Punch Productions began to develop Second Son while the PlayStation 4 was still being designed . Having finished work on Infamous : Festival of Blood , they began to plan a new entry in the Infamous series under the working title Infamous 3 . As early as 2010 , they discussed with Sony their desire to bring Infamous to a new PlayStation platform .
Sucker Punch were in close connection with the PS4 's lead system architect Mark Cerny , who visited the studio several times . They gave Cerny feedback about how much power a new PlayStation system would require to render their ideal open world , how fast it would be capable of doing so and to what degree of texture detail . " We had some experience there that was useful for that team when they were planning some aspects of the hardware design " , producer Brian Fleming explained . He found that during the PS4 's development , there was a great level of interactivity between the system 's designers and game developers such as Sucker Punch .
Sucker Punch made suggested improvements they would like to see for the DualShock 4 gamepad . Second Son 's designer Jaime Griesemer traveled to Sony 's headquarters in Japan to discuss such improvements . The developers found they were able to adopt the DualShock 4 's touchpad into Second Son 's gameplay ( for example , players emulate the in @-@ game fingerprint scanner using the DualShock 4 touchpad ) .
The game was envisioned to take full advantage of the hardware , without the imposition of porting to older platforms like the PlayStation 3 . The hardware let developers improve the particle system that lights Delsin 's face up while he draws neon power from billboards and add detailed reflections to the game world . The increased memory bandwidth let the team render characters with higher fidelity . They found the PS4 's simplified architecture so easy to work with that they were able to reach very high graphical quality even though the hardware was new .
Over 110 developers worked on the game , a number that director Nate Fox considered small . He felt that working with a small team necessitated having a defined vision for the game from the outset , " to answer those first questions about what you want your game to be " . Sometimes , ideas came about during development that would have to be thrown out for not fitting with the game 's original vision . " We kill our darlings at Sucker Punch . It 's not easy ; it 's necessary " , Fox explained . Second Son displays a native resolution of 1080p at 30 frames per second .
= = = Design = = =
Sucker Punch elected to set Second Son in their hometown of Seattle as they could draw from their personal experiences in the open world 's design . During early development when team members debated where Second Son would be set , Seattle rated high on a list of possibilities . Fleming considered that the city had not been featured in many games prior to Second Son and so would not be " overblown " , and felt that Seattle 's weather and mixture of " old and new " architecture would make it an interesting setting . The team conducted fieldwork in Seattle 's nearby forests with audio and video equipment , which was used to reproduce local flora and the chirping sounds of local American robins . Seattle landmarks such as Pioneer Square , the Space Needle and Elephant Car Washes feature in the game . The developers licensed logos and signs from local businesses . Griesemer called the game world an " abstraction " of Seattle rather than a re @-@ creation since its layout did not suit Second Son 's gameplay and required the team to make necessary changes . The team wanted to thematically explore Seattle 's heritage of Pacific Northwest , Native American tribes in the game .
The designers used graphic sliders in the game engine to determine the amount of water covering the streets . Like Seattle , rain is frequent in the game . The lighting effects ( such as neon light from Delsin 's powers ) coupled with reflections help bring color into Seattle 's dark and rainy atmosphere . Because of the move to the PS4 , Sucker Punch were able to render more open world than what was possible in previous Infamous games . " You get a better feel of the city when you can see more of it " , said Griesemer .
After deciding on Seattle for the setting , the developers began to think about the superpowers that Delsin would possess . They added neon lighting to the city to amplify the " beautiful reflective streets " , and subsequently decided to make neon a source of power for Delsin because of its prevalence . Animation director Billy Harper considered Delsin 's smoke powers challenging to design , as the team wanted to make powers feel more fluid than in previous Infamous games . They removed Cole 's " contorted hand poses " to improve the connection between Delsin and his powers . Fox felt that smoke helps Delsin deftly navigate the game world by letting him zip up buildings and through enemies . Griesemer ( who previously worked with Bungie on the Halo series ) wanted to bring the fluidity of first @-@ person shooters to Second Son 's combat . The team reviewed the control scheme of previous Infamous games and " removed some of the complexity that was preventing people from interacting with the game " .
Griesemer said that a recurring theme throughout Infamous games that they wanted to continue with Second Son was the idea of " modern elemental powers " , variations on commonplace powers drawn from the game world . Producer Brian Fleming found that the graphical effects helped to inform players of the amount of power Delsin possesses . " This is a game about super powers , so for us , the way the effects look tells you a lot about how you 're playing the game " , he explained . Fox considered that the game world 's resemblance to Seattle helped the superpower elements feel authentic . " Because we have that sweet foundation of plausibility , you buy into the super @-@ powered element " , he explained .
= = = Character development = = =
Second Son 's premise is built from the ending of Infamous 2 that sees protagonist Cole MacGrath sacrifice himself to save humanity . They looked at Trophy data and found the majority ( 78 % ) of Infamous 2 players chose this ending , and concurred with the popular choice . This allowed them to create the new protagonist , Delsin , from scratch . " Moving forward onto [ Second Son ] , we said ' Alright , Cole 's dead . People have voted for this . Let 's make a new hero ' " , Fox explained . Griesemer felt that taking the Infamous series to the PS4 signified a new era , and that departing from the story of previous games would help them reach new audiences . " We needed a new entry point , and Delsin was the first step for that " , he explained . The idea to move away from Cole 's story came about during pre @-@ production staff meetings , and was confirmed after discussions both internally and with Sony Computer Entertainment . Griesemer described the contemporaneous sentiment as " It 's going to be new hardware , a new platform and we 're going to have a new audience " .
Delsin 's Native American heritage came from the game 's setting in the Pacific Northwest , which features a large Native American population . Delsin wears a beanie inspired by one that Harper would wear around the studio ( Harper recounted one particular staff meeting where four of the six team members were wearing hats ) . Delsin 's character was inspired by United Kingdom street artist Banksy , as the development team appreciated Banksy 's clandestine , satirical work . Developing Delsin 's personality , the team posited the hypothetical : " What if Johnny Knoxville had powers ? What would he do with it ? " . Harper considered Delsin " full of reckless abandon " , the kind of character that would , upon gaining superpowers , jump off a cliff to see what happens . Fox considered Delsin " flawed in a way I think a lot of us can relate to " , trying to live up to his successful brother Reggie . He called the game 's story a " hero 's journey " .
Digital Domain were brought on board for the motion capture work . Fox helped direct the actors ' performances , but found that they did not need much guidance for their roles . " You need to let them understand what you need from a scene , but the actors are so much better equipped to deliver that than me " , he explained . Fleming considered that using motion capture added authenticity to the characters . " The ability to capture [ Delsin 's ] facial reaction when he 's like ' Oh , shit ' , but doesn 't say ' Oh shit ' — that 's a big deal " , he explained .
Most of the non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) that inhabit the open world were motion captured . The developers contacted casting agencies , and asked their friends and families if they would like to appear as extras in the game . Over 75 people were scanned in a three @-@ day period . They were seated in chairs and told not to move or smile , and a high @-@ definition digital camera captured a 3D model of their faces . The camera sent out strobe light patterns to capture the volume and shape of each face . A 360 @-@ degree setup captured the actors ' moving bodies , but mannequins were also used to help capture different clothing styles . Data collected from the cameras was used by the designers to render digital models , each composed of roughly 1 @.@ 4 million polygons — any blank spots on the models would be digitally filled in by the designers . To render the models in the game , the data would be compressed by reducing the polygon count .
= = = Marketing and release = = =
On February 20 , 2013 , Sony held a conference in New York that announced the PS4 . Fox appeared on @-@ stage during the conference and recounted participating in an anti @-@ globalization protest in Seattle in 1999 . He then announced Second Son , and a debut trailer was shown that introduced the game 's premise and lead character . The game was privately demoed at E3 2013 , and its March 21 , 2014 , North American release date was confirmed during a PS4 launch event on November 14 , 2013 . By February 25 , 2014 , Second Son went gold ( finished development ) .
On March 8 , it was announced that Second Son 's pre @-@ order sales had surpassed those of The Last of Us in the United Kingdom . Two special edition versions of the game were produced ; pre @-@ ordered and first @-@ run copies of the game received the Limited Edition , which includes the Cole 's Legacy mission pack that explain story events between Infamous 2 and Second Son . The Collector 's Edition includes a unique box cover , a replica of Delsin 's beanie , eight pins from his vest , an exclusive in @-@ game vest , and a D.U.P.-themed patch . All pre @-@ ordered copies of the game included four in @-@ game vests for Delsin .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
Paper Trail is a free downloadable content ( DLC ) with alternate reality game features . The story is split into six parts , with the first being available after reaching a certain point in the main story . Each subsequent part was made available each Friday from March 28 , 2014 in North America and , concluding with the release of the final part on April 25 , 2014 .
At E3 2014 , the DLC package Infamous First Light was announced and was released on August 26 , 2014 in North America and August 27 , 2014 in Europe . In First Light , the player controls Fetch . It is a stand @-@ alone expansion and Second Son is not required to play the game , but ownership of Second Son grants players access to exclusive content . Infamous First Light received mixed to positive reviews from critics .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The game received generally positive reviews with a normalized rating of 80 out of 100 based on 90 reviews on Metacritic . GameRankings assigned a rating of 81 % based on 61 reviews . The game sold over one million copies within nine days of its release , making it the fastest @-@ selling installment in the series .
Vince Ingenito of IGN recalled being left " staring slack @-@ jawed " at the visuals , and called the open world " beautifully and diversely realized " with impressive lighting effects . Tom Mc Shea of GameSpot called the visuals " incredible " . Oli Welsh of Eurogamer praised Seattle 's art direction , and found the draw distances and frame rate consistent . David Meikleham of PlayStation Official Magazine ( OPM ) was very impressed with the graphics and 1080p definition , but cited occasional frame rate dips during intense combat . He enjoyed playing in Seattle and using his powers to level the destructible environments . Tamoor Hussain of Computer and Video Games ( CVG ) praised graphical details like the particle and lighting systems . " [ The game is ] colorful , rich in detail and has some of the best effects we 've seen on console " , he wrote .
GameSpot 's Mc Shea considered the combat well @-@ balanced between Infamous 's slower pace and Infamous 2 's frenetic action , and enjoyed Delsin 's agility and power . Chris Carter of Destructoid considered the combat 's simplicity its strength , finding Delsin easy to control and navigate the world . Edge were underwhelmed with the game 's opening because of its " skittish " parkour , but noted that once Delsin gained powers and reached Seattle , the game became very fun . They felt that enemies were clever enough to make combat a fun challenge , and called the main missions " for the most part well designed and generously proportioned " . IGN 's Ingenito enjoyed using Delsin 's powers in combat , and called each set " strong enough to hang an entire game on " . He found upgrading Delsin 's powers helped keep the combat fresh and made for good replay value . Philip Kollar of Polygon favored using neon power , but praised the balance and variety between all of them . He called the combat " a hell of a lot of fun " . Eurogamer 's Welsh found the combat imperfect yet fun , but did not think that upgrading Delsin 's skills made enough of a difference to his power .
Destructoid 's Carter thought that Delsin was a more interesting protagonist than " wooden " Cole , which helped his investment into the story . IGN 's Ingenito thought Delsin was an interesting lead character , especially because of the chemistry with Reggie . He found Troy Baker 's performance of Delsin " [ imbued ] with a charm and youthful abandon that keeps it from feeling tropey [ sic ] or overwrought " . However , he found supporting characters like Fetch underdeveloped and the narrative too straightforward . Although calling the characters clichéd , Edge felt that they were written and acted well . GameSpot 's Mc Shea called Delsin annoying and immature , and found the gameplay more interesting than the " tired " story . Eurogamer 's Welsh considered the plot driven by " inconsequential MacGuffins " and thought the ending rushed , but praised the story for not stretching on too long . Polygon 's Kollar felt that the story did not explore its themes of surveillance and security @-@ over @-@ freedom well enough , such that its impact was diminished . He was overall disappointed with the narrative , despite finding the main characters written better than in previous Infamous games . OPM 's Meikleham was put off by Delsin 's arrogance and was underwhelmed with the story , but he was impressed by the quality of the motion capture performances .
Edge and Eurogamer 's Welsh faulted the morality system because they did not think it had enough influence on the story . IGN 's Ingenito called it " woefully outdated " , and felt that making evil choices severely jarred with Delsin 's character . He found the system redundant because Delsin became more powerful when he strictly adhered to either a good or evil play @-@ style , rather than crossing in @-@ between . GameSpot 's Mc Shea felt that the morality system was too binary because there was no " moral gray area " between playing good and evil . Polygon 's Kollar reflected Mc Shea 's opinion that the morality choices were too binary , and had difficulty connecting to his choices because they were too polarized between good and evil . OPM 's Meikleham felt that the morality system had " little to no impact on gameplay " . Danny Cowan of Joystiq thought that the morality system was well @-@ balanced , with equal incentive and drawback tied to Delsin 's choices .
GameSpot 's Mc Shea found Second Son 's open world beholden to a dated formula . He described Seattle as " a playground for you to go nuts in " instead of " a living , breathing world " , with the Seattleites existing only as fodder for players . CVG 's Hussain called Seattle " hauntingly empty " , with the sparsely distributed NPCs behaving inanimately . He felt that the open world 's lifelessness was the game 's biggest detractor , and he drew unfavorable comparison with Grand Theft Auto V , Sleeping Dogs and Assassin 's Creed IV : Black Flag , which he felt featured better open worlds . Eurogamer 's Welsh felt that Second Son did not innovate the open world genre as well as it could have because it relied too heavily on many of the genre 's tropes . Polygon 's Kollar felt that there was not enough variation in the missions and activities , as " virtually all culminate in the goal of beating up more soldiers or thugs " . Edge found the amount of content in the game thin , finding little merit in additional playthroughs because of the repetitive side @-@ missions . " Approach [ Second Son ] as an action game that just happens to be set in a nonlinear environment and it makes more sense " , they wrote . Destructoid 's Carter found the amount of content ample , and enjoyed liberating the city and collecting Blast Shards .
= = = Sales = = =
Infamous Second Son sold over one million copies nine days after its launch .
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= 1973 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1973 Pacific hurricane season was an event in tropical cyclone meteorology . The most important system this year was Hurricane Ava , which was the most intense Pacific hurricane known at the time . Several other much weaker tropical cyclones came close to , or made landfall on , the Pacific coast of Mexico . The most serious of these was Hurricane Irah , which downed power and communication lines in parts of the Baja California Peninsula ; the other landfalling storms caused rain and some flooding . No tropical cyclone this season caused any deaths .
This season had a quick start but a slow end . Overall activity was below average , with twelve named systems in total . Of these , five were tropical storms , seven were hurricanes , of which three were major ( Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale ) . Just one storm formed in August , one of the least active Augusts ever in the east Pacific . The season officially started May 15 , 1973 in the eastern Pacific , and June 1 , 1973 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1973 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . All tropical cyclones this season formed in the eastern north Pacific Ocean , often off the coast of Mexico . As is usual in the northern hemisphere , most traveled generally westward or northwestward , and two reached as far as the waters south of the Hawaiian Islands .
= = Season summary = =
The season began with the formation of the pre @-@ Ava tropical depression on June 2 and ended with the dissipation of Tropical Lillian on October 9 . The season lasted a total of 129 days . No named storms formed in May , three in June , four in July , one in August , three in September , one in October , and none in November . Another six tropical depressions formed during the year , but data on them is unavailable . All of these tropical cyclones formed in the eastern north Pacific tropical cyclone basin , which encompasses the Pacific Ocean north of the equator east of 140 ° W. None formed in the central north Pacific , which is the remainder of the Pacific Ocean east of the international dateline .
Of the tropical cyclones that formed this year , were twelve tropical storms and seven were hurricanes . Of those hurricanes , three of them were major hurricanes because they reached Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Scale . These totals are all below the long @-@ term averages of thirteen tropical storms , nine hurricanes , and four major hurricanes . At the time , this season 's total of twelve named tropical cyclones was exactly average , although at the time the climatology in this basin was weak because satellite coverage was spotty before 1966 .
This season , all advisories and tropical cyclone data were released and collected by two agencies , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center in Redwood City , California , and the Central Pacific Hurricane Center in Honolulu , Hawaii , both of which were coextensive with the National Weather Service Forecast Offices in their respective cities . The EPHC covered the area between the coast of North America and 140 ° W , and the CPHC the remainder of the area .
= = = Hurricane Ava = = =
A tropical depression formed on June 2 . It steadily strengthened and headed in a generally westerly direction . It moved slowly and became Hurricane Ava on June 4 . Two days later , it became a major hurricane and it sped up . On June 7 , it became a Category 5 hurricane . It then started weakening and slowed down until it dissipated on June 12 . No deaths or damages were attributed to Hurricane Ava .
Ava 's minimum central pressure was 915 millibars , and its maximum sustained winds reached 140 knots ( 260 km / h ) . This made Ava the most intense recorded east Pacific hurricane at the time . Ava reached Category 5 intensity on June 7 , the earliest date in an east Pacific season that a hurricane has done so . It was also the second known Category 5 storm in the east Pacific ; ( behind Patsy in 1959 ) . Ava is the strongest June storm , the fifth most intense east Pacific hurricane , and was the only June Category 5 on record until 2010 .
Ava was also flown into by hurricane hunter aircraft in what was the first penetration of a Pacific hurricane by NOAA aircraft . During these flights , radars and other devices were tested , and wind speed , pressure , and wave heights were measured . This is the reason why Hurricane Ava 's pressure is measured instead of estimated . Ava was also photographed from Skylab because it was visible during one of the missions . At that time , it was coincidentally on the surface of the Earth directly underneath the space station . All in all , these made Hurricane Ava one of the best @-@ observed Pacific hurricanes at the time .
= = = Tropical Storm Bernice = = =
A nearly stationary disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone spent three days organizing and finally developed into a tropical depression on June 22 . The cyclone started heading northwest . After intensifying into a tropical storm , Bernice made landfall on June 23 at a location roughly 50 mi ( 80 km ) southwest of Zihuatanejo . It dissipated later that day . Bernice exposed two ships to gales , but otherwise neither deaths nor significant impact was reported . At its peak , Tropical Storm Bernice had winds of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) .
= = = Tropical Storm Claudia = = =
A tropical depression formed June 26 from a westward @-@ moving area of disturbed weather . The next day , it developed gale @-@ force winds and was named Claudia . Claudia headed northwesterly and then northwards and made landfall on June 28 approximately 30 mi ( 50 km ) east of Acapulco . It dissipated inland the next day . No deaths or casualties were reported due to this tropical cyclone .
= = = Hurricane Doreen = = =
On July 18 , a tropical storm formed from a disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone and was named Doreen . It steadily intensified , and became a hurricane on July 19 . Doreen briefly reached Category 4 strength on July 21 with a relatively high central pressure of 972 mb ( 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) . It then weakened steadily as its path carried it on a direct path to the Big Island of Hawaii . Doreen weakened to a tropical storm as it entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility on July 25 . A frontal system stuck between two high @-@ pressure areas weakened as the two areas merged , creating a larger high pressure area that turned Doreen to the southwest on July 27 . The hurricane then turned back to the northwest and strengthened back into a hurricane . It became a major hurricane again before weakening . Doreen dissipated August 3 . Its remnant vortex continued westward until it dissipated under a trough near the dateline . Doreen 's sudden change of track and restrengthening was unusual .
From formation to dissipation , Doreen lasted 16 @.@ 25 days and traveled a distance of 4 @,@ 200 mi ( 6 @,@ 760 km ) . This tied Hurricane Celeste 's record for longest @-@ lasting Pacific hurricane . Doreen was also the longest @-@ lasting July tropical cyclone . Hurricane Fico broke both of these records in the 1978 season . Doreen remains the eighth @-@ longest lasting Pacific tropical cyclone , tied with two other storms . Several ships encountered Doreen . The most serious incident involved a Greek ship called Cornelia which lost its rudder in 35 ft ( 10 m ) waves , but managed to escape and continue on its way to Panama . On the afternoon of July 29 , 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) swells and 3 @.@ 5 ft ( 0 m ) waves were seen from Kapoho . Otherwise , no damages or deaths were blamed on this tropical cyclone .
= = = Hurricane Emily = = =
A depression formed July 21 from squalls in the Gulf of Tehuantepec and headed west @-@ northwest and strengthened into a tropical storm . Emily continued moving nearly parallel to the coast before turning to the west while steadily intensifying . Emily eventually reached Category 4 intensity on July 22 . Emily then weakened as it turned to the northwest . It dissipated on July 28 . Emily 's wind field was large enough to bring gales areas 300 mi ( 480 km ) east of the hurricane from July 22 to 24 . This tropical cyclone caused no deaths or damage .
= = = Hurricane Florence = = =
On July 25 , a depression formed off the coast of Guatemala . The storm made a close approach to the Mexican coast as a depression , but did not make landfall . Just after that , it strengthened into a tropical storm . Florence headed west and then west @-@ northwest . It became a hurricane on July 29 . It began weakening thereafter . Florence dissipated on July 30 . No damages or deaths were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Glenda = = =
A depression that had formed on July 30 from a tropical disturbance quickly strengthened into a tropical storm and was named Glenda . It took a path similar to both Florence and Emily , but further from the shore . Glenda dissipated August 5 . At the time it still had winds of 40 knots ( 70 km / h ) , down from its peak of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . No deaths , damage , or other impact was reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Heather = = =
The only storm to form in August this year formed on August 31 from an area of circulation in the ITCZ over the Gulf of Tehuantepec . It became a tropical depression on August 30 . After moving northwest for a bit , it became a tropical storm and headed almost due north towards Mexico . Heather dissipated September 1 , just before making landfall . Tropical Storm Heather caused no deaths or damage to any location in the coastal area of the Gulf of Tehuantepec .
= = = Hurricane Irah = = =
A depression formed September 22 . It became a tropical storm on September 23 and a hurricane on September 24 . Irah took a northwesterly path and reached Category 2 strength on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and then dropped back down to a 1 as it recurved . It made landfall on Baja California and entered the Gulf of California as a tropical storm , making landfall again in northwestern Mexico approximately 30 mi ( 50 km ) northwest of Los Mochis . Irah 's first landfall was the strongest of the season . The hurricane dissipated on September 27 while heading east @-@ northeast over mainland Mexico .
Irah blew over some power and communication lines during its passage over the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula . Heavy rain fell over parts of Mexico , with the highest total being 10 @.@ 24 in ( 260 mm ) at Sierra de la Laguna . One person was injured and at least ten houses were destroyed in Cabo San Lucas . No one was killed . There was some concern that the hurricane could disrupt splashdown procedures for astronauts at the end of Skylab 3 ; however , the return to Earth was not seriously affected .
= = = Tropical Storm Jennifer = = =
On September 23 , another depression formed . It took a northeasterly path , rotating around the southern periphery of Hurricane Irah as part of a Fujiwara interaction . It strengthened into a tropical storm late on September 24 . The peak windspeed of this tropical cyclone was 40 miles per hour ( 60 km / h ) . Jennifer then weakened to a depression and turned to the north @-@ northeast . Jennifer brushed the Islas Marías . The cyclone made landfall near just southeast of Mazatlán and dissipated September 27 . Tropical Depression Jennifer caused rain over several parts of Mexico . The highest total was 7 @.@ 48 in ( 190 mm ) at Navarette / San Blas . No one was killed and no damage was reported .
= = = Hurricane Katherine = = =
Katherine became a tropical storm on September 29 , just six hours after forming . It headed out to sea . On October 1 , it became a hurricane . It peaked in windspeed the next day . After weakening to storm strength , it crossed 140 ° W and entered the central Pacific . Katherine continued its slightly south of westward track . It dropped to a depression on October 9 , and dissipated shortly after that due to the influence of a cold trough . The storm never threatened land , causing no casualties or damage .
= = = Hurricane Lillian = = =
A depression that formed October 5 reached storm strength the same day . It generally paralleled the coast of Mexico far offshore . Lillian reached minimal hurricane strength on October 7 and peaked the next day . The hurricane began to weaken immediately thereafter and dissipated on October 9 . Through its life , Lillian at first traveled generally west @-@ northwestward , and then westward . Lillian never threatened land , causing no known impact .
= = 1973 Storm Names = =
These names were used for storms that formed in the eastern Pacific during this season . It is the same list used in the 1969 season . Storms were named Katherine and Lillian for the first time this year . No names were retired , so this list was used again in the 1977 season . Names that weren 't assigned are colored gray .
The Central Pacific used names and numbers from the Western Pacific 's typhoon list . No systems formed in the area , and thus no names were required .
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= Varaha Upanishad =
Varaha Upanishad ( Sanskrit : वराह उपनिषत ् , " boar " ) is a minor Upanishad of Hinduism composed between the 13th and 16th centuries CE . Composed in Sanskrit , it is listed as one of the 32 Krishna Yajurveda Upanishads , and classified as one of 20 Yoga Upanishads .
The text has five chapters , structured primarily as a discussion between Vishnu in his Varaha ( boar ) avatar and the sage Ribhu . The discussion covers the subjects of Tattvas , the nature and relationship between the individual soul ( Self , Atman ) and the Ultimate Reality ( Brahman ) , the seven stages of learning , the characteristics of Jivanmukti ( inner sense of freedom while living ) , and the four types of Jivanmuktas ( liberated persons ) . The last chapter of the text is dedicated to Yoga , its goals and methods .
It is , as an Upanishad , a part of the corpus of Vedanta literature that presents the philosophical concepts of Hinduism . The Varaha Upanishad emphasizes that liberation from sorrow and fear requires a human being to know the non @-@ dualistic nature of existence , oneness between Self , Brahman and Vishnu , and the role of Yoga in self @-@ liberation , and lists ten Yamas ( virtues ) as essential to a liberation of one 's soul : nonviolence , satya , asteya , brahmacharya , compassion , rectitude , kshama , non @-@ hypocrisy , mitahara , and shaucha . The text describes the Jivanmukta as one whose inner state , amongst other things , is neither affected by happiness nor by suffering inflicted on him , who does not shrink out of fear from the world , nor the world shrinks from him with fear , and whose sense of calm and inner contentment is free from anger , fear , and joy toward others .
= = Etymology and anthology = =
Varaha means boar , specifically referring to the incarnation of Vishnu as a boar in Indian mythology . The term Upanishad means it is knowledge or " hidden doctrine " text that belongs to the corpus of Vedanta literature presenting the philosophical concepts of Hinduism and considered the highest purpose of its scripture , the Vedas . The text is also known as Varahopanishad .
The text is listed as 98th in the modern era anthology that consists of 108 Upanishads . A Sanskrit text , it is considered one of the 32 Upanishads under the Krishna Yajurveda or Black Yajurveda . Classified as a Yoga Upanishad , the author , authenticity , and source of this Hindu text has been in question , and it is a late Upanishad . Varaha Upanishad was not listed in the anthology of known Upanishads published in the 17th century by Dara Shikoh , in the early 19th @-@ century Henry Thomas Colebrooke anthology , or in the Narayana compilations of Upanishads .
= = Chronology = =
The text opens by acknowledging Itihasa ( Epics , Ramayana and Mahabharata ) and other post @-@ Vedic era texts , thus implying that it was composed in the common era . The text incorporates terminology such as Yogi Siddhi , suggesting that , like other Yoga Upanishads , it was composed after Yoga Sutras of Patanjali and other major Yoga texts . The text also incorporates sections on tantra terminology such as Chakra and Nāḍi in its discussion of Laya , Mantra , and Hatha yoga . The minor Yoga Upanishads , according to Antonio Rigopoulos , a professor of Indology at the University Ca ' Foscari of Venice , were recorded in the medieval period of India 's Advaita and Yoga @-@ rooted traditions , possibly in the middle of the 2nd millennium CE , but may well represent already established ideas and practices before the epic and medieval period , given that they use concepts and terminology rooted in the 1st millennium BCE Vedic era text , such as pranava , Atman , and Brahman .
According to Ananda , the text was likely composed between the 13th and 16th centuries .
= = Contents = =
= = = Structure = = =
Ribhu , after observing Tapas ( penance ) for 12 long deva years , is visited by Vishnu in his Varaha avatar ; the latter asks Ribhu what boon he would like . Ribhu declines all worldly pleasures , and asks Vishnu to explain " that science of Brahman which treats of thy nature , a knowledge which leads to salvation " . From this point on , the Upanishad is structured as a sermon by Varaha to the sage Ribhu . It has five chapters with a total of 247 verses .
= = = Tattvas = = =
In Chapter 1 of the text , Varaha tells Ribhu first about the science of Tattvas , meaning " principles " . The Tattvas are said to be 24 , 36 , or even 96 by some teachers , which Varaha elaborates .
In the Tattvas , asserts Varaha , are included the five sensory organs , five organs of action , five vital airs essential to a living body ( " Vital airs " of Prāṇa , Apāna , Uḍāna , Samāna , and Vyāna ) , five rudimentary principles of perception , and the faculties of knowledge – Manas ( mind ) which produces uncertain knowledge , Buddhi ( intelligence ) which leads to certain knowledge , " Chitta " ( emotional consciousness ) which produces doubts and fluctuations in knowledge , and " Ahankara " ( ego ) which produces egoism . These total 24 tattvas , states the text .
Some scholars , asserts Varaha , expand the list of tattvas of a human body to 36 , by including the five elements – earth ( Prithvi ) , air ( Vayu ) , water ( Ap ) , ether ( Akasha ) , and fire ( Agni ) ; the three bodies – the gross , the subtle and the causal ( Karana ) ; three states of consciousness – when awake , when dreaming , and when in dreamless sleep ; and one jiva ( soul ) .
Varaha then describes how the list of tattva increases to 96 in verses 1 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 14 . It includes the six stages of changes ( Aiyar translates this to " existence , birth , growth , transformation , decay , and destruction " ) ; six maladies or " infirmities " ( hunger , thirst , suffering , delusion , age , and death ) ; koshas or six sheaths ( " skin , blood , flesh , fat , marrow , and bones " ) ; six adversities or foes of a body ( " longing , anger , craving , arrogance , and malice " ) ; three aspects of " jiva " – " Vishva " ( world ) , " Taijasa " ( endowed with light ) , and " Prajna " ( insight into nature of reality ) ; three " Guṇas " or qualities , innate psyche ( " Sattva , Rajas , and Tamas " ) ; three types of Karmas ( " Prarabdha " ( past karma now being enjoyed ) , " Sanchita " ( past karma yet to be enjoyed ) , and " Agamin " ( current karma to be enjoyed later ) ) ; five actions ( " talking , lifting , walking , excreting , and enjoying " ) ; and tattvas of " thought , certainty , egoism , compassion , kindness , anticipation , sympathy , and indifference " . To complete its list of 96 , the Varaha adds " Dik " , or the four quarters , all Vedic deities who are part of the human body , namely " Vayu " ( air , ear ) , Sun ( light , eye ) , " Varuna " ( water , tongue ) , Ashvini Devas ( nose ) , Agni ( fire ) , Indra , Upendra , and Mrityu ( death ) ; it includes the moon , the four @-@ faced Brahma , Rudra , Kshetrajna ( the conscious knower of the body ) , and Ishvara .
Vishnu , as Varaha , asserts in verses 1 @.@ 15 to 1 @.@ 17 , that he is " other than aggregate of these 96 Tattvas " , and those who worship him in his Varaha avatar and know these 96 tattvas remove their Ajnana ( ignorance ) , achieve salvation regardless of which order of life they are in , whether they have shaven head , or head full of hair , or maintain a head with only a tuft of hair .
= = = Brahmavidya = = =
The Varaha , in the 83 verses of Chapter 2 , explains to Ribhu how to achieve the most exalted knowledge of Brahmavidya , and then what it is . He tells Ribhu that the four means of this knowledge are to practice conduct of one 's Varna ( caste ) and one 's Ashrama ( stage in life ) , from ascetic austerity and with the help of a Guru ( spiritual teacher ) . The Varaha then states that the path to Brahmavidya is through the capacity to distinguish between the ephemeral and the eternal , detachment from the material world unto the spiritual world . A sincere longing for spiritual liberation and six virtuous qualities ( shama ) are essential in order to achieve Brahmavidya , asserts the Upanishad , these being tranquility , self @-@ restraint , doing work without craving for rewards , endurance , faith , and meditation . Varaha states in verse 2 @.@ 4 that the truly blessed are those who know Brahman and Atman and have thus become one with them .
Ribhu then asks Varaha , " Taking birth as a human , that is also a male and a Brahmin is difficult , a yogi who has studied the Vedanta but who does not know the form of Vishnu , how can such an ignorant one become liberated ? "
Varaha replies in verses 2 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 9 that he alone is Supreme Bliss , that apart from the Atman ( soul ) there exists no Ishvara or phenomenal world . Those who know their Atman ( soul ) have no notions of Varna ( caste ) or Ashrama ( stage in life ) ; they see Atman as Brahman , they become Brahman and reach " Moksha " salvation even without seeking . That which is of the character of Truth , Knowledge , Bliss , and Fullness , states Varaha Upanishad in verse 2 @.@ 16 , stands farthest away from Tamas ( darkness , destruction , chaos ) .
Varaha states that what one aspires to is part of His own " light " , which is all @-@ encompassing . As Atman , self effulgent , Varaha states that " Brahma @-@ Jnanis " are those who see nothing but the Brahman , and they are happy and content in the universe despite being subject to sufferings .
The Varaha Upanishad asserts the non @-@ dualistic premise that Brahman and Atman are one , and those who know this fear nothing , suffer nothing , and possess fortitude . He is I , states Vishnu . " Become that , Ribhu ; Thou am I verily " , suggests Vishnu . Those high souled ones , who with the firm conviction that " I am the Brahman " , are the Jivanmukta , states verse 2 @.@ 43 of the text .
= = = = Sankalpa = = = =
According to the Upanishad , the entire universe evolves by Sankalpa ( a thinking , ideation process ) , one becomes what one thinks , metaphysics affects physics , and it is ideation that helps retain the appearances of the world . Following renunciation from this universe , which is also called a Sankalpa , the meditating mind is to be focused on the Nirvikalpa ( the unchangeable ) or the unchangeable part ( metaphysical reality ) . Varaha in verse 2 @.@ 64 compares the " samsara " ( cycle of rebirth ) to the domain of karma , states Billington , one that is like a long dream ( " swapna " ) , a delusion , a sea of sorrow . It defines jivanmukta as someone who has overcome and attained liberation from this samsara through self @-@ knowledge .
= = = = Meditation = = = =
Varaha explains that through obeisance to Him who is found in everything , and doing meditation for just 48 minutes ( a muhurtha ) , will expand his wisdom to the state of " Pratyagatman " , the state of Atman which is forever liberated . It means living close to Jivatma ( soul ) and Paramatman ( the Supreme Soul ) .
The Upanishad states that knowledge of Brahman results in knowing spiritual truth in the Paroksha ( indirect cognition ) way , but Sakshatkara ( direct realization ) results in knowing that his own soul is Brahman . And when a practitioner of Yoga becomes a Jivamukta ( liberated soul ) , he knows that his Atman is the ultimate perfection . To an enlightened person who has realized Brahman , the two words " bondage " and " moksha " mean " mine " and " not mine " . " Mine " is linked to a person , but " not mine " relates to one who is liberated from all thinking and knows Atman .
= = = = Samadhi = = = =
In verses 2 @.@ 75 through 2 @.@ 87 , the Varaha Upanishad defines the goal of Yoga and what is " Samadhi " , as follows :
The state of Samadhi , it explains , is akin to salt dissolving in water , and the quality of oneness that results .
= = = Vishnu is Shiva = = =
The Upanishad , in Chapter 3 , continues the sermon of Vishnu to Ribhu , that " Ribhu should develop the conviction that he himself is palpable Existence and Consciousness , indivisible , without a counterpart , devoid of all visibility , non @-@ ailing , flawless , the Shiva without a double " . The text reasserts its non @-@ dualism in Chapter 3 , adding that bhakti to Vishnu is the path to liberating knowledge of Brahman . In verse 3 @.@ 14 – 3 @.@ 15 , states Ayyangar , everyone is equal in the eyes of god , there is no difference between living forms and human beings based on law , family , caste , or clan , and everyone is one Truth and Absolute Brahman . The " Vishnu is Shiva " and " all is Shiva " theme repeats in verse 4 @.@ 32 , which declares , " The Guru is Shiva , the Veda is Shiva , the Deva is Shiva , the Lord is Shiva , I Varaha am Shiva , all is Shiva , other than Shiva there is naught " .
The Ultimate Truth , states the text , is that which always is , which preserves its nature over time , and which is unaffected by anything . The Atman , the Brahman , the " Chit , Sat and Ananda " , and Janardhana ( Vishnu ) is such Truth , and they are synonymous , one . Some try to seek Sidhis , asserts the Upanishad , through mantras , religious rituals , time , skill , medicine , or wealth , but such Sidhis are fleeting and fruitless . Be an Atmajnani ( one with Self @-@ knowledge ) through Yoga , says Vishnu to Ribhu , and to such a person Siddhis are of no importance .
= = = Seven stages of knowledge = = =
The Varaha Upanishad , in Chapter 4 , states that individuals gain knowledge through seven stages : First , one must have virtuous desire to learn , discover ( Subh @-@ echchha ) . The second stage is inquiry , investigation ( Vichārana ) . Discernment and thinning of mind toward other objects ( Tanumanasi ) is the third stage , states the text . The fourth stage is harmony , creative union with the subject of knowledge ( Sattva @-@ patti ) . Detachment from everything else ( Asamsakti ) is the fifth stage . Conceptual analysis and gaining complete , correct meaning of the topic ( Pad @-@ artha @-@ bhavana ) is the sixth stage . The seventh or last stage is Turiya , complete consciousness .
The text states that AUM is a means for meditating on the nature of Atman and Brahman , wherein " A " represents Akara and Visva , " U " represents Ukara and Taijasa , M represents Makara and Prajna , the Ardhamatra that follows AUM , represents the Turiya .
= = = = The characteristics of a Jivanmukta = = = =
The Varaha Upanishad , in a manner similar to many ancient and medieval era Hindu texts , discusses moksha in this life ( rather than afterlife ) , or Jivanmukti , calling those who have reached such a state a Jivanmukta ( self @-@ realized person ) . The verses 4 @.@ 21 – 4 @.@ 30 describe the characteristics of a Jivanmukta ; Ayyangar and Aiyar state as follows :
He who is engrossed in the ways of the world , yet his mind is steady , like ether , is said to be Jivanmukta
He whose mental radiance neither rises nor sets , whose inner state is neither affected by happiness nor by misery inflicted on him , is said to be Jivanmukta
He who is wakeful while remaining asleep , he whose mental alertness is devoid of impressions , is known as Jivanmukta
He who responds to influences such as hatred , fear , love , yet his heart remains pure like Akasha ( aether , space ) , is said to be Jivanmukta
He whose attitude is not be attached to anything , his intellect never clouded whether active or passive , is a Jivanmukta
He who does not shrink out of fear from the world , nor the world shrinks from him , who is free from anger , fear and joy , is a Jivanmukta
He whose mind is not agitated , though participating in the world , who rests in state of calmness and absolute consciousness , no matter what , is known as Jivanmukta
The concept and characteristics of Jivanmukta in Varaha Upanishad is similar , states Sprockhoff , but other Upanishads develop these ideas further and in greater depth .
= = = Yoga = = =
Chapter 5 of the Varaha Upanishad is dedicated to Yoga , as a discussion between Ribhu and his student Nidagha . There are three types of Yoga , states the text , and these are Laya ( soft ) , Mantra ( mystic ) , and Hatha ( middle ) , recommending Hatha Yoga as foremost of three . It discusses various aspects of Yoga , ranging from recommending that healthy food should be eaten in temperate quantities , in small portions , several times a day , to recommending that Yoga should not be performed when one is not feeling well or is very hungry . The goal of Yoga , states Varaha , is manifold , including the gain of body strength and suppleness , acquisition of knowledge of one 's own body and its auras , meditation , and Self ( soul ) knowledge .
= = = = Axiology : Yamas and Niyamas = = = =
The axiology in the Varaha Upanishad is presented in Chapter 5 as ten Yamas and ten Niyamas . This list is similar to the list found in other Yoga texts such as the Shandilya Upanishad , as well as by Svātmārāma :
Ahiṃsā ( अहिंसा ) : nonviolence
Satya ( सत ् य ) : truthfulness
Asteya ( अस ् तेय ) : not stealing
Brahmacharya ( ब ् रह ् मचर ् य ) : celibacy when single , not cheating on one 's partner
Kṣamā ( क ् षमा ) : forgiveness
Dhṛti ( धृति ) : fortitude
Dayā ( दया ) : compassion
Ārjava ( आर ् जव ) : non @-@ hypocrisy , sincerity
Mitāhāra ( मितहार ) : measured diet
Śauca ( शौच ) : purity , cleanliness
The Varaha Upanishad along with the Shandilya , suggests ten niyamas in the sense of positive duties , desirable behaviors , and discipline . The Varaha 's axiological list in Chapter 5 for observances include :
Tapas : persistence , perseverance in one 's purpose , penance austerity
Santoṣa : contentment , acceptance of others and of one 's circumstances as they are , joy
Āstika : faith in Real Self ( jnana yoga , raja yoga ) , belief in God ( bhakti yoga ) , conviction in Vedas / Upanishads ( orthodox school )
Dāna : generosity , charity , sharing with others
Īśvarapūjana : worship of the Ishvara ( God / Supreme Being , Brahman , True Self , Unchanging Reality )
Siddhānta śrāvaṇa : listening to the ancient scriptures , texts about ethics , values , and principles
Hrī : remorse and acceptance of one 's past , modesty , humility
Mati : think and reflect to understand , reconcile conflicting ideas
Japa : mantra repetition , reciting prayers or knowledge
Vrata : keeping promises , fast rituals , observing pilgrimage and yajna
= = = = Yogasanas = = = =
The Upanishad makes mention of eleven asanas ( Yogic postures ) , of which two pertain to physiological postures : the Peacock and the Rooster . It describes squatting with folded legs known as Sukhasana , a meditative pose .
Varaha gives a simile of an artist practicing dance to an orchestra , balancing a vessel on her head . She is focused only on the stability of the pot , in the same manner a practitioner of Yoga always contemplates on the Brahman . The yogic practice should be centered on the " spiritual sound " only . Immersion and self @-@ absorption in music is a form of yoga . Varaha encourages introspection , and states that a person discerning his own mistakes will be free of attachments in life .
= = = = Kundalini = = = =
Varaha emphatically states that Kundalini or corporeal energy is the ultimate power of truth . It is further states that prana , the life force , exists in the Nadis ( channels , pipes or tubes ) , which run in the body , emanating from the sole of the foot and running to the skull of the head . The six Chakras beginning with Muladhara are said to be the seat of Shakti . From the neck to the top of the head is said to be the seat of Shambu .
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= Vettor Pisani @-@ class cruiser =
The Vettor Pisani class consisted of two armoured cruisers built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the 1890s . The two ships of the class , Vettor Pisani and Carlo Alberto , were frequently deployed overseas during their careers . The former served in the Far East during the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 while the latter was involved in pioneering long @-@ range radio experiments several years later before deploying to South American waters . Carlo Alberto then served as a training ship for several years . Both ships participated in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 and played minor roles in World War I , during which time Carlo Alberto was converted into a troop transport and Vettor Pisani into a repair ship . They were both discarded in 1920 and subsequently scrapped .
= = Design and description = =
The ships of the class had a length between perpendiculars of 99 meters ( 324 ft 10 in ) and an overall length of 105 @.@ 7 meters ( 346 ft 9 in ) . They had a beam of 18 @.@ 04 meters ( 59 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 2 meters ( 23 ft 7 in ) . They displaced 6 @,@ 397 – 6 @,@ 614 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 296 – 6 @,@ 510 long tons ) at normal load , and 7 @,@ 057 – 7 @,@ 128 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 946 – 7 @,@ 015 long tons ) at deep load . The Vettor Pisani class had a complement of 28 officers and 472 to 476 enlisted men .
The ships were powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft . Steam for the engines was supplied by eight Scotch marine boilers and their exhausts were trunked into a pair of funnels amidships . Designed for a maximum output of 13 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 700 kW ) and a speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , both ships exceeded their designed power during their sea trials although only Carlo Alberto met her designed speed . The two had a cruising radius of about 5 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 000 km ; 6 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The main armament of the Vettor Pisani @-@ class ships consisted of twelve quick @-@ firing ( QF ) Cannone da 152 / 40 A Modello 1891 guns in single mounts . These 152 mm ( 6 in ) weapons had 40 @-@ caliber barrels . All of these guns were mounted on the broadside , eight on the upper deck and four at the corners of the central citadel in armored casemates . The M1891 guns weighed 6 @.@ 6 metric tons ( 6 @.@ 5 long tons ) and fired a 45 @.@ 4 @-@ kilogram ( 100 lb ) , armor @-@ piercing , capped shell at a muzzle velocity of 700 m / s ( 2 @,@ 297 ft / s ) .
Single 40 @-@ caliber QF Cannone da 120 / 40 A Modello 1891 guns were mounted at the bow and stern and the remaining two or four 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns were positioned on the main deck between the 152 mm guns . The 20 @.@ 4 @-@ kilogram ( 45 lb ) armor @-@ piercing shell had a muzzle velocity of 645 m / s ( 2 @,@ 116 ft / s ) when fired by these guns . For defense against torpedo boats , the ships carried fourteen QF 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) Hotchkiss guns and six or eight QF 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns . They were also equipped with four 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes .
The ships were protected by an armored belt that was 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships and reduced to 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) at the bow and stern . The upper strake of armor was also 15 cm thick and protected just the middle of the ship , up to the height of the upper deck . The curved armored deck was 3 @.@ 7 cm thick . The conning tower armor was also 15 cm thick and each 15 @.@ 2 cm gun was protected by a 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) gun shield .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Vettor Pisani was the flagship of Rear Admiral Candiani , commander of the Cruising Squadron dispatched to China in 1900 during the Boxer Rebellion . She arrived at La Spezia in early 1902 , but only remained in Italian waters for a year before returning to the Far East for another year @-@ long cruise .
Carlo Alberto acted as the royal yacht for King Victor Emmanuel III when he attended the coronation ceremony for King Edward VII of the United Kingdom in 1902 . Victor Emmanuel invited Guglielmo Marconi to accompany him and conduct radio experiments en route . When the coronation was delayed by Edward 's illness , the ship took Victor Emmanuel to meetings with Tsar Nicholas II of Russia in Kronstadt . She then ferried Marconi across the Atlantic to Nova Scotia for experiments transmitting radio messages across the ocean . After 15 December , when Marconi successfully transmitted messages from Canada to England , Carlo Alberto was sent to Venezuelan waters during the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 – 03 , when an international force of British , German , and Italian warships blockaded Venezuela over the country 's refusal to pay foreign debts . From 1907 to 1910 she served as a gunnery and torpedo training ship .
Both ships participated in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 . Vettor Pisani supported operations in the Adriatic and Aegean Seas and in the Dardanelles while Carlo Alberto took part in the assaults on Tripoli and Zuara and thereafter provided gunfire support to Italian forces in North Africa .
Obsolescent by the beginning of World War I , neither ship was very active during the war . Vettor Pisani spent the war in the Adriatic and participated in an abortive attempt in mid @-@ 1915 to bombard a rail line near Ragusa Vecchia on the Dalmatian coast . An Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine , U @-@ 4 , intercepted the Italian ships and sank the armored cruiser Giuseppe Garibaldi . Vettor Pisani subsequently became a repair ship in 1916 and was stricken from the Navy List on 2 January 1920 . She was sold for scrap and broken up beginning on 13 March .
Carlo Alberto spent the almost the entire war based in Venice . She began conversion into a troop transport there in 1917 and the work was finished in Taranto early the next year ; she was recommissioned with the new name of Zenson . The ship was discarded on 12 June 1920 and subsequently scrapped .
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= Radius of maximum wind =
The radius of maximum wind ( RMW ) is the distance between the center of a cyclone and its band of strongest winds . It is a parameter in atmospheric dynamics and tropical cyclone forecasting . The highest rainfall rates occur near the RMW of tropical cyclones . The extent of a cyclone 's storm surge and its maximum potential intensity can be determined using the RMW . As maximum sustained winds increase , the RMW decreases . Recently , RMW has been used in descriptions of tornadoes . When designing buildings to prevent against failure from atmospheric pressure change , RMW can be used in the calculations .
= = Determination = =
The RMW is traditionally measured by reconnaissance aircraft in the Atlantic basin . It can also be determined on weather maps as the distance between the cyclone center and the system 's greatest pressure gradient . Using weather satellite data , the distance between the coldest cloud top temperature and the warmest temperatature within the eye , in infrared satellite imagery , is one method of determining RMW . The reason why this method has merit is that the strongest winds within tropical cyclones tend to be located under the deepest convection , which is seen on satellite imagery as the coldest cloud tops . Use of velocity data from Doppler weather radar can also be used to determine this quantity , both for tornadoes and tropical cyclones near the coast .
= = Tornadoes = =
In the case of tornadoes , knowledge of the RMW is important as atmospheric pressure change ( APC ) within sealed buildings can cause failure of the structure . Most buildings have openings totaling one square foot per 1 @,@ 000 @-@ cubic @-@ foot ( 28 m3 ) volume to help equalize air pressure between the inside and outside of the structures . The APC is around one @-@ half of its maximum value at the RMW , which normally ranges between 150 feet ( 46 m ) and 500 feet ( 150 m ) from the center ( or eye ) of the tornado . The widest tornado as measured by actual radar wind measurements was the Mulhall tornado in northern Oklahoma , part of the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak , which had a radius of maximum wind of over 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) .
= = Tropical cyclones = =
An average value for the RMW of 47 kilometres ( 29 mi ) was calculated as the mean ( or average ) of all hurricanes with a lowest central atmospheric pressure between a pressure of 909 hectopascals ( 26 @.@ 8 inHg ) and 993 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) . As tropical cyclones intensify , maximum sustained winds increase as the RMW decreases . The heaviest rainfall within intense tropical cyclones has been observed in the vicinity of the RMW .
The radius of maximum wind helps determine the direct strikes of tropical cyclones . Tropical cyclones are considered to have made a direct strike to a landmass when a tropical cyclone passes close enough to a landmass that areas inside the radius of maximum wind are experienced on land . The radius of maximum wind is used within the maximum potential intensity equation . The Emanuel equation for Maximum Intensity Potential relies upon the winds near the RMW of a tropical cyclone to determine its ultimate potential .
The highest storm surge is normally coincident with the radius of maximum wind . Because the strongest winds within a tropical cyclone lie at the RMW , this is the region of a tropical cyclone which generates the dominant waves near the storm , and ultimately ocean swell away from the cyclone . Tropical cyclones mix the ocean water within a radius three times that of the RMW , which lowers sea surface temperatures due to upwelling .
Much is still unknown about the radius of maximum wind in tropical cyclones , including whether or not it can be predictable .
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= William Wilberforce =
William Wilberforce ( 24 August 1759 – 29 July 1833 ) was an English politician , philanthropist , and a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade . A native of Kingston upon Hull , Yorkshire , he began his political career in 1780 , eventually becoming the independent Member of Parliament for Yorkshire ( 1784 – 1812 ) . In 1785 , he became an Evangelical Christian , which resulted in major changes to his lifestyle and a lifelong concern for reform .
In 1787 , he came into contact with Thomas Clarkson and a group of anti @-@ slave @-@ trade activists , including Granville Sharp , Hannah More and Charles Middleton . They persuaded Wilberforce to take on the cause of abolition , and he soon became one of the leading English abolitionists . He headed the parliamentary campaign against the British slave trade for twenty years until the passage of the Slave Trade Act of 1807 .
Wilberforce was convinced of the importance of religion , morality and education . He championed causes and campaigns such as the Society for the Suppression of Vice , British missionary work in India , the creation of a free colony in Sierra Leone , the foundation of the Church Mission Society , and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals . His underlying conservatism led him to support politically and socially controversial legislation , and resulted in criticism that he was ignoring injustices at home while campaigning for the enslaved abroad .
In later years , Wilberforce supported the campaign for the complete abolition of slavery , and continued his involvement after 1826 , when he resigned from Parliament because of his failing health . That campaign led to the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 , which abolished slavery in most of the British Empire ; Wilberforce died just three days after hearing that the passage of the Act through Parliament was assured . He was buried in Westminster Abbey , close to his friend William Pitt .
= = Early life and education = =
Wilberforce was born in a house on the High Street of Hull , in the East Riding of Yorkshire : England , on 24 August 1759 , the only son of Robert Wilberforce ( 1728 – 68 ) , a wealthy merchant , and his wife Elizabeth Bird ( 1730 – 98 ) . His grandfather William ( 1690 – 1774 or 1776 ) had made the family fortune in the maritime trade with Baltic countries , and had twice been elected mayor of Hull .
Wilberforce was a small , sickly and delicate child , with poor eyesight . In 1767 he began attending Hull Grammar School , at the time headed by a young , dynamic headmaster , Joseph Milner , who was to become a lifelong friend . Wilberforce profited from the supportive atmosphere at the school until the death of his father in 1768 . With his mother struggling to cope , the nine @-@ year @-@ old Wilberforce was sent to a prosperous uncle and aunt with houses in both St James ' Place , London , and Wimbledon , at that time a village 7 miles ( 11 km ) south @-@ west of London . He attended an " indifferent " boarding school in Putney for two years , spending his holidays in Wimbledon , where he grew extremely fond of his relatives . He became interested in evangelical Christianity because of their influence , especially that of his aunt Hannah , sister of the wealthy Christian merchant John Thornton , a philanthropist and a supporter of the leading Methodist preacher George Whitefield .
Wilberforce 's staunchly Church of England mother and grandfather , alarmed at these nonconformist influences and at his leanings towards evangelicalism , brought the 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy back to Hull in 1771 . Wilberforce was heartbroken to be separated from his aunt and uncle . His family opposed a return to Hull Grammar School because the headmaster had become a Methodist ; Wilberforce therefore continued his education at nearby Pocklington School from 1771 to 1776 . Influenced by Methodist scruples , he initially resisted Hull 's lively social life , but as his religious fervour diminished , he embraced theatre @-@ going , attended balls and played cards .
In October 1776 , at the age of 17 , Wilberforce went up to St John 's College , Cambridge . The deaths of his grandfather and uncle in 1777 had left him independently wealthy , and as a result he had little inclination or need to apply himself to serious study . Instead , he immersed himself in the social round of student life , and pursued a hedonistic lifestyle enjoying cards , gambling and late @-@ night drinking sessions — although he found the excesses of some of his fellow students distasteful . Witty , generous , and an excellent conversationalist , Wilberforce was a popular figure . He made many friends , including the more studious future Prime Minister , William Pitt . Despite his lifestyle and lack of interest in studying , he managed to pass his examinations , and was awarded a B.A. in 1781 and an M.A. in 1788 .
= = Early parliamentary career = =
Wilberforce began to consider a political career while still at university , and during the winter of 1779 – 80 , he and Pitt frequently watched House of Commons debates from the gallery . Pitt , already set on a political career , encouraged Wilberforce to join him in obtaining a parliamentary seat . In September 1780 , at the age of twenty @-@ one and while still a student , Wilberforce was elected Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Kingston upon Hull , spending over £ 8 @,@ 000 to ensure he received the necessary votes , as was the custom of the time . Free from financial pressures , Wilberforce sat as an independent , resolving to be " no party man " . Criticised at times for inconsistency , he supported both Tory and Whig governments according to his conscience , working closely with the party in power , and voting on specific measures according to their merits .
Wilberforce attended Parliament regularly , but he also maintained a lively social life , becoming an habitué of gentlemen 's gambling clubs such as Goostree 's and Boodle 's in Pall Mall , London . The writer and socialite Madame de Staël described him as the " wittiest man in England " and , according to Georgiana , Duchess of Devonshire , the Prince of Wales said that he would go anywhere to hear Wilberforce sing .
Wilberforce used his speaking voice to great effect in political speeches ; the diarist and author James Boswell witnessed Wilberforce 's eloquence in the House of Commons and noted , " I saw what seemed a mere shrimp mount upon the table ; but as I listened , he grew , and grew , until the shrimp became a whale . " During the frequent government changes of 1781 – 84 , Wilberforce supported his friend Pitt in parliamentary debates .
In autumn 1783 , Pitt , Wilberforce and Edward Eliot ( later to become Pitt 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ) , travelled to France for a six @-@ week holiday together . After a difficult start in Rheims , where their presence aroused police suspicion that they were English spies , they visited Paris , meeting Benjamin Franklin , General Lafayette , Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI , and joined the French court at Fontainebleau .
Pitt became Prime Minister in December 1783 , with Wilberforce a key supporter of his minority government . Despite their close friendship , there is no record that Pitt offered Wilberforce a ministerial position in this or future governments . This may have been due to Wilberforce 's wish to remain an independent MP . Alternatively , Wilberforce 's frequent tardiness and disorganisation , as well as the chronic eye problems that at times made reading impossible , may have convinced Pitt that his trusted friend was not ministerial material . When Parliament was dissolved in the spring of 1784 , Wilberforce decided to stand as a candidate for the county of Yorkshire in the 1784 general election . On 6 April , he was returned as MP for Yorkshire at the age of twenty @-@ four .
= = Conversion = =
In October 1784 , Wilberforce embarked upon a tour of Europe which would ultimately change his life and determine his future career . He travelled with his mother and sister in the company of Isaac Milner , the brilliant younger brother of his former headmaster , who had been Fellow of Queens ' College , Cambridge , in the year when Wilberforce first went up . They visited the French Riviera and enjoyed the usual pastimes of dinners , cards , and gambling . In February 1785 , Wilberforce returned to the United Kingdom temporarily , to support Pitt 's proposals for parliamentary reforms . He rejoined the party in Genoa , Italy , from where they continued their tour to Switzerland . Milner accompanied Wilberforce to England , and on the journey they read The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul by Philip Doddridge , a leading early 18th @-@ century English nonconformist .
Wilberforce 's spiritual journey is thought to have begun at this time . He started to rise early to read the Bible and pray and kept a private journal . He underwent an evangelical conversion , regretting his past life and resolving to commit his future life and work to the service of God . His conversion changed some of his habits , but not his nature : he remained outwardly cheerful , interested and respectful , tactfully urging others towards his new faith . Inwardly , he underwent an agonising struggle and became relentlessly self @-@ critical , harshly judging his spirituality , use of time , vanity , self @-@ control and relationships with others .
At the time , religious enthusiasm was generally regarded as a social transgression and was stigmatised in polite society . Evangelicals in the upper classes , such as Sir Richard Hill , the Methodist MP for Shropshire , and Selina Hastings , Countess of Huntingdon , were exposed to contempt and ridicule , and Wilberforce 's conversion led him to question whether he should remain in public life . He sought guidance from John Newton , a leading Evangelical Anglican clergyman of the day and Rector of St Mary Woolnoth in the City of London . Both Newton and Pitt counselled him to remain in politics , and he resolved to do so " with increased diligence and conscientiousness " . Thereafter , his political views were informed by his faith and by his desire to promote Christianity and Christian ethics in private and public life . His views were often deeply conservative , opposed to radical changes in a God @-@ given political and social order , and focused on issues such as the observance of the Sabbath and the eradication of immorality through education and reform . As a result , he was often distrusted by progressive voices because of his conservatism , and regarded with suspicion by many Tories who saw Evangelicals as radicals , bent on the overthrow of church and state .
In 1786 , Wilberforce leased a house in Old Palace Yard , Westminster , in order to be near Parliament . He began using his parliamentary position to advocate reform by introducing a Registration Bill , proposing limited changes to parliamentary election procedures . He brought forward a bill to extend the measure permitting the dissection after execution of criminals such as rapists , arsonists and thieves . The bill also advocated the reduction of sentences for women convicted of treason , a crime that at the time included a husband 's murder . The House of Commons passed both bills , but they were defeated in the House of Lords .
= = Abolition of the slave trade = =
= = = Initial decision = = =
The British initially became involved in the slave trade during the 16th century . By 1783 , the triangular route that took British @-@ made goods to Africa to buy slaves , transported the enslaved to the West Indies , and then brought slave @-@ grown products such as sugar , tobacco , and cotton to Britain , represented about 80 percent of Great Britain 's foreign income . British ships dominated the trade , supplying French , Spanish , Dutch , Portuguese and British colonies , and in peak years carried forty thousand enslaved men , women and children across the Atlantic in the horrific conditions of the middle passage . Of the estimated 11 million Africans transported into slavery , about 1 @.@ 4 million died during the voyage .
The British campaign to abolish the slave trade is generally considered to have begun in the 1780s with the establishment of the Quakers ' antislavery committees , and their presentation to Parliament of the first slave trade petition in 1783 . The same year , Wilberforce , while dining with his old Cambridge friend Gerard Edwards , met Rev. James Ramsay , a ship 's surgeon who had become a clergyman on the island of St Christopher ( later St Kitts ) in the Leeward Islands , and a medical supervisor of the plantations there . What Ramsay had witnessed of the conditions endured by the slaves , both at sea and on the plantations , horrified him . Returning to England after fifteen years , he accepted the living of Teston , Kent in 1781 , and there met Sir Charles Middleton , Lady Middleton , Thomas Clarkson , Hannah More and others , a group that later became known as the Testonites . Interested in promoting Christianity and moral improvement in Britain and overseas , they were appalled by Ramsay 's reports of the depraved lifestyles of slave owners , the cruel treatment meted out to the enslaved , and the lack of Christian instruction provided to the slaves . With their encouragement and help , Ramsay spent three years writing An essay on the treatment and conversion of African slaves in the British sugar colonies , which was highly critical of slavery in the West Indies . The book , published in 1784 , was to have an important impact in raising public awareness and interest , and it excited the ire of West Indian planters who in the coming years attacked both Ramsay and his ideas in a series of pro @-@ slavery tracts .
Wilberforce apparently did not follow up on his meeting with Ramsay . However , three years later , and inspired by his new faith , Wilberforce was growing interested in humanitarian reform . In November 1786 , he received a letter from Sir Charles Middleton that re @-@ opened his interest in the slave trade . At the urging of Lady Middleton , Sir Charles suggested that Wilberforce bring forward the abolition of the slave trade in Parliament . Wilberforce responded that he " felt the great importance of the subject , and thought himself unequal to the task allotted to him , but yet would not positively decline it " . He began to read widely on the subject , and met with the Testonites at Middleton 's home at Barham Court in Teston in the early winter of 1786 – 87 .
In early 1787 , Thomas Clarkson , a fellow graduate of St John 's , Cambridge , who had become convinced of the need to end the slave trade after writing a prize @-@ winning essay on the subject while at Cambridge , called upon Wilberforce at Old Palace Yard with a published copy of the work . This was the first time the two men had met ; their collaboration would last nearly fifty years . Clarkson began to visit Wilberforce on a weekly basis , bringing first @-@ hand evidence he had obtained about the slave trade . The Quakers , already working for abolition , also recognised the need for influence within Parliament , and urged Clarkson to secure a commitment from Wilberforce to bring forward the case for abolition in the House of Commons .
It was arranged that Bennet Langton , a Lincolnshire landowner and mutual acquaintance of Wilberforce and Clarkson , would organize a dinner party in order to ask Wilberforce formally to lead the parliamentary campaign . The dinner took place on 13 March 1787 ; other guests included Charles Middleton , Sir Joshua Reynolds , William Windham , MP , James Boswell and Isaac Hawkins Browne , MP . By the end of the evening , Wilberforce had agreed in general terms that he would bring forward the abolition of the slave trade in Parliament , " provided that no person more proper could be found " .
The same spring , on 12 May 1787 , the still hesitant Wilberforce held a conversation with William Pitt and the future Prime Minister William Grenville as they sat under a large oak tree on Pitt 's estate in Kent . Under what came to be known as the " Wilberforce Oak " at Holwood , Pitt challenged his friend : " Wilberforce , why don 't you give notice of a motion on the subject of the Slave Trade ? You have already taken great pains to collect evidence , and are therefore fully entitled to the credit which doing so will ensure you . Do not lose time , or the ground will be occupied by another . " Wilberforce 's response is not recorded , but he later declared in old age that he could " distinctly remember the very knoll on which I was sitting near Pitt and Grenville " where he made his decision .
Wilberforce 's involvement in the abolition movement was motivated by a desire to put his Christian principles into action and to serve God in public life . He and other Evangelicals were horrified by what they perceived was a depraved and unchristian trade , and the greed and avarice of the owners and traders . Wilberforce sensed a call from God , writing in a journal entry in 1787 that " God Almighty has set before me two great objects , the suppression of the Slave Trade and the Reformation of Manners [ moral values ] " . The conspicuous involvement of Evangelicals in the highly popular anti @-@ slavery movement served to improve the status of a group otherwise associated with the less popular campaigns against vice and immorality .
= = = Early parliamentary action = = =
On 22 May 1787 , the first meeting of the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade took place , bringing like @-@ minded British Quakers and Anglicans together in the same organisation for the first time . The committee chose to campaign against the slave trade rather than slavery itself , with many members believing that slavery would eventually disappear as a natural consequence of the abolition of the trade . Wilberforce , though involved informally , did not join the committee officially until 1791 .
The society was highly successful in raising public awareness and support , and local chapters sprang up throughout Great Britain . Clarkson travelled the country researching and collecting first @-@ hand testimony and statistics , while the committee promoted the campaign , pioneering techniques such as lobbying , writing pamphlets , holding public meetings , gaining press attention , organising boycotts and even using a campaign logo : an image of a kneeling slave above the motto " Am I not a Man and a Brother ? " , designed by the renowned pottery @-@ maker Josiah Wedgwood . The committee also sought to influence slave @-@ trading nations such as France , Spain , Portugal , Denmark , Holland and the United States , corresponding with anti @-@ slavery activists in other countries and organising the translation of English @-@ language books and pamphlets . These included books by former slaves Ottobah Cugoano and Olaudah Equiano , who had published influential works on slavery and the slave trade in 1787 and 1789 respectively . They and other free blacks , collectively known as " Sons of Africa " , spoke at debating societies and wrote spirited letters to newspapers , periodicals and prominent figures , as well as public letters of support to campaign allies . Hundreds of parliamentary petitions opposing the slave trade were received in 1788 and following years , with hundreds of thousands of signatories in total . The campaign proved to be the world 's first grassroots human rights campaign , in which men and women from different social classes and backgrounds volunteered to try to end the injustices suffered by others .
Wilberforce had planned to introduce a motion giving notice that he would bring forward a bill for the Abolition of the Slave Trade during the 1789 parliamentary session . However , in January 1788 , he was taken ill with a probable stress @-@ related condition , now thought to be ulcerative colitis . It was several months before he was able to resume work , and he spent time convalescing at Bath and Cambridge . His regular bouts of gastrointestinal illnesses precipitated the use of moderate quantities of opium , which proved effective in alleviating his condition , and which he continued to use for the rest of his life .
In Wilberforce 's absence , Pitt , who had long been supportive of abolition , introduced the preparatory motion himself , and ordered a Privy Council investigation into the slave trade , followed by a House of Commons review .
With the publication of the Privy Council report in April 1789 and following months of planning , Wilberforce commenced his parliamentary campaign . On 12 May 1789 , he made his first major speech on the subject of abolition in the House of Commons , in which he reasoned that the trade was morally reprehensible and an issue of natural justice . Drawing on Thomas Clarkson 's mass of evidence , he described in detail the appalling conditions in which slaves travelled from Africa in the middle passage , and argued that abolishing the trade would also bring an improvement to the conditions of existing slaves in the West Indies . He moved 12 resolutions condemning the slave trade , but made no reference to the abolition of slavery itself , instead dwelling on the potential for reproduction in the existing slave population should the trade be abolished . With the tide running against them , the opponents of abolition delayed the vote by proposing that the House of Commons hear its own evidence , and Wilberforce , in a move that has subsequently been criticised for prolonging the slave trade , reluctantly agreed . The hearings were not completed by the end of the parliamentary session , and were deferred until the following year . In the meantime , Wilberforce and Clarkson tried unsuccessfully to take advantage of the egalitarian atmosphere of the French Revolution to press for France 's abolition of the trade , which was , in any event , to be abolished in 1794 as a result of the bloody slave revolt in St. Domingue ( later to be known as Haiti ) , although later briefly restored by Napoleon in 1802 .
In January 1790 , Wilberforce succeeded in speeding up the hearings by gaining approval for a smaller parliamentary select committee to consider the vast quantity of evidence which had been accumulated . Wilberforce 's house in Old Palace Yard became a centre for the abolitionists ' campaign and a focus for many strategy meetings . Petitioners for other causes also besieged him there , and his ante @-@ room was thronged from an early hour , like " Noah 's Ark , full of beasts clean and unclean " , according to Hannah More .
Interrupted by a general election in June 1790 , the committee finally finished hearing witnesses , and in April 1791 with a closely reasoned four @-@ hour speech , Wilberforce introduced the first parliamentary bill to abolish the slave trade . However , after two evenings of debate , the bill was easily defeated by 163 votes to 88 , the political climate having swung in a conservative direction in the wake of the French Revolution and in reaction to an increase in radicalism and to slave revolts in the French West Indies . Such was the public hysteria of the time that even Wilberforce himself was suspected by some of being a Jacobin agitator .
This was the beginning of a protracted parliamentary campaign , during which Wilberforce 's commitment never wavered , despite frustration and hostility . He was supported in his work by fellow members of the so @-@ called Clapham Sect , among whom was his best friend and cousin Henry Thornton . Holding evangelical Christian convictions , and consequently dubbed " the Saints " , the group mainly lived in large houses surrounding the common in Clapham , then a village to the south @-@ west of London . Wilberforce accepted an invitation to share a house with Henry Thornton in 1792 , moving into his own home after Thornton 's marriage in 1796 . The " Saints " were an informal community , characterised by considerable intimacy as well as a commitment to practical Christianity and an opposition to slavery . They developed a relaxed family atmosphere , wandering freely in and out of each other 's homes and gardens , and discussing the many religious , social and political topics that engaged them .
Pro @-@ slavery advocates claimed that enslaved Africans were lesser human beings who benefited from their bondage . Wilberforce , the Clapham Sect and others were anxious to demonstrate that Africans , and particularly freed slaves , had human and economic abilities beyond the slave trade , and that they were capable of sustaining a well @-@ ordered society , trade and cultivation . Inspired in part by the utopian vision of Granville Sharp , they became involved in the establishment in 1792 of a free colony in Sierra Leone with black settlers from the United Kingdom , Nova Scotia and Jamaica , as well as native Africans and some whites . They formed the Sierra Leone Company , with Wilberforce subscribing liberally to the project in money and time . The dream was of an ideal society in which races would mix on equal terms ; the reality was fraught with tension , crop failures , disease , death , war and defections to the slave trade . Initially a commercial venture , the British government assumed responsibility for the colony in 1808 . The colony , although troubled at times , was to become a symbol of anti @-@ slavery in which residents , communities and African tribal chiefs , worked together to prevent enslavement at the source , supported by a British naval blockade to stem the region 's slave trade .
On 2 April 1792 , Wilberforce again brought a bill calling for abolition . The memorable debate that followed drew contributions from the greatest orators in the house , William Pitt and Charles James Fox , as well as from Wilberforce himself . Lord Melville , as Home Secretary , proposed a compromise solution of so @-@ called " gradual abolition " over a number of years . This was passed by 230 to 85 votes , but the compromise was little more than a clever ploy , with the intention of ensuring that total abolition would be delayed indefinitely .
= = = War with France = = =
On 26 February 1793 , another vote to abolish the slave trade was narrowly defeated by eight votes . The outbreak of war with France the same month effectively prevented any further serious consideration of the issue , as politicians concentrated on the national crisis and the threat of invasion . The same year , and again in 1794 , Wilberforce unsuccessfully brought before Parliament a bill to outlaw British ships from supplying slaves to foreign colonies . He voiced his concern about the war and urged Pitt and his government to make greater efforts to end hostilities . Growing more alarmed , on 31 December 1794 , Wilberforce moved that the government seek a peaceful resolution with France , a stance that created a temporary breach in his long friendship with Pitt .
Abolition continued to be associated in the public consciousness with the French Revolution and with British radical groups , resulting in a decline in public support . In 1795 , the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade ceased to meet , and Clarkson retired in ill @-@ health to the Lake District . However , despite the decreased interest in abolition , Wilberforce continued to introduce abolition bills throughout the 1790s .
The early years of the 19th century once again saw an increased public interest in abolition . Since Napoleon had reintroduced slavery in the French colonies , support of abolition was no longer perceived as being pro @-@ French .
In 1804 , Clarkson resumed his work and the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade began meeting again , strengthened with prominent new members such as Zachary Macaulay , Henry Brougham and James Stephen . In June 1804 , Wilberforce 's bill to abolish the slave trade successfully passed all its stages through the House of Commons . However , it was too late in the parliamentary session for it to complete its passage through the House of Lords . On its reintroduction during the 1805 session , it was defeated , with even the usually sympathetic Pitt failing to support it . On this occasion and throughout the campaign , abolition was held back by Wilberforce 's trusting , even credulous nature , and his deferential attitude towards those in power . He found it difficult to believe that men of rank would not do what he perceived to be the right thing , and was reluctant to confront them when they did not .
= = = Final phase of the campaign = = =
Following Pitt 's death in January 1806 , Wilberforce began to collaborate more with the Whigs , especially the abolitionists . He gave general support to the Grenville – Fox administration , which brought more abolitionists into the cabinet ; Wilberforce and Charles Fox led the campaign in the House of Commons , while Lord Grenville advocated the cause in the House of Lords .
A radical change of tactics , which involved the introduction of a bill to ban British subjects from aiding or participating in the slave trade to the French colonies , was suggested by maritime lawyer James Stephen . It was a shrewd move , since the majority of British ships were now flying American flags and supplying slaves to foreign colonies with whom Britain was at war . A bill was introduced and approved by the cabinet , and Wilberforce and other abolitionists maintained a self @-@ imposed silence , so as not to draw any attention to the effect of the bill . The approach proved successful , and the new Foreign Slave Trade Bill was quickly passed , and received royal assent on 23 May 1806 . Wilberforce and Clarkson had collected a large volume of evidence against the slave trade over the previous two decades , and Wilberforce spent the latter part of 1806 writing A Letter on the Abolition of the Slave Trade , which was a comprehensive restatement of the abolitionists ' case . The death of Fox in September 1806 was a blow , and was followed quickly by a general election in the autumn of 1806 . Slavery became an election issue , bringing more abolitionist MPs into the House of Commons , including former military men who had personally experienced the horrors of slavery and slave revolts . Wilberforce was re @-@ elected as an MP for Yorkshire , after which he returned to finishing and publishing his Letter , in reality a 400 @-@ page book which formed the basis for the final phase of the campaign .
Lord Grenville , the Prime Minister , was determined to introduce an Abolition Bill in the House of Lords , rather than in the House of Commons , taking it through its greatest challenge first . When a final vote was taken , the bill was passed in the House of Lords by a large margin . Sensing a breakthrough that had been long anticipated , Charles Grey moved for a second reading in the Commons on 23 February 1807 . As tributes were made to Wilberforce , whose face streamed with tears , the bill was carried by 283 votes to 16 . Excited supporters suggested taking advantage of the large majority to seek the abolition of slavery itself , but Wilberforce made it clear that total emancipation was not the immediate goal : " They had for the present no object immediately before them , but that of putting stop directly to the carrying of men in British ships to be sold as slaves . " The Slave Trade Act received royal assent on 25 March 1807 .
= = Personal life = =
In his youth , Wilberforce showed little interest in women , but in his late thirties , twenty @-@ year @-@ old Barbara Ann Spooner ( 1777 – 1847 ) was recommended by his friend Thomas Babington as a potential bride . Wilberforce met her two days later on 15 April 1797 , and was immediately smitten ; following an eight @-@ day whirlwind romance , he proposed . Despite the urgings of friends to slow down , the couple married at the Church of St Swithin in Bath , Somerset , on 30 May 1797 . They were devoted to each other , and Barbara was very attentive and supportive to Wilberforce in his increasing ill health , though she showed little interest in his political activities . They had six children in fewer than ten years : William ( b . 1798 ) , Barbara ( b . 1799 ) , Elizabeth ( b . 1801 ) , Robert Isaac Wilberforce ( b . 1802 ) , Samuel Wilberforce ( b . 1805 ) and Henry William Wilberforce ( b . 1807 ) . Wilberforce was an indulgent and adoring father who revelled in his time at home and at play with his children .
= = Other concerns = =
= = = Political and social reform = = =
Wilberforce was deeply conservative when it came to challenges to the existing political and social order . He advocated change in society through Christianity and improvement in morals , education and religion , fearing and opposing radical causes and revolution . The radical writer William Cobbett was among those who attacked what they saw as Wilberforce 's hypocrisy in campaigning for better working conditions for slaves while British workers lived in terrible conditions at home . " Never have you done one single act , in favour of the labourers of this country " , he wrote . Critics noted Wilberforce 's support of the suspension of habeas corpus in 1795 and his votes for Pitt 's " Gagging Bills " , which banned meetings of more than 50 people , allowing speakers to be arrested and imposing harsh penalties on those who attacked the constitution . Wilberforce was opposed to giving workers ' rights to organise into unions , in 1799 speaking in favour of the Combination Act , which suppressed trade union activity throughout the United Kingdom , and calling unions " a general disease in our society " . He also opposed an enquiry into the 1819 Peterloo Massacre in which eleven protesters were killed at a political rally demanding reform . Concerned about " bad men who wished to produce anarchy and confusion " , he approved of the government 's Six Acts , which further limited public meetings and seditious writings . Wilberforce 's actions led the essayist William Hazlitt to condemn him as one " who preaches vital Christianity to untutored savages , and tolerates its worst abuses in civilised states . "
Wilberforce 's views of women and religion were also conservative . He disapproved of women anti @-@ slavery activists such as Elizabeth Heyrick , who organised women 's abolitionist groups in the 1820s , protesting : " [ F ] or ladies to meet , to publish , to go from house to house stirring up petitions – these appear to me proceedings unsuited to the female character as delineated in Scripture . " Wilberforce initially strongly opposed bills for Catholic emancipation , which would have allowed Catholics to become MPs , hold public office and serve in the army , although by 1813 , he had changed his views and spoke in favour of a similar bill .
More progressively , Wilberforce advocated legislation to improve the working conditions for chimney @-@ sweeps and textile workers , engaged in prison reform , and supported campaigns to restrict capital punishment and the severe punishments meted out under the Game Laws . He recognised the importance of education in alleviating poverty , and when Hannah More and her sister established Sunday schools for the poor in Somerset and the Mendips , he provided financial and moral support as they faced opposition from landowners and Anglican clergy . From the late 1780s onward , Wilberforce campaigned for limited parliamentary reform , such as the abolition of rotten boroughs and the redistribution of Commons seats to growing towns and cities , though by 1832 , he feared that such measures went too far . With others , Wilberforce founded the world 's first animal welfare organisation , the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ( later the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ) . In 1824 , Wilberforce was one of over 30 eminent gentlemen who put their names at the inaugural public meeting to the fledgling National Institution for the Preservation of Life from Shipwreck , later named the Royal National Lifeboat Institution . He was also opposed to duelling , which he described as the " disgrace of a Christian society " and was appalled when his friend Pitt engaged in a duel in 1798 , particularly as it occurred on a Sunday , the Christian day of rest .
Wilberforce was generous with his time and money , believing that those with wealth had a duty to give a significant portion of their income to the needy . Yearly , he gave away thousands of pounds , much of it to clergymen to distribute in their parishes . He paid off the debts of others , supported education and missions , and in a year of food shortages , gave to charity more than his own yearly income . He was exceptionally hospitable , and could not bear to sack any of his servants . As a result , his home was full of old and incompetent servants kept on in charity . Although he was often months behind in his correspondence , Wilberforce responded to numerous requests for advice or for help in obtaining professorships , military promotions and livings for clergymen , or for the reprieve of death sentences .
= = = Evangelical Christianity = = =
A supporter of the evangelical wing of the Church of England , Wilberforce believed that the revitalisation of the Church and individual Christian observance would lead to a harmonious , moral society . He sought to elevate the status of religion in public and private life , making piety fashionable in both the upper- and middle @-@ classes of society . To this end , in April 1797 , Wilberforce published A Practical View of the Prevailing Religious System of Professed Christians in the Higher and Middle Classes of This Country Contrasted With Real Christianity , on which he had been working since 1793 . This was an exposition of New Testament doctrine and teachings and a call for a revival of Christianity , as a response to the moral decline of the nation , illustrating his own personal testimony and the views which inspired him . The book proved to be influential and a best @-@ seller by the standards of the day ; 7 @,@ 500 copies were sold within six months , and it was translated into several languages .
Wilberforce fostered and supported missionary activity in Britain and abroad . He was a founding member of the Church Missionary Society ( since renamed the Church Mission Society ) and was involved , with other members of the Clapham Sect , in numerous other evangelical and charitable organisations . Horrified by the lack of Christian evangelism in India , Wilberforce used the 1793 renewal of the British East India Company 's charter to propose the addition of clauses requiring the company to provide teachers and chaplains and to commit to the " religious improvement " of Indians . The plan was unsuccessful due to lobbying by the directors of the company , who feared that their commercial interests would be damaged . Wilberforce tried again in 1813 , when the charter next came up for renewal . Using petitions , meetings , lobbying and letter writing , he successfully campaigned for changes to the charter . Speaking in favour of the Charter Act 1813 , he criticised the British in India for their hypocrisy and racial prejudice , while also condemning aspects of Hinduism including the caste system , infanticide , polygamy and suttee . " Our religion is sublime , pure beneficent " , he said , " theirs is mean , licentious and cruel " .
= = = Moral reform = = =
Greatly concerned by what he perceived to be the degeneracy of British society , Wilberforce was also active in matters of moral reform , lobbying against " the torrent of profaneness that every day makes more rapid advances " , and considered this issue and the abolition of the slave trade as equally important goals . At the suggestion of Wilberforce and Bishop Porteus , King George III was requested by the Archbishop of Canterbury to issue in 1787 the Proclamation for the Discouragement of Vice , as a remedy for the rising tide of immorality . The proclamation commanded the prosecution of those guilty of " excessive drinking , blasphemy , profane swearing and cursing , lewdness , profanation of the Lord 's Day , and other dissolute , immoral , or disorderly practices " . Greeted largely with public indifference , Wilberforce sought to increase its impact by mobilising public figures to the cause , and by founding the Society for the Suppression of Vice . This and other societies in which Wilberforce was a prime mover , such as the Proclamation Society , mustered support for the prosecution of those who had been charged with violating relevant laws , including brothel keepers , distributors of pornographic material , and those who did not respect the Sabbath . Years later , the writer and clergyman Sydney Smith criticised Wilberforce for being more interested in the sins of the poor than those of the rich , and suggested that a better name would have been the Society for " suppressing the vices of persons whose income does not exceed £ 500 per annum " . The societies were not highly successful in terms of membership and support , although their activities did lead to the imprisonment of Thomas Williams , the London printer of Thomas Paine 's The Age of Reason . Wilberforce 's attempts to legislate against adultery and Sunday newspapers were also in vain ; his involvement and leadership in other , less punitive , approaches were more successful in the long @-@ term , however . By the end of his life , British morals , manners , and sense of social responsibility had increased , paving the way for future changes in societal conventions and attitudes during the Victorian era .
= = = Emancipation of enslaved Africans = = =
The hopes of the abolitionists notwithstanding , slavery did not wither with the end of the slave trade in the British Empire , nor did the living conditions of the enslaved improve . The trade continued , with few countries following suit by abolishing the trade , and with some British ships disregarding the legislation . Wilberforce worked with the members of the African Institution to ensure the enforcement of abolition and to promote abolitionist negotiations with other countries . In particular , the US had abolished the slave trade in 1808 , and Wilberforce lobbied the American government to enforce its own prohibition more strongly .
The same year , Wilberforce moved his family from Clapham to a sizeable mansion with a large garden in Kensington Gore , closer to the Houses of Parliament . Never strong , and by 1812 in worsening health , Wilberforce resigned his Yorkshire seat , and became MP for the rotten borough of Bramber in Sussex , a seat with little or no constituency obligations , thus allowing him more time for his family and the causes that interested him . From 1816 Wilberforce introduced a series of bills which would require the compulsory registration of slaves , together with details of their country of origin , permitting the illegal importation of foreign slaves to be detected . Later in the same year he began publicly to denounce slavery itself , though he did not demand immediate emancipation , as " They had always thought the slaves incapable of liberty at present , but hoped that by degrees a change might take place as the natural result of the abolition . "
In 1820 , after a period of poor health , and with his eyesight failing , Wilberforce took the decision to further limit his public activities , although he became embroiled in unsuccessful mediation attempts between King George IV , and his estranged wife Caroline of Brunswick , who had sought her rights as queen . Nevertheless , Wilberforce still hoped " to lay a foundation for some future measures for the emancipation of the poor slaves " , which he believed should come about gradually in stages . Aware that the cause would need younger men to continue the work , in 1821 he asked fellow MP Thomas Fowell Buxton to take over leadership of the campaign in the Commons . As the 1820s wore on , Wilberforce increasingly became a figurehead for the abolitionist movement , although he continued to appear at anti @-@ slavery meetings , welcoming visitors , and maintaining a busy correspondence on the subject .
The year 1823 saw the founding of the Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery ( later the Anti @-@ Slavery Society ) , and the publication of Wilberforce 's 56 @-@ page Appeal to the Religion , Justice and Humanity of the Inhabitants of the British Empire in Behalf of the Negro Slaves in the West Indies . In his treatise , Wilberforce urged that total emancipation was morally and ethically required , and that slavery was a national crime that must be ended by parliamentary legislation to gradually abolish slavery . Members of Parliament did not quickly agree , and government opposition in March 1823 stymied Wilberforce 's call for abolition . On 15 May 1823 , Buxton moved another resolution in Parliament for gradual emancipation . Subsequent debates followed on 16 March and 11 June 1824 in which Wilberforce made his last speeches in the Commons , and which again saw the emancipationists outmanoeuvred by the government .
= = Last years = =
Wilberforce 's health was continuing to fail , and he suffered further illnesses in 1824 and 1825 . With his family concerned that his life was endangered , he declined a peerage and resigned his seat in Parliament , leaving the campaign in the hands of others . Thomas Clarkson continued to travel , visiting anti @-@ slavery groups throughout Britain , motivating activists and acting as an ambassador for the anti @-@ slavery cause to other countries , while Buxton pursued the cause of reform in Parliament . Public meetings and petitions demanding emancipation continued , with an increasing number supporting immediate abolition rather than the gradual approach favoured by Wilberforce , Clarkson and their colleagues .
In 1826 , Wilberforce moved from his large house in Kensington Gore to Highwood Hill , a more modest property in the countryside of Mill Hill , north of London , where he was soon joined by his son William and family . William had attempted a series of educational and career paths , and a venture into farming in 1830 led to huge losses , which his father repaid in full , despite offers from others to assist . This left Wilberforce with little income , and he was obliged to let his home and spend the rest of his life visiting family members and friends . He continued his support for the anti @-@ slavery cause , including attending and chairing meetings of the Anti @-@ Slavery Society .
Wilberforce approved of the 1830 election victory of the more progressive Whigs , though he was concerned about the implications of their Reform Bill which proposed the redistribution of parliamentary seats towards newer towns and cities and an extension of the franchise . In the event , the Reform Act 1832 was to bring more abolitionist MPs into Parliament as a result of intense and increasing public agitation against slavery . In addition , the 1832 slave revolt in Jamaica convinced government ministers that abolition was essential to avoid further rebellion . In 1833 , Wilberforce 's health declined further and he suffered a severe attack of influenza from which he never fully recovered . He made a final anti @-@ slavery speech in April 1833 at a public meeting in Maidstone , Kent . The following month , the Whig government introduced the Bill for the Abolition of Slavery , formally saluting Wilberforce in the process . On 26 July 1833 , Wilberforce heard of government concessions that guaranteed the passing of the Bill for the Abolition of Slavery . The following day he grew much weaker , and he died early on the morning of 29 July at his cousin 's house in Cadogan Place , London .
One month later , the House of Lords passed the Slavery Abolition Act , which abolished slavery in most of the British Empire from August 1834 . They voted plantation owners £ 20 million in compensation , giving full emancipation to children younger than six , and instituting a system of apprenticeship requiring other enslaved peoples to work for their former masters for four to six years in the British West Indies , South Africa , Mauritius , British Honduras and Canada . Nearly 800 @,@ 000 African slaves were freed , the vast majority in the Caribbean .
= = = Funeral = = =
Wilberforce had requested that he was to be buried with his sister and daughter at Stoke Newington , just north of London . However , the leading members of both Houses of Parliament urged that he be honoured with a burial in Westminster Abbey . The family agreed and , on 3 August 1833 , Wilberforce was buried in the north transept , close to his friend William Pitt . The funeral was attended by many Members of Parliament , as well as by members of the public . The pallbearers included the Duke of Gloucester , the Lord Chancellor Henry Brougham and the Speaker of the House of Commons Charles Manners @-@ Sutton . While tributes were paid and Wilberforce was laid to rest , both Houses of Parliament suspended their business as a mark of respect .
= = Legacy = =
Five years after his death , sons Robert and Samuel Wilberforce published a five @-@ volume biography about their father , and subsequently a collection of his letters in 1840 . The biography was controversial in that the authors emphasised Wilberforce 's role in the abolition movement and played down the important work of Thomas Clarkson . Incensed , Clarkson came out of retirement to write a book refuting their version of events , and the sons eventually made a half @-@ hearted private apology to him and removed the offending passages in a revision of their biography . However , for more than a century , Wilberforce 's role in the campaign dominated the history books . Later historians have noted the warm and highly productive relationship between Clarkson and Wilberforce , and have termed it one of history 's great partnerships : without both the parliamentary leadership supplied by Wilberforce and the research and public mobilisation organised by Clarkson , abolition could not have been achieved .
As his sons had desired and planned , Wilberforce has long been viewed as a Christian hero , a statesman @-@ saint held up as a role model for putting his faith into action . More broadly , he has also been described as a humanitarian reformer who contributed significantly to reshaping the political and social attitudes of the time by promoting concepts of social responsibility and action . In the 1940s , the role of Wilberforce and the Clapham Sect in abolition was downplayed by historian Eric Williams , who argued that abolition was motivated not by humanitarianism but by economics , as the West Indian sugar industry was in decline . Williams ' approach strongly influenced historians for much of the latter part of the 20th century . However , more recent historians have noted that the sugar industry was still making large profits at the time of abolition , and this has led to a renewed interest in Wilberforce and the Evangelicals , as well as a recognition of the anti @-@ slavery movement as a prototype for subsequent humanitarian campaigns .
= = Memorials = =
Wilberforce 's life and work have been commemorated in the United Kingdom and elsewhere . In Westminster Abbey , a seated statue of Wilberforce by Samuel Joseph was erected in 1840 , bearing an epitaph praising his Christian character and his long labour to abolish the slave trade and slavery itself .
In Wilberforce 's home town of Hull , a public subscription in 1834 funded the Wilberforce Monument , a 31 @-@ metre ( 102 ft ) Greek Doric column topped by a statue of Wilberforce , which now stands in the grounds of Hull College near Queen 's Gardens . Wilberforce 's birthplace was acquired by the city corporation in 1903 and , following renovation , Wilberforce House in Hull was opened as Britain 's first slavery museum . Wilberforce Memorial School for the Blind in York was established in 1833 in his honour , and in 2006 the University of Hull established the Wilberforce Institute for the study of Slavery and Emancipation in Oriel Chambers , a building adjoining Wilberforce 's birthplace . Various churches within the Anglican Communion commemorate Wilberforce in their liturgical calendars , and Wilberforce University in Ohio , United States , founded in 1856 , is named after him . The university was the first owned by African @-@ American people , and is a historically black college . In Ontario , Canada , Wilberforce Colony was founded by black reformers , and inhabited by free slaves from the United States .
Amazing Grace , a film about Wilberforce and the struggle against the slave trade , directed by Michael Apted and starring Ioan Gruffudd and Benedict Cumberbatch was released in 2007 to coincide with the 200th anniversary of Parliament 's anti @-@ slave trade legislation .
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= Clover ( creature ) =
Clover is the production name given to the giant monster and the main antagonist in the 2008 film Cloverfield . The creature was originally conceived by producer J. J. Abrams and was designed by artist Neville Page . In the film , the monster 's name is never mentioned ; the name " Cloverfield " is only given to the US Department of Defense case file of the incidents depicted in the film . The Department of Defense names the creature " LSA " for Large @-@ Scale Aggressor in the film 's Blu @-@ ray special feature called " Cloverfield Special Investigation Mode " . The name Clover was the nickname affectionately given to the monster among the production staff .
= = Appearances = =
The monster was first referred to in the viral marketing campaign for the 2008 film including a recording of its roar , foreign news clips about a monster attack and sonar images .
A similar monster appears in a four @-@ part manga series Cloverfield / Kishin by Yoshiki Togawa , which serves as a spin @-@ off to the film . The monster made a first full appearance in Cloverfield , where it was seen rampaging through New York City and being attacked by the United States military .
= = History = =
In the film , it is mentioned that the brand Tagruato belongs to the oil company where Rob was hired as vice president and is the company that owns the platform that is being destroyed by the monster . Tagruato produces a drink called Slusho ! and in the movie , some guests at a Tagruato party can be seen wearing shirts with the Slusho ! brand . However , Tagruato and Slusho ! have two different official websites .
= = Concept and creation = =
J. J. Abrams conceived of a new monster after he and his son visited a toy store in Japan while promoting Mission : Impossible III . He explained , " We saw all these Godzilla toys , and I thought , we need our own [ American ] monster , and not like King Kong , King Kong 's adorable . But I wanted something that was just insane and intense " .
The monster was designed by artist Neville Page . He sought a biological rationale for the creature , though many of his ideas would not show up on screen . Page designed the creature as immature and suffering from " separation anxiety " . He compared the creature to a rampaging elephant , saying " there 's nothing scarier than something huge that 's spooked " . Page said of the creature 's backstory , " For me , one of the most key moments in our collective brainstorming was the choice to make the creature be something that we would empathize with . It is not out there just killing . It is confused , lost , scared . It 's a newborn . Having this be a story point ( one that the audience does not know ) , it allowed for some purposeful choices about its anatomy , movement and , yes , motivations " . The creature was developed by visual effects supervisor Kevin Blank and Phil Tippett 's company Tippett Studio . Blank described the intended goal of the creature , " Rather than the monster having a personality [ like Godzilla or King Kong ] , it 's more of an entity or an event " .
Reeves described the creature 's reaction to its surroundings thus : " It ’ s this new environment that it finds frightening " . To indicate this , Reeves suggested the addition of white in the creature 's eyes so it would look similar to a spooked horse . The filmmakers generated and used the idea of parasites because the film could not realistically have scenes between the human protagonists and the enormous creature .
= = = Creature design = = =
Although conceived by the film 's creators as infantile , the creature is 25 stories tall ( compared as 240 – 300 feet , or 70 – 90 meters ) and withstands missiles , artillery shells , and bombs with minimal injury .
It is vaguely quadrupedal , though capable of standing upright over short distances . The limbs are comparatively long and thin compared with the body core , and according to creator Neville Page , this , coupled with its quadrupedal stance , is meant to imply that it is a newborn : he speculates that the adults may be bipedal . The forelimbs are large in proportion to the body , and the hind legs stubby . The creature 's head at first glance appears to be a solid sphere ; but it can open its mouth extremely wide . Above the eyes on either side of the head are fleshy pouches which it inflates when agitated .
The creature 's design includes appendages on its underbelly , described by Neville Page as an " elongated , and articulated external esophagus with the business end terminating in teethlike fingers " . They were designed to relate the scale of human prey to the huge scale of the creature . The scenes from the film where people were consumed by these appendages were cut from the final edit , but the fourth and final chapter of Cloverfield / Kishin shows this .
The creature is covered with parasites , which it sheds as part of a " post @-@ birth ritual " . Abrams described the parasites as " horrifying , dog @-@ sized creatures that just scatter around the city and add to the nightmare of the evening " . Reeves added that " The parasites have a voracious , rabid , bounding nature , but they also have a crab @-@ like crawl . They have the viciousness of a dog , but with the ability to climb walls and stick to objects . " The top half of the parasite 's head is the mandible . The top and lower jaws end in serrated edges and have four pairs of eyes each . The rest of the parasite consists of a crustacean @-@ like carapace , several pairs of claws , and arms . A deep blue @-@ purple muscular membrane stretches between the top and lower jaws . When a human is bitten , the victim becomes ill and bleeds profusely , mainly from the eyes , and shortly after this , the torso expands and explodes . They are called HSPs ( Human Scale Parasites ) on the Blu @-@ ray Special Investigation Mode .
Artist Neville Page , in response to claims that the design of the creature was similar to that of the 2006 South Korean film The Host , said , " They are [ similar ] in that they ravage and seem to originate from the water , but the end results are quite different . However , when I finally saw some of the concept art , there were some very obvious similarities . But then again , I think that we were both channeling similar biological possibilities . "
= = Merchandise = =
Based on the success of Cloverfield , which earned over $ 40 million over its opening weekend in the United States and Canadian box office , the toy company Hasbro began accepting orders for a 14 @-@ inch limited edition toy figure of the monster to be shipped to fans starting December 24 , 2008 . It also comes with several accessories , including the disembodied head of the Statue of Liberty , two changeable heads ( one with an open mouth , one with a closed mouth ) , and 10 static figures of the monster 's parasites .
= = Critical analysis = =
Reviewing the film Cloverfield , the San Jose Mercury News described the creature as " a monster for the MySpace generation " . Reviewer James Berardinelli noted , " The movie follows the Jaws rule that monsters are usually more intimidating when they are shown infrequently and only in brief glimpses " . Amy Biancolli of the Houston Chronicle described the creature as retaining " an air of mystery — a monstrous je ne sais quoi that makes him all the freakier . " Richard Corliss of Time complained of the recycled elements of the creature , such as its emergence mimicking the original Godzilla film and its parasites being similar to the " toy meanies " from the 1984 film Gremlins .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times expressed acceptance of the lack of explanation for the creature 's origin , explaining that it " is all right with me after the tiresome opening speeches in so many of the 30 or more Godzilla films " . Peter Howell of the Toronto Star thought that the " main " creature was disappointing , while he considered the " mutant spider crabs " that came from it as " way scarier " . Lawrence Person of Locus Online describes it as " like a cross between a truly giant mantis and Johnny the Skeletal Torso . " Todd McCarthy of Variety found that the creature was more reassuring as it appeared more in the film , explaining , " Its very nature as a walking , stalking being suggests it can somehow be killed by conventional means " . Chris Vognar of The Dallas Morning News applauded the creature 's appearance as cinematic :
= = Popular culture = =
The monster appears in the Robot Chicken episode " Especially the Animal Keith Crofford " . It rampages through New York until it reaches the future site of the Freedom Tower where it builds it in its own vision .
The monster is parodied in the South Park season 12 episode " Pandemic 2 : The Startling " . The episode is a parody of the Cloverfield , with the monster replaced by giant guinea pigs .
In Sam & Max Season 3 , at the end of " Beyond the Alley of the Dolls " , Max is transformed into a creature similar to the monster ( or more rather Cthulhu ) , and smashes off the Statue of Liberty 's head , and goes on to rampage through New York .
In a strip from Starslip by Kris Straub ( # 705 - Jan 28 , 2008 ) , one of the main characters makes a reference to a supposed " Cousin Cloverfield " , " a member of [ their ] Behemoth class " who escaped and laid waste to one of Earth cities .
On September 12 , 2010 , the strip Lio by Mark Tatulli featured Lio trying to lure the Cloverfield monster into a giant hamster cage as a pet .
An episode of Mad parodies the movie with stars from The Disney Channel and Nickelodeon in New York being attacked by Clifford the Big Red Dog .
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= Knut ( polar bear ) =
Knut ( German pronunciation : [ ˈknuːt ] ; 5 December 2006 – 19 March 2011 ) was an orphaned polar bear born in captivity at the Berlin Zoological Garden . Rejected by his mother at birth , he was raised by zookeepers . He was the first polar bear cub to survive past infancy at the Berlin Zoo in more than 30 years . At one time the subject of international controversy , he became a tourist attraction and commercial success . After the German tabloid newspaper Bild ran a quote from an animal rights activist that decried keeping the cub in captivity , fans worldwide rallied in support of his being hand @-@ raised by humans . Children protested outside the zoo , and e @-@ mails and letters expressing sympathy for the cub 's life were sent from around the world .
Knut became the center of a mass media phenomenon dubbed " Knutmania " that spanned the globe and spawned toys , media specials , DVDs , and books . Because of this , the cub was largely responsible for a significant increase in revenue , estimated at about five million euros , at the Berlin Zoo in 2007 . Attendance figures for the year increased by an estimated 30 percent , making it the most profitable year in its 163 @-@ year history .
On 19 March 2011 , Knut unexpectedly died at the age of four . His death was caused by drowning after he collapsed into his enclosure 's pool while suffering from Anti @-@ NMDA receptor encephalitis .
= = Infancy = =
Knut was born at the Berlin Zoo to 20 @-@ year @-@ old Tosca , a former circus performer from East Germany who was born in Canada , and her 13 @-@ year @-@ old mate Lars , who was originally from the Tierpark Hellabrunn in Munich . After an uncomplicated gestation , Knut and his unnamed brother were born on 5 December 2006 . Tosca rejected her cubs for unknown reasons , abandoning them on a rock in the polar bear enclosure . Zookeepers rescued the cubs by scooping them out of the enclosure with an extended fishing net , but Knut 's brother died of an infection four days later . Knut was the first polar bear to have been born and survive in the Berlin Zoo in over 30 years . Only the size of a guinea pig , he spent the first 44 days of his life in an incubator before zookeeper Thomas Dörflein began raising the cub .
Knut 's need for round @-@ the @-@ clock care required that Dörflein not only sleep on a mattress next to Knut 's sleeping crate at night , but also play with , bathe , and feed the cub daily . Knut 's diet began with a bottle of baby formula mixed with cod liver oil every two hours , before graduating at the age of four months to a milk porridge mixed with cat food and vitamins . Dörflein also accompanied Knut on his twice @-@ daily one @-@ hour shows for the public and therefore appeared in many videos and photographs alongside the cub . As a result , Dörflein became a minor celebrity in Germany and was awarded Berlin 's Medal of Merit in honour of his continuous care for the cub . Dörflein died of a heart attack on 22 September 2008 . He was 44 years old .
= = Controversy and media coverage = =
In early March 2007 , German tabloid Bild @-@ Zeitung carried a quote by animal rights activist Frank Albrecht who said that Knut should have been killed rather than be raised by humans . He declared that the zoo was violating animal protection legislation by keeping him alive . Wolfram Graf @-@ Rudolf , the director of the Aachen Zoo , agreed with Albrecht and stated that the zookeepers " should have had the courage to let the bear die " after it was rejected , arguing that the bear will " die a little " every time it is separated from its caretaker . A group of children protested at the zoo , holding up placards reading " Knut Must Live " and " We Love Knut " , and others sent numerous emails and letters asking for the cub 's life to be spared . Threatening letters were also sent to Albrecht . The Berlin Zoo rallied in support of the baby polar bear , vowing not to harm him and rejecting the suggestion that it would be kinder to euthanise him .
Albrecht stated his original aim was to draw attention to the law , not to have Knut put down . In December 2006 he had taken legal action against Leipzig Zoo to prevent them from killing a sloth bear cub rejected by its mother . His case was dismissed on the grounds that humans raising the animal would have been against the law of nature . In response to the criticism against him , Albrecht said that he was merely drawing parallels between the two cubs . The publicity from this coverage raised Knut 's profile from national to international .
= = Debut and first year = =
On 23 March 2007 , Knut was presented to the public for the first time . Around 400 journalists visited the Berlin Zoo on what was dubbed " Knut Day " to report on the cub 's first public appearance to a worldwide audience . Because Knut became the focus of worldwide media at a very young age , many stories and false alarms regarding the cub 's health and well @-@ being were circulated during his first year . For example , on 16 April 2007 , Knut was removed from display due to teething pains resulting from the growth of his right upper canine tooth , but initial reports vaguely stated that he was suffering from an unknown illness and subsequently put on antibiotics . Much ado was also made about a death threat that was sent shortly before 15 : 00 local time on Wednesday 18 April 2007 . The zoo had received an anonymous letter by fax which said " Knut ist tot ! Donnerstag Mittag . " ( " Knut is dead ! Thursday noon . " ) In response , the police increased their security measures around the bear . The time frame for the threat passed without incident or harm to Knut .
Despite Der Spiegel reporting on 30 April 2007 that Knut was " steadily getting less cute " as he increased in age , Knut continued to bring in record crowds to the zoo that summer . After reaching seven months old and 50 kg ( 110 lb ) in July 2007 , Knut 's scheduled twice daily public appearances were canceled due to the zoo 's concern for the safety of his keeper . Zoo spokeswoman Regine Damm also said it was time for the bear to " associate with other bears and not with other people . " After living in the same enclosure as Ernst , a Malaysian black bear cub who was born a month before Knut , and its mother , Knut was then moved to his own private living space . While visitor numbers dwindled from extreme highs in March and April , Knut remained a major attraction at the zoo for the rest of 2007 . 400 @,@ 000 guests were recorded in August 2007 , which was an all @-@ time high .
News of Knut and his life at the zoo was still being reported internationally in late 2007 . Knut 's restricted diet , necessary to curtail his natural weight gain necessary to survive harsh winters , made headlines outside of Germany . His daily meals were reduced in number from four to three , and treats , such as croissants , which were favored by the young polar bear , were restricted . After hurting his foot while slipping on a wet rock in his enclosure a month later in September , there was an outpouring of concern and support from fans worldwide .
In November 2007 and weighing over 90 kg ( 198 lb ) , Knut was deemed too dangerous for close handling and his interaction with human handlers was further diminished . The celebration of the cub 's first birthday , which was attended by hundreds of children , was broadcast live on German television . The national mint also issued 25 @,@ 000 special commemorative silver coins to mark his birthday . Knut 's role at the Berlin Zoo was to have included his becoming an " attractive stud " for other zoos in order to help preserve his species . When Flocke was born at the Nuremberg Zoo in December 2007 under similar circumstances , Bild dubbed her Mrs. Knut , suggesting that the two German @-@ born polar bears might become mates when they matured .
= = 2008 – 2010 = =
A year after his public debut , Knut was reported as weighing more than 130 kg ( 286 lb ) . A plate of six @-@ inch glass , strong enough to resist a mortar blast , was erected between him and zoo visitors . At the end of March 2008 , Markus Röbke , one of the keepers who helped rear Knut , reported that the bear should leave the zoo as soon as possible in order to help him acclimate to a life alone . Röbke also said that Knut plainly misses his past father @-@ figure , Thomas Dörflein , and has become so used to attention that he cries when no one is near his enclosure . " Knut needs an audience , " Röbke stated . " That has to change " . In April , animal welfare campaigners criticized the zoo for allowing Knut to kill and eat ten carp from the moat surrounding his enclosure , saying that it was a breach of German animal protection regulations . The zoo 's bear expert , Heiner Klös , however , said that Knut 's behavior was " all part of being a polar bear . "
In July 2008 , it was announced that the Neumünster Zoo in northern Germany , which owns Knut 's father , was suing the Berlin Zoo for the profits from Knut 's success . Although the Berlin Zoo conceded Neumünster 's ownership of Knut due to a previous agreement , it contended that the other zoo has no right to its proceeds . Neumünster had previously tried to negotiate with Berlin Zoo , but later sought a court ruling in their favor . Peter Drüwa , the zoo director at Neumünster , stated that they " do not want to remove Knut from his environment , but we have a right to our request for money . " Shortly before Knut 's second birthday , reports began circulating that the bear would have to be relocated to another zoo because he was becoming too large for his enclosure . The zoo later released statements that they wish to keep Knut , and the mayor of Berlin , Klaus Wowereit , also declared he wanted the still @-@ adolescent cub to stay in the capital .
Disputes between the two zoos continued into 2009 . On 19 May , the Berlin Zoo offered to buy Knut from Neumünster and therefore negate their financial claim on the two @-@ year @-@ old polar bear . Although Neumünster Zoo set a price of € 700 @,@ 000 , the Berlin Zoo stated that they would not pay " a cent more " than € 350 @,@ 000 ( $ 488 @,@ 145 ) . On 8 July , the Berlin Zoo agreed to pay € 430 @,@ 000 ( $ 599 @,@ 721 ) to keep Knut in Berlin .
Giovanna , a female polar bear roughly the same age as Knut , was relocated to Berlin from Munich 's Hellabrunn Animal Garden in September 2009 . She was presented to the public on 23 September , and was due to briefly share Knut 's enclosure while her regular home in Munich underwent repairs . Her arrival sparked international interest , as many sources mused that the two bears ( although sexually immature ) would soon be " dating " . However , in March 2010 , the German chapter of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals called for Knut to be castrated in order to avoid inbreeding ; he and Giovanna share a grandfather and , according to PETA spokesman Frank Albrecht , the same animal rights activist who spoke out about Knut 's handraising three years earlier , their offspring would threaten the genetic diversity of the German polar bear population . The Berlin Zoo declined to comment on the matter , only noting that Giovanna 's stay in Berlin was still temporary . In August 2010 , Giovanna was moved back to Munich after repairs on her enclosure were completed .
Until his death , Knut shared an enclosure with three female polar bears : Nancy , Katjuscha and his mother Tosca . The older bears were reportedly aggressive towards the young male bear , causing news reports in late 2010 to question whether Knut was being bullied . One of the zookeepers disagreed , stating publicly that " For the time being , Knut is not yet an adult male and doesn 't yet know how to get respect like his father did . But day by day , he is imposing himself and with time , this type of problem will go away . "
= = Death = =
On 19 March 2011 , at the age of four , Knut collapsed and died in his enclosure . Witnesses reported that after the bear 's rear left leg began shaking , he became agitated before convulsing several times and falling backwards into the pool . Approximately 600 to 700 zoo visitors witnessed Knut 's death . A statement made on 22 March in relation to the necropsy reported there were " significant changes in the brain , which may be regarded as a reason for the sudden death " . Animal welfare organizations in Germany initially accused the Berlin Zoo of negligence , claiming that Knut died of stress caused by being forced to share his enclosure with three female polar bears . The zoo denied such claims . Bear curator Heiner Klös stated they " did everything to look after Knut — it 's normal for polar bears to live with other polar bears in a zoo , and the idea was that Knut should learn social behavior and other skills from the older females ... He played with the other bears , he was relaxed and strong . "
On 1 April , pathology experts announced that Knut 's immediate cause of death was from drowning . The bear 's apparent seizure was due to his suffering from Anti @-@ NMDA receptor encephalitis , a swelling of the brain likely triggered by an infection . It is unknown what infection caused the swelling , but pathologists believe it was a virus . Although Knut showed no symptoms of being ill , pathologists believe that " this suspected infection must already have been there for a long time ... at least several weeks , possibly months . " It was also announced that had Knut not drowned after collapsing , he would not have survived the encephalitis .
Knut 's sudden death caused an international outpouring of grief . Hundreds of fans visited the zoo after the bear 's death , leaving flowers and mementos near the enclosure . The mayor of Berlin , Klaus Wowereit , stated " We all held him so dearly . He was the star of the Berlin zoos . "
In January 2014 , Knut 's full autopsy results were published by the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research in the Journal of Comparative Pathology . It was the most in @-@ depth post @-@ mortem ever carried out on an animal . The autopsy revealed that the damage to the bear ’ s brain was so severe that even if he had not fallen into the water and drowned he would have died anyway . Experts hypothesized that he was suffering from a virus that caused the encephalitis .
In August 2015 , it was discovered that Knut died of Anti @-@ NMDA receptor encephalitis . This was the first case discovered in non human animals .
= = Memorialization = =
The zoo made plans to erect a monument in Knut 's honour , financed by donations from fans . Thomas Ziolko , the chairman of the Friends of the Berlin Zoo , was quoted as saying " Knut will live on in the hearts of many visitors , but it 's important to create a memorial for coming generations to preserve the memory of this unique animal personality . " On 24 October 2012 , the Berlin Zoo unveiled a bronze sculpture by Ukrainian artist Josef Tabachnyk . " Knut – The Dreamer " shows the bear " stretching out dreamily on a rock " .
Knut 's remains were exhibited in Berlin 's Museum of Natural History , although this decision has caused some controversy with fans . A full @-@ sized sculpture covered in Knut 's pelt was presented to the public on 16 February 2013 . It went on display in the entrance hall of the museum where it was viewed free of charge until 5 May . It will later be used for an exhibition on climate change and environment protection . Museum spokeswoman Gesine Steiner stated that " It 's important to make clear we haven 't had Knut stuffed . It is an artistically valuable sculpture with the original fur . "
From 13 June till 1 September 2013 , Knut went on display in the Naturalis Biodiversity Center , the Dutch national museum of natural history in Leiden , Netherlands .
Knut returned to Berlin 's Museum of Natural History on 28 July 2014 as an exhibit for a special exhibition on “ Highlights of Taxidermy ” . The museum has won world championship prizes for taxidermy and Knut ’ s remains will be the highlight of this exhibition for years to come .
= = Effects of popularity = =
= = = Commercial success = = =
The Berlin Zoo registered " Knut " as a trademark in late March 2007 . As a result , its shares more than doubled at the Berlin Stock Exchange ; previously worth around € 2 @,@ 000 , the value closed at € 4 @,@ 820 just a week later . The zoo reported that its attendance figures for 2007 increased by an estimated 30 percent , making it the most profitable it had been in its 163 @-@ year history . Knut earned the Berlin Zoo nearly € 5 million that year , mainly thanks to an increase in visitors as well as the amount of merchandise sold .
Various companies profited from the attention surrounding Knut by developing themed products such as ringtones and cuddly toys . Plush toy company Steiff produced several Knut @-@ based plush toys in three sizes and models : sitting , standing , and lying down . The first 2 @,@ 400 produced toys , which sold exclusively at the Berlin Zoo , sold out in only four days . The money raised from the Steiff deal was intended to be used to renovate the polar bear enclosure at the zoo . Candy company Haribo released a raspberry @-@ flavored gummy bear sweet called Cuddly Knut beginning in April 2007 . They pledged to donate ten cents to the zoo for every tub of Knut sweets it sold . The gummy bears sold so well that the Bonn @-@ based company had to expand production to a second factory to deal with demand .
Knut was the subject of several popular songs in Germany , the most successful of which were the singles " Knut is Cute " and " Knut , der kleine Eisbär " ( English : " Knut , the little polar bear " ) by nine @-@ year @-@ old Kitty from Köpenick . In Britain , musical comedian Mitch Benn has performed four songs about Knut for BBC Radio 4 satirical series The Now Show : " The Baby Bear Must DIE ! " , " Knut Isn 't Cute Anymore " , " Goodbye Knut " and " Panda in Berlin " . A blog with updates about the polar bear was maintained by a journalist at the regional public broadcaster Rundfunk Berlin @-@ Brandenburg ; it was available in German , English , and Spanish . RBB was also responsible for a weekly television program dedicated to the polar bear cub that was broadcast in Germany . Knut has also been the subject of several DVDs , including one entitled " Knut – Stories from a Polar Bear 's Nursery " . On 29 March 2007 he appeared on the cover of the German Vanity Fair magazine , which included a several page spread about the cub 's life .
On 1 May 2007 , it was announced that New York @-@ based Turtle Pond Publications and the Berlin Zoo had signed a deal for the worldwide publishing rights to Knut with the hopes of raising awareness of global warming issues . Written by Craig Hatkoff and his daughters Juliana and Isabella , the 44 @-@ page book entitled Knut , der kleine Eisbärenjunge ( Little Polar Bear Knut ) includes Knut 's life story as well as previously unpublished photographs . Although several books about Knut had already been published in Germany , this book was the first to be authorized by the Berlin Zoo .
The book was published in Germany by Ravensburger on 26 July 2007 and US publishing company Scholastic released the English version , entitled Knut : How one little polar bear captivated the world , in the United States in November of the same year . Rights to the book have also been sold to publishers in Japan , England , Mexico , China , and Italy .
On 31 December 2007 , the zoo 's director confirmed the zoo had received a proposal for a film deal from Hollywood film producer Ash R. Shah , whose films include Supernova and Shark Bait , to make an animated film about the bear 's life . Shah reportedly approached the Berlin Zoo with a purported € 3 @.@ 5 million film deal . Knut made his big screen debut in the German film Knut und seine Freunde ( Knut and His Friends ) , which premiered in Berlin on 2 March 2008 . Directed by Michael Johnson , the film depicts how Knut was rescued after his mother abandoned him and also features a polar bear family from the Arctic and two brown bear cubs from Belarus .
= = = Environmental causes = = =
Dr. Gerald Uhlich , of the Berlin zoo 's board of trustees , stated that because of his vast popularity , Knut had become a means of communication and that he had the ability to " draw attention to the environment in a nice way . Not in a threatening , scolding way . " As a result , the German Environment Minister Sigmar Gabriel officially adopted Knut as the mascot for a conference on endangered species to be held in Bonn in 2008 . The minister met with Knut soon after his zoo debut , commenting that although Knut was in safe hands , " worldwide polar bears are in danger and if Knut can help the cause , then that is a good thing . "
Photographer Annie Leibovitz took pictures of Knut that were used for an environmental campaign , including Vanity Fair magazine 's May 2007 Green Issue in which he was superimposed into a photograph with American actor Leonardo DiCaprio . The polar bear has also been depicted on the logo for the German Environment Minister 's campaign to help stop global warming and a 2008 special issue stamp . Officially released on 9 April , the stamp shows the roughly one @-@ year @-@ old Knut with the slogan " Natur weltweit bewahren " ( " Preserve nature worldwide " ) .
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= Michael John O 'Leary =
Major Michael John O 'Leary VC ( 29 September 1890 – 2 August 1961 ) was an Irish recipient of the Victoria Cross , the most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces . O 'Leary achieved his award for single @-@ handedly charging and destroying two German barricades defended by machine gun positions near the French village of Cuinchy , in a localised operation on the Western Front during the First World War .
At the time of his action , O 'Leary was a nine @-@ year veteran of the British armed forces and by the time he retired from the British Army in 1921 , he had reached the rank of lieutenant . He served in the army again during the Second World War , although his later service was blighted by periods of ill @-@ health . At his final retirement from the military in 1945 , O 'Leary was an Army major in command of a prisoner of war camp . Between the wars , O 'Leary spent many years employed as a police officer in Canada and is sometimes considered to be a Canadian recipient of the Victoria Cross . Following the Second World War he worked as a building contractor in London , where he died in 1961 .
= = Early life = =
O 'Leary was born in 1890 , one of four children of Daniel and Margaret O 'Leary , who owned a farm at Inchigeela , near Macroom in County Cork , Ireland . Daniel O 'Leary was a fervent Irish nationalist and keen sportsman who participated in competitive weightlifting and football . Aged 16 and unwilling to continue to work on his parent 's land , Michael O 'Leary joined the Royal Navy , serving at the shore establishment HMS Vivid at Devonport for several years until rheumatism in his knees forced his departure from the service . Within a few months however , O 'Leary had again tired of the farm and joined the Irish Guards regiment of the British Army .
O 'Leary served three years with the Irish Guards , leaving in August 1913 to join the Royal Northwest Mounted Police ( RNWMP ) in Saskatchewan , Canada . Operating from Regina , Constable O 'Leary was soon commended for his bravery in capturing two criminals following a two @-@ hour gunbattle , for which service he was presented with a gold ring . At the outbreak of the First World War in Europe during August 1914 , O 'Leary was given permission to leave the RNWMP and return to Britain in order to rejoin the army as an active reservist . On 22 October , O 'Leary was mobilized and on 23 November he joined his regiment in France , then fighting with the British Expeditionary Force , entrenched in Flanders .
= = First World War service = =
During December 1914 , O 'Leary saw heavy fighting with the Irish Guards and was Mentioned in Despatches and subsequently promoted to Lance Corporal on 5 January 1915 . Three weeks later , on 30 January , the Irish Guards were ordered to prepare for an attack on German positions near Cuinchy on the La Bassée Canal , a response to a successful German operation in the area five days before . The Germans attacked first however , and on the morning of 1 February seized a stretch of canal embankment on the western end of the 2nd Brigade line from a company of Coldstream Guards . This section , known as the Hollow , was tactically important as it defended a culvert that passed underneath a railway embankment . 4 Company of Irish Guards , originally in reserve , were tasked with joining the Coldstream Guards in retaking the position at 04 : 00 , but the attack was met with heavy machine gun fire and most of the assault party , including all of the Irish Guards officers , were killed or wounded .
To replace these officers , Second Lieutenant Innes of 1 Company was ordered forward to gather the survivors and withdraw , forming up at a barricade on the edge of the Hollow . Innes regrouped the survivors and , following a heavy bombardment from supporting artillery and with his own company providing covering fire , assisted the Coldstream Guards in a second attack at 10 : 15 . Weighed down with entrenching equipment , the attacking Coldstream Guardsmen faltered and began to suffer heavy casualties . Innes too came under heavy fire from a German barricade to their front equipped with a machine gun .
Michael O 'Leary had been serving as Innes 's orderly , and had joined him in the operations earlier in the morning and again in the second attack . Charging past the rest of the assault party , O 'Leary closed with the first German barricade at the top of the railway embankment and fired five shots , killing the gun 's crew . Continuing forward , O 'Leary confronted a second barricade , also armed with a machine gun 60 yards ( 55 m ) further on and again mounted the railway embankment , to avoid the marshy ground on either side . The Germans spotted his approach , but could not bring their gun to bear on him before he opened fire , killing three soldiers and capturing two others after he ran out of ammunition . Reportedly , O 'Leary had made his advance on the second barricade " intent upon killing another German to whom he had taken a dislike " .
Having disabled both guns and enabled the recapture of the British position , O 'Leary then returned to his unit with his prisoners , apparently " as cool as if he had been for a walk in the park . " For his actions , O 'Leary received a battlefield promotion to sergeant on 4 February and was recommended for the Victoria Cross , which was gazetted on 18 February :
= = = Michael O 'Leary song = = =
In 1915 , Jack Judge recorded Michael O 'Leary , V.C. , a song about O 'Leary 's role in the war effort .
= = = Later war service = = =
Returning to Britain to receive his medal from King George V at Buckingham Palace on 22 June 1915 , O 'Leary was given a grand reception attended by thousands of Londoners in Hyde Park on 10 July . He was also the subject of much patriotic writing , including a poem in the Daily Mail and the short play O 'Flaherty V.C. by George Bernard Shaw . Tributes came from numerous prominent figures of the day , including Sir Arthur Conan Doyle who said that " No writer in fiction would dare to fasten such an achievement on any of his characters , but the Irish have always had a reputation of being wonderful fighters , and Lance @-@ Corporal Michael O ’ Leary is clearly one of them . " and Thomas Scanlan who said : " I heard early this week of the great achievements of the Irish Guards . All Ireland is proud of O ’ Leary . He fully deserves the high honour that has been conferred upon him . Ireland is grateful to him . " His reception was repeated in Macroom when he visited Ireland , with crowds turning out to applaud him . Daniel O 'Leary was interviewed in a local newspaper regarding his son 's exploit but was reportedly unimpressed , commenting : " I am surprised he didn 't do more . I often laid out twenty men myself with a stick coming from Macroom Fair , and it is a bad trial of Mick that he could kill only eight , and he having a rifle and bayonet . "
O 'Leary was further rewarded for his service , being advanced to a commissioned rank as a second lieutenant with the Connaught Rangers , and he was also presented with a Russian decoration , the Cross of St. George ( third class ) . Despite his popularity with the crowds in London and Macroom , he was jeered by Ulster Volunteers at a recruitment drive in Ballaghaderrin during the autumn of 1915 . This treatment caused such a scandal that it was raised in the Houses of Parliament in December .
In 1916 , O 'Leary travelled to Salonika with the 5th battalion of the Connaught Rangers to serve in the Balkans campaign , remaining in theatre until the end of the war , following which he was stationed in Dover with the 2nd battalion until demobilised in 1921 . During his service in the Balkans , O 'Leary contracted malaria , which was to have severe negative effects on his health for the rest of his life .
He was in the same regiment as the British actor Stanley Holloway and both served together in France . After the war ended , they both remained close friends and Holloway often stayed in The May Fair where O 'Leary later worked as a concierge .
= = Later life = =
Leaving his wife Greta and their two children in Britain , O 'Leary returned to Canada in March 1921 with the purported intention of rejoining the RNWMP , newly renamed the Royal Canadian Mounted Police . For unknown reasons , this plan came to nothing and after some months giving lectures on his war service and working in a publishing house , O 'Leary joined the Ontario Provincial Police , charged with enforcing the prohibition laws . In 1924 , with his family recently arrived from England , O 'Leary left the Ontario police force and became a police sergeant with the Michigan Central Railway in Bridgeburg , Ontario , receiving £ 33 a month .
In 1925 , O 'Leary was the subject of several scandals , being arrested for smuggling illegal immigrants and later for irregularities in his investigations . Although he was acquitted both times , he spent a week in prison following the second arrest and lost his job with the railway . Several months later , the municipal authorities in Hamilton , Ontario loaned him £ 70 to pay for him and his family to return to Ireland . Although his family sailed on the SS Leticia , O 'Leary remained in Ontario , working with the attorney general 's office .
With his health in serious decline , the British Legion arranged for O 'Leary to return to Britain and work in their poppy factory . By 1932 , O 'Leary was living in Southborne Avenue in Colindale , had regained his health and found employment as a commissionaire at The May Fair in London , at which he was involved in charitable events for wounded servicemen . With the mobilisation of the British Army in 1939 , O 'Leary returned to military service as a captain in the Middlesex Regiment . O 'Leary was sent to France as part of the British Expeditionary Force but had returned to Britain before the Battle of France due to a recurrence of his malaria .
No longer fit for full active service , O 'Leary was transferred to the Pioneer Corps and took command of a prisoner of war camp in Southern England . In 1945 , he was discharged from the military as unfit for duty on medical grounds as a major and found work as a building contractor , in which career he remained until his retirement in 1954 . Two of O 'Leary 's sons had also served in the military during the war , with both receiving Distinguished Flying Crosses for their actions . As a Victoria Cross recipient , O 'Leary joined the VE day parade in 1946 , but at the 1956 Centenary VC review his place was taken by an imposter travelling in a bath chair . With his health again declining , O 'Leary moved to Limesdale Gardens in Edgware shortly before his death in 1961 at the Whittington Hospital in Islington .
O 'Leary was buried at Mill Hill Cemetery following a funeral service at the Roman Catholic Annunciation Church in Burnt Oak which was attended by an honour guard from the Irish Guards and six of his children . His medals were later presented to the Irish Guards , and are on display at the Regimental Headquarters . He is also remembered in his birthplace , the macroom @-@ online website listing him as a prominent citizen and states that " while many might consider he was fighting with the wrong army , in the wrong war , he was nevertheless a very brave , resourceful and capable soldieer [ sic ] who deserved the honours bestowed upon him . "
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= Mari , Syria =
Mari ( modern Tell Hariri ) , was an ancient Semitic city in Syria . Its remains constitute a tell located 11 kilometers north @-@ west of Abu Kamal on the Euphrates river western bank , some 120 kilometers southeast of Deir ez @-@ Zor . It flourished as a trade center and hegemonic state between 2900 BC and 1759 BC . As a purposely built city , the existence of Mari was related to its position in the middle of the Euphrates trade routes ; this position made it an intermediary between Sumer in the south and the Levant in the west .
Mari was first abandoned in the middle of the 26th century BC but was rebuilt and became the capital of a hegemonic East @-@ Semitic state before 2500 BC . This second Mari engaged in a long war with its rival Ebla , and is known for its strong affinity with the Sumerian culture . It was destroyed in the 23rd century BC by the Akkadians who allowed the city to be rebuilt and appointed a military governor bearing the title of Shakkanakku ( military governor ) . The governors later became independent with the rapid disintegration of the Akkadian empire and rebuilt the city as a regional center in the middle Euphrates valley . The Shakkanakkus ruled Mari until the second half of the 19th century BC when the dynasty collapsed for unknown reasons . A short time after the Shakkanakku collapse , Mari became the capital of the Amorite Lim dynasty . The Amorite Mari was short lived as it was annexed by Babylonia in c . 1761 BC , but the city survived as a small settlement under the rule of the Babylonians and the Assyrians before being abandoned and forgotten during the Hellenistic period .
The Mariotes worshiped both Semitic and Sumerian deities and established their city as a center of old trade . However , although the pre @-@ Amorite periods were characterized by heavy Sumerian cultural influence , Mari was not a city of Sumerian immigrants but rather a Semitic speaking nation that used a dialect similar to Eblaite . The Amorites were West @-@ Semites who began to settle the area before the 21st century BC ; by the Lim dynasty 's era ( c . 1830 BC ) , they became the dominant population in the Fertile Crescent .
Mari 's discovery in 1933 provided an important insight into the geopolitical map of ancient Mesopotamia and Syria , due to the discovery of more than 25 @,@ 000 tablets that contained important information about the administration of state during the second millennium BC and the nature of diplomatic relations between the political entities in the region . They also revealed the wide trading networks of the 18th century BC , which connected areas as far as Afghanistan in Southern Asia and Crete in the Mediterranean region .
= = History = =
The name of the city can be traced to Mer , an ancient storm deity of northern Mesopotamia and Syria who was considered the patron deity of the city , Georges Dossin noted that the name of the city was spelled identically like the name of the storm god and concluded that Mari was named after him .
= = = The first kingdom = = =
Mari is not considered a small settlement that later grew , but rather a new city that was purposely founded during the Mesopotamian Early Dynastic period I c . 2900 BC , to control the waterways of the Euphrates trade routes that connect the Levant with the Sumerian south . The city was built about 1 to 2 kilometers away from the Euphrates river to protect it from floods , and was connected to the river by an artificial canal that was between 7 and 10 kilometers long depending on which old meander it used to be attached with , which is hard to identify today .
The city is difficult to excavate , as it is buried deep under the later layers of habitation . A defensive system against floods , composed of a circular embankment was unearthed , in addition to a circular 6 @.@ 7 m thick internal rampart to protect the city from enemies . An area of 300 meters long filled with gardens and craftsmen quarters , separated the outer embankment from the inner rampart which had a height of 8 to 10 meters , and was strengthened by defensive towers . Other findings includes one of the city gates , a street beginning at the center and ending at the gate , in addition to residential houses . Mari had a central mound , however no temple or palaces have been unearthed , although a large building that seem to have been an administrative one was unearthed , this building had stone foundations and dimensions of ( 32 meters X 25 meters ) , with rooms up to 12 meters long and 6 meters wide . The city was abandoned at the end of the Early Dynastic period II c . 2550 BC for unknown reasons .
= = = The second kingdom = = =
Around the beginning of the Early Dynastic period III ( earlier than 2500 BC ) , Mari was rebuilt and populated again . The new city kept many of the first city exterior features , including the internal rampart and gate . Also kept , the outer circular embankment measuring 1 @.@ 9 km in diameter , which was topped by a wall that is two meters thick , suitable for the protection of archers .
However , the internal structure was completely changed , the city was carefully planned ; first to be built were the streets that descends from the elevated center into the gates , assuring the drainage of rain water .
At the heart of the city , a royal palace was built which also served as a temple . Four successive architectural levels from the second kingdom 's palace have been unearthed ( the oldest is designated P3 , while the latest is P0 ) , and the last two levels are dated to the Akkadian period . The first two levels were excavated , the findings includes a temple named Enceinte Sacrée , which was the largest in the city but it is unknown for whom it was dedicated . Also unearthed , a pillared throne room and a hall that have three double wood pillars leading to the temple .
Six more temples were discovered in the city , including the temple called the Massif Rouge ( to whom it was dedicated is unknown ) , and temples dedicated for Ninni @-@ Zaza , Ishtarat , Ishtar , Ninhursag and Shamash . All the temples were located in the center of the city except for the Ishtar temple , the area between the Enceinte Sacrée and the Massif Rouge is considered the administrative center of the high priest .
The second kingdom appears to be a powerful and prosperous political center , kings held the title of Lugal , and many are attested in the city , but the most important source is the letter of king Enna @-@ Dagan c . 2350 BC , which was sent to Irkab @-@ Damu of Ebla , and in it , the Mariote king mentions his predecessors and their military achievements . However , the reading of this letter is still problematic and many interpretations have been presented by scholars .
= = = = Mari @-@ Ebla war = = = =
The earliest attested king in the letter of Enna @-@ Dagan is Ansud , who is mentioned as attacking Ebla , the traditional rival of Mari with whom it had a long war , and conquering many of Ebla 's cities , including the land of Belan . The next king mentioned in the letter is Saʿumu , who conquered the lands of Ra 'ak and Nirum , but king Kun @-@ Damu of Ebla defeated Mari in the middle of the 25th century BC . The war continued with Išhtup @-@ Išar of Mari conquest of Emar , at a time of Eblaite weakness in the mid @-@ 24th century BC . King Igrish @-@ Halam of Ebla had to pay tribute to Iblul @-@ Il of Mari , who is mentioned in the letter conquering many of Ebla 's cities and campaigning in the Burman region .
Enna @-@ Dagan also received tribute , and his reign fell entirely within the reign of Irkab @-@ Damu of Ebla , who managed to defeat Mari and end the tribute . Mari defeated Ebla 's ally Nagar in year seven of the Eblaite vizier Ibrium 's term , causing the blockage of trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia . The war reached a climax when the Eblaite vizier Ibbi @-@ Sipish made an alliance with Nagar and Kish to defeat Mari in a battle near Terqa . Ebla itself suffered its first destruction a few years after Terqa in c . 2300 BC , during the reign of the Mariote king Hidar .
According to Alfonso Archi , Hidar was succeeded by Isqi @-@ Mari whose royal seal was discovered and it depicts battle scenes , causing Archi to suggest that he was responsible for the destruction of Ebla while still a general . Just a decade after Ebla 's destruction ( c . 2300 BC middle chronology ) , Mari itself was destroyed and burned by Sargon of Akkad , Michael Astour give the date as c . 2265 BC ( short chronology ) .
= = = The third kingdom = = =
Mari was deserted for two generations before being restored by the Akkadian king Manishtushu . A governor was appointed to govern the city who held the title " Shakkanakku " ( military governor ) . Akkad kept direct control over the city , which is evident by Naram @-@ Sin of Akkad 's appointment of two of his daughters to priestly offices in the city .
= = = = The Shakkanakku dynasty = = = =
The first member of the Shakkanakku dynasty on the lists is Ididish who was appointed in c . 2266 BC , according to the lists , Ididish ruled for 60 years , and was succeeded by his son making the position hereditary .
The third Mari followed the second city in terms of general structure , phase P0 of the old royal palace was replaced by a new palace for the Shakkanakku . Another smaller palace was built in the eastern part of the city , and contained royal burials that date to the former periods . The ramparts were rebuilt and strengthened while the embankment was turned into a defensive wall that reached 10 meters in width . The former sacred inclosure was maintained , so was the temple of Ninhursag . However , the temples of Ninni @-@ Zaza and Ishtarat disappeared , while a new temple called the " temple of lions " ( dedicated to Dagan ) , was built by the Shakkanakku Ishtup @-@ Ilum and attached to it , was a rectangular terrace ( ziggurat ) that measured 40 x 20 meters for sacrifices .
Akkad disintegrated following Shar @-@ Kali @-@ Sharri 's reign , and Mari gained its independence , but the use of the Shakkanakku title continued during the following Third Dynasty of Ur period . A princess of Mari married the son of king Ur @-@ Nammu of Ur , and Mari was nominally under Ur hegemony . However , the vassalage did not impede the independence of Mari , and some Shakkanakkus used the royal title Lugal in their votive inscriptions , while using the title of Shakkanakku in their correspondence with the Ur 's court . The dynasty ended for unknown reasons not long before the establishment of the next dynasty , which took place in the second half of the 19th century BC .
= = = = The Lim dynasty = = = =
The second millennium BC in the Fertile Crescent was characterized by the expansion of the Amorites , which culminated with them dominating and ruling most of the region , including Mari which in c . 1830 BC , became the seat of the Amorite Lim dynasty under king Yaggid @-@ Lim . However , the Epigraphycal and archaeological evidences showed a high degree of continuity between the Shakkanakku and the Amorite eras .
Yaggid @-@ Lim was the ruler of Suprum before establishing himself in Mari , he entered an alliance with Ila @-@ kabkabu of Ekallatum , but the relations between the two monarchs changed to an open war . The conflict ended with Ila @-@ kabkabu capturing Yaggid @-@ Lim 's heir Yahdun @-@ Lim and according to a tablet found in Mari , Yaggid @-@ Lim who survived Ila @-@ kabkabu was killed by his servants . However , in c . 1820 BC Yahdun @-@ Lim was firmly in control as king of Mari .
Yahdun @-@ Lim started his reign by subduing seven of his rebelling tribal leaders , and rebuilding the walls of Mari and Terqa in addition to building a new fort which he named Dur @-@ Yahdun @-@ Lim . He then expanded west and claimed to have reached the Mediterranean , however he later had to face a rebellion by the Banu @-@ Yamina nomads who were centered at Tuttul , and the rebels were supported by Yamhad 's king Sumu @-@ Epuh , whose interests were threatened by the recently established alliance between Yahdun @-@ Lim and Eshnunna . Yahdun @-@ Lim defeated the Yamina but an open war with Yamhad was avoided , as the Mariote king became occupied by his rivalry with Shamshi @-@ Adad I of Assyria , the son of the late Ila @-@ kabkabu . The war ended in a defeat for Mari , and Yahdun @-@ Lim was assassinated in c . 1798 BC by his possible son Sumu @-@ Yamam , who himself got assassinated two years after ascending the throne while Shamshi @-@ Adad advanced and annexed Mari .
= = = = = The Assyrian era and the Lim restoration = = = = =
Shamshi @-@ Adad appointed his son Yasmah @-@ Adad on the throne of Mari , the new king married Yahdun @-@ Lim 's daughter , while the rest of the Lim family took refuge in Yamhad , and the annexation was officially justified by what Shamshi @-@ Adad considered sinful acts on the side of the Lim family . To strengthen his position against his new enemy Yamhad , Shamshi @-@ Adad married Yasmah @-@ Adad to Betlum , the daughter of Ishi @-@ Adad of Qatna . However , Yasmah @-@ Adad neglected his bride causing a crisis with Qatna , and he proved to be an unable leader causing the rage of his father who died in c . 1776 BC , while the armies of Yarim @-@ Lim I of Yamhad were advancing in support of Zimri @-@ Lim , the heir of the Lim dynasty .
As Zimri @-@ Lim advanced , a leader of the Banu @-@ Simaal ( Zimri @-@ Lim 's tribe ) overthrew Yasmah @-@ Adad , opening the road for Zimri @-@ Lim who arrived a few months after Yasmah @-@ Adad 's escape , and married princess Shibtu the daughter of Yarim @-@ Lim I a short time after his enthronement in c . 1776 BC . Zimri @-@ Lim 's ascension to the throne with the help of Yarim @-@ Lim I affected Mari 's status , Zimri @-@ Lim referred to Yarim @-@ Lim as his father , and the Yamhadite king was able to order Mari as the mediator between Yamhad 's main deity Hadad and Zimri @-@ Lim , who declared himself a servant of Hadad .
Zimri @-@ Lim started his reign with a campaign against the Banu @-@ Yamina , he also established alliances with Eshnunna and Hammurabi of Babylon , and sent his armies to aid the Babylonians . The new king directed his expansion policy toward the north in the Upper Khabur region , which was named Izdamaraz , where he subjugated the local petty kingdoms in the region such as Urkesh , and Talhayum , forcing them into vassalage . The expansion was met by the resistance of Qarni @-@ Lim , the king of Andarig , whom Zimri @-@ Lim defeated , securing the Mariote control over the region in c . 1771 BC , and the kingdom prospered as a trading center and entered a period of relative peace . Zimri @-@ Lim 's greatest heritage was the renovation of the Royal Palace , which was expanded greatly to contain 275 rooms , exquisite artifacts such as The Goddess of the Vase statue , and a royal archive that contained 25000 tablets .
Mari 's alliance with Eshnunna contributed to its demise , as that city later became an enemy of Hammurabi . The relations with Babylon worsened with a dispute over the city of Hīt that consumed much time in negotiations , during which a war against Elam involved both kingdoms in c . 1765 BC . Finally , the kingdom was invaded by Hammurabi who defeated Zimri @-@ Lim in battle in c . 1761 BC and ended the Lim dynasty , while Terqa became the capital of a rump state named the Kingdom of Hana .
= = = Later periods = = =
Mari survived the destruction and rebelled against Babylon in c . 1759 BC , causing Hammurabi to destroy the whole city . However , Mari was allowed to survive as a small village under Babylonian administration , an act that Hammurabi considered merciful . Later , Mari became part of Assyria and was listed among the territories conquered by the Assyrian king Tukulti @-@ Ninurta I ( reigned 1243 – 1207 BC ) . Afterward , Mari constantly changed hands between Assyria and Babylon .
In the middle of the eleventh century BC , Mari became part of Hana whose king Tukulti @-@ Mer took the title king of Mari and rebelled against Assyria , causing the Assyrian king Ashur @-@ bel @-@ kala to attack the city . Mari came firmly under the authority of the Neo @-@ Assyrian Empire , and was assigned in the first half of the 8th century BC to a certain Nergal @-@ Erish to govern under the authority of king Adad @-@ Nirari III ( reigned 810 @-@ 783 BC ) . In c . 760 BC , Shamash @-@ Risha @-@ Usur , an autonomous governor ruling parts of the upper middle Euphrates under the nominal authority of Ashur @-@ dan III , styled himself the governor of the lands of Suhu and Mari , so did his son Ninurta @-@ Kudurri @-@ Usur . However , by that time , Mari was known to be located in the so @-@ called Land of Laqe , making it unlikely that the Usur family actually controlled it , and suggesting that the title was employed out of historical reasons . The city continued as a small settlement until the Hellenistic period before disappearing from records .
= = People , language and government = =
The founders of the first city may have been Sumerians or more probably East Semitic speaking people from Terqa in the north . I. J. Gelb relates Mari 's foundation with the Kish civilization , which was a cultural entity of East Semitic speaking populations , that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to Ebla in the western Levant .
At its height , the second city was the home of about 40 @,@ 000 people . This population was East @-@ Semitic speaking one , and used a dialect much similar to the language of Ebla ( the Eblaite language ) , while the Shakkanakku period had an East @-@ Semitic Akkadian speaking population . West Semitic names started to be attested in Mari since the second kingdom era , and by the middle Bronze @-@ Age , the west Semitic Amorite tribes became the majority of the pastoral groups in the middle Euphrates and Khabur valleys . Amorite names started to be observed in the city toward the end of the Shakkanakku period , even among the ruling dynasty members .
During the Lim era , the population became predominantly Amorite but also included Akkadian named people , and although the Amorite language became the dominant tongue , Akkadian remained the language of writing . The pastoral Amorites in Mari were called the Haneans , a term that indicate nomads in general , those Haneans were split into the Banu @-@ Yamina ( sons of the right ) and Banu @-@ Simaal ( sons of the left ) , with the ruling house belonging to the Banu @-@ Simaal branch . The kingdom was also a home to tribes of Suteans who lived in the district of Terqa .
Mari was an absolute monarchy , with the king controlling every aspect of the administration , helped by the scribes who played the role of administrators . During the Lim era , Mari was divided into four provinces in addition to the capital , the provincial seats were located at Terqa , Saggaratum , Qattunan and Tuttul . Each province had its own bureaucracy , the government supplied the villagers with ploughs and agricultural equipments , in return for a share in the harvest .
= = = Kings of Mari = = =
The Sumerian King List ( SKL ) records a dynasty of six kings from Mari enjoying hegemony between the dynasty of Adab and the dynasty of Kish . The names of the Mariote kings were damaged on the early copies of the list , and those kings were correlated with historical kings that belonged to the second city . However , an undamaged copy of the list that date to the old Babylonian period was discovered in Shubat @-@ Enlil , and the names bears no resemblance to any of the historically attested monarchs of the second city , indicating that the compilers of the list had an older and probably a legendary dynasty in mind , that predate the second city .
The chronological order of the kings from the second kingdom era is highly uncertain ; nevertheless , it is assumed that the letter of Enna @-@ Dagan lists them in a chronological order . Many of the kings were attested through their own votive objects discovered in the city , and the dates are highly speculative .
For the Shakkanakkus , the lists are incomplete and after Hanun @-@ Dagan who ruled at the end of the Ur era c . 2008 BC ( c . 1920 BC Short chronology ) , they become full of lacunae . Roughly 13 more Shakkanakkus succeeded Hanun @-@ Dagan but only few are known , with the last known one reigning not too long before the reign of Yaggid @-@ Lim who founded the Lim dynasty in c . 1830 BC .
= = Culture and religion = =
The first and second kingdoms were heavily influenced by the Sumerian south . The society was led by an urban oligarchy , and the citizens were well known for elaborate hair styles and dress . The calendar was based on a solar year divided into twelve months , and was the same calendar used in Ebla " the old Eblaite calendar " . Scribes wrote in Sumerian language and the art was indistinguishable from Sumerian art , so was the architectural style .
Mesopotamian influence continued to affect Mari 's culture during the Amorite period , which is evident in the Babylonian scribal style used in the city . However , it was less influential than the former periods and a distinct Syrian style prevailed , which is noticeable in the seals of kings , which reflect a clear Syrian origin . The society was a tribal one , it consisted mostly of farmers and nomads ( Haneans ) , and in contrast to Mesopotamia , the temple had a minor role in everyday life as the power was mostly invested in the palace . Women enjoyed a relative equality to men , queen Shibtu ruled in her husband 's name while he was away , and had an extensive administrative role and authority over her husband 's highest officials .
The Pantheon included both Sumerian and Semitic deities , and throughout most of its history , Dagan was Mari 's head of the Pantheon , while Mer was the patron deity . Other deities included the Semitic deities ; Ishtar the goddess of fertility , Athtar , and Shamash , the Sun god who was regarded among the city most important deities , and believed to be all @-@ knowing and all @-@ seeing . Sumerian deities included Ninhursag , Dumuzi , Enki , Anu , and Enlil . Prophecy had an important role for the society , temples included prophets , who gave council to the king and participated in the religious festivals . Ornina , the singer of Ishtar temple , was one of the oldest multi @-@ talented women who has a prominent statue depicting her playing music during the reign of Iblul @-@ Il .
= = Economy = =
The first Mari provided the oldest wheels workshop to be discovered in Syria , and was a center of bronze metallurgy . The city also contained districts devoted to smelting , dyeing and pottery manufacturing , charcoal was brought by river boats from the upper Khabur and Euphrates area .
The second kingdom 's economy was based on both agriculture and trade . The economy was centralized and directed through a communal organization , where grains were stored in communal granaries , and distributed amongst the population according to social statues . The organization also controlled the animal herds in the kingdom . Some people were directly connected to the palace instead of the communal organization , those included the metal and textile producers and the military officials . Ebla was Mari 's most important trading partner and rival , Mari 's position made it an important trading center as it controlled the road linking between the Levant and Mesopotamia .
The Amorite Mari maintained the older aspects of the economy , which was still largely based on irrigated agriculture along the Euphrates valley . The city kept its trading role and was a center for merchants from Babylonia and other kingdoms , it received goods from the south and east through riverboats and distributed them north , north west and west . The main merchandises handled by Mari were metals and tin imported from the Iranian Plateau and then exported west as far as Crete . Other goods included copper from Cyprus , silver from Anatolia , woods from Lebanon , gold from Egypt , olive oil , wine , and textiles in addition to precious stones from modern Afghanistan .
= = Excavations and archive = =
Mari was discovered in 1933 , on the eastern flank of Syria , near the Iraqi border . A Bedouin tribe was digging through a mound called Tell Hariri for a gravestone that would be used for a recently deceased tribesman , when they came across a headless statue . After the news reached the French authorities currently in control of Syria , the report was investigated , and digging on the site was started on December 14 , 1933 by archaeologists from the Louvre in Paris . Discoveries came quickly , with the temple of Ishtar being discovered in the next month . Mari was classified by the archaeologists as the " most westerly outpost of Sumerian culture " .
Since the beginning of excavations , over 25 @,@ 000 clay tablets in Akkadian language written in cuneiform were discovered . Finds from the excavation are on display in the Louvre , the National Museum of Aleppo , the National Museum of Damascus , and the Deir ez @-@ Zor Museum . In the latter , the southern façade of the Court of the Palms room from Zimri @-@ Lim 's palace has been reconstructed , including the wall paintings .
Mari has been excavated in annual campaigns between 1933 @-@ 1939 , 1951 @-@ 1956 , and since 1960 , and the first 21 seasons up to 1975 were led by André Parrot , followed by Jean @-@ Claude Margueron ( until 2004 ) , and Pascal Butterlin ( starting in 2005 ) . A journal devoted to the site since 1982 , is Mari : Annales de recherches interdisciplinaires . Archaeologists have tried to determine how many layers the site descends , according to French archaeologist André Parrot , " each time a vertical probe was commenced in order to trace the site 's history down to virgin soil , such important discoveries were made that horizontal digging had to be resumed . "
= = = Mari tablets = = =
The tablets were written in Akkadian , and they give informations about the kingdom , its customs , and the names of people who lived during that time . More than 3000 are letters , the remainder includes administrative , economic , and judicial texts . The tablets , according to André Parrot , " brought about a complete revision of the historical dating of the ancient Near East and provided more than 500 new place names , enough to redraw or even draw up the geographical map of the ancient world . " Almost all the tablets found were dated to the last 50 years of Mari 's independence ( c . 1800 – 1750 BC ) , and most have now been published . The language of the texts is official Akkadian but proper names and hints in syntax show that the common language of Mari 's inhabitants was Northwest Semitic .
= = Current situation = =
As a result of the Syrian Civil War , excavations stopped , and the site came under the control of armed gangs , and witnessed a large scale looting . An official report revealed that the robbers are focusing on the royal palace , the public baths , the temple of Ishtar and the temple of Dagan .
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= OMG ( song ) =
For other songs titled OMG , see OMG
" OMG " is a song by American recording artist Usher and American rapper will.i.am , who also wrote and produced the song . It uses the auto @-@ tune effect in several lines , as well as Jock Jams @-@ esque sports arena chanting . It was released on March 22 , 2010 as the first worldwide single off his sixth studio album , Raymond v. Raymond , and the fourth single overall , following the three US singles " Papers " , " Hey Daddy ( Daddy 's Home ) " , and " Lil Freak " . The song was met with a mixed reception from critics , who criticized the use of auto @-@ tune , but commended the song 's dance and club vibe . The song marks the second time that Usher has collaborated with will.i.am , following the single " What 's Your Name " , from his previous album Here I Stand ( 2008 ) .
" OMG " topped the charts in Australia , Ireland , New Zealand , the United Kingdom and the United States . The song became his ninth number @-@ one hit in the United States , making him the first 2010s artist to collect number @-@ one singles in three consecutive decades . He became only the fourth artist of all @-@ time to achieve that feat . Usher also became the third artist to have at least one number @-@ one song from five consecutive studio albums . The song 's choreography and dance @-@ heavy accompanying music video has been compared by critics to that of " Yeah ! " . Usher performed the song live several times including on the ninth season of American Idol with will.i.am. He also performed the song as a part of a medley during his critically acclaimed performance at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards . " OMG " , was named the fifth best selling song of 2010 in the US , selling 3 @.@ 8 million units . The song sold 6 @.@ 9 million copies worldwide during that year .
= = Production and composition = =
" OMG was written and produced by The Black Eyed Peas frontman , will.i.am. The tune was recorded at Chung King Studios , New York City . Dylan " 3 @-@ D " Dresdow mixed the record at Paper V.U. Studios , North Hollywood . The vocal sample of a crowd shouting " owowowo " used in the song was recorded by will.i.am while performing with The Black Eyed Peas on the French TV show Taratata .
" OMG " is a midtempo pop song , drawing from the subgenres of dance @-@ pop and synthpop , and is also influenced by R & B. The song also infuses hints of Eurodance . Several lines feature the Auto @-@ Tune vocal effect , and makes use of " hypnotic " hand claps , and Jock Jams @-@ esque arena chanting . The song is set in common time , and has a tempo of 130 beats per minute . It is written in the key of E minor , and Usher 's vocals span from the low note of G3 to high note of E5 . It follows the chord progression Em – D – Bm7 – C6 . According to James Reed of the Boston Globe , Usher is featured in a staccato delivery over the song 's minimalist dance beat . " will.i.am begins the song with the line , " Oh my gosh " then Usher starts singing the chorus . He performs his verse and the second chorus , before will.i.am gives his verse . " OMG " concludes with an extended final chorus . Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times said that the lyrics of the song detail Usher 's encounter with a woman in a club .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
The song has garnered mixed reception , with most critics disapproving of the auto @-@ tuned vocals , and the production and appearance by will.i.am. Edna Gundersen of USA Today said that Usher seemed " disengaged " on the song , and allowed will.i.am. to " bludgeon " the song with auto @-@ tune . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said the song was one of the tracks where production fell short on Raymond v. Raymond , calling the song another auto @-@ tuned " formulaic chant " by will.i.am. The New York Daily News said that the song is " as annoying as the tech @-@ speak it mimics . " Andrew Winistorfer of Prefix Magazine preferred " Lil Freak " to be the album 's big single , stating that the song " doesn 't come close to matching the filthy heights of " Little Freak , " [ sic ] but the sports arena chanting thing hasn 't been done this well since the ' 90s when Jock Jams were enormous . " Winistorfer also said that Usher brought back his " bad taste " in collaborators since Lil Jon on " Yeah ! " , saying that having the latter on this song would be an improvement .
James Reed of the Boston Globe said that Usher " fares better " on the collaboration . Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times commended the song 's " thumping " groove . Gail Mitchell of Billboard said that Usher " pumps up the beat on the infectious club anthem . " Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian , called the track " irresistible " . Monica Herrera of Billboard magazine said the song , like " Yeah ! " , appealed to a broader audience and attuned to clubs . Herrera also said that " the lyrics are hypnotic hand claps and soccer @-@ game chants that fade in and out to keep the party going " .
= = = Controversy = = =
In 2010 , WYOY disc jockeys compared part of Usher 's verse to a song sung by Homer Simpson in " Dude , Where 's My Ranch ? " , a 2003 episode of television comedy The Simpsons . The cadences of the line , " Honey got a booty like pow , pow , pow . Honey got some boobies like wow , oh wow " were compared to those of Simpson 's tune , " Christmas in December , wow wow wow . Give me tons of presents , now now now . " Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly disagreed , calling the likenesses " a random coincidence " .
= = Chart performance = =
The song debuted at number fourteen on the Billboard Hot 100 selling 130 @,@ 000 units in its first week . The song became the third @-@ highest debut on the Billboard Hot 100 of Usher 's career , behind 1997 's " Nice & Slow " at number nine , and 1998 's " My Way " at eight . For the week ending May 15 , 2010 , the song lifted to number one on the chart , becoming Usher 's ninth number @-@ one single and Will.i.am 's first number one single as a solo artist ( or without his group , The Black eyed Peas ) . The song collected airplay and digital gainer honors , moving fourteen to seven on the Hot 100 Airplay chart , and two to one on the Hot Digital Songs chart . The song later topped both charts . By March 2011 , the song has reached 4 million in sales , and as of May 2013 , the song has sold 4 @,@ 719 @,@ 000 copies .
With the song , Usher tied with the Bee Gees , Elton John , and Paul McCartney for ninth among artists all time with the most Hot 100 hits . Usher also became the third artist , behind McCartney and Michael Jackson to collect at least one number @-@ one single from five consecutive albums . The song made Usher the first artist in the 2010s to have a number @-@ one single in three consecutive decades , Usher 's being the 1990s , 2000s and 2010s . He became only the fifth artist of all time to accomplish this , the others being Stevie Wonder in the 1960s , 1970s and 1980s ; Michael Jackson in the 1970s , 1980s , and 1990s ; and Madonna and Janet Jackson in the 1980s , 1990s and 2000s . " OMG " was the second shortest title to lead the chart , tying Jackson 's " Ben " , " Bad " , and " ABC " with the Jackson 5 , with Britney Spears ' " 3 " being the chart @-@ topper with the shortest title .
The song charted at number three on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , two on the Pop Songs chart , and three on the Hot Dance Club Play chart . It also topped the Rhythmic Top 40 , making Usher the first artist to collect ten number ones on the chart , above 50 Cent , Beyoncé , Nelly , T @-@ Pain , and Mariah Carey , each with seven . Usher led first on the chart with " You Make Me Wanna " for thirteen weeks from 1997 – 1998 and " Love in This Club " featuring Young Jeezy in 2008 .
" OMG " reached number two in Canada , and was certified Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association . It was later upgraded to 2x Platinum for shipments over 160 @,@ 000 copies . It sold 223 @,@ 000 copies during 2010 in Canada . Internationally , " OMG " charted across Europe , reaching number one in the Ireland , and United Kingdom where it became the third best selling song of 2010 . It also charted moderately in other countries , allowing it to reach a peak of six on the European Hot 100 . In Australia and New Zealand the song placed at the top of the charts . It was certified 2 × Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association , and Platinum in New Zealand by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand for shipments of 15 @,@ 000 units . It was later upgraded to 5 × Platinum in Australia for shipments over 350 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
Usher and will.i.am shot the video the weekend of March 6 , 2010 . The video was directed by Anthony Mandler . In an interview with Rap @-@ Up , Mandler said about the concept of the video : " ... The video is a spectacle . It really emphasizes what we love about Usher and the character and the icon that he is , and most importantly , it ’ s really a video that showcases his superstardom " . The video was released on March 30 , 2010 , on VEVO and AMTV . According to Mandler , the original idea for the video was citing Max Headroom , a fictional artificial intelligence character from 1980s British television and film . The reference is made when Usher is seen on a flickering television at the beginning of the video . Mandler specified , commenting , " Max Headroom was always in his room , " he continued , " this unidentifiable room , ' 80s shapes . I used that for inspiration . " Usher stated that he wanted to do something theatrical and fun , and that while will.i.am. brought the international sound , he wanted to bring the producer into his world , " working off of each other and playing off of each other as artists , but the cinematography would be artistic and incredible . " Mandler described the visuals in the clip as " Hitchcock @-@ ian " , as well as simply captuiring Usher in his element , as he said he wanted the R & B singer 's talent to take over . He further explained , stating ,
" The concept was to create a world where we put Usher in a space where he does what I think he does better than anyone else in the world , which is perform at a level and magnitude of a superstar and take us , the viewer , whether audible or visually , on a journey , not a ride . And , in that , I wanted to create an unpredictability , so one set leads to another and another , and you never know what 's gonna happen . Along the way , Usher becomes our guide . We 're so focused on him , we don 't notice the change . The thing is unfolding little by little , and you can 't quite see far enough ahead to know what 's gonna come next . "
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
The video begins with Usher flickering on a television in a room , before we see him in a scene dancing with blue flashing lights , and will.i.am. is shown in a similar room with red flashing lights . Usher is then shown with female background dancers in a white room . In the scene he dons a pair of glasses which show the dancers performing through the lens . Usher then dances outside in front of a concrete wall , with male background dancers appearing as shadows . As will.i.am. performs his verse , he and Usher are seen in their corresponding rooms with flashing lights . After this , Usher puffs a cigar and dances with male background dancers in an arena @-@ like area , whilst he is also joined by female dancers with flashing lights on the floor , with the video ending with Usher shown on the flashing television .
In a review of the video , Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly said , " For a song with such a title , it sure does take a minute for its video to build up to wow @-@ worthy moments . After some clean dance sequences , the magic begins . Usher grooves with shadows , puffs out O ’ s with cigar smoke , and then links back up with his ladies on a primary colored dance floor to show off his steps . " Chris Ryan of MTV News compared the video 's flashing lights to the music video for " Yeah ! " , and called the song an answer track to Trey Songz 's " LOL " . At the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards , the clip was nominated for Best Dance Video , Best Choreography , and Best Male Video .
= = Live performances = =
Usher performed the song with will.i.am. on the ninth season of American Idol , appearing in a black bowler and matching black suit with silver lapels , accompanied by flames and other pyrotechnics . They then performed the song together on The Oprah Winfrey Show on May 10 , 2010 . The song has also been performed live in Australia on Hey Hey it 's Saturday on May 19 , 2010 , as well as on Sunrise on May 21 , 2010 . Usher later performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , So You Think You Can Dance , Good Morning America and live in the United Kingdom on Britain 's Got Talent . On August 6 , 2010 , he performed the song alongside other hits at his New Look Foundation ’ s inaugural World Leadership Awards in Atlanta , where his protege Justin Bieber and R & B singer Ciara also performed . Another event the song was performed at was the Activision E3 Event . The song was performed alongside " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " during the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards . VMA executive producer Dave Sirulnick told MTV News , " We said to him , ' We want to do the best televised dance routine that you 've done in years . Let 's show why you 're the king . ' " MTV Buzzworthy writer , Tamar Antai was present at the rehearsal for the show , and commented that the VMA crew was about to " pull off visual feats not just previously unseen and unparalleled at the VMAs , but unseen and unparalleled on TV . "
The performance was received with critical acclaim . On Usher specifically Antai said the performance was like " liquid magic " , saying , " He took it to the level that comes after the next level . The penthouse level . " He was aided by about a dozen background dancers , the males in skeleton @-@ like costumets , and the females donning a one @-@ piece , gloves and boots . The " OMG " performance was accompanied by red laser lights , making an illusion as if the stage disappeared . The lights spelled out " O.M.G " as well as " Usher " , as dancers lowered from the ceiling . Jayson Rodrgiguez of MTV News commented , " The singer moved and grooved , proving that he 's the R & B star that everyone pays attention to for the big moments . " Rochell D. Thomas , also of the site said " Call it what you will : talent , swag , skills ... When he steps on the dance floor , some mysterious thing comes out of him and puts the G in groove . " Thomas went on to say that Usher 's dance moves would make " the late great Michael Jackson jealous " in the stage production " that included more special @-@ effects bells and whistles than a summer blockbuster . " Chris Ryan of MTV Buzzworthy also compared the performance to Jackson , calling it overall , " One part " Tron , " one part laser show , one part Michael Jackson choreo tribute , and all spectacle . " Usher appeared with The Black Eyed Peas to perform the song during the halftime show of Super Bowl XLV .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Vocals - Usher
Lyrics , music , production , instruments , recording , engineering , vocals – will.i.am
Mixing – Dylan " 3 @-@ D " Dresdow
Source :
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Clavaria fragilis =
Clavaria fragilis , commonly known as fairy fingers , white worm coral , or white spindles , is a species of fungus in the family Clavariaceae . It is synonymous with Clavaria vermicularis . The fungus is the type species of the genus Clavaria and is a typical member of the clavarioid or club fungi . It produces tubular , unbranched , white basidiocarps ( fruit bodies ) that typically grow in clusters . The fruit bodies can reach dimensions of 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) tall by 0 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) thick . Clavaria fragilis is a saprobic species , growing in woodland litter or in old , unimproved grassland . It is widespread throughout temperate regions in the Northern Hemisphere , but has also been reported from Australia and South Africa . The fungus is edible , but insubstantial and flavorless . There are several other small white coral @-@ like fungi with which C. fragilis may be confused .
= = History and taxonomy = =
Clavaria fragilis was originally described from Denmark in 1790 by Danish naturalist and mycologist Theodor Holmskjold , and was sanctioned under this name by Elias Magnus Fries in his 1821 Systema Mycologicum . The Latin epithet fragilis refers to the brittle fruit bodies . The species was redescribed by Swedish mycologist Olof Swartz in 1811 , using the name Clavaria vermicularis ( the epithet meaning " wormlike " ) . Though it is a later synonym — and thus obsolete according to the principle of priority — the latter name is still frequently used today . There are several other names considered to be synonymous with C. fragilis by the online taxonomical database MycoBank ( see the taxobox ) .
In North America , the fungus has colloquially been called " fairy fingers " or " white worm coral " . In the UK its recommended English name is " white spindles " . British naturalist Samuel Frederick Gray called it the " worm club @-@ stool " in his 1821 A Natural Arrangement of British Plants .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of C. fragilis are irregularly tubular , smooth to furrowed , sometimes compressed , very fragile , white , up to 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) tall by 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) thick , and typically grow in dense clusters . The tip of the fruit body tapers to a point , and may yellow and curve with age . There is no distinct stalk , although it is evident as a short , semitransparent zone of tissue at the base of the club . Microscopically , the hyphae of the flesh are swollen up to 12 µm wide and lack clamp connections . The spores are smooth , colourless , ellipsoid to oblong , measuring 5 – 7 by 3 – 4 µm . The spores are white in deposit . The basidia ( spore bearing cells ) measure 40 – 50 by 6 – 8 µm , and lack clamps at their bases .
= = = Edibility = = =
Clavaria fragilis is edible , but the fruit bodies are insubstantial and fragile . One field guide says " its flesh is tasteless and so delicate that it seems to dissolve in one 's mouth . " Its odor has been compared to iodine .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The species occurs throughout the Northern Hemisphere , in Europe , North America , and Asia . In North America , it is more common east of the Rocky Mountains . It has also been recorded from Australia and South Africa . In 2006 , it was reported from the Arctic zone of the Ural Mountains , in Russia .
The fungus grows in woodland and in grassland on moist soil , and is presumed to be saprobic , rotting fallen leaf litter and dead grass stems . The fruit bodies tend to grow in groups , tufts or clusters . Although they can grow singly , they are typically inconspicuous unless in clusters .
= = Similar species = =
Similar fungi with simple , white fruit bodies include Clavaria acuta , an equally widespread species that typically grows singly or in small groups rather than in dense clusters and can be distinguished microscopically by its clamped basidia and larger spores ; the morphologically similar , but rare C. atkinsoniana , found in the southwestern and central United States , which cannot be distinguished from C. fragilis by field characteristics alone but has larger spores — 8 @.@ 5 – 10 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 µm ; C. rubicundula , another North American species , which is similar in stature but has a reddish tint ; and Multiclavula mucida , a widespread lichenized species with smaller fruit bodies that occurs with its associated algae on moist wood .
= = Conservation status = =
In North America , Clavaria fragilis has been called " by far our most common Clavaria " . In northern Europe , it is one of a suite of " CHEG " fungi ( CHEG standing for " Clavarioid fungi @-@ Hygrocybe @-@ Entoloma @-@ Geoglossaceae " ) considered to be indicator species of old , unimproved grassland ( permanent grassland that has not been cultivated for some years ) . Though such grasslands are a threatened habitat in Europe , C. fragilis is one of the commoner CHEG species . It is , nonetheless , on the national red list of threatened fungi in the Netherlands and Slovenia .
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= Natural dye =
Natural dyes are dyes or colorants derived from plants , invertebrates , or minerals . The majority of natural dyes are vegetable dyes from plant sources — roots , berries , bark , leaves , and wood — and other organic sources such as fungi and lichens
Archaeologists have found evidence of textile dyeing dating back to the Neolithic period . In China , dyeing with plants , barks and insects has been traced back more than 5 @,@ 000 years . The essential process of dyeing changed little over time . Typically , the dye material is put in a pot of water and then the textiles to be dyed are added to the pot , which is heated and stirred until the color is transferred . Textile fibre may be dyed before spinning ( " dyed in the wool " ) , but most textiles are " yarn @-@ dyed " or " piece @-@ dyed " after weaving . Many natural dyes require the use of chemicals called mordants to bind the dye to the textile fibres ; tannin from oak galls , salt , natural alum , vinegar , and ammonia from stale urine were used by early dyers . Many mordants , and some dyes themselves , produce strong odors , and large @-@ scale dyeworks were often isolated in their own districts .
Throughout history , people have dyed their textiles using common , locally available materials , but scarce dyestuffs that produced brilliant and permanent colors such as the natural invertebrate dyes , Tyrian purple and crimson kermes , became highly prized luxury items in the ancient and medieval world . Plant @-@ based dyes such as woad ( Isatis tinctoria ) , indigo , saffron , and madder were raised commercially and were important trade goods in the economies of Asia and Europe . Across Asia and Africa , patterned fabrics were produced using resist dyeing techniques to control the absorption of color in piece @-@ dyed cloth . Dyes such as cochineal and logwood ( Haematoxylum campechianum ) were brought to Europe by the Spanish treasure fleets , and the dyestuffs of Europe were carried by colonists to America .
The discovery of man @-@ made synthetic dyes in the mid @-@ 19th century triggered a long decline in the large @-@ scale market for natural dyes . Synthetic dyes , which could be produced in large quantities , quickly superseded natural dyes for the commercial textile production enabled by the industrial revolution , and unlike natural dyes , were suitable for the synthetic fibres that followed . Artists of the Arts and Crafts Movement preferred the pure shades and subtle variability of natural dyes , which mellow with age but preserve their true colors , unlike early synthetic dyes , and helped ensure that the old European techniques for dyeing and printing with natural dyestuffs were preserved for use by home and craft dyers . Natural dyeing techniques are also preserved by artisans in traditional cultures around the world .
In the early 21st century , the market for natural dyes in the fashion industry is experiencing a resurgence . Western consumers have become more concerned about the health and environmental impact of synthetic dyes in manufacturing and there is a growing demand for products that use natural dyes . The European Union , for example , has encouraged Indonesian batik cloth producers to switch to natural dyes to improve their export market in Europe .
= = Dyes in use in the fashion industry = =
Fibre content determines the type of dye required for a fabric :
Cellulose fibres : cotton , linen , hemp , ramie , bamboo , rayon
Protein fibres : wool , angora , mohair , cashmere , silk , soy , leather , suede
Cellulose fibres require fibre @-@ reactive , direct / substantive , and vat dyes , which are colourless , soluble dyes fixed by light and / or oxygen . Protein fibres require vat , acid , or indirect / mordant dyes , that require a bonding agent . Each synthetic fibre requires its own dyeing method , for example , nylon requires acid , disperse and pigment dyes , rayon acetate requires disperse dyes , and so on . The types of natural dyes currently in use by the global fashion industry include :
= = = Animal = = =
Cochineal insect ( red )
Cow urine ( Indian yellow )
Lac insect ( red , violet )
Murex snail ( purple )
Octopus / Cuttlefish ( sepia brown )
= = = Plant = = =
Catechu or Cutch tree ( brown )
Gamboge tree resin ( dark mustard yellow )
Himalayan rubhada root ( yellow )
Indigofera plant ( blue )
Kamala tree ( red )
Larkspur plant ( yellow )
Madder root ( red , pink , orange )
Myrabolan fruit ( yellow , green , black )
Pomegranate peel ( yellow )
Weld herb ( yellow )
= = Origins = =
Colors in the " ruddy " range of reds , browns , and oranges are the first attested colors in a number of ancient textile sites ranging from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age across the Levant , Egypt , Mesopotamia and Europe , followed by evidence of blues and then yellows , with green appearing somewhat later . The earliest surviving evidence of textile dyeing was found at the large Neolithic settlement at Çatalhöyük in southern Anatolia , where traces of red dyes , possible from ochre ( iron oxide pigments from clay ) , were found . Polychrome or multicolored fabrics seem to have been developed in the 3rd or 2nd millennium BCE . Textiles with a " red @-@ brown warp and an ochre @-@ yellow weft " were discovered in Egyptian pyramids of the Sixth Dynasty ( 2345 – 2180 BCE ) .
The chemical analysis that would definitively identify the dyes used in ancient textiles has rarely been conducted , and even when a dye such as indigo blue is detected it is impossible to determine which of several indigo @-@ bearing plants was used . Nevertheless , based on the colors of surviving textile fragments and the evidence of actual dyestuffs found in archaeological sites , reds , blues , and yellows from plant sources were in common use by the late Bronze Age and Iron Age .
In the 18th century Jeremias Friedrich Gülich made substantial contributions to refining the dyeing process , making particular progress on setting standards on dyeing sheep wool and many other textiles . His contributions to refining the dying process and his theories on colour brought much praise by the well known poet and artist Johann Wolfgang von Goethe .
= = Processes = =
The essential process of dyeing requires soaking the material containing the dye ( the dyestuff ) in water , adding the textile to be dyed to the resulting solution ( the dyebath ) , and bringing the solution to a simmer for an extended period , often measured in days or even weeks , stirring occasionally until the color has evenly transferred to the textiles .
Some dyestuffs , such as indigo and lichens , will give good color when used alone ; these dyes are called direct dyes or substantive dyes . The majority of plant dyes , however , also require the use of a mordant , a chemical used to " fix " the color in the textile fibres . These dyes are called adjective dyes . By using different mordants , dyers can often obtain a variety of colors and shades from the same dye . Fibres or cloth may be pretreated with mordants , or the mordant may be incorporated in the dyebath . In traditional dyeing , the common mordants are vinegar , tannin from oak bark , sumac or oak galls , ammonia from stale urine , and wood @-@ ash liquor or potash ( potassium carbonate ) made by leaching wood ashes and evaporating the solution .
We shall never know by what chances primitive man discovered that salt , vinegar from fermenting fruit , natural alum , and stale urine helped to fix and enhance the colours of his yarns , but for many centuries these four substances were used as mordants .
Salt helps to " fix " or increase " fastness " of colors , vinegar improves reds and purples , and the ammonia in stale urine assists in the fermentation of indigo dyes . Natural alum ( aluminum sulfate ) is the most common metallic salt mordant , but tin ( stannous chloride ) , copper ( cupric sulfate ) , iron ( ferrous sulfate , called copperas ) and chrome ( potassium dichromate ) are also used . Iron mordants " sadden " colors , while tin and chrome mordants brighten colors . The iron mordants contribute to fabric deterioration , referred to as " dye rot " . Additional chemicals or alterants may be applied after dying to further alter or reinforce the colors .
Textiles may be dyed as raw fibre ( dyed in the fleece or dyed in the wool ) , as spun yarn ( dyed in the hank or yarn @-@ dyed ) , or after weaving ( piece @-@ dyed ) . Mordants often leave residue in wool fibre that makes it difficult to spin , so wool was generally dyed after spinning , as yarn or woven cloth . Indigo , however , requires no mordant , and cloth manufacturers in medieval England often dyed wool in the fleece with the indigo @-@ bearing plant woad and then dyed the cloth again after weaving to produce deep blues , browns , reds , purples , blacks , and tawnies .
In China , Japan , India , Pakistan , Nigeria , Gambia , and other parts of West Africa and southeast Asia , patterned silk and cotton fabrics were produced using resist dyeing techniques in which the cloth is printed or stenciled with starch or wax , or tied in various ways to prevent even penetration of the dye when the cloth is piece @-@ dyed . The Chinese ladao process is dated to the 10th century ; other traditional techniques include tie @-@ dye , batik , Rōketsuzome , katazome , bandhani and leheria .
The mordants used in dyeing and many dyestuffs themselves give off strong and unpleasant odors , and the actual process of dyeing requires a good supply of fresh water , storage areas for bulky plant materials , vats which can be kept heated ( often for days or weeks ) along with the necessary fuel , and airy spaces to dry the dyed textiles . Ancient large @-@ scale dye @-@ works tended to be located on the outskirts of populated areas , on windy promontories .
= = Common dyestuffs = =
= = = Reds and pinks = = =
A variety of plants produce red dyes , including a number of lichens , henna , alkanet or dyer 's bugloss ( Alkanna tinctoria ) , asafoetida and dyer 's madder Rubia tinctorum . Madder and related plants of the genus Rubia are native to many temperate zones around the world , and were already used as sources of good red dye , such as rose madder , in prehistory . Madder has been identified on linen in the tomb of Tutankhamun , and Pliny the Elder records madder growing near Rome . Madder was a dye of commercial importance in Europe , being cultivated in the Netherlands and France to dye the red coats of military uniforms until the market collapsed following the development of synthetic alizarin dye in 1869 . Madder was also used to dye the " hunting pinks " of Great Britain .
Turkey red was a strong , very fast red dye for cotton obtained from madder root via a complicated multistep process involving " sumac and oak galls , calf 's blood , sheep 's dung , oil , soda , alum , and a solution of tin . " Turkey red was developed in India and spread to Turkey . Greek workers familiar with the methods of its production were brought to France in 1747 , and Dutch and English spies soon discovered the secret . A sanitized version of Turkey red was being produced in Manchester by 1784 , and roller @-@ printed dress cottons with a Turkey red ground were fashionable in England by the 1820s .
Munjeet or Indian madder ( Rubia cordifolia ) is native to the Himalayas and other mountains of Asia and Japan . Munjeet was an important dye for the Asian cotton industry and is still used by craft dyers in Nepal .
Puccoon or bloodroot ( Sanguinaria canadensis ) is a popular red dye among Southeastern Native American basketweavers . Choctaw basketweavers additionally use sumac for red dye . Coushattas artists from Texas and Louisiana used the water oak ( Quercus nigra L. ) to produce red .
A delicate rose color in Navajo rugs comes from fermented prickly pear cactus fruit , Opuntia polyacantha . Navajo weavers also use rainwater and red dirt to create salmon @-@ pink dyes .
= = = Oranges = = =
Dyes that create reds and yellows can also yield oranges . Navajo dyers create orange dyes from one @-@ seeded juniper , Juniperus monosperma , Navajo tea , Thelesperma gracile , or alder bark .
= = = Yellows = = =
Yellow dyes are " about as numerous as red ones " , and can be extracted from saffron , pomegranate rind , turmeric , safflower , onionskins , and a number of weedy flowering plants . Limited evidence suggests the use of weld ( Reseda luteola ) , also called mignonette or dyer 's rocket before the Iron Age , but it was an important dye of the ancient Mediterranean and Europe and is indigenous to England . Two brilliant yellow dyes of commercial importance in Europe from the 18th century are derived from trees of the Americas : quercitron from the inner bark of Eastern Black Oak ( Quercus velutina ) , ] native to eastern North America and fustic from the dyer 's mulberry tree ( Maclura tinctoria ) of the West Indies and Mexico .
In rivercane basketweaving among Southeastern Woodlands tribes in the Americas , butternut ( Juglans cinerea ) and yellow root ( Xanthorhiza simplicissima ) provide a rich yellow color . Chitimacha basket weavers have a complex formula for yellow that employs a dock plant ( most likely Rumex crispus ) for yellow . Navajo artists create yellow dyes from small snake @-@ weed , brown onion skins , and rubber plant ( Parthenium incanum ) . Rabbitbush ( Chrysothamnus ) and rose hips produce pale , yellow @-@ cream colored dyes .
= = = Greens = = =
If plants that yield yellow dyes are common , plants that yield green dyes are rare . Both woad and indigo have been used since ancient times in combination with yellow dyes to produce shades of green . Medieval and Early Modern England was especially known for its green dyes . The dyers of Lincoln , a great cloth town in the high Middle Ages , produced the Lincoln green cloth associated with Robin Hood by dyeing wool with woad and then overdyeing it yellow with weld or dyer 's greenweed ( Genista tinctoria ) , also known as dyer 's broom . Woolen cloth mordanted with alum and dyed yellow with dyer 's greenweed was overdyed with woad and , later , indigo , to produce the once @-@ famous Kendal green . This in turn fell out of fashion in the 18th century in favor of the brighter Saxon green , dyed with indigo and fustic .
Soft olive greens are also achieved when textiles dyed yellow are treated with an iron mordant . The dull green cloth common to the Iron Age Halstatt culture shows traces of iron , and was possibly colored by boiling yellow @-@ dyed cloth in an iron pot . Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau in North America used lichen to dye corn husk bags a sea green .
Navajo textile artist Nonabah Gorman Bryan developed a two @-@ step process for creating green dye . First the Churro wool yarn is dyed yellow with sagebrush , Artemisia tridentata , and then it is soaked in black dye afterbath . Red onion skins are also used by Navajo dyers to produce green .
= = = Blues = = =
Blue colorants around the world were derived from indigo dye @-@ bearing plants , primarily those in the genus Indigofera , which are native to the tropics . The primary commercial indigo species in Asia was true indigo ( Indigofera tinctoria ) . India is believed to be the oldest center of indigo dyeing in the Old World . It was a primary supplier of indigo dye to Europe as early as the Greco @-@ Roman era . The association of India with indigo is reflected in the Greek word for the dye , which was indikon ( ινδικόν ) . The Romans used the term indicum , which passed into Italian dialect and eventually into English as the word indigo .
In Central and South America , the important blue dyes were Añil ( Indigofera suffruticosa ) and Natal indigo ( Indigofera arrecta ) .
In temperate climates including Europe , indigo was obtained primarily from woad ( Isatis tinctoria ) , an indigenous plant of Assyria and the Levant which has been grown in Northern Europe over 2 @,@ 000 years , although from the 18th century it was mostly replaced by superior Indian indigo imported by the British East India Company . Woad was carried to New England in the 17th century and used extensively in America until native stands of indigo were discovered in Florida and the Carolinas . In Sumatra , indigo dye is extracted from some species of Marsdenia . Other indigo @-@ bearing dye plants include dyer 's knotweed ( Polygonum tinctorum ) from Japan and the coasts of China , and the West African shrub Lonchocarpus cyanescens .
= = = = Natural dyeing with Indigo , Jaipur ( Rajasthan , India ) = = = =
= = = Purples = = =
In medieval Europe , purple , violet , murrey and similar colors were produced by dyeing wool with woad or indigo in the fleece and then piece @-@ dyeing the woven cloth with red dyes , either the common madder or the luxury dyes kermes and cochineal . Madder could also produce purples when used with alum . Brazilwood also gave purple shades with vitriol ( sulfuric acid ) or potash .
Choctaw artists traditionally used maple ( Acer sp . ) to create lavender and purple dyes . Purples can also be derived from lichens , and from the berries of White Bryony from the northern Rocky Mountain states and mulberry ( morus nigra ) ( with an acid mordant ) .
= = = Browns = = =
Cutch is an ancient brown dye from the wood of acacia trees , particularly Acacia catechu , used in India for dyeing cotton . Cutch gives gray @-@ browns with an iron mordant and olive @-@ browns with copper .
Black walnut ( Juglans nigra ) is used by Cherokee artists to produce a deep brown approaching black . Today black walnut is primarily used to dye baskets but has been used in the past for fabrics and deerhide . Juniper , Juniperus monosperma , ashes provide brown and yellow dyes for Navajo people , as do the hulls of wild walnuts ( Juglans major ) . Khaki , which translates a Hindustani word signifying " soil @-@ coloured " , was introduced into British uniforms in India , which were dyed locally with a dye prepared from the native mazari palm Nannorrhops .
= = = Greys and blacks = = =
Choctaw dyers use maple ( Acer sp . ) for a grey dye . Navajo weavers create black from mineral yellow ochre mixed with pitch from the piñon tree ( Pinus edulis ) and the three @-@ leaved sumac ( Rhus trilobata ) . They also produce a cool grey dye with blue flower lupine and a warm grey from Juniper mistletoe ( Phoradendron juniperinum ) .
= = = Lichen = = =
Dye @-@ bearing lichen produce a wide range of greens , oranges , yellows , reds , browns , and bright pinks and purples . The lichen Rocella tinctoria was found along the Mediterranean Sea and was used by the ancient Phoenicians . In recent times , lichen dyes have been an important part of the dye traditions of Wales , Ireland , Scotland , and among native peoples of the southwest and Intermontane Plateaus of the United States . Scottish lichen dyes include cudbear ( also called archil in England and litmus in the Netherlands ) , and crottle .
= = = Fungi = = =
Miriam C. Rice , ( 1918 — 2010 ) of Mendocino , California , pioneered research into using various mushrooms for natural dyes . She discovered mushroom dyes for a complete rainbow palette . Swedish and American mycologists , building upon Rice 's research , have discovered sources for true blues ( Sarcodon squamosus ) and mossy greens ( Hydnellum geogenium ) . Hypholoma fasciculare provides a yellow dye , and fungi such as Phaeolus schweinitzii and Pisolithus tinctorius are used in dyeing textiles and paper .
= = Luxury dyestuffs = =
From the second millennium BC to the 19th century , a succession of rare and expensive natural dyestuffs came in and out of fashion in the ancient world and then in Europe . In many cases the cost of these dyes far exceeded the cost of the wools and silks they colored , and often only the finest grades of fabrics were considered worthy of the best dyes .
= = = Royal purple = = =
The premier luxury dye of the ancient world was Tyrian purple or royal purple , a purple @-@ red dye which is extracted from several genera of sea snails , primarily the spiny dye @-@ murex Murex brandaris ( currently known as Bolinus brandaris ) . Murex dye was greatly prized in antiquity because it did not fade , but instead became brighter and more intense with weathering and sunlight . Murex dyeing may have been developed first by the Minoans of East Crete or the West Semites along the Levantine coast , and heaps of crushed murex shells have been discovered at a number of locations along the eastern Mediterranean dated to the mid @-@ 2nd millennium BC . The classical dye known as Phoenician Red was also derived from murex snails .
Murex dyes were fabulously expensive – one snail yields but a single drop of dye – and the Roman Empire imposed a strict monopoly on their use from the reign of Alexander Severus ( AD 225 – 235 ) that was maintained by the succeeding Byzantine Empire until the Early Middle Ages . The dye was used for imperial manuscripts on purple parchment , often with text in silver or gold , and porphyrogenitos or " born in the purple " was a term for Byzantine offspring of a reigning Emperor . The color matched the increasingly rare purple rock porphyry , also associated with the imperial family .
= = = Crimson and scarlet = = =
Tyrian purple retained its place as the premium dye of Europe until it was replaced " in status and desirability " by the rich crimson reds and scarlets of the new silk @-@ weaving centers of Italy , colored with kermes . Kermes is extracted from the dried unlaid eggs of the insect Kermes vermilio or Kermococcus vermilio found on species of oak ( especially the Kermes oak of the Mediterranean region ) . The dye is of ancient origin ; jars of kermes have been found in a Neolithic cave @-@ burial at Adaoutse , Bouches @-@ du @-@ Rhône . Similar dyes are extracted from the related insects Porphyrophora hamelii ( Armenian cochineal ) of the Caucasus region , Porphyrophora polonica ( Polish cochineal or Saint John 's blood ) of Eastern Europe , and the lac @-@ producing insects of India , Southeast Asia , China , and Tibet .
When kermes @-@ dyed textiles achieved prominence around the mid @-@ 11th century , the dyestuff was called " grain " in all Western European languages because the desiccated eggs resemble fine grains of wheat or sand . Textiles dyed with kermes were described as dyed in the grain . Woollens were frequently dyed in the fleece with woad and then piece @-@ dyed in kermes , producing a wide range colors from blacks and grays through browns , murreys , purples , and sanguines . By the 14th and early 15th century , brilliant full grain kermes scarlet was " by far the most esteemed , most regal " color for luxury woollen textiles in the Low Countries , England , France , Spain and Italy .
Cochineal ( Dactylopius coccus ) is a scale insect of Central and North America from which the crimson @-@ coloured dye carmine is derived . It was used by the Aztec and Maya peoples . Moctezuma in the 15th century collected tribute in the form of bags of cochineal dye . Soon after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire cochineal began to be exported to Spain , and by the seventeenth century it was a commodity traded as far away as India . During the colonial period the production of cochineal ( in Spanish , grana fina ) grew rapidly . Produced almost exclusively in Oaxaca by indigenous producers , cochineal became Mexico 's second most valued export after silver . Cochineal produces purplish colors alone and brilliant scarlets when mordanted with tin ; thus cochineal , which produced a stronger dye and could thus be used in smaller quantities , replaced kermes dyes in general use in Europe from the 17th century .
= = = The rise of formal black = = =
During the course of the 15th century , the civic records show brilliant reds falling out of fashion for civic and high @-@ status garments in the Duchy of Burgundy in favor of dark blues , greens , and most important of all , black . The origins of the trend for somber colors are elusive , but are generally attributed to the growing influence of Spain and possibly the importation of Spanish merino wools . The trend spread in the next century : the Low Countries , German states , Scandinavia , England , France , and Italy all absorbed the sobering and formal influence of Spanish dress after the mid @-@ 1520s .
Producing fast black in the Middle Ages was a complicated process involving multiple dyeings with woad or indigo followed by mordanting , but at the dawn of Early Modern period , a new and superior method of dyeing black dye reached Europe via Spanish conquests in the New World . The new method used logwood ( Haematoxylum campechianum ) , a dyewood native to Mexico and Central America . Although logwood was poorly received at first , producing a blue inferior to that of woad and indigo , it was discovered to produce a fast black in combination with a ferrous sulfate ( copperas ) mordant . Despite changing fashions in color , logwood was the most widely used dye by the 19th century , providing the sober blacks of formal and mourning clothes .
= = Decline and rediscovery = =
The first synthetic dyes were discovered in the mid @-@ 19th century , starting with William Henry Perkin 's mauveine in 1856 , an aniline dye derived from coal tar . Alizarin , the red dye present in madder , was the first natural pigment to be duplicated synthetically , in 1869 , leading to the collapse of the market for naturally grown madder . The development of new , strongly colored aniline dyes followed quickly : a range of reddish @-@ purples , blues , violets , greens and reds became available by 1880 . These dyes had great affinity for animal fibres such as wool and silk . The new colors tended to fade and wash out , but they were inexpensive and could be produced in the vast quantities required by textile production in the industrial revolution . By the 1870s commercial dyeing with natural dyestuffs was fast disappearing .
At the same time the Pre @-@ Raphaelite artist and founding figure of the Arts and Crafts movement William Morris took up the art of dyeing as an adjunct to his manufacturing business , the design firm of Morris & Co . Always a medievalist at heart , Morris loathed the colors produced by the fashionable aniline dyes . He spent much of his time at his Staffordshire dye works mastering the processes of dyeing with plant materials and making experiments in the revival of old or discovery of new methods . One result of these experiments was to reinstate indigo dyeing as a practical industry and generally to renew the use of natural dyes like madder which had been driven almost out of use by the commercial success of the anilines . Morris saw dyeing of wools , silks , and cottons as the necessary preliminary to the production of woven and printed fabrics of the highest excellence ; and his period of incessant work at the dye @-@ vat ( 1875 – 76 ) was followed by a period during which he was absorbed in the production of textiles ( 1877 – 78 ) , and more especially in the revival of carpet- and tapestry @-@ weaving as fine arts . Morris & Co. also provided naturally dyed silks for the embroidery style called art needlework .
Scientists continued to search for new synthetic dyes that would be effective on cellulose fibres like cotton and linen , and that would be more colorfast on wool and silk than the early anilines . Chrome or mordant dyes produced a muted but very fast color range for woollens . These were followed by acid dyes for animal fibres ( from 1875 ) and the synthesis of indigo in Germany in 1880 . The work on indigo led to the development of a new class of dyes called vat dyes in 1901 that produced a wide range of fast colors for vegetable fibres . Disperse dyes were introduced in 1923 to color the new textiles of cellulose acetate , which could not be colored with any existing dyes . Today disperse dyes are the only effective means of coloring many synthetics . Reactive dyes for both wool and cotton were introduced in the mid @-@ 1950s , and are used both in commercial textile production and in craft dyeing .
In America , synthetic dyes became popular among a wide range of Native American textile artists ; however , natural dyes remained in use , as many textile collectors prefer natural dyes over synthetics . Today , dyeing with natural materials is often practiced as an adjunct to handspinning , knitting and weaving . It remains a living craft in many traditional cultures of North America , Africa , Asia , and the Scottish Highlands .
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= Random Access Memories =
Random Access Memories is the fourth studio album by the French electronic music duo Daft Punk , released on 17 May 2013 by the duo 's imprint Daft Life and Columbia Records . The album pays tribute to the late 1970s and early 1980s era of music in the United States , particularly the sounds of said era that emerged from Los Angeles . This theme was reflected in the promotional campaign for the album that included billboards , television advertisements and a web series , as well as in the album 's packaging . Unlike their previous albums , Daft Punk recruited session musicians to perform live instrumentation in professional recording locations , and limited the use of electronic instruments to usage of drum machines , a custom @-@ built modular synthesizer and vintage vocoders . The album features collaborations with Giorgio Moroder , Panda Bear , Julian Casablancas , Todd Edwards , DJ Falcon , Chilly Gonzales , Nile Rodgers , Paul Williams and Pharrell Williams . It is the first album by the duo to be released by Columbia Records .
Random Access Memories received critical acclaim upon release , scoring an 87 out of 100 on review aggregator site Metacritic and frequently appearing on many music critics ' year @-@ end lists . It has also become one of Daft Punk 's most commercially successful albums to date , topping the charts in more than 25 countries worldwide . It debuted at # 1 on the Billboard 200 in the United States , selling more than 339 @,@ 000 copies within its first week , becoming their highest charting album to date and their first to top the Billboard 200 chart . The album 's lead single " Get Lucky " became a critical and commercial success worldwide , topping the charts in more than 30 countries worldwide and becoming one of the best @-@ selling digital singles of all time . The album later won Grammy Awards for Album of the Year , Best Dance / Electronica Album and Best Engineered Album , Non @-@ Classical , and " Get Lucky " won for Record of the Year and Best Pop Duo / Group Performance at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards in 2014 .
= = Background = =
= = = Conception = = =
Shortly after finishing off their Alive 2006 / 2007 tour , Daft Punk began working on new material in 2008 . Thomas Bangalter of the duo recalled , " the two of us would go in with a lot of keyboards , guitars , drums , and stuff and started to do demos for six , seven months . " Daft Punk were pleased with the work in terms of composition , but were dissatisfied with the production aspect , as they relied on samples and loops of their own performances : " We could play some riffs and stuff but not keep it [ up ] for four minutes straight . " Daft Punk put these demos aside and started work on the Tron : Legacy film soundtrack later in 2008 . As Bangalter mentioned after the film 's release in 2010 : " Making music for a movie is very humbling . We ’ ve been working on some of our music concurrently . " Daft Punk then decided to work extensively with live musicians on what would become Random Access Memories : " We wanted to do what we used to do with machines and samplers , but with people . " They avoided the use of samples on the album , with the exception of the closing track " Contact " .
The album features Chic frontman Nile Rodgers , who commented that a collaboration was " something we 've [ Daft Punk and Rodgers ] talked about for a long time . We 've respected each other endlessly . " Daft Punk eventually visited Rodgers ' home for an informal jam session , and an official collaboration was later confirmed and completed . Musician Paul Williams announced in a 2010 interview that he had worked with the group , after Daft Punk had been introduced to Williams by a sound engineer with whom they were mutually acquainted .
In May 2012 Daft Punk 's collaboration with Giorgio Moroder was announced — Moroder had recorded a monologue about his life for use in a track on the album . Rodgers was also present during the Moroder recording session . Moroder clarified that he was not involved in the composition of the track or its use of a synthesizer : " They did not let me get involved at all . Thomas asked me if I wanted to tell the story of my life . Then they would know what to do with it . " Daft Punk had been in contact with Moroder in relation to a possible contribution for the Tron : Legacy score , but this never happened .
Chilly Gonzales stated in an interview that his contribution was recorded in a one @-@ day session : " I played for hours and they 're gonna grab what they grab and turn it into whatever . " He explained that Daft Punk prompted him at the piano in the same manner that a film director coaches an actor , and Gonzales left the Los Angeles studio without knowledge of what the final product would sound like . He had previously recorded a cover version of Daft Punk 's song " Too Long " that appeared on the duo 's 2003 album Daft Club .
Pharrell Williams collaborated with Daft Punk and Rodgers by providing vocals for two tracks on Random Access Memories . As a member of the Neptunes , Pharrell had previously provided a remix of " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " that appeared on Daft Club . The Neptunes and Daft Punk also co @-@ produced N.E.R.D. ' s song " Hypnotize U " .
= = = Recording = = =
Recording took place at Henson Recording Studios , Conway Recording Studios and Capitol Studios in California , Electric Lady Studios in New York City , and Gang Recording Studio in Paris , France . Having worked with keyboardist and arranger Chris Caswell on Tron : Legacy , the duo enlisted him and connected with engineers and other session players for their next album . Daft Punk recalled that they wished to avoid the more compressed sounds of drum machines in favor of " airy open " drum sets of the 1970s and 80s , which the duo consider the most appealing era . Bangalter clarified that " it 's not that we can 't make crazy futuristic sounding stuff , but we wanted to play with the past " . The duo noted that the session players were enthusiastic to reunite in the context of the new album and the perceived prestige of the studio locations .
Drummer Omar Hakim recalled being asked by Daft Punk to perform on the album , and was surprised by what they wanted of him . He at first assumed that the duo wanted electronic drum work , since Hakim had done some drum programming in his career . Daft Punk instead specified that they were looking to record Hakim performing acoustic drum riffs that the duo had conceived . Rather than play out the entire structure of a song , Hakim would perform individual patterns for extended periods , thus creating a library for the duo to cull from . Daft Punk conveyed their ideas to session musicians via sheet music and in some instances by humming melodies . Bangalter recalled an example in which he hummed a complex drum and bass line to Hakim , who replicated and improved upon it for the track " Giorgio by Moroder " .
Most of the vocal sessions took place in Paris , whereas the rhythm sections were recorded in the United States . The album incorporates a variety of accompanying performances including a horn section , woodwind instruments , a string orchestra and choir . Orchestral parts in particular were recorded for almost every track , but were only included on a few songs in the final product . The use of such performers and places came at great monetary expense , as noted by Bangalter : " There used to be a time where people that had means to experiment would do it , you know ? That 's what this record is about . " He estimated a cost of over one million dollars , but felt that the number was not important . Bangalter stated that the sessions were financed by Daft Punk themselves , which allowed them the luxury of abandoning the project if they had so wished . He also specified that " there are songs on the album that traveled into five studios over two and a half years . "
Various sound effects were newly recorded with the help of film experts from Warner Bros. Bangalter noted one example in which the sound of a busy restaurant was achieved by placing microphones in front of the forks of a group of people . In another instance , the effect of dripping water was recorded on a soundstage . Use of electronics was limited to drum machines that appear on only two tracks , a large custom @-@ built Modcan modular synthesizer performed live by the duo , and vintage vocoders . When asked which of the two Daft Punk members performed the robotic vocals on the album , Bangalter expressed that it did not matter . The duo produced most of the vocoder tracks in their own private studio in Paris , with later processing done by Mick Guzauski at Capitol . Moroder elaborated that Daft Punk would take " a week or so " to find an adequate vocoder sound , and an additional few days to record the lyrics .
Although the duo felt that the presets and parameters of digital tools would inhibit creativity and innovation , they admitted that Random Access Memories could not have been made in the complete absence of computer technology . The sessions were recorded simultaneously onto Ampex reels and as Pro Tools tracks ; Daft Punk and Guzauski would then listen to each recording in both analogue and digital iterations , deciding which of the two they preferred . Subsequently the elements were edited by the duo with Pro Tools in a manner similar to how they would work with samples .
In an interview conducted in November 2012 by Guitar World magazine , Fourplay member Nathan East mentioned that he had contributed to the project . The percussionist Quinn also stated that he performed on " every drum [ he ] own [ s ] " for the album . Pedal steel guitar work on the record was performed by Greg Leisz . Daft Punk sought to use the instrument in a way that bordered between electronic and acoustic . Additional session players include John " J.R. " Robinson , Paul Jackson , Jr . , James Genus , Thomas Bloch and Chris Caswell .
= = Composition = =
= = = Theme and influences = = =
Bangalter described the album 's title as encapsulating Daft Punk 's interest in the past , referencing both random @-@ access memory technology and the human experience : " We were drawing a parallel between the brain and the hard drive – the random way that memories are stored . " Daft Punk felt that while current technology allows for an unlimited capacity to store recorded material , the content produced by contemporary artists had diminished in quality . Their goal was therefore to maximize the potential of infinite storage by recording a sprawling amount of elements . The duo pointed to the process as being further inspiration for the album 's title , as they sought to make connections out of the random series of ideas .
Regarding the style of the album , they sought a " west coast vibe " , referencing such acts as Fleetwood Mac , the Doobie Brothers and the Eagles . Daft Punk also acknowledged that the record pays homage to Michael Jackson , the Cars and Steely Dan . The recording of live synthesizer parts was done in a progressive rock fashion , with the pop sensibilities of Wizzard and the Move . Daft Punk specifically looked to the album Rumours by Fleetwood Mac and The Dark Side of the Moon by Pink Floyd as models . Bangalter felt that " the most important records in music , whether it 's Led Zeppelin [ ... ] or The White Album or Sgt. Pepper 's ... or Quadrophenia or Tommy , are the ones that take you on a journey for miles and miles . "
= = = Structure = = =
The initial demos of Random Access Memories were created without a clear plan for an album . Over the course of the sessions , numerous tracks were created and discarded . At one point Daft Punk had considered sorting the entire album into one continuous track , similar to the Prince record Lovesexy . They had also considered releasing it as a four @-@ disc box set to accommodate the large volume of content produced . Thus the album lacked structure until the final months of production .
The opening track , " Give Life Back to Music " , features guitar work by Rodgers and Paul Jackson , Jr . , drums by John " J.R. " Robinson , and lyrics performed by Daft Punk using vocoders . The song reflects the duo 's goal to create a light yet polished and elegant record . As stated by NME , the album begins with " a stupendously vast rock intro that obliterates any trace of Human After All 's brittle techno " . The following track , " The Game of Love " , also features vocoder singing by the duo . Bangalter said , " There ’ s this thing today where the recorded human voice is processed to try to feel robotic . " He explained that the duo 's intention was to produce robotic vocals with expressiveness and emotion . " Giorgio by Moroder " was created to serve as a metaphor about musical freedom . The duo believed that a monologue by Moroder about his career would be an analogue for music 's history regarding exploration of genres and tastes .
" Within " was one of the first tracks to be recorded for the album . It features Gonzales on piano with minimal accompaniment consisting of bass and a percussion track , as well as vocoder . In the context of the album , " Within " marks the transition from the key of A minor of the previous three songs , to the key of B @-@ flat minor of subsequent tracks . Regarding the lyrics , critic Nick Stevenson observed , " A deep vocoder sings about not understanding the world , being lost and not even remembering his own name . " Jeremy Abbott of Mixmag added , " So many things I don 't understand is the prominent lyric and Chilly 's chords combined with grazing cymbals make for a beautiful summer lullaby . "
" Instant Crush " was based on a demo that Daft Punk presented to Julian Casablancas ; he became enthused upon hearing it and provided vocals . The song contains rock influences and a guitar solo . Critic John Balfe considered it " appropriately Strokes @-@ ish , even if [ Casablancas ' ] trademark drawl is fed quite substantially through a vocoder . " De Homem @-@ Christo noted , " It is true that it is not his usual register , it is the way Julian reacted to the track so for us it is even more exciting . " " Lose Yourself to Dance " features Pharrell Williams and was the result of a desire to create dance music with live drummers . To that end , Robinson appears as session player . A vocoder chant of " come on " appears in the song alongside Pharrell Williams 's singing .
" Touch " features lyrics written and performed by Paul Williams . Daft Punk noted that the song is the most complex piece on the record , being composed of over 250 elements . As Pitchfork observed , " the song warps and bends , floating through genres , epochs , and emotions with a sense of hallucinatory wonder " and recalls the Beatles song " A Day in the Life " . In Rolling Stone , Will Hermes observes , " It 's completely ridiculous . It 's also remarkably beautiful and affecting . " Louis Lepron of Kombini believed the multitude of styles and science fiction aesthetics on the track is an homage to musical films including Phantom of the Paradise , the soundtrack of which Williams had composed . The song 's opening is a specific reference to a scene in the film in which the title character 's voice is gradually enhanced in a studio booth . De Homem @-@ Christo stated that " Touch " is " like the core of the record , and the memories of the other tracks are revolving around it . "
" Get Lucky " is the second song on the album to feature Pharrell Williams , who clarified that the title phrase does not simply refer to a sexual act , but to the potential fortune of finding chemistry with another person . When he had first heard the song , Pharrell Williams said it evoked the image of a " peachy color [ ed ] " sunrise on an exotic island . Daft Punk discussed the concept of the song " Beyond " with Paul Williams , who then translated the ideas into lyrics for it . The track begins with an orchestral string section and timpani before settling into what NME called " reupholstered Warren G ' Regulate ' grooves " . Stevenson similarly described " Beyond " as " a lot like the sample used in Nate Dogg and Warren G ’ s ‘ Regulate ’ " , Michael McDonald 's song " I Keep Forgettin ' " , which he noted as " no bad thing " , and stated that the vocoder @-@ affected lyrics detail " the existential world beyond oceans and mountains – a land beyond love . "
" Motherboard " was described by Daft Punk as being " a futuristic composition that could be from the year 4000 " . A review elaborated that the instrumental piece can " carry you away like a track by Sébastien Tellier " . Todd Edwards commented that the lyrics of " Fragments of Time " were inspired by his desire to capture the moments he experienced during his visit to the duo 's studio sessions in California . " Doin ' It Right " was the last song to be recorded and features vocals performed by Panda Bear . The duo referred to it as the only purely electronic piece on the album , with a modern style . The closing track , " Contact " , is co @-@ produced by DJ Falcon and features a sample of the song " We Ride Tonight " by Australian rock band the Sherbs .
The Japan @-@ exclusive bonus track " Horizon " , written by Bangalter and de Homem Christo , is a slow @-@ tempo composition reminiscent of Pink Floyd . It is characterized by a consistent guitar strum while several additional instruments are progressively layered over , including a bass guitar and drums . The song is stylistically different from other tracks on the album , and is one of the few to feature no lyrics .
= = Promotion and release = =
In January 2013 , de Homem @-@ Christo first revealed that Daft Punk was in the process of signing with Sony Music Entertainment through the Columbia Records label , and that the album would have a spring release . A report from The Guardian followed specifying a release date of May 2013 . On 26 February 2013 , Daft Punk 's official website and Facebook page announced the signing to Columbia with a picture of the duo 's helmets , and a " Columbia " logo in the corner . Billboards and posters featuring the helmets and logo then appeared in several major cities .
On 2 March , a 15 @-@ second television ad aired during Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) depicting an animated , stylized version of the band 's logo and the aforementioned image of the helmets . The music featured in the ad was a result of the collaboration with Rodgers , who noted that various fan remixes of the clip appeared online after the airing . A second TV ad also premiered that was similar to the first on Saturday Night Live , but with a different music clip and the title Random Access Memories in place of the stylized Daft Punk logo . During the first night of Coachella Festival 2013 , a third trailer debuted that featured Daft Punk , Pharrell Williams and Rodgers performing , as well as a list of collaborators on the album . The trailer also aired during Saturday Night Live the following evening , but without a list of collaborators .
The gradual rollout of promotion was inspired by advertising of the past , reflecting the theme of the album . Daft Punk approached Columbia with a specific agenda for the campaign ; Rob Stringer of the label recalled that the duo had showed him the book Rock ' n ' Roll Billboards of the Sunset Strip as an example of what they wanted . Bangalter felt that physical billboards are more affecting than banner ads and that " SNL is this part of American culture with a certain timelessness to it . " The campaign was handled by a small group led by Daft Punk and manager Paul Hahn , with assistance from Kathryn Frazier of the public @-@ relations firm Biz 3 . The duo had pursued Columbia in particular because of its long @-@ standing history , as expressed by Bangalter : " It felt interesting conceptually to write this story with a record company like Columbia , with a 125 @-@ year legacy . " Furthermore , the vinyl labels of the album feature the classic yellow on red Columbia label used on records during said time period .
Central to the promotion was the limiting of exposure to the album 's content , as well as a focus on face @-@ to @-@ face contact for press previews . As Hahn stated , " There is a minimalism in our approach that creates an absence of information , and we notice our fans tend to throw themselves into the breach , or try to fill the empty spaces . " The album 's track titles were initially withheld from online retailers and later revealed through Columbia 's Vine account on 16 April 2013 as a video relaying a series of images . Following a reported leak of the song days earlier , " Get Lucky " was released as a digital download single on 19 April 2013 . On 13 May , Daft Punk 's official Vevo channel posted a video revealing the artwork packaging of the vinyl version of the album , as well as the first few seconds of the opening track . Later that day , a limited @-@ time preview stream of the full album was launched via the iTunes Store .
Daft Punk were scheduled to appear on 6 August episode of The Colbert Report to promote Random Access Memories , but were unable to do so because of conflicting obligations regarding the duo 's future appearance at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards . According to Stephen Colbert , Daft Punk were unaware of any exclusivity agreement and were halted by MTV executives the morning prior to the taping . Colbert nevertheless broadcast an elaborate sketch of himself dancing to " Get Lucky " with various celebrities , including Hugh Laurie , Jeff Bridges , Jimmy Fallon , Bryan Cranston , Jon Stewart , Henry Kissinger , Matt Damon , and the Rockettes .
Columbia released a deluxe box set of Random Access Memories containing a 56 @-@ page hardcover book , the vinyl edition of the album , a partial 70mm film strip of the " Lose Yourself to Dance " video , and USB drives containing bonus audio as well as video content .
= = = The Collaborators = = =
The Random Access Memories official website features a video series called The Collaborators , directed by Ed Lachman and produced by The Creators Project , a partnership between Intel and Vice . Eight episodes were released in the series , which features interviews with participant artists that were involved in the making of the album . All featured album artists appear in the series with the exception of Casablancas , who would go on to appear prominently in the music video for " Instant Crush " . Excerpts of the lead single " Get Lucky " appear in the opening and ending of each Collaborators episode as well as excerpts of other songs from the album , corresponding to each featured musician .
The first episode features disco pioneer Moroder speaking about his experiences with the genre such as his records with Donna Summer and experimenting with synthesizers . Moroder also talks about his visit with Daft Punk in their recording studio . When asked how he first found out about the duo , he replied that he first heard their 2000 single " One More Time " and especially liked the breakdown middle section . He concluded that he views Daft Punk as " perfectionists " and described the album 's style as " something [ ... ] different . Still dance , still electronic ; but [ they ] give that human touch back " .
Episode two revealed that Edwards had contributed to the album ; he expressed that it was difficult keeping his involvement a secret . Edwards had previously collaborated with Daft Punk to create the song " Face to Face " on the 2001 album Discovery . He summarized his experience in the studio recording " Fragments of Time " as being life @-@ changing , as the sessions inspired him to move from New Jersey to California on a permanent basis . Edwards also pointed out the irony of " two androids [ ... ] bringing soul back to music " .
The third episode features Rodgers , who spoke of his background as a founding member of Chic , as well as his numerous collaborations with other artists throughout his career , such as David Bowie , Madonna , and Duran Duran . He expressed that working with Daft Punk " [ felt ] like [ ... ] working with contemporaries " and that they motivated each other to excel when collaborating on the album . At the end of the episode , Rodgers played a portion of a then @-@ unspecified song in which he participated , which was later identified as " Lose Yourself to Dance " , and remarked that the duo 's style has evolved whilst simultaneously exploring music 's past , suggesting that " they went back to go forward . "
Pharrell Williams participated in the fourth episode in which he elaborated on his experience with the creation of the album . Pharrell remarked upon the organic sound of the album , surmising that it " feels like the only click track they had was [ ... ] the human heartbeat " . He felt that the record can be enjoyed by people of all ages due to the accessible nature of music , and concluded that Daft Punk " could just get back on the spaceship that brought them here and go , and leave us . But they 're gracious , they 're nice robots . They chose to stay " .
Episode five features Noah Lennox , better known by his stage name Panda Bear , who spoke about his contribution to the album as well as his history with the band Animal Collective . He had first heard of Daft Punk through the music video of the song " Around the World " , which introduced him to many aspects of electronic dance music . He added that Homework was one of the few albums he and his older brother both enjoyed . Regarding Random Access Memories , Lennox remarked upon the approach of having live musicians , but structuring their performances in a minimal , sample @-@ like fashion .
For the sixth episode , Gonzales spoke about his contribution to the album . He recalled Daft Punk 's visible joy in listening to the raw session recordings made early in the production of the album , as well as the impending years @-@ long challenge that would be faced in completing the record . Gonzales expressed that the duo were aware of how the keys of each song would contribute to the emotional progression of the album as a whole . He therefore performed the piano in the song " Within " to accommodate the cycle . Gonzales concluded by pointing out that Daft Punk rarely collaborate with others , and thus felt that they did so on Random Access Memories to " make the work be transcendent " .
The seventh episode features Stéphane Quême , otherwise known as DJ Falcon , who spoke of first meeting Daft Punk when the duo began recording their debut album Homework . Quême noted that the group 's sound had changed since their debut , and that each of their albums had had a distinct influence . He also felt that the recording of Random Access Memories was such that a producer could potentially sample a track from it in the same way that Daft Punk themselves had sampled older records in their previous albums . Quême concluded that the duo were always sincere and although their first single was released 20 years ago , it still felt modern .
Episode eight features Paul Williams , who likened Daft Punk 's personas to a character from the film Phantom of the Paradise , in which he starred . He also added that their masks hide who they are from the public and allow the listeners to enjoy the music for what it is . Paul Williams worked with the duo at Henson Recording Studios , the former studio of A & M Records where he had worked previously , including his compositions for Jim Henson 's films featuring the Muppets , such as " Rainbow Connection " . He also stated that the song he penned was to be sung from the point of view of an unidentified first person , setting the emotion , but the lyrics came from the music itself . Paul Williams said that he felt vulnerable while writing the record , and said he writes best when he is allowed to be honest and vulnerable , a situation that Daft Punk allowed . He also stated that his sobriety added a sense of wonder to the song he wrote , as every day for him being sober has been wonderful compared to his prior life of excess .
= = = Global album launch = = =
The 79th Annual Wee Waa Show , held on 17 May 2013 in the rural Australian town of Wee Waa , was selected as the venue for the worldwide album launch . The tickets for the Wee Waa album launch were completely sold within thirteen minutes of release , even though it was widely understood that Daft Punk would not be in attendance at the launch — the album launch details revealed that the album would be streamed live to the 4 @,@ 000 audience members . Australian police in the local Wee Waa area initiated Operation Hadrian to prevent alcohol @-@ related problems and anti @-@ social behaviour at the launch event .
Sony commissioned the design and construction of a custom @-@ built stage for the Wee Waa album launch event , and the Daft Arts production house assembled a LED circular music space that became Australia 's biggest @-@ ever outdoor dance floor . The record label described the creation , which was illuminated by a giant disco ball and complemented by four speaker towers and flood lights , as " Saturday Night Fever meets Close Encounters of the Third Kind " . The prelude to the streaming of the album was a pyrotechnic show provided by Father Anthony Koppman and his company " Holy Smoke " from Guyra , New South Wales .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album gained an average score of 87 , based on 47 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim " and scoring higher than any other album by the duo . Q referred to it as " by some margin Daft Punk 's best album in a career that 's already redefined dance music at least twice . It is , in short , a mind blower . " The Independent stated , " Random Access Memories breathes life into the safe music that dominates today ’ s charts , with its sheer ambition … It 's an exciting journey , and one that , for all its musical twists and turns , has its feet planted on the dancefloor . " Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly called it " a headphones album in an age of radio singles ; a bravura live performance that stands out against pro forma knob @-@ twiddling ; a jazzy disco attack on the basic house beat ; a full collaboration at a time when the superstar DJ stands alone . " She concluded her review by saying that " if EDM is turning humans into robots , Daft Punk are working hard to make robot pop feel human again . "
Several critics commented on the variety of content on the album . NME said , " There 's a creeping notion that every musical idea that 's ever been so much as thought up is on this album . " In addition , Random Access Memories is ranked # 497 on NME 's list , " The 500 Greatest Albums Of All Time " . Mark Richardson of Pitchfork Media echoed this sentiment , calling the record " a mix of disco , soft rock , and prog @-@ pop , along with some Broadway @-@ style pop bombast and even a few pinches of their squelching stadium @-@ dance aesthetic " . Richardson praised the engineering and recording on the album , but did say that " though everything about RAM , from the session musicians to the guests to the means of production , is meant to sound more ' human , ' the album at points sounds more sterile , almost too perfect . " Pitchfork deemed the album the seventh best of 2013 . DJ Magazine commented on the shift in Daft Punk 's musical style : " While Daft Punk clearly want to move on and evolve , ditching the electronic beats , house and techno that first elevated them to fame , it 's that music that forms the bedrock of their best tunes , and still , that 's what they 're best at making . " In a four @-@ star review , Resident Advisor stated that " it 's an album rooted in a now @-@ ancient aesthetic : ' 70s staples , like crisply recorded California studio music , or the kind of deceptively sophisticated New York disco that Nile Rogers [ sic ] , one of the album 's key guest artists , popularized with Chic . " In a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star review , Heather Phares of AllMusic said that the record " taps into the wonder and excitement " of music from the 1970s and early 1980s . Phares concluded her review by saying , " Random Access Memories is also Daft Punk 's most personal work , and richly rewarding for listeners willing to spend time with it . "
Aaron Payne of musicOMH wrote , " Daft Punk somehow misplace the wit and the light touch that 's pretty much their trademark . Instead , these long epics become somewhat tedious and there is a strong whiff of egoism and self @-@ indulgence . … At over 70 minutes , the album feels rather bloated . Quite a few of the songs are too long , or too empty of ideas , or too willing to repeat themselves , or too willing to play to type " . Dan Weiss of Paste noted that " none of the admittedly eclectic pilferings of Random Access Memories challenge or defy anything . They all evoke specific eras of film soundtrack or disco trend . The beats have grown less , not more , complex over time . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Random Access Memories received Grammy Awards for Album of the Year , Best Dance / Electronica Album and Best Engineered Album , Non @-@ Classical for the 56th Annual Grammy Awards . The lead single , " Get Lucky " , also won for Record of the Year and Best Pop Duo / Group Performance . " Get Lucky " had previously been nominated for Best Song of the Summer at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards and Best Song at the 2013 MTV Europe Music Awards . In January 2015 , the album was placed at number 9 on Billboard 's list of " The 20 Best Albums of 2010s ( so far ) " .
= = Commercial performance = =
Random Access Memories debuted at number one on the French Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 195 @,@ 013 copies ( 127 @,@ 361 physical sales and 67 @,@ 652 digital sales ) , earning Daft Punk their first number @-@ one album in France . The next week , it sold 49 @,@ 600 copies to remain at the top spot with a 75 % sales decrease . The album secured a third consecutive week atop the French chart , withstanding a 29 % sales drop to 35 @,@ 500 copies .
Random Access Memories debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart with 165 @,@ 091 copies sold in its first week , becoming the duo 's first UK number @-@ one album , as well as the second fastest @-@ selling artist album of 2013 after One Direction 's Midnight Memories . The album remained at number one on the UK chart the following week , selling 52 @,@ 801 copies . In its third week , it fell to number three on sales of 28 @,@ 182 copies .
In the United States , the album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 339 @,@ 000 copies , the duo 's first number one album on the chart . The album maintained the number one spot in its second week , selling 93 @,@ 000 copies . In the album 's third week of release , it sold an additional 62 @,@ 000 copies , while falling to number two on the Billboard 200 . The album 's vinyl LP format also proved popular ; it was 2013 's top @-@ selling LP , with 49 @,@ 000 US copies shifted . The album had sold 922 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of January 2014 . On 6 February 2014 , the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Following the duo 's Album of the Year win at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards , Random Access Memories jumped from number thirty @-@ nine to number ten on the Billboard 200 with a 300 % sales increase , selling 30 @,@ 000 copies that week .
Random Access Memories entered the Canadian Albums Chart at number one with 46 @,@ 000 copies sold , the biggest one @-@ week sales total in Canada of 2013 . The album remained at number one the next week , selling 17 @,@ 000 copies . In Japan , the album debuted at number three on the Oricon Weekly Albums Chart , selling 25 @,@ 970 copies .
The album debuted at number one in several countries across continental Europe , including Austria , Belgium , Czech Republic , Denmark ( where the album sold 5 @,@ 392 copies in its first week ) , Finland , Germany , Ireland , Italy , Norway , Portugal , Spain and Switzerland . In Oceania , Random Access Memories debuted at number one in Australia and New Zealand ; it was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) and gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) in its first week .
As of 2014 Random Access Memories has sold 3 @.@ 2 million copies worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Production
Bob Ludwig – mastering
Chab ( Antoine Chabert ) - mastering
Paul Hahn – management
Cédric Hervet – creative director , cover art
Warren Fu – cover art , illustrations
Mick Guzauski – recording , mixing engineer
Peter Franco – recording engineer
Florian Lagatta – recording engineer
Daniel Lerner – digital audio engineer
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= = Release history = =
On 23 March , the album became available for pre @-@ order on the iTunes Store via digital download , revealing a release date of 17 May in Australia , 20 May in the United Kingdom , and 21 May in the United States . It later appeared as an Amazon.com pre @-@ order on CD , vinyl and directly from the Random Access Memories official website . The album became available for preview streaming via the iTunes Store on 13 May 2013 . It was also released for streaming on Spotify , with the lead single , " Get Lucky " , topping Spotify 's first digital streaming chart in the process .
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= Peyton Manning =
Peyton Williams Manning ( born March 24 , 1976 ) is a former American football quarterback who played 18 seasons in the National Football League ( NFL ) . Considered to be one of the greatest quarterbacks of all @-@ time , he spent the majority of his career with Indianapolis Colts . In his last four seasons , he played with the Denver Broncos . Manning played college football for the University of Tennessee , leading the Tennessee Volunteers to the 1997 SEC Championship in his senior season . He is the second son of former NFL quarterback Archie Manning and older brother of New York Giants quarterback Eli Manning .
Manning was selected by the Indianapolis Colts as the first overall pick in the 1998 NFL Draft . From 1998 to 2010 , he improved the fortunes of the struggling Colts franchise and helped transform them into playoff contenders , leading the team to eight division championships , two AFC championships , and one Super Bowl , the franchise 's first since 1971 , as well as their first since relocating to Indianapolis .
After undergoing neck surgery that forced him to miss the entire 2011 season , Manning was released by the Colts and signed with the Denver Broncos . Serving as the Broncos ' starting quarterback from 2012 to 2015 , his tenure saw the Broncos reach the top of their division each year and his playing career concluded with a victory in Super Bowl 50 .
Manning holds many NFL records , including combined regular and postseason career wins ( 200 ) , AP MVP awards ( 5 ) , Pro Bowl appearances ( 14 ) , 4 @,@ 000 @-@ yard passing seasons ( 14 ) , passing yards ( 71 @,@ 940 ) , and touchdown passes ( 539 ) . A two @-@ time Super Bowl winner and the most valuable player of Super Bowl XLI , Manning is also the only quarterback to start the Super Bowl for two different franchises more than once each and the only starting quarterback to win a Super Bowl with two different franchises .
During a 2009 Monday Night Football game , Manning received the nickname " The Sheriff " from color commentator Jon Gruden due to his tendency to audible prior to the snap , and he was one of the most recognizable and parodied players in the NFL . Teams led by Manning typically utilized the hurry @-@ up offense in place of the standard huddle .
= = High school career = =
Manning attended Isidore Newman School in New Orleans , Louisiana , and led their football team to a 34 – 5 record during his three seasons as starter . He was named Gatorade Circle of Champions National Player @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Year and Columbus ( Ohio ) Touchdown Club National Offensive Player @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Year in 1993 . While at Newman he began wearing the number 18 in honor of his older brother Cooper , who was forced to give up football due to spinal stenosis . Younger brother Eli also wore the number when he became starting quarterback . Newman has since retired the number 18 jersey and it can be seen hanging in the school gym . Manning was among the most sought after high school players in the country and was recruited by about 60 colleges , led by Florida , Florida State , LSU , Michigan , Tennessee , Texas , Texas A & M , and his father 's alma mater , Ole Miss .
= = College career = =
Manning chose to play college football for the University of Tennessee Volunteers . Some were surprised that he did not pick the Ole Miss Rebels , for whom his father Archie played . He became Tennessee 's all @-@ time leading passer with 11 @,@ 201 yards and 89 touchdowns and won 39 of 45 games as a starter , breaking the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) record for career wins .
As a freshman , Manning began the season as the third @-@ string quarterback . In the season opener against UCLA , Manning was one of three quarterbacks to come off the bench after starter Jerry Colquitt suffered a season @-@ ending injury on the seventh play of the game . However , Manning wasn 't able to generate any offense and was pulled from the game . During the season 's fourth game , against Mississippi State , starter Todd Helton got injured and Manning took over . The Vols lost 24 – 21 , but Manning was named the team 's starter and remained so for the rest of his college career . In his first start , the following week against Washington State , the Vols won 10 – 9 . They won all but one of their remaining games , finishing the season 8 – 4 with a 45 – 23 victory over Virginia Tech in the Gator Bowl .
Manning and the Vols started off the 1995 season with victories over East Carolina and Georgia , before heading off to Gainesville to play the Gators . Against Florida , he threw for 326 yards and 2 touchdowns , leading the Vols to a 30 – 21 halftime lead . However , the Gators outscored the Vols 41 – 7 in the second half , winning 62 – 37 . This was the Vols ' only loss of the season , as they won their remaining 8 regular season games , including a 41 – 14 win over Alabama and then defeated Ohio State in the Citrus Bowl . The Vols ended the season ranked third and Manning came in sixth in Heisman Trophy voting .
The Vols opened the 1996 season ranked second behind Nebraska and one of the favorites to win the national championship . However , after winning their first 2 games against UNLV and UCLA , the Vols again lost to Florida 35 – 29 , with Manning throwing 4 interceptions . After winning their next four games , the Vols were upset by Memphis , despite Manning passing for 296 yards .
The Vols won the remainder of their games , including a 48 – 28 win in the Citrus Bowl over Northwestern , a game in which Manning passed for 408 yards and 4 touchdowns ; he was named the game 's MVP .
Manning completed his degree in three years , a Bachelor of Arts in speech communication , and was projected to be the top overall pick in the NFL Draft , but returned to Tennessee for his senior year . In his senior season , the Vols opened the season with victories against Texas Tech and UCLA , but for the third time in his career , Manning fell to Florida 33 – 20 . The Vols won the rest of their regular season games , finishing 10 – 1 , and advanced to the SEC Championship game against Auburn . Down 20 – 7 , Manning led the Vols to a 30 – 29 victory . Throwing for 4 touchdowns , he was named the game 's MVP , but injured himself in the process . The 3rd @-@ ranked Vols were matched @-@ up with second @-@ ranked Nebraska in the Orange Bowl ; if Tennessee won and top @-@ ranked Michigan lost to Washington State in the Rose Bowl , the Vols would win the national championship . However , the Vols ' defense could not stop Nebraska 's rushing attack , giving up over 400 rushing yards in a 42 – 17 loss . As a senior , Manning won numerous awards ; he was a consensus first @-@ team All @-@ American , the Maxwell Award winner , the Davey O 'Brien Award winner , the Johnny Unitas Award winner , and the Best College Player ESPY award winner , among others . In 2005 , Tennessee retired Manning 's number ( No. 16 ) . One of the streets leading to Neyland Stadium has been renamed Peyton Manning Pass . Manning also excelled academically and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa Society in 1997 and awarded the National Football Foundation National Scholar @-@ Athlete Award .
In 1996 , while attending the University of Tennessee , Manning was accused by female trainer Jamie Ann Naughright of exposing his buttocks during a foot examination . Manning said that he was just pulling a prank by " mooning " another athlete in the room as Naughright bent over to examine him . Naughright settled with the university for $ 300 @,@ 000 for its alleged failure in four incidents , and resigned from the school . She had initially made a list of 33 complaints about the school .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Overview = = =
Manning was selected by the Indianapolis Colts with the first overall pick of the 1998 NFL draft . He would start as a rookie and go on to play for the Colts for 13 full seasons before being sidelined by a neck injury , which cost him the entire 2011 season . After recovering from the injury , he joined the Denver Broncos for whom he played from the 2012 season through the 2015 season . Excluding the year lost to injury , Manning played in 17 NFL seasons .
Manning is often referred to as one of the greatest passing quarterbacks of all time . He was named the NFL 's most valuable player a record five times ( four times as a Colt , once as a Bronco ) , was named to the Pro Bowl 14 times ( a record ) and named to the first team All @-@ Pro seven times . As a starter up to the end of 2015 season he had a career winning percentage of .702 in the regular season . He holds the NFL record for career touchdown passes and career passing yards , achieved in 2014 and 2015 respectively .
The most commonly cited criticism of Peyton Manning 's professional career is that despite great success and gaudy statistics during the regular season , he did not enjoy similar levels of success in the post @-@ season . His career post @-@ season record as a starter was a more modest 14 @-@ 13 , compared to his regular season record through the 2015 season which was 186 @-@ 79 . Manning won two Super Bowls ( Super Bowl XLI and Super Bowl 50 ) and played in two others ( Super Bowl XLIV and Super Bowl XLVIII ) , being named MVP of XLI , while losing XLIV in an upset , and managing just one successful touchdown drive in each of XLVIII and 50 . During the early part of Manning 's career " his record @-@ breaking stats were written off because of the Colts ' postseason failures " ; conversely he posted poor stats in the 2015 regular season and Super Bowl 50 ( which would be his final season ) but nonetheless won his second league championship thanks to his team 's defense .
= = = Indianapolis Colts = = =
= = = = 1998 season : rookie season = = = =
Despite concerns about his arm strength and mobility , Manning was selected first overall in the 1998 draft by the Indianapolis Colts . Although many considered Ryan Leaf his rival for the first selection in the draft , and Leaf 's quarterback rating was higher , all six experts Sports Illustrated consulted believed that Manning was superior . Five said that they would take him first in the draft ; Sid Gillman said of Manning , " this is a pro quarterback " . The Colts ' scouts initially favored Leaf , but the team 's management and coaches were gradually won over by Manning 's attitude , particularly as Manning showed up prepared to a scheduled interview meeting with the Colts ' staff while Leaf arrived late . Colts general manager Bill Polian who had the final say on the draft selection recalled Manning saying " I 'll leave you with this thought . If you take me , I promise you we will win a championship . If you don 't , I promise I 'll come back and kick your ass . "
In his rookie season , he passed for 3 @,@ 739 yards with 26 touchdowns , set five different NFL rookie records including most touchdown passes in a season , and was named to the NFL All @-@ Rookie First Team . Manning 's first win came against fellow rookie Leaf , 17 – 12 over the Chargers . Weeks later , Manning faced off against Steve Young ; he threw three touchdowns , tying a Colts rookie record , but the 49ers kicked a late field goal to win 34 – 31 . In November against the Jets , Manning threw for three touchdowns in a 24 – 23 win ; he was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for this performance . It was the first game @-@ winning drive of Manning 's career , as he threw the game @-@ winning TD pass to Marcus Pollard . Manning was certainly a bright spot in 1998 for the Colts , but he also threw a league high 28 interceptions as the team struggled to a 3 – 13 record with a defense that gave up more than 27 points per game . The Colts lost many close games , including five games in which they had led by double @-@ digits at some point .
= = = = 1999 – 2001 = = = =
The Indianapolis Colts opened the 1999 season with a 31 – 14 victory over Buffalo , but gave up a 28 – 7 lead the following week against the Patriots and lost . After defeating San Diego 27 – 19 in a game in which Manning threw for over 400 yards , and was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week , they lost again , to Miami . The Colts responded by winning 11 of their remaining 12 games , finishing 13 – 3 and the AFC East champions . The 10 game turnaround from the previous year set an NFL record . As the second seed in the AFC , the Colts earned a first round bye , and faced Tennessee in the playoffs . The Colts lost 19 – 16 to the Super Bowl bound Titans and Manning was limited to one touchdown run . Manning finished the year with 4 @,@ 135 passing yards and 26 passing touchdowns , and was named both Second @-@ team All @-@ Pro and to the Pro Bowl , both firsts for him . In the Pro Bowl , he passed for 270 yards with 2 touchdowns .
The Colts started the 2000 season inconsistently . Following an opening week victory against Kansas City , they blew a 21 – 0 lead against the Raiders . The Colts responded with a Monday Night victory against Jacksonville , a 43 – 14 win in which Manning threw for 430 yards and 4 touchdowns ; Manning was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Week for this performance . The Colts won 4 of their next 5 games , including one against New England in which Manning posted the first perfect passer rating of his career , but then lost 4 of the 5 games following that . The Colts regained their momentum , winning their final 3 games , including a 31 – 10 win over Minnesota on Week 17 . Manning threw for 4 touchdowns in the win and was again named AFC Offensive Player of the Week and the win gave the Colts a 10 – 6 record as well as a wild card spot in the playoffs . In the wild card game , the Colts fell to the Dolphins 23 – 17 in overtime . Manning passed for 194 yards and a touchdown in the loss . He finished the season with 4 @,@ 413 passing yards and 33 passing touchdowns and was named Second @-@ team All @-@ Pro and to the Pro Bowl . At the Pro Bowl , Manning threw two touchdown passes .
Manning and the Colts introduced their now @-@ signature no @-@ huddle offense , and used it to great effect in a Week 1 rout of the Jets , 45 – 24 . Two weeks later ( Week 2 games were not played as scheduled due to the 9 / 11 attacks ) the Colts advanced to 2 – 0 with a win over Buffalo , behind Manning 's 421 yards passing . He was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Week for this game . However , the Colts lost the following week to New England , and continued their slide , losing their following two games . The Colts briefly rebounded , winning two games , but then lost 7 of their last 9 , including a 40 – 21 home loss to the 49ers . After Manning threw a career @-@ high four interceptions in that game , coach Jim Mora uttered his infamous " Playoffs ? Don 't talk about playoffs . Are you kidding me . Playoffs ? I 'm just hoping we can win a game , another game " press conference . Despite the 6 – 10 record , Manning finished the season with 4 @,@ 131 passing yards , 26 passing touchdowns , and 4 rushing touchdowns as the offense produced the second most points in the league . However , the defense allowed the most points and Jim Mora was fired after the season .
= = = = 2002 season = = = =
Tony Dungy would become Manning 's second head coach in the NFL . The Colts started off the 2002 season 4 – 1 , before a 3 @-@ game losing streak sent them to 4 – 4 . The Colts responded by winning all but two of their remaining games , including a 35 – 13 upset of the Eagles in which Manning had a perfect passer rating for the second time in his career , giving them a 10 – 6 record and a spot in the playoffs . However , the Colts were pummeled by the Jets in the Wild Card game , 41 – 0 , with Manning passing for only 137 yards . He finished the year with 4 @,@ 200 passing yards and 27 passing touchdowns and was named to the Pro Bowl team . In the Pro Bowl , Manning completed five of eleven passes for 100 yards and a touchdown .
= = = = 2003 season : first MVP = = = =
The 2003 Colts began the season 5 – 0 , including a 55 – 21 blowout of the Saints in which Manning played his third perfect passer rating game and threw a career @-@ high six TD passes , earning him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors . On Monday Night Football against the defending champion Buccaneers , Manning and the Colts trailed 35 – 14 in the final five minutes . After one short TD drive , the Colts recovered the onside kick . Manning threw a 28 @-@ yard TD pass to Marvin Harrison on 4th & 6 to make it 35 – 28 . With 1 : 41 remaining , Manning got the ball back and drove the offense 85 yards for the game @-@ tying TD . He set up the winning 29 @-@ yard field goal in overtime for a stunning 38 – 35 win . It was the only time in NFL history a team won a game after trailing by 21 points in the final 4 minutes of regulation . Manning passed for 386 yards in the game .
After an overtime loss to Carolina , the Colts won all but three of their remaining games , finishing 12 – 4 . On November 30 the Colts hosted the 9 – 2 Patriots in what would be the beginning of the NFL 's top rivalry of the 2000s . The Colts trailed 31 – 10 late in the third quarter before Manning threw three TD passes in a span of six minutes to tie the game . Trailing 38 – 34 in the final minutes , the Colts had 3 plays at the 1 @-@ yard line to try and score the winning TD . Edgerrin James was stopped on 4th down by Willie McGinest and the Patriots won . In a Week 14 win against Atlanta , Manning threw for five touchdowns and was named player of the week a second time . He also earned AFC Offensive Player of the Month honors for the month of October .
In the Wild Card playoff round Manning and the Colts defeated the Denver Broncos 41 – 10 for his first playoff win . He passed for 377 yards and 5 touchdowns in the game , earning him a perfect passer rating , his second of the season and the fourth of his career . After the game , Manning was awarded Player of the Week honors for the third time that season . In the divisional playoffs , Manning led the Colts to a 38 – 31 win over the Kansas City Chiefs . Neither team punted in the game . In the AFC title game Manning was shut down by the New England Patriots top @-@ ranked defense and posted the third lowest passer rating of his career at 35 @.@ 5 . The Patriots defense intercepted Manning four times and sacked him another four , as the Colts lost the game 24 – 14 .
During the season , Manning was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Month for September and was named the AP NFL co @-@ MVP along with Titans quarterback Steve McNair . Manning also received the ESPY Award for Best NFL Player . Manning led the league with 4 @,@ 267 passing yards and threw 29 touchdowns ; he was named first @-@ team All @-@ Pro and to the Pro Bowl . He passed for 342 yards and 3 touchdowns in the Pro Bowl , a 55 – 52 loss .
= = = = 2004 season : second MVP = = = =
The 2004 Colts opened the season with a 27 – 24 loss to the Patriots , after Mike Vanderjagt missed a game tying field goal in the closing seconds of the game . The Colts won their next four games including a 45 – 31 win over Green Bay in which Manning threw 5 touchdowns , earning him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors , but then lost their next two games , to Jacksonville and Kansas City , despite Manning throwing for 840 yards combined in the two games . The Colts responded well , winning their next 8 games before losing their final regular season game to Denver , a game in which Manning played only the first series . During the month of November , Manning was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Week twice ; once for his 5 touchdown performance in a 49 – 14 blowout of Houston and once for his performance in a 41 – 9 win at Detroit on Thanksgiving in which he threw 6 touchdowns in less than three quarters . Due to his performances in November , Manning earned AFC Offensive Player of the Month honors . He was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for a fourth time in the week 16 game against San Diego where he led the Colts to a 34 – 31 victory after trailing by fifteen in the fourth quarter . With the Colts facing a 4th & 4 at their own 26 , Manning waved the punt team off the field and completed a 19 @-@ yard pass to Reggie Wayne for the first down . He finished the drive with a 21 @-@ yard TD pass to Brandon Stokley , his 49th TD pass of the season , breaking Dan Marino 's record of 48 . After the two @-@ point conversion to tie , Manning got the ball first in overtime and set up the winning field goal . The Colts clinched the AFC 's third seed with the win .
During the season , Manning threw for 4 @,@ 557 yards , had a then record 121 @.@ 1 passer rating and a then @-@ record 49 touchdown passes while throwing only 10 interceptions . Manning 's 2004 season was voted the second greatest passing season of all time by ESPN in 2013 . He achieved this despite the 2004 season being his only season of his career where he attempted less than 500 passes . His 9 @.@ 9 % touchdown passing percentage is currently the highest in NFL history . His 49 touchdown passes is currently the third highest ever and his 121 @.@ 1 passer rating is the second highest ever . He was selected as the 2004 NFL MVP drawing 49 of 50 votes , was named NFL Offensive Player of the Year and was named the Best NFL Player at the ESPY Awards for the second consecutive year ; Manning also received the ESPY Award for Best Record @-@ Breaking Performance for his 49 touchdown passes . The Colts finished the season with a 12 – 4 record and their second straight AFC South title . The Colts scored a franchise record 522 points . Three Colts receivers had 1 @,@ 000 yard seasons with at least 10 touchdowns that season , also a record . Sports statistics cite Football Outsiders calculates that Manning had the best season ever by a quarterback , play @-@ for @-@ play , in 2004 .
In the Wild Card game against Denver , Manning passed for 458 yards and 4 touchdowns . However , the Colts ' 2004 season ended in Foxborough for a second straight year with a 20 – 3 loss against New England , when Manning recorded a season @-@ low passer rating of 69 @.@ 3 . It was Manning 's seventh consecutive loss to the Patriots in Foxborough and the Colts ' three points were their lowest single game point total since their opening game of the 2003 season . Manning was named a Pro Bowl starter ; in the Pro Bowl , he threw 3 touchdowns in a 38 – 27 victory and was named the game 's MVP . Manning was also a unanimous first @-@ team All @-@ Pro selection .
= = = = 2005 season = = = =
In 2005 , the Colts had a greatly improved defense over that of recent years . Combining this with their offense , they won their first 13 games , including a 40 – 21 rout of the two @-@ time defending Super Bowl Champions , New England . This was Manning 's first road win against the Patriots in 8 attempts , and his 3 touchdowns passes earned him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors . By week 15 , the Colts had a perfect 13 – 0 record , and had secured the AFC South and home @-@ field advantage throughout the playoffs . Nevertheless , Tony Dungy made the decision to play all of his regular starters against the Chargers . However , the Colts played a sub @-@ par game against the Chargers and fell short of the win ; the score was 26 – 17 . Manning finished the season with 3 @,@ 747 passing yards , the first time he had thrown for under 4 @,@ 000 yards since his rookie season of 1998 , largely because Manning sat out much of the final two games with the top AFC seed clinched . His quarterback rating of 104 @.@ 1 was the highest in the league for the season .
In the playoffs , the Pittsburgh Steelers visited the RCA Dome for the second AFC divisional playoff game of the 2005 season . In the 4th quarter with only a few minutes left in the game , Manning threw what looked to be the game @-@ ending interception to Troy Polamalu , but the interception was overturned ( a call the NFL later admitted was incorrect ) . The Colts went on to score , and were able to get the ball back down three points near the end of the game . On 4th down , Manning was sacked near his own goal line , and the game seemed to be over as the Steelers were one yard from a touchdown . On the next play , the ball was fumbled by Jerome Bettis and picked up by Colts defender Nick Harper who appeared to have a clear path down the sideline for what might have been the game @-@ winning score . However , Steelers ' quarterback Ben Roethlisberger managed to dive in front of Harper and tackle him by the leg , saving a touchdown . Then the Colts drove down the field to the Steelers 27 @-@ yard line , before Mike Vanderjagt missed a field goal as time ran out .
Manning came in second in voting for the MVP award to Shaun Alexander ending his streak at two years . He was named the 2005 winner of the Walter Payton Man of the Year Award and nominated for the FedEx Air Player of the Year Award , along with Tom Brady and Carson Palmer . Manning was also named first @-@ team All @-@ Pro for the third consecutive year and named to the Pro Bowl squad ; in the Pro Bowl , he threw one touchdown pass and three interceptions .
= = = = 2006 season : First Super Bowl championship = = = =
Manning opened the 2006 season against his brother Eli 's New York Giants on Sunday Night Football . It was the first NFL game with starting quarterbacks that were brothers , and Peyton 's team won 26 – 21 . Manning passed for 400 yards against the Texans in a 43 – 24 victory , which earned him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors ( he also won the award for his 345 yards and 4 TD passes against the Redskins in week 7 ) . A second trip to New Jersey , this time to play the Jets , produced another Colts win . After taking the lead twice in the fourth quarter , Manning had to lead a third scoring drive , this time finishing with a 1 @-@ yard quarterback sneak rushing touchdown in the last minute for a 31 – 28 win .
At Denver , Manning again led three scoring drives in the fourth quarter in a 34 – 31 shootout win . He completed 32 of 39 passes for 345 yards and 3 TDs . Following a second straight season with a win at New England , then a home win against Buffalo , the Colts were the NFL 's last unbeaten team at 9 – 0 . Their first loss would come in Dallas . Plagued by a run defense that would allow over 100 yards in every game , the Colts were 11 – 4 heading into their final game . Against Miami , Manning threw for 282 yards , 2 TDs and rushed for another TD . The Colts won 27 – 22 , were AFC South division champions , and clinched the third seed in the AFC playoffs . Manning was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week . He ended the regular season with 4 @,@ 397 passing yards and a league @-@ leading 31 touchdown passes . His passer rating ( 101 @.@ 0 ) was the highest in the league for the third year in a row . Manning helped the offense set an NFL record for third down conversion rate in a season ( 56 @.@ 1 % ) .
Despite three interceptions , Manning completed 30 out of 38 passes as the Colts beat the Kansas City Chiefs in the Wild Card playoff game by a score of 23 – 8 . The following week they were limited to five field goals and no touchdowns , but defeated the Baltimore Ravens , 15 – 6 . In the AFC Championship game against the rival Patriots , the Colts trailed 14 – 3 when Manning threw an interception that was returned for a TD by Asante Samuel to give New England a 21 – 3 lead . Manning led the Colts to 32 points in the second half for a 38 – 34 victory , the final score coming late in the fourth quarter as Manning led the Colts on an 80 @-@ yard TD drive to take the lead for the first time in the game . He finished the game with 349 yards passing and two touchdowns ( 1 rushing ) . The comeback was the largest deficit ever overcome in a conference championship .
Completing 25 of 38 passes for 247 yards with a touchdown and one interception , Manning led the Colts to a 29 – 17 victory over the Chicago Bears in Super Bowl XLI and was voted Super Bowl MVP . Manning , who had been criticized for failing to win big games , exorcised his big @-@ game demons with the win . " In years ' past when our team 's come up short , it 's been disappointing " , he told reporters . " Somehow we found a way to have learned from some of those losses and we 've been a better team because of it . " For his role in the Colts ' championship run , Manning was awarded the ESPY for Best Championship Performance . Manning was again named to the Pro Bowl and was also named Second @-@ team All @-@ Pro ; in the Pro Bowl he played only two series , passing for 67 yards . Following the Super Bowl win , Manning agreed to restructure his contract to save the Colts $ 8 @.@ 2 million in salary cap space .
= = = = 2007 season = = = =
Manning 's Colts opened the NFL season with 7 wins , pitting them against an undefeated Patriots squad in a match @-@ up that was being called " Super Bowl 41 1 / 2 " . Manning and Addai helped the Colts to a 13 – 7 halftime lead , and an early fourth @-@ quarter touchdown upped the lead to 20 – 10 . However , Brady led the Patriots to two late touchdowns , to hand Manning his first loss of the season , 24 – 20 . Manning finished the game with 225 yards passing , including a passing touchdown . He also had a rushing touchdown .
Manning did not bounce back from the loss well . Against the San Diego Chargers he threw for a career @-@ worst and franchise @-@ record 6 interceptions . Despite this , he was able to rally the Colts from a 23 – 0 deficit to 23 – 21 , and gave Adam Vinatieri an opportunity to take the lead with a 29 @-@ yard field goal . Vinatieri 's miss sunk the Colts to 7 – 2 . Manning did not play particularly well against the Kansas City Chiefs either , throwing no touchdowns . However , he managed to lead the Colts on a late drive for a game @-@ winning field goal , rushing for two yards on 4th and 1 in the process . Manning finished the game with 163 passing yards , allowing him to overtake 40 @,@ 000 in his career . The victory was Manning 's 100th . The Colts won their next 5 games , securing yet another AFC South title , as well as the AFC 's number two seed in the play @-@ offs . In the final game of the regular season , Manning played only two series before being replaced with back @-@ up Jim Sorgi ; the Colts lost the game to the Titans , 16 – 10 . Manning finished the season with 4 @,@ 040 passing yards , 31 touchdown passes , and a quarterback rating of 98 @.@ 0 . In the divisional round of the playoffs , Manning and the Colts lost to the Chargers , 28 – 24 . Manning helped the Colts to 4 different leads but could not lead a final touchdown drive for the win . Manning finished the game with 402 yards passing and 3 passing touchdowns . Peyton was widely viewed during Super Bowl XLII as he cheered on brother Eli and the New York Giants in their upset of the New England Patriots . Manning was named a Pro Bowl starter and passed for 147 yards and a touchdown in three series .
= = = = 2008 season : third MVP = = = =
On July 14 , 2008 , Manning had surgery to remove an infected bursa sac in his left knee . Manning , who had worn a knee brace due to problems since he was in college , sat out all four preseason games and missed most of training camp .
In the first regular season game at new Lucas Oil Stadium , the Colts lost 29 – 13 to the Chicago Bears . The following week they fell behind 15 – 0 to the Minnesota Vikings in the second half before rallying to win the game on Adam Vinatieri 's 47 @-@ yard field goal . Manning passed for 311 yards as the Colts avoided their first 0 – 2 start since Manning 's rookie season . Week 3 matched the Colts with division rival Jacksonville . Manning threw 2 interceptions in the game , including one that was returned for a TD by Rashean Mathis . Jacksonville rushed for 236 yards and held the ball for over 41 minutes . Still , trailing by 6 late in the game Manning led the Colts on a 77 @-@ yard TD drive to take a 21 – 20 lead . Jacksonville kicker Josh Scobee made a 51 @-@ yard field goal to win the game and drop the Colts to 1 – 2 .
For the third week in a row , Manning used the 4th quarter to bring the Colts back from a 27 – 10 deficit in the last 5 minutes against the Houston Texans to a 31 – 27 victory . It was the first time an NFL team had won a game in regulation after trailing by 17 points in the last 5 minutes . Manning threw a 7 @-@ yard TD pass on 4th & 6 to rookie tight end Tom Santi to make the deficit 27 – 17 . Houston QB Sage Rosenfels , starting for the injured Matt Schaub , then fumbled the ball on a scramble , and it was returned 68 yards for a TD by Gary Brackett . After another Rosenfels fumble , Manning threw the 5 @-@ yard game @-@ winning TD pass to Reggie Wayne . The Colts scored 3 TDs in 2 : 10 .
On October 12 Manning led the Colts to a 31 – 3 blow out win at Lucas Oil Stadium against the Baltimore Ravens to avoid their first 0 – 3 start at home since 1997 . Manning was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for the 17th time in his career for his effort of 3 TD passes and 271 yards passing . It was revealed during the game by CBS commentators Jim Nantz and Phil Simms that Manning had a second surgery on his knee before the season started . Colts coach Tony Dungy confirmed this report the day after the Baltimore game .
The Colts suffered their largest margin of defeat , 34 – 14 , in Green Bay the following week . Manning threw 2 interceptions that were returned for touchdowns ( for the second time in his career ; the first was on 09 / 30 / 01 vs. New England Patriots ) . The next week the Colts went into Tennessee on Monday Night Football to face the 6 – 0 Titans . They led 14 – 6 in the 3rd quarter , but Tennessee scored 25 unanswered for a 31 – 21 victory and almost assured the Colts they would not win the AFC South division title for the first time in 6 seasons . At 3 – 4 the Colts opened up November with their annual showdown against the New England Patriots on Sunday Night Football . Tied at 15 in the 4th quarter , Manning set up Adam Vinatieri for a 52 @-@ yard field goal that proved to be the winning points in an 18 – 15 victory . Manning completed 21 of 29 passes for 254 yards , 2 touchdowns and no interceptions . The Colts were 4 – 4 halfway through the season and still alive in the AFC playoff race .
In week 10 the Colts traveled to Pittsburgh , who had the league 's No. 1 defense . They trailed 17 – 7 in the second quarter before Manning found Dallas Clark for a 2 @-@ yard TD to end the half 17 – 14 . Down 20 – 17 in the 4th quarter , Manning found Dominic Rhodes uncovered for a 17 @-@ yard TD pass that would put the Colts up 24 – 20 for the rest of the game . It was Manning 's 4th game @-@ winning drive ( 35th of his career ) this season . He completed 21 of 40 for 240 yards and 3 touchdowns ( the 50th game of his career with 3 + TD passes ) . It was the first time the Colts have won in Pittsburgh since 1968 ( 12 straight losses before this win ) . Against Houston , Manning passed for 320 yards and 2 TDs while leading 5 consecutive scoring drives in a 33 – 27 victory , the third in a row for the Colts . Manning won AFC Offensive Player of the Week for the second time this season ( 18th time , career ) .
At San Diego , Manning threw for 255 yards , 2 TDs and 1 INT in a 23 – 20 victory . The interception snapped a career @-@ best streak of 140 pass attempts without an interception . After the Chargers rallied from a 10 @-@ point deficit in the 4th to tie the game , Manning led the game @-@ winning drive by completing a 14 @-@ yard pass to Marvin Harrison on 4th and inches at midfield . Adam Vinateri kicked the winning 51 @-@ yard field goal three plays later . It was Manning 's 5th game @-@ winning drive this season . Manning passed for a season @-@ low 125 yards at Cleveland , but the Colts won their 5th straight game , by a final of 10 – 6 .
In a 35 – 3 victory against the Cincinnati Bengals , Manning threw 3 TD passes while completing 26 of 32 passes for 277 yards . It marked the 11th straight season Manning had thrown at least 20 TD passes , the second longest streak ever . Against the 0 – 13 Detroit Lions , the Colts found themselves in a 21 – 21 game in the 4th quarter . Manning led his 6th game @-@ winning drive of the season and the Colts pulled away 31 – 21 . It marked their 7th straight win , 7th straight season with 10 + wins , and they became the only team in NFL history to have a winning streak of at least 7 games in 5 straight seasons . Manning completed 28 of 37 passes for 318 yards and 1 TD .
Needing a win to clinch the 5th seed in the playoffs , Manning had one of his best career performances in Jacksonville on Thursday Night Football . He completed his first 17 passes of the game . In addition to completing his last 6 against Detroit , Manning 's 23 straight completions fell one shy of the NFL record ( Donovan McNabb – 24 ) . The Colts trailed 14 – 0 in the first half and 24 – 14 to start the 4th quarter . Manning led his 7th 4th quarter win of the season and the Colts put the game away with a defensive TD for a 31 – 24 victory to clinch a 7th consecutive playoff berth . Manning completed 29 of 34 passes ( 85 @.@ 7 % ) for 364 yards and 3 TDs . It increased his NFL record streak of seasons with 25 TD passes to 11 . Manning and the Colts tied an NFL record by winning 3 games in a season in which they trailed by at least 14 points . For his efforts Manning won AFC Offensive Player of the Week for the third time in 2008 . It was the 19th time he has won the award , passing Dan Marino for the most all @-@ time since the award was originated in 1984 . He also was selected as the FedEx Air Player of the Week . With the playoff seed secured , Manning only played the opening drive in a shutout against the division @-@ leading Titans in Week 17 . He completed all 7 of his passes for 95 yards and a TD , extending his NFL record to nine seasons with 4000 yards passing , and also extended the record to a sixth straight season he led the Colts to at least 12 wins . At the end of the 2008 season , Manning was named NFL MVP for the 3rd time , tying Brett Favre for the most MVP awards in NFL history .
The day following the MVP award , the Colts played their 2007 nemesis , the Chargers , in their wild @-@ card playoff game . Down 14 – 10 at the half , Manning put the Colts ahead 17 – 14 in the third quarter as he completed a 72 @-@ yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Reggie Wayne . But the Chargers tied the game in the fourth quarter as kicker Nate Kaeding nailed a 22 @-@ yard field goal . When San Diego won the coin toss , they scored on the first possession , ending the Colts season .
= = = = 2009 season : fourth MVP and second Super Bowl appearance = = = =
Under new head coach Jim Caldwell , Manning started the 2009 season with a victory by throwing for 301 yards . In week two Manning led his 29th fourth quarter comeback ( 38th game @-@ winning drive ) by throwing for 303 yards and 2 TD passes , despite only having the ball for 14 : 53 , the lowest time of possession for a winning team in the NFL since they began tracking the statistic in 1977 . Manning was named AFC Offensive Player of the Month for the fourth time in his career in September . Against the Seattle Seahawks Manning passed for 353 yards and 2 TDs for his fourth consecutive 300 @-@ yard passing game set a new franchise record .
Against Houston Texans in week 9 he became the first quarterback to pass for over 40 @,@ 000 yards in a decade . He threw a career @-@ high 25 passes in the 1st quarter ( most in any opening quarter since 1991 ) , and had a career @-@ high 40 pass attempts in the first half . He set a franchise record for most 300 @-@ yard passing games in a season with his seventh 300 @-@ yard effort of the season ( also an NFL record through the first 8 games of a season ) . Against Houston 3 weeks later Manning claimed his 34th comeback win in the 4th quarter , tying him with John Elway and Johnny Unitas for the second most in NFL history . On week 15 against the Jacksonville Jaguars Manning won his 23rd consecutive regular season game breaking Jim McMahon 's NFL record of 22 straight wins with the Chicago Bears from 1984 – 87 . At the end of the regular season Manning was awarded his fourth MVP , breaking the NFL record for most MVPs by a single player . He was also selected to the AP All @-@ Pro team for the fifth time in his career .
In the AFC Divisional against the Baltimore Ravens Manning threw 2 TD passes late in the first half to build a 17 – 3 halftime lead . He completed 30 passes for 246 yards in leading his eight straight victory over the Ravens . In the AFC Championship against New York Jets Manning overcame a 17 – 6 deficit late in the second quarter to lead the Colts to 24 unanswered points in a 30 – 17 win . The 11 @-@ point comeback was the third largest in a championship game . Manning set a playoff record with his seventh 300 @-@ yard passing game in the postseason . In Super Bowl XLIV against New Orleans Saints , Manning led the Colts to a 10 – 0 lead after their two first quarter drives , throwing a TD pass to Pierre Garcon to cap off a 96 @-@ yard drive ( tied for longest in Super Bowl history ) . After running just six plays in the second quarter , the Colts led 10 – 6 at halftime . The Saints recovered an onside kick to start the second half and took their first lead , 13 – 10 . Manning led a go ahead TD drive to regain the lead . Leading 17 – 16 at the start of the 4th quarter , Matt Stover missed a 51 @-@ yard field goal for the Colts . The Saints scored the go ahead TD and two @-@ point conversion to take a 24 – 17 lead with 5 : 42 left . Manning took over and moved the Colts to the Saints ' 31 @-@ yard line . Facing a 3rd & 5 with 3 : 24 left , his pass intended for Reggie Wayne was intercepted by Tracy Porter , who returned it 74 yards for a critical TD and 31 – 17 Saints lead . Manning drove the Colts down to the 5 @-@ yard line in the last minute , but his 4th & goal pass was dropped by Reggie Wayne at the goal line . The Saints won their first Super Bowl , dropping Manning to 9 – 9 in the postseason ( 1 – 1 Super Bowl record ) . Manning passed for 333 yards on 31 / 45 , with 1 TD and 1 interception .
= = = = 2010 season = = = =
In a season @-@ opening loss in Houston , Manning set career highs in pass attempts ( 57 ) and completions ( 40 ) , throwing for 3 TDs and 433 yards , the fourth highest opening @-@ weekend total ever . In his third game Manning passed for 325 yards , 3 TDs and no interceptions , marking the first time since 1960 a QB began a season with three consecutive games of at least 3 TD passes and zero interceptions . Against the Kansas City Chiefs Manning failed to throw a TD for the first time in 2010 , but led the Colts on a game @-@ winning drive in the 4th quarter ( 45th of his career ) to hand the Chiefs their first loss of the season . In week 6 against the Washington Redskins he passed for 307 yards and 2 TDs . Including the playoffs , that was 68 career games with 300 + yards passing , moving him ahead of Dan Marino ( 67 ) for the most in NFL history . Week 9 against the Philadelphia Eagles marked his 200th consecutive regular season start .
Against the New England Patriots Manning passed for 396 yards , 4 TDs and 3 interceptions , the second time Manning threw 4 TDs in a game and breaking a tie with Dan Marino for second @-@ most all @-@ time . The next week was resulted in the largest margin of defeat at home in his NFL career , 36 – 14 to the San Diego Chargers . Against the Tennessee Titans he went over 4000 yards passing for the 11th time in a season , and tied Dan Marino with his 63rd regular season game with 300 + yards passing . Manning was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for this game . The Colts ended up winning the AFC South for the seventh time in eight years , and Manning became the first QB in NFL history to lead his team to nine consecutive postseason berths ( 2002 – 2010 ) . It was the 208th consecutive regular season start of his career , breaking Gene Upshaw 's record . For the season , Manning finished with an NFL record 450 completions on 679 attempts ( third most in history ) , and a career @-@ high 4700 yards passing . The season ended in a one @-@ point defeat to the New York Jets in the play @-@ off .
In 2010 , he was chosen as the 14th @-@ smartest athlete in sports by Sporting News .
= = = = 2011 season : Lost season = = = =
The Colts placed their franchise tag on Manning on February 15 , 2011 . On July 30 , 2011 , the Colts signed Manning to a 5 @-@ year , $ 90 million contract after negotiations in which he made it clear that he did not need to be the highest @-@ paid player in the NFL .
After a May 23 neck surgery , Manning could not use the Colts ' facilities for practice and workouts due to the NFL lockout . Reluctant to have witnesses to his recovery , he used the Colorado Rockies baseball team 's trainers at Coors Field in Denver . Manning was unable to complete his throwing motion , and his arm strength had significantly diminished . Based on an MRI , doctors told him in the late summer that he needed spinal fusion surgery and that at his age they could not guarantee his return to the NFL . On September 7 , the Colts officially ruled Manning out for the season opener against Houston , ending his consecutive starts streak of 208 games ( 227 including playoffs ) ; the team signed Kerry Collins out of retirement and named him interim starting quarterback . After seeking other opinions , Manning had the second surgery on September 8 .
Manning stated that while he did intend to play during the 2011 season , he would not " fight " the front office to stay off injured reserve if his roster spot was needed . Manning started practicing throwing footballs again in mid @-@ December , with teammate Joseph Addai even claiming his passes looked " game ready . " Ultimately , Manning did not play a single game in 2011 , and the Colts went 2 – 14 without him ; only the third season since Manning was a rookie that the Colts did not win at least 10 games .
With the Colts having the first overall pick in the upcoming 2012 draft ( which contained highly rated quarterback Andrew Luck ) and with Manning due a $ 28m roster bonus , he was released on March 7 , 2012 . Earlier , the Colts had dismissed vice @-@ chairman Bill Polian ( who in his previous capacity as general manager had drafted Manning ) , general manager Chris Polian , and head coach Jim Caldwell , as a precursor to the rebuilding of the team .
In an emotional press conference , Manning told Colts fans , " Thank you for letting me be your quarterback . " Upon his release , Colts owner Jim Irsay announced that no Colt will ever wear the No. 18 jersey again , and it was formally retired on March 18 , 2016 .
= = = Denver Broncos = = =
As one of the most highly sought @-@ after free agents , Manning selected the Denver Broncos after meeting with John Elway , a retired Broncos Hall @-@ of @-@ Famer quarterback who was now the team 's Executive Vice President of Football Operations and General Manager , and Broncos head coach John Fox . Manning reached an agreement with the Broncos on a five @-@ year contract worth $ 96 million on March 20 , 2012 . Although No. 18 is retired in honor of Frank Tripucka , he gave Manning permission to wear it .
= = = = 2012 season = = = =
On Thursday , August 9 , 2012 , Manning made his first appearance as a Bronco in a preseason game against the Chicago Bears , where he completed 4 of 7 passes for 44 yards , and was intercepted once by Bears safety Major Wright .
Manning made his regular season debut as a Denver Bronco in the prime time game on the first Sunday of the 2012 NFL Season , against the Pittsburgh Steelers . In the game , Manning completed 19 of 26 passes for 253 yards , 2 touchdowns , and no interceptions . He posted a 129 @.@ 2 QB rating in the 31 – 19 win , and made history in the third quarter when he connected with Demaryius Thomas on a 71 @-@ yard touchdown pass . The touchdown was Manning 's first in the NFL with a team other than the Colts , and marked the 400th of his career , making him the third quarterback , after Dan Marino and Brett Favre , to accomplish the feat and the fastest of the three to reach that mark . Despite the preseason concerns about his recovery , by late October ESPN stated that Manning " has silenced the critics " about his arm strength . Manning was later named to the 2013 Pro Bowl , his twelfth .
The Broncos made the playoffs , but lost 38 – 35 in double overtime to Baltimore , who went on to win Super Bowl XLVII that season .
On February 2 , 2013 , Manning was awarded the AP National Football League Comeback Player of the Year Award and was named a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro selection , in addition to finishing second in MVP voting .
= = = = 2013 season : fifth MVP and third Super Bowl appearance = = = =
On the opening game of the 2013 NFL season , Manning became one of only six players in NFL history to throw seven touchdowns in a game , doing so against the defending Super Bowl XLVII champions , the Baltimore Ravens . He added to this feat by not throwing an interception , tying Y. A. Tittle as one of the only two players to have a 7 : 0 touchdown to interception ratio in a single game ( although Nick Foles would later match that feat in week 9 of the same season ) . Against the Oakland Raiders in week three , Manning broke the record for most touchdown passes in the first three games of a season after throwing 12 , surpassing Tom Brady 's 2011 record . In Week 5 , Manning threw his first interception of the season , in a win against the Dallas Cowboys . He was intercepted by Morris Claiborne . Two weeks later , Manning returned to Indianapolis for the first time in the regular season since being released by the Indianapolis Colts . In an emotional pregame ceremony , the Indianapolis Colts showed a tribute video to Manning .
In Week 16 against the Houston Texans , Manning broke Brady 's record for most touchdown passes in a season with 51 on a 25 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Julius Thomas , he finished the regular season with 55 touchdown passes , in addition to throwing for a league record 5 @,@ 477 yards . His 450 completions are tied for second most all time . The Broncos scored an NFL record 606 points , becoming the first team ever to eclipse 600 points in a season . They had more 50 @-@ point games in a season than any other team in NFL history , with 3 . Four Broncos receivers recorded at least ten touchdowns — an NFL record — and Manning set a season record with nine games with four or more touchdown passes . His 115 @.@ 1 passer rating ranks fifth all time and he joined Tom Brady as the only two quarterbacks to achieve a passer rating of 110 @.@ 0 or higher in more than one season . The Broncos went on to win their divisional round playoff game against the San Diego Chargers by a score of 24 – 17 . They beat the New England Patriots in the AFC championship game by a score of 26 @-@ 16 . Manning became the third starting quarterback to reach the Super Bowl two different teams , after Craig Morton and Kurt Warner .
In Super Bowl XLVIII , Manning 's Broncos lost to the Seattle Seahawks by a score of 43 – 8 . Manning was up against the Seahawks ' young starting quarterback Russell Wilson , who idolized Manning and attended one of Manning 's passing camps as a teenager , and later met Manning at a Broncos pre @-@ draft interview . The Seahawks ' number one ranked defense proved too much for the Broncos ' number one ranked offense to overcome , while the Broncos ' defense also struggled due to injuries . The Broncos ' first play from scrimmage set the tone for the game . While Manning was stepping forward to call an audible , center Manny Ramirez snapped the ball too early and it flew past Manning 's head into the end zone , where running back Knowshon Moreno downed it for a safety . Manning set a Super Bowl record with 34 completions ( broken by Tom Brady the following year in Super Bowl XLIX ) , but the record @-@ setting offense didn 't record a first down until the 2nd quarter , and didn 't score any points until the final seconds of the 3rd quarter . While Manning threw one touchdown pass , he also threw two costly interceptions , one of which was returned for a touchdown .
= = = = 2014 season : NFL all @-@ time leader in passing touchdowns = = = =
On August 28 , 2014 , Manning was fined $ 8 @,@ 268 for taunting D. J. Swearinger during a preseason game against the Houston Texans . With the Broncos ' win in their opening game of the 2014 NFL season against the Indianapolis Colts , Manning became , along with Brett Favre , one of only two starting quarterbacks in NFL history who have beaten all 32 teams . On October 5 , 2014 , Manning threw his 500th career touchdown pass to Julius Thomas against the Arizona Cardinals , and also tied Dan Marino for the most 400 yard games by a quarterback .
On October 19 , 2014 , against the San Francisco 49ers , Manning threw his 509th career touchdown pass to Demaryius Thomas , passing Brett Favre to become the NFL 's all @-@ time leader in passing touchdowns . By the end of the regular season , Manning would be selected to his 14th Pro Bowl appearance , tying him with Tony Gonzalez , Bruce Matthews , and Merlin Olsen for most Pro Bowl selections in a career . However , his season ended after the Broncos lost in the divisional round of the playoffs to his former team , the Indianapolis Colts , 24 – 13 .
= = = = 2015 season : Final season and second Super Bowl championship = = = =
After much speculation , Manning announced in the offseason that he would return for his 18th season in the NFL . In the season opener , Manning 's play seemed to have deteriorated , going 24 – 40 for 175 yards and 1 interception , but a pick @-@ 6 by cornerback Aqib Talib allowed the Broncos to win 19 – 13 . The Broncos got off to a dominant 7 – 0 start to the season ; however , the streak ended in a loss at Indianapolis , losing 24 – 27 . During that winning streak , and the loss in Indianapolis , Manning played better , putting up over 250 yards in 6 of the 7 games , and he scored 9 touchdowns . However , he never had a game without an interception bringing his 8 @-@ game TD – INT ratio to 9 – 13 and the Broncos needed a hardworking defense to contribute for victories .
In Week 10 against Kansas City , the game 's biggest highlight was Manning breaking Brett Favre 's record for career passing yards with a 4 @-@ yard pass to Ronnie Hillman in the first quarter . Despite the accomplishment , however , Manning went 5 @-@ for @-@ 20 for 35 yards and four interceptions with a 0 @.@ 0 passer rating before head coach Gary Kubiak benched him during the third quarter . Brock Osweiler filled in for Manning for the rest of the game as the Broncos would eventually lose 29 – 13 . A day later , sources said that Manning had suffered a bout of plantar fasciitis . It was later announced that this injury would keep him out of Week 11 , marking the first time Peyton had missed a game in a season he played . Osweiler replaced Manning and performed well in a 17 – 15 win over the Chicago Bears , leading to questions about whether Manning would retain his role when healthy in a Week 12 showdown against the New England Patriots . The next day , head coach Gary Kubiak , citing Manning 's injuries , announced that Osweiler would start against New England . On December 15 , it was announced that Osweiler would make his fifth consecutive start , against the Pittsburgh Steelers , even though Manning had returned to practice and the Broncos had gone seven straight quarters without scoring a touchdown on offense . Overall , the Broncos went 4 @-@ 2 in six games without Manning , giving them an 11 @-@ 4 record heading into the final week of the regular season .
Manning was listed as active for the Week 17 regular season finale against the San Diego Chargers , but for the first time since his freshman year at college , he was listed as a backup . In the third quarter , with the Broncos down 13 – 7 , Manning entered the game in relief of Brock Osweiler , who had been intercepted twice and fumbled once . The Broncos went on to beat the Chargers , 27 – 20 , and secure the top seed in the AFC . Despite the Broncos ' 12 – 4 record ( and Manning 's 8 – 2 record in games that he played in ) , Manning had the worst season statistically of his career , as he threw a career low 9 touchdown passes and 17 interceptions in just 10 games , and posting a quarterback rating of 67 @.@ 9 , the lowest rating of his career , and first time he had a rating below 84 since his rookie season . Manning 's 59 @.@ 8 completion percentage was the second lowest of his career , only behind his rookie season . Manning 's 17 interceptions were second to Jaguars quarterback Blake Bortles , who threw 18 interceptions but started all 16 games .
The Broncos , by virtue of having the AFC 's # 1 seed , earned home field advantage throughout the NFL playoffs . The Broncos defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers in the Divisional round to advance to the AFC Championship game to host the defending Super Bowl champions , the New England Patriots . It was the 17th , and ultimately final , meeting between Manning and his longtime rival Tom Brady . Despite a late comeback from the Patriots , the Broncos won 20 – 18 to advance to Super Bowl 50 . Manning threw two touchdowns and no interceptions in the win .
On February 7 , 2016 , the Broncos defeated the Carolina Panthers 24 – 10 in Super Bowl 50 as the Broncos ' defense shut down the heavily @-@ favored Panthers ' top @-@ ranked offense and regular season MVP Cam Newton . Manning finished the game 13 of 23 for 141 yards with one interception while being sacked five times , scoring his only passing points with 3 : 08 left in the 4th quarter when he connected with Bennie Fowler for a 2 @-@ point conversion , which ended up being the final pass of his career . Manning became the oldest starting quarterback to both play in and win a Super Bowl . Manning also became the first quarterback to start two Super Bowls with multiple franchises , with different head coaches each time ( Dungy , Caldwell , Fox and Kubiak ) and the first quarterback to lead two different franchises to a Super Bowl victory . The victory gave Manning his 200th overall win including regular season and playoffs , making him the starting quarterback with the most combined regular season and postseason wins in NFL history , snapping a tie with Brett Favre .
= = = Retirement = = =
Manning announced his retirement , after 18 seasons , on March 7 , 2016 . Manning 's final words of his retirement speech were , " I 've fought a good fight . I 've finished my football race and after 18 years , it 's time . God bless all of you and God bless football . "
After 18 seasons with the NFL , Peyton Manning received the 2016 ESPY Icon Award
= = = " The Manning Bowl " = = =
Peyton and Eli Manning played against each other three times in their professional careers . These encounters were colloquially dubbed " The Manning Bowl " , and Peyton 's teams ( twice with the Indianapolis Colts , once with the Denver Broncos ) held a 3 – 0 record over Eli 's team ( three games with the New York Giants ) . The first Manning Bowl was held on September 10 , 2006 , and Peyton 's Colts defeated Eli 's Giants by a score of 26 – 21 . The second Manning Bowl was held on September 19 , 2010 , with Peyton and the Colts besting Eli 's team again by a score of 38 – 14 . The third and final Manning Bowl took place on September 15 , 2013 , and Peyton and the Broncos beat Eli 's Giants , 41 – 23 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = College career statistics = = =
= = = NFL career statistics = = =
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = = Post @-@ season = = = =
= = Career awards and records = =
= = = Major high school awards = = =
1992 , 1993 Louisiana Class 2A MVP
1993 Gatorade Circle of Champions Award
1993 Atlanta TD Club 's Bobby Dodd Award
1993 New Orleans Quarterback Club Player of the Year
1993 Columbus , Ohio Touchdown Club Offensive Player of the Year
1993 Gatorade High School Player of the Year ( National )
= = = College awards = = =
= = = College records = = =
= = = = Tennessee Volunteers records = = = =
= = = = SEC records = = = =
Lowest interception percentage ( season ) : 1 @.@ 05 % ( 1995 )
Highest completion percentage ( career ) : 62 @.@ 49 %
Lowest interception percentage ( career ) : 2 @.@ 39 %
Most 300 + passing yard games ( career ) : 18
= = = NFL awards = = =
5x NFL MVP ( 2003 ( shared with Steve McNair ) , 2004 , 2008 , 2009 , 2013 )
2x NFL Offensive Player of the Year ( 2004 , 2013 )
Best NFL Player ESPY Award ( 2004 , 2005 )
14 × Pro Bowl ( 1999 – 2000 , 2002 – 2010 , 2012 – 2014 )
7 × First @-@ team All @-@ Pro ( 2003 – 2005 , 2008 , 2009 , 2012 , 2013 )
3 × Second @-@ team All @-@ Pro ( 1999 , 2000 , 2006 )
2 × Bert Bell Award ( 2003 , 2004 )
8 × AFC Offensive Player of the Year Awards ( 1999 , 2003 – 2005 , 2008 , 2009 , 2012 , 2013 )
1998 NFL All @-@ Rookie First Team
2004 Fedex Express Player of the Year
Best Record @-@ Breaking Performance ESPY Award ( 2005 , 2014 )
2005 Walter Payton Man of the Year Award
2005 Byron " Whizzer " White Humanitarian Award
2005 Pro Bowl MVP
2007 Super Bowl MVP
2007 Best Championship Performance ESPY Award
2012 NFL Comeback Player of the Year
27 × AFC Offensive Player Of The Week
Additionally , Manning has been named the AFC Offensive Player of the Month a record eight times ( 9 / 2003 , 11 / 2004 , 10 / 2006 , 9 / 2009 , 9 / 2012 , 10 / 2012 , 9 / 2013 , 12 / 2013 ) and Offensive Player of the Week a record 26 times ( 25 AFC , 1 NFL / playoff ) .
= = = NFL records = = =
Manning holds a number of individual career records :
= = = = Regular season = = = =
= = = = Playoff records = = = =
Most 300 + yard passing games : 8
Most yards passing , 1st half of game : 360 vs. Denver Broncos , 1 / 9 / 05
Led the biggest comeback in conference championship game history ( 18 pts ) , 1 / 21 / 07 vs. New England
One of only four QBs to post a perfect 158 @.@ 3 passer rating in a game ( Don Meredith , Terry Bradshaw , Dave Krieg )
Most games with 20 + completions : 14 ( surpassed by Tom Brady in 2011 )
Most games with 30 + completions : 4 ( surpassed by Drew Brees in 2011 )
Most games with 30 + attempts : 17
Most games with 40 + attempts : 8 ( tied by Tom Brady in 2011 )
Most completions and attempts in a single postseason : 97 / 153 ( 2006 )
One of only 2 quarterbacks to complete 80 % of his passes in two playoff games ( tied with Kurt Warner )
Most consecutive postseasons with at least one start : 9 ( 2002 – 2010 )
Most postseason losses by a quarterback : 13
Most first @-@ round postseason losses by a quarterback : 9
= = = = Rookie records = = = =
Most touchdown passes : 26 ( tied by Russell Wilson in 2012 )
Most interceptions thrown : 28
Most consecutive games with a touchdown pass ( games 4 – 16 ) : 13
Most games with at least one touchdown pass : 15
Most games with 300 + yards passing : 4
= = = = With Marvin Harrison = = = =
Manning and former Colts wide receiver Marvin Harrison hold a number of QB @-@ WR tandem records :
Most completions / receptions ( career ) : 953
Most passing / receiving yards ( career ) : 12 @,@ 756
Most passing / receiving touchdowns ( career ) : 112
Most completions / receptions in a season , QB @-@ to @-@ WR duo : 143 ( 2002 )
= = = = Pro Bowl records = = = =
Most Pro Bowl selections ( tied with Tony Gonzalez , Bruce Matthews , and Merlin Olsen ) : 14
Most Pro Bowl selections for a QB : 14
Most consecutive Pro Bowl selections for a QB : 9 ( during the 2002 – 2010 seasons )
Most passing attempts ( career ) : 150
Most passing attempts ( game ) : 41 ( 2004 )
Most completions ( career ) : 92
Most completions ( game ) : 22 ( 2004 )
Most passing yards ( career ) : 1 @,@ 278
Most passing yards ( game ) : 342 ( 2004 )
Most passing touchdowns ( career ) : 13
= = = = Colts franchise records = = = =
= = = = Broncos franchise records = = = =
Highest completion percentage ( season ) : 68 @.@ 6 % ( 2012 )
Highest completion percentage ( career ) : 66 @.@ 5 %
Most completions ( season ) : 450 ( 2013 )
Most pass attempts ( season ) : 679 ( 2013 )
Most passing yards ( season ) : 5 @,@ 477 ( 2013 )
Most 300 + passing yard games ( season ) : 12 ( 2013 )
Most 400 + passing yard games ( season ) : 3 ( 2013 )
Highest average passing yards per game ( season ) : 342 @.@ 3 ( 2013 )
Highest average passing yards per game ( career ) : 295 @.@ 0
Most touchdown passes ( game ) : 7 ( September 5 , 2013 vs. Baltimore Ravens )
Most touchdown passes ( season ) : 55 ( 2013 )
Highest passer rating ( season ) : 115 @.@ 1 ( 2013 )
Highest passer rating ( career ) : 101 @.@ 7
Most seasons with 100 + passer rating : 3 ( 2012 @-@ 2014 )
Most touchdown passes without an interception ( game ) : 7 ( September 5 , 2013 vs. Baltimore Ravens )
Most seasons with at least 4 @,@ 000 passing yards : 3 ( 2012 @-@ 2014 )
Highest winning percentage as a starter ( career ) : 78 @.@ 9 % ( 45 @-@ 12 @-@ 0 )
= = Personal life = =
Manning was born in New Orleans , Louisiana , the son of Olivia ( née Williams ) and former NFL quarterback Archie Manning . He is the brother of two @-@ time Super Bowl Champion , Eli Manning . Some have described the Mannings as football 's " royal family " .
Manning married his wife , Ashley , in Memphis on St. Patrick 's Day , 2001 . A graduate of the University of Virginia , Ashley was introduced to him by her parents ' next @-@ door neighbor the summer before Manning 's freshman year in college . Peyton and wife Ashley have twins , a son , Marshal Williams , and a daughter , Mosley Thompson , born on March 31 , 2011 .
Manning is a Christian . At age 13 , he said , " I committed my life to Christ , and that faith has been most important to me ever since . " Manning said his priorities ranked in order are " ... faith , family , friends , and football . " Manning said he prays every night and before games and added , " I hope ( and pray ) I don 't do too many things that displease Him before I get to Heaven myself . I believe , too , that life is much better and freer when you 're committed to God in that way . "
Manning reportedly memorized the Colts ' playbook within a week after being drafted , and in 2012 was able to precisely recall the details and timing of a specific play he had used at Tennessee 16 years earlier . During the summer , Archie , Peyton , Eli , and eldest sibling Cooper run the Manning Passing Academy , a five @-@ day camp which aims to improve the offensive skills of quarterbacks , wide receivers , tight ends , and running backs . In addition to the Mannings , the camp has included many prominent players from football as coaches , such as Colts wide receivers Marvin Harrison and Reggie Wayne .
Manning , along with his father Archie , co @-@ authored a book titled , Manning : A Father , His Sons , and a Football Legacy , which was released in 2000 . The book covers Archie 's and Cooper 's lives and careers , and Manning 's life and career up to the time that the book was released , and examines football from both Archie 's and Manning 's points @-@ of @-@ view .
Mark Kiszla , a sports columnist for the Denver Post , in a column about Manning 's future plans , said that Manning 's net worth " is estimated to be in excess of $ 150 million " and " That 's not enough money to buy an NFL franchise by himself , although an ownership group that included Manning as president with a financial stake in the team would be led by a brilliant football mind . " He has donated over $ 8 @,@ 000 to Republican politicians , among them Fred Thompson , Bob Corker and former President George W. Bush . For the 2016 presidential race , Manning has contributed to the campaign of Jeb Bush . On October 26 , 2012 , Manning purchased 21 Papa John 's Pizza stores , all in Colorado .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Manning has been credited with helping to improve the image of the city of Indianapolis . A curator at the Indiana State Museum observed that " There is no Super Bowl held here without Peyton . There is no Lucas Oil Stadium without Peyton . Without Peyton , the Colts would probably be in L.A. right now . " He has become one of the NFL 's most marketable players , appearing in several television and printed advertisements for some of the NFL 's biggest sponsors .
Manning appeared in one of a series of DirecTV commercials where celebrities are seen in their element , then suddenly begin addressing the viewer . In his commercial , they parodied his pre @-@ snap audible routine , and known delay in calling for the ball by having him pitch NFL Sunday Ticket , instead of changing the play during a blowout game against the Tennessee Titans . Manning also appears in advertisements for St. Mary 's Medical Center in Knoxville , Tennessee .
Manning hosted Saturday Night Live on March 24 , 2007 , his 31st birthday . The episode earned the show 's highest household rating in more than 10 months in the metered markets . He also appeared on SNL in 2008 and on the 2015 Saturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special .
He has won the Favorite Male Athlete award for the Kids Choice Awards .
On May 27 , 2007 , Manning waved the green flag to begin the 91st Indianapolis 500 .
In 2009 , Manning guest @-@ voiced ( with his brothers , Eli and Cooper ) on an episode of The Simpsons called " O Brother , Where Bart Thou ? " in which Bart dreams of having a baby brother and sees such famous brothers as The Marx Brothers , The Blues Brothers , The Wright Brothers , The Mario Brothers , and The Manning Brothers .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Shortly after beginning his NFL career , Manning started his own charity called ' the Peyback Foundation ' . The Peyback Foundation 's mission is to help disadvantaged kids , and focuses its efforts in Louisiana , Tennessee , and Indiana . For his work with this foundation , Manning received the Samuel S. Beard Award for Greatest Public Service by an Individual 35 Years or Under , an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards .
Manning , along with his brother Eli , volunteered their assistance in the wake of Hurricane Katrina . Among the tasks performed , the Mannings assisted in the delivery of 30 @,@ 000 pounds of water , Gatorade , baby formula , diapers , and pillows to the people of New Orleans .
In September 2007 , St. Vincent Hospital in Indianapolis renamed its children 's hospital to " Peyton Manning Children 's Hospital at St. Vincent . " Manning and his wife made a donation of an undisclosed amount to St. Vincent 's and have had a relationship with the hospital since his arrival in Indianapolis .
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= Grand Theft Auto IV =
Grand Theft Auto IV is an open world action @-@ adventure video game developed by Rockstar North and published by Rockstar Games . It was released on 29 April 2008 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 consoles , and on 2 December 2008 on Microsoft Windows . It is the eleventh title in the Grand Theft Auto series , and the first main entry since 2004 's Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas . Set within the fictional Liberty City ( based on New York City ) , the single @-@ player story follows a war veteran , Niko Bellic and his attempts to escape his past while under pressure from loan sharks and mob bosses . The open world design lets players freely roam Liberty City , consisting of three main islands .
The game is played from a third @-@ person perspective and its world is navigated on @-@ foot or by vehicle . Throughout the single @-@ player mode , players play as Niko Bellic . An online multiplayer mode is included with the game , allowing up to 32 players to engage in both co @-@ operative and competitive gameplay in a recreation of the single @-@ player setting . Two expansion packs were later released for the game , The Lost and Damned and The Ballad of Gay Tony , which both feature new plots that are interconnected with the main Grand Theft Auto IV storyline , and follow new protagonists .
Development began in 2004 , soon after the release of Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas . As part of their research for the open world , the developers conducted field research around New York throughout development and captured footage for the design team . Development duties were shared between many of Rockstar 's studios worldwide . Following its announcement in May 2006 , Grand Theft Auto IV was widely anticipated . Upon release , the game received universal critical acclaim , with praise particularly directed at the game 's narrative and open world design . However , the game also generated controversy , with criticism directed at the game 's depiction of violence and ability to drive under the influence of alcohol . Grand Theft Auto IV broke industry sales records and became the fastest @-@ selling entertainment product in history at the time , earning US $ 310 million in its first day and US $ 500 million in its first week . Considered one of the most significant titles of the seventh generation of video games , and by many critics as one of the greatest video games of all time , it won year @-@ end accolades , including Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications . Its successor , Grand Theft Auto V , was released in September 2013 .
= = Gameplay = =
Grand Theft Auto IV is an action @-@ adventure game played from a third @-@ person perspective . Players complete missions — linear scenarios with set objectives — to progress through the story . It is possible to have several active missions running at one time , as some missions require players to wait for further instructions or events . Outside of missions , players can freely roam the game 's open world , and have the ability to complete optional side missions . Composed of the fictional city of Liberty City , the world of Grand Theft Auto IV is larger in area than most earlier entries in the series . At the beginning of the game , players can only explore the first island – composed of Dukes and Broker – with all other islands unlocking as the story progresses .
Players use melee attacks , firearms and explosives to fight enemies , and may run , jump , swim or use vehicles to navigate the game 's world . There is a first @-@ person perspective option when using vehicles . In combat , auto @-@ aim and a cover system can be used as assistance against enemies . Should players take damage , their health meter can be fully regenerated using multiple techniques , such as eating , using medical kits , or calling for paramedics . If players commit crimes while playing , the game 's law enforcement agencies may respond as indicated by a " wanted " meter in the head @-@ up display ( HUD ) . On the meter , the displayed stars indicate the current wanted level ( for example , at the maximum six @-@ star level , efforts by law enforcement to incapacitate players become very aggressive ) . Law enforcement officers will search for players who leave the wanted vicinity . The wanted meter enters a cooldown mode and eventually recedes when players are hidden from the officers ' line of sight .
The game 's cover system allows players to deftly move between cover , to fire blindly , aim freely , and target a specific enemy . Individual body parts can also be targeted . Melee attacks include additional moves , such as dodging , blocking , disarming an opponent and counter @-@ attacking . Body armour can be used to absorb gunshots and explosive damage , but is used up in the process . When health is entirely depleted , gameplay stops , and players respawn at the nearest hospital .
The game 's single @-@ player mode lets players control a war veteran , Eastern European Niko Bellic . During the story , Niko meets various new characters , many of whom he befriends . These characters can then perform favours for Niko whenever he asks ; for example , his cousin Roman , who owns a taxi service , can send one of his cabs to Niko and take him to any destination around the city . Cabs are always available during gameplay , allowing players to quickly travel to a destination . Throughout the course of the game , players are also faced with morality choices , which alter the storyline appropriately depending on the player 's choice . While free roaming the game world , players may engage in context @-@ specific activities such as bowling or darts . Other available activities include a vigilante minigame , and in @-@ game television programming . Niko has a smartphone for contacting friends and starting activities . The smartphone is also used to access the game 's online multiplayer mode , and to enter cheat codes . To access the in @-@ game Internet , which allows Niko to send and receive emails and set up prospective dates with potential girlfriends , Niko can use Internet cafés located around the city . The game also features a subway system , allowing players to quickly traverse through the game world .
The online multiplayer mode for Grand Theft Auto IV allows up to 32 players to freely roam across a recreation of the single @-@ player world . Players decide which game mode that they wish to play , including deathmatches and street races . Both cooperative and competitive game modes are available . These game modes are split into ranked and unranked matches . For players to level up through ranks , in @-@ game money must be earned . The game also features a Free Mode , in which players have the entire map open to explore , with no end goal or mission to complete . Hosts of the game can control many variables , such as police presence , traffic , and weapons . LAN support is available in the Windows version of the game .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Grand Theft Auto IV takes place in 2008 , in a redesigned version of Liberty City consisting of four boroughs , based on four of the boroughs of New York City : Broker ( based on Brooklyn ) , Dukes ( Queens ) , Bohan ( The Bronx ) , and Algonquin ( Manhattan ) . Adjacent to the city is the independent state of Alderney ( Northern New Jersey ) . There are three minor islands present in the game : Charge Island ( Randall 's Island ) , Colony Island ( Roosevelt Island ) , and Happiness Island ( Liberty Island ) . Initially , bridges are locked down due to a terrorist threat , and players are constantly pursued by police if the bridges are crossed , but the blockades are lifted as the story progresses , allowing the player to traverse between islands . Grand Theft Auto IV takes place in a different storyline and timeline from the previous games in the series . However , the game takes place in the same canon as its expansion packs , The Lost and Damned and The Ballad of Gay Tony , and its successor , Grand Theft Auto V.
= = = Plot = = =
Following his cousin Roman 's request , Niko Bellic , an Eastern European , comes to Liberty City to pursue the American Dream , and to search for the man who betrayed his unit in a war fifteen years prior . Upon arrival , however , Niko discovers that Roman 's tales of riches and luxury were lies concealing struggles with gambling debts and loan sharks , and that Roman lives in a dirty apartment rather than a mansion .
Niko defends Roman from his loan sharks several times , eventually killing Vlad Glebov , Roman 's Russian loan shark . Niko was forced to work for Vlad to settle Roman 's debts but ended up killing him after learning that he had slept with Roman 's girlfriend , Mallorie . After Vlad 's murder , Niko and Roman are kidnapped by members of the Liberty City Bratva on order of Mikhail Faustin and his associate , Dimitri Rascalov . Faustin , not bothered by the murder of Vlad , hires Niko . Niko quickly learns that Faustin is a psychopath when he orders him to kill the son of Kenny Petrović , the most powerful man in the Liberty City Bratva . After the Petrović family threatens retaliation , Dimitri orders Niko to assassinate Faustin in order to prevent a gang war . When Niko meets with Dimitri to collect on the assassination , Dimitri brings Niko 's former employer Ray Bulgarin instead , the latter accusing Niko of stealing from him a few years earlier . When Niko truthfully denies the allegation , a firefight ensues , allowing Dimitri and Bulgarin to escape .
Immediately afterwards , Niko and Roman are forced to escape to Bohan when their apartment and taxi company are destroyed in arson attacks by Dimitri 's men . However , things go poorly as well in Bohan : Dimitri 's men kidnap Roman in a failed bid to ambush and kill Niko , who rescues Roman . Furthermore , Niko 's girlfriend Michelle reveals that she works for a government agency and entraps Niko into working for her agency , known only by its cover : United Liberty Paper . Niko kills several known or suspected terrorists for the agency in exchange for the file of the numerous crimes the police have on him and the promise of assistance in finding the traitor of his unit .
Eventually , United Liberty Paper tracks down the man responsible for Niko 's unit 's betrayal , Darko Brevic , and brings him into Liberty City . Niko confronts Darko and decides his fate . Having dealt with his past , Niko is summoned by one of his employers , Jimmy Pegorino , who demands one final favour : to help with an extremely lucrative deal on heroin in collusion with Dimitri Rascalov .
At this point , Niko is faced with two choices : strike a deal with Dimitri , or exact revenge on him . Should Niko go through with the deal , Dimitri sets up Niko by taking the heroin for himself . At Roman 's wedding , an assassin sent by Dimitri kills Roman with a stray bullet as Niko disarms and kills him . A devastated and vengeful Niko later tracks down , chases , and kills Dimitri , but not before witnessing Dimitri executing Pegorino . Should Niko choose to exact revenge , Niko ambushes and executes Dimitri . At Roman 's wedding , Pegorino , furious after Niko 's betrayal , commits a drive @-@ by shooting . He targets Niko , but ends up killing Niko 's girlfriend , Kate . Niko soon tracks down , chases , and kills Pegorino , who had become hated and targeted by the entire Liberty City underworld .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Work on Grand Theft Auto IV began in November 2004 , almost immediately after the release of Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas ( 2004 ) . Around 150 game developers worked on Grand Theft Auto IV , led by core members of the team that previously worked on Grand Theft Auto III ( 2001 ) . For the game , Rockstar used their proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine ( RAGE ) , which was previously used in Rockstar Games Presents Table Tennis ( 2006 ) , in combination with the Euphoria game animation engine . Instead of pre @-@ written animations , Euphoria uses procedural animation to control the way the player moves , enabling character movements to be more realistic . The Euphoria engine also enables NPCs to react in a realistic way to the player 's actions . In one preview , a player knocked an NPC out of a window and the character grabbed onto a ledge to stop himself from falling . The game also uses middleware from Image Metrics to facilitate intricate facial expressions and ease the process of incorporating lip @-@ synching . Foliage in the game is produced through SpeedTree .
Grand Theft Auto IV sees a shift in the series to a more realistic and detailed style and tone , partly a result of the transition to consoles which offered high @-@ definition graphics and the new and improved capabilities of such consoles . Rockstar co @-@ founder Dan Houser said " what we 're taking as our watchword on [ Grand Theft Auto IV ] is the idea of what high definition actually means . Not just in terms of graphics , which obviously we are achieving , but in terms of all aspects of the design . [ ... ] You know , trying to make something more realistic , more held together , but still retaining the overall coherence that the other games had . " Art director Aaron Garbut said one of the reasons they decided to set the game in New York because " we all knew what an amazing , diverse , vibrant , cinematic city it is , " and since they were hoping the push the " detail , variety and life " to a high level , it seemed that " basing the game in a city so synonymous with these things was a great fit . " Dan Houser added " because we were working in high definition and we knew we 'd need a shitload of research , we wanted to be somewhere where we had a foothold . " The developers consciously avoided creating a block for block recreation of New York City , Dan Houser said " what we 've always tried to do is make a thing that looks real and has the qualities of a real environment , but is also fun from a game design perspective . " The Grand Theft Auto IV rendition of Liberty City is far more detailed and larger in size than most earlier entries in the series Although smaller than San Andreas , the main setting for Grand Theft Auto IV 's predecessor Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas , Liberty City is comparable to it in terms of scope when " the level of verticality of the city , the number of buildings you can go into , and the level of detail in those buildings " are taken into account . The goal for Liberty City was to have no dead spots or irrelevant spaces , such as the wide open deserts in San Andreas . To achieve a realistic environment , the Rockstar North team , based in Edinburgh , Scotland , made two trips to New York for research , one at the start of the project ( which was done with every previous Grand Theft Auto game ) and another smaller one further into development . A full @-@ time research team , based in New York , handled further requests for information ranging from the ethnic minority of a neighbourhood to videos of traffic patterns .
The story of Grand Theft Auto IV was written by Dan Houser and Rupert Humphries . Unlike previous Grand Theft Auto games which have a strong cultural or cinematic influence , " [ Grand Theft Auto IV doesn 't ] really have any cinematic influences " , as explained by Houser . " We were consciously trying to go , well , if video games are going to develop into the next stage , then the thing isn 't to try and do a loving tribute or reference other stuff . It 's to reference the actual place itself " . Houser also said , " In terms of the character , we wanted something that felt fresh and new and not something that was obviously derived from [ a ] movie . [ ... ] Maybe [ we ] could do something ourselves that would live alongside that stuff " .
Music supervisor Ivan Pavlovich said " [ we had ] to pick the songs that make New York today what it is , but make sure they won 't feel dated by the time the game comes out . " The developers contacted over 2 @,@ 000 people in order to obtain recording and publishing rights . They even hired a private investigator to locate the relatives of late Skatt Bros. member Sean Delaney to license the band 's song , " Walk the Night " . Citing sources close to the deals , Billboard reported that Rockstar paid as much as $ 5 @,@ 000 per composition and another $ 5 @,@ 000 per master recording per track . Developers originally considered letting players purchase music by going to an in @-@ game record shop and for Niko to have an MP3 player , but both ideas were cut . DJ Green Lantern produced tracks exclusively for the game 's hip @-@ hop radio station The Beat 102 @.@ 7 . Record label owner and record producer Bobby Konders , who hosts the in @-@ game radio station Massive B Soundsystem 96 @.@ 9 , went through the extra effort of flying to Jamaica to get dancehall artists to re @-@ record tracks to make references to the boroughs of Liberty City .
The Corporate Vice @-@ President of Microsoft 's Interactive Entertainment Business division , Peter Moore , announced at E3 2006 that the game would appear on Xbox 360 , by rolling up his sleeve to reveal a Grand Theft Auto IV temporary tattoo . Rockstar Games initially appeared to be committed to the original 16 October 2007 release date ; however , Wedbush Morgan analyst Michael Pachter suggested that Take @-@ Two may choose to delay the release of the game in order to boost its financial results for 2008 and to avoid competing with the release of other highly anticipated titles , such as Halo 3 . Rockstar responded by saying that Grand Theft Auto IV was still on track for release in " late October " . On 2 August 2007 , Take @-@ Two announced that Grand Theft Auto IV would miss its original release date of 16 October 2007 contrary to their previous statements , and would be delayed to their second fiscal quarter ( February – April ) of 2008 . In a later conference call with investors , Take @-@ Two 's Strauss Zelnick attributed the delay to " almost strictly technological problems ... not problems , but challenges . " It was later revealed that technical difficulties with the PlayStation 3 version of the game contributed to the delay , along with storage problems on the Xbox 360 . On 24 January 2008 , Take @-@ Two announced that Grand Theft Auto IV would be released on 29 April 2008 . As the release date approached , Rockstar Games and Take @-@ Two marketed the game heavily through various forms , including television ads , Internet video , billboards , viral marketing , and a redesigned website . A special edition of the game was also released for both the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . At a Take @-@ Two shareholder meeting on 18 April 2008 , Take @-@ Two CEO Ben Feder announced that Grand Theft Auto IV had already " gone gold " and was " in production and in trucks en route to retailers " . The game was eventually released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 video game consoles in Europe , North America , and Oceania on 29 April 2008 , and in Japan on 30 October 2008 . Overall , Grand Theft Auto IV took over 1000 people and more than three and a half years to complete , with a total cost estimated at approximately $ 100 million , making it , at the time , the most expensive video game ever developed .
On 6 August 2008 , Rockstar announced that a Microsoft Windows version of Grand Theft Auto IV was in development by Rockstar North and Rockstar Toronto . The game was originally announced for release in North America on 18 November 2008 and in Europe on 21 November 2008 but was later pushed back to 2 and 3 December 2008 , respectively . It contains expanded features , including traffic density control , draw distance configurations and a replay editor . The replay editor allows players to record and edit game clips , videos can then be uploaded to Rockstar 's Social Club website . It utilised Games for Windows - Live for online play and supports 32 players for multiplayer . SecuROM protection is utilised and a one time online activation is required in order to play the game . The game was made available on Steam on 4 January 2009 .
= = = Episodic content = = =
Two episodic packs for Grand Theft Auto IV have been released . These two episodes were first released separately , exclusively on Xbox Live , as downloadable content ( DLC ) , requiring the original game to play . They were later released together as part of a standalone game , titled Grand Theft Auto : Episodes From Liberty City , which does not require the original game to play . Dan Houser stated the episodes shows " a different side of Liberty City " .
The first expansion , titled Grand Theft Auto : The Lost and Damned , was originally released on 17 February 2009 . The protagonist of The Lost and Damned is Johnny Klebitz , a member of Liberty City 's biker gang The Lost . The second expansion , titled Grand Theft Auto : The Ballad of Gay Tony , was released on 29 October 2009 . The protagonist of The Ballad of Gay Tony is Luis Fernando Lopez , an assistant to nightclub owner Tony " Gay Tony " Prince , and follows him as he resolves the conflicts of his friends , family , and boss .
Jeronimo Barrera , Vice President of Product Development for Rockstar Games , said that the episodes were experiments because the team were not sure that there was enough users with access to online content on the Xbox 360 . Take @-@ Two Interactive 's Chief Financial Officer , Lainie Goldstein revealed that Microsoft was paying a total of $ 50 million for the first two episodes . In January 2010 , Rockstar announced that the DLC as well as Episodes From Liberty City would be made available for the PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows on 13 April 2010 in North America and 16 April 2010 in Europe .
Both episodes were released for PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows on 13 April 2010 in North America and on 16 April 2010 in Europe . Grand Theft Auto IV : The Complete Edition , including the original Grand Theft Auto IV and its two episodic expansions , was listed on online stores , before being confirmed by Rockstar . The compilation was released on PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and Windows on 26 October 2010 in North America , and 29 October in Europe .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
Like previous games in the Grand Theft Auto series , Grand Theft Auto IV features a soundtrack that can be heard through radio stations while the player is in a vehicle . Liberty City is serviced by 19 radio stations , three of which are talk radio stations . The other stations feature music from a large range of genres , including tracks from Genesis , David Bowie , Bob Marley , The Who , Queen , Kanye West and Elton John .
Grand Theft Auto IV uses a similar music system to that of Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas ( 2004 ) . In other games in the series , each radio station was essentially a single looped sound file , playing the same songs , announcements and advertisements in the same order each time . With the radio stations in Grand Theft Auto IV , each sound file is held separately , and sequenced randomly , allowing songs to be played in different orders , announcements to songs to be different each time , and plot events to be mentioned on the stations . Certain songs are also edited to incorporate references to the fictional Liberty City .
A variety of real celebrities provide voices for the radio DJs in the game , including fashion designer Karl Lagerfeld , musicians Iggy Pop , Femi Kuti , Jimmy Gestapo and Ruslana , and real @-@ life radio talk show host Lazlow Jones . Saturday Night Live actors Bill Hader and Jason Sudeikis appear on the liberal and conservative radio talk shows respectively , with Fred Armisen playing several guests on Lazlow 's " Integrity 2 @.@ 0 " . Numerous other comedians , including Jim Norton , Patrice O 'Neal , Rick Shapiro , and Robert Kelly , as well as radio hosts Opie & Anthony appeared on the radio and / or as characters in @-@ game .
The Music of Grand Theft Auto IV is a 2008 soundtrack packaged with the special edition of Grand Theft Auto IV . The disc contains several soundtrack selections . The soundtrack features several genres , from hip hop to rock and reggae . Several artists re @-@ recorded their songs to make references to in @-@ game locations . Two songs , " Liberty City : The Invasion " and " No Sex for Ben " , were composed specifically for the game and the soundtrack . The theme song of Grand Theft Auto IV , " Soviet Connection " , was composed by Michael Hunter , who previously composed the theme for Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas .
= = Reception = =
= = = Initial release = = =
Grand Theft Auto IV was released to universal acclaim . Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating in the 0 – 100 range , calculated an average score of 98 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 64 reviews for the PlayStation 3 version and 86 reviews for the Xbox 360 version . It is the second @-@ highest rated game on Metacritic , tied with a number of other games . It is also one of the highest @-@ rated games on GameRankings . Reviewers liked the game 's narrative , open world design and combat system . Hilary Goldstein of IGN felt that the game " sets a new benchmark for open @-@ world games " , and Andrew Reiner of Game Informer wrote that the game " completely changes the landscape of gaming " .
Reviewers lauded the open world design , some further complimenting the freedom that it allows the player . Seth Schiesel of The New York Times named the city the " real star " of the game . Official Xbox Magazine 's Hicks was impressed by the city , attributing this to the game 's AI . Robinson of Computer and Video Games considered the environment believable , and felt that the world was " utterly unmatched " . Goldstein of IGN felt that , although Liberty City is inspired by New York , it is not beholden to it . He wrote that the city " exists in its own universe and rightfully so " . Crispin Boyer of 1UP.com directed praise at the city 's " breathtaking vistas , incredibly varied scenery , and lived @-@ in look . " Conversely , Jesse Costantino of Game Revolution felt that the game lacked important features common in other open world games .
Reviewers praised the game 's narrative . IGN 's Goldstein accepted that the darker tones to the story , a break from series tradition . Jon Hicks of Official Xbox Magazine felt surprised by the amount of depth to the story . Reiner of Game Informer wrote that the level of freedom in the game contributed to his enjoyment of the story . The morality choices faced by players throughout the narrative were also welcomed . 1UP.com 's Boyer felt that they gave the game an element of " replayability " . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell considered the morality choices a fair substitute over " bosses with large health bars " .
The game 's characters — particularly Niko — received positive reactions from critics . Hicks of Official Xbox Magazine and Andy Robinson of Computer and Video Games both called Niko " charismatic " and " likeable " , stating that they prefer him over previous protagonists of the series . George Walter of GamesRadar praised the depth of the character , and IGN 's Goldstein felt that the character of Niko feels relatable when faced with difficult decisions . Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb felt that Niko was a " the only thing that mattered to [ him ] " as he progressed through the story , with the character becoming one of his favourite features of the game . Schiesel of The New York Times named Niko one of the most realised video game characters attributing this to the game 's script , while 1UP.com 's Boyer commended the use of character bonding during the game 's missions .
Many reviewers found the combat system was more responsive than in previous games , particularly praising the addition of the cover system . Justin Calvert of GameSpot wrote that the cover system makes the game 's combat a " huge improvement " over previous games . Reiner of Game Informer agreed , writing that the targeting system makes players feel responsible for all deaths . IGN 's Goldstein praised the fluidity of the cover system , and felt that the auto aim mechanic is a " great help in larger battles " . GamesRadar 's Walter wrote that the cover system has " paved the way to a new style of mission " . David McComb of Empire called the combat " sharp and instinctive " , and Hicks of Official Xbox Magazine felt that the cover system allows players to execute an attack plan . In addition to the combat system , most reviewers noted the vehicle handling was more realistic than in previous games . Robinson of Computer and Video Games felt that the vehicle handling echoed realism , while Hicks of Official Xbox Magazine called the vehicle selection " excellent " . Costantino of Game Revolution praised the improvement of the game 's mechanics , particularly the physics engine 's advanced vehicle and character animations .
Reviewers praised the sound design . Goldstein of IGN praised the actors ' performances and the use of licensed music . GameSpot 's Calvert and GamesRadar 's Walter also commended the licensed music , the latter admiring the humour of the radio 's talk stations . Michael Pinson of The Pro Audio Files praised the separate features of the game 's sound design — including the city 's ambiance , licensed music , character dialogue , and vehicle and weapon sound effects — applauding the developer 's use of uniting the features together . Carolyn Gudmundson of GamesRadar also retroactively praised the game 's soundtrack , commending its suitability to the game 's setting .
The game 's online multiplayer mode received positive reactions from critics . Reiner of Game Informer praised the character customisation available in the multiplayer mode , and noted that it runs " just as smoothly " as the single @-@ player game . 1UP.com 's Boyer called the multiplayer modes " excellent " , and IGN 's Goldstein named it one of the best . Official Xbox Magazine 's Hicks dubbed the multiplayer as " hugely entertaining " , while Walter of GamesRadar praised the " seamless " process of entering a multiplayer match . Giant Bomb 's Gerstmann and Game Revolution 's Costantino felt divided about the multiplayer , the latter naming it a " fantastic idea " , but feeling as though connectivity problems resulted in a " broken " experience .
= = = Microsoft Windows version = = =
When Grand Theft Auto IV was released to Microsoft Windows in December 2008 , it received generally positive reviews . Metacritic calculated an average score of 90 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 40 reviews . Reviewers liked the enhanced visuals and the additional features , but criticised the port for its inferiority over the console versions .
The in @-@ game features added in the port were well received . The addition of the Video Editor was met with positive reactions ; GameSpot 's Calvert called it " a great way to get creative " , while Kieron Gillen of Eurogamer criticised the unpredictability in its timing . Critics also praised the addition of the customisable radio station , which allows players to listen to their own choice of music ; Tom Chick of 1UP.com named it the best feature of the port , and Steven Hopper of GameZone called it a " great touch " . The port 's upgrade to 32 concurrent players in the online multiplayer mode , as opposed to the console version 's 16 players , was also met with positive feedback ; Eurogamer 's Gillen said that the " possibility for mayhem ... increases " , while Will Tuttle of GameSpy felt that the player increase " changes the action significantly " .
The port 's enhanced visuals were commended by many reviewers . GameZone 's Hopper considered the visuals an improvement over the original versions . Andy Robinson of Computer and Video Games called the visuals " impressive " , while Tom Orry of VideoGamer.com called them " superb " . Conversely , the port 's system requirements , considered difficult to run with advanced settings , received criticism . Eurogamer 's Gillen said that , though the Windows version is " the most attractive version " , it 's " annoyingly fiddly to get there " . GameSpy 's Tuttle was able to overlook the demanding system requirements in exchange for the game 's other features .
= = Commercial performance = =
= = = Sales = = =
Within twenty @-@ four hours of its release , Grand Theft Auto IV sold over 3 @.@ 6 million copies , equating to approximately $ 310 million in revenue . Within a week , it generated more than $ 500 million in worldwide revenue , equating to approximately 6 million copies sold for Take Two . The numbers surpassed analysts ' expectations for the title . After one month of availability , the game had sold over 8 @.@ 5 million copies . It broke three Guinness World Records on 13 May 2008 : highest grossing video game in 24 hours , highest revenue generated by an entertainment product in 24 hours , and fastest @-@ selling video game in 24 hours . On 11 March 2011 , Take @-@ Two announced that the game had sold over 20 million copies , with the Grand Theft Auto series surpassing a collective total of 100 million copies . As of July 2013 , the game has sold over 25 million copies . All sales records broken by Grand Theft Auto IV were beaten by its successor , Grand Theft Auto V , upon release .
In the United Kingdom , the game became the fastest @-@ selling game of all time , selling over 631 @,@ 000 copies in twenty @-@ four hours . This broke the record set by Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas at 501 @,@ 000 copies over the same period . During the first five days of availability , the game sold over 927 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom . Over the same period , 2 @.@ 85 million units were sold in the United States . By the end of 2008 , the game had sold over 5 @.@ 18 million copies in the US . In its first four days of availability in Japan , it sold 133 @,@ 000 copies on the PlayStation 3 and 34 @,@ 000 on the Xbox 360 , according to Media Create .
In the first week of availability , the Windows version of Grand Theft Auto IV debuted at seventh place on the weekly charts ; by the second week , it had left the top @-@ ten . Based on unique user counts , the game was the most played Games for Windows – Live game in 2009 and 2012 , and the second @-@ most played in 2011 .
= = = Awards = = =
Following the critical acclaim it received on its release , Grand Theft Auto IV has received various awards from various critics and publications . It received several Game of the Year awards , from gaming media outlets such as Spike TV , Giant Bomb , Kotaku , and GameTrailers , as well as mainstream publications , like The New York Times , the Los Angeles Times , and Time magazine . Grand Theft Auto IV also received seven nominations at the 5th British Academy Video Games Awards ( BAFTA Games Awards ) , and three nominations at the 9th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards , but did not win any of them .
= = Controversies = =
Prior to and since the release of Grand Theft Auto IV , the game had been subject to a great deal of controversy , as was the case with previous Grand Theft Auto titles . Figures including George Galloway , Jack Thompson and Hillary Clinton have criticised the game , as have organisations including New York City officials and Mothers Against Drunk Driving ( MADD ) . MADD asked ESRB to change the rating of the game from " M " ( for ages seventeen and up ) to " AO " ( for adults only ) due to the player 's ability to drive under the influence of alcohol .
The initial version of Grand Theft Auto IV released in Australia and New Zealand was pre @-@ censored by Rockstar to allow the game to meet the perceived requirements of the Australian classification system . However , the game was resubmitted to the New Zealand OFLC by Stan Calif , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old student who was unhappy that New Zealand received an edited version of the game as a result of Australian censorship laws . The unedited version was subsequently given an R18 rating and cleared for sale in New Zealand . For the PC release , the uncensored version of the game was awarded MA15 + in Australia . Following the release of The Lost and Damned , Rockstar distributed a patch which uncensored the Australian release for consoles .
There have been reports in the United Kingdom and the United States of crimes perpetrated against people purchasing Grand Theft Auto IV , as well as employees of stores selling the game . One of these incidents , an attack near a Gamestation store in Croydon , London was later reported to be an unrelated argument between two groups of people leaving a pub and the story has been referred to as a " media panic . " Six teenagers were later arrested in June 2008 after engaging in a crime spree in New Hyde Park , New York , assaulting and robbing several people , and attempting a carjacking . According to police , the teens claimed that they were " inspired " by Grand Theft Auto IV .
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= Norwood – 205th Street ( IND Concourse Line ) =
Norwood – 205th Street ( formerly 205th Street ) is the northern terminal station on the IND Concourse Line of the New York City Subway . Located at the intersection of 205th Street and Bainbridge Avenue in Norwood , Bronx , it is served by the D train at all times .
= = History = =
The station was built as part of the sixth and seventh sections of the IND Concourse Line beginning in the late 1920s . The station was built under East 205th Street at its eastern end , and underneath preexisting private property for most of its length . The station opened on July 1 , 1933 , along with the rest of the Concourse subway . On July 1 , 1937 , an escalator was opened in the station , the first of its kind in the Bronx .
On August 23 , 1954 , a D train relaying east of the station overshot the bumper blocks at the end of the track , crashing into the wall at the end of the line . The train motorman was trapped in the tunnel for seven hours , and when he was freed , his left foot had to be amputated .
= = Station layout = =
This underground station has two tracks and one island platform . Both track walls have a lime green trim line with a medium Kelly green border . Small " 205 " signs are placed below them at regular intervals . The platform has a row of concrete @-@ clad I @-@ beam columns on both sides ; these are painted medium Hunter green . There is clear evidence of water damage and mold due to poor drainage in numerous areas along the platform ceiling , the wall tiles , and to a number of the support columns . The station is also notorious for having piles of trash bags on the platform and at entrances , as well as for large amounts of litter on the tracks due to an absence of trash cans . 205th Street station was declared one of the five worst in the system in terms of maintenance and appearance by the New York City Transit Riders Council in 2005 , problems which have persisted into the 2010s .
Due to changes in the street grid of the neighborhood , the station is located at East 205th Street and Perry Avenue at its eastern end , and at East 206th Street and Bainbridge Avenue at its western end . 205th Street turns diagonally southwest at Perry Street , while the subway maintains its previous direction , lining up with Van Cortland Avenue before turning south onto Grand Concourse .
The station is located close to several Norwood landmarks , including the New York Public Library 's Mosholu Branch ; the Montefiore Medical Center and North Central Bronx Hospital , north of the station on East 210th Street ; St. Brendan 's Church and School ; the Valentine – Varian House ; and the Williamsbridge Oval , the former site of the Williamsbridge Reservoir .
= = = Fare control = = =
This station has two fare control areas . The full @-@ time side at the south ( geographical west ) end has a turnstile bank , token booth , and two staircases going up to the southeast and northwest corners of East 206th Street and Bainbridge Avenue . Because of the varying topography of the surrounding neighborhood , a single escalator was installed in 1937 in this fare control area , traversing an elevation difference of 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) between the mezzanine and platform . Access to fare control otherwise requires walking up three flights of stairs from platform level .
The other fare control area at the station 's north ( geographical east ) end , accessed by a ramp to the platform , is unstaffed , containing full height turnstiles and two staircases going up to the northwest and southeast corners of East 205th Street and Perry Avenue . The token booth at this location was closed on July 30 , 2005 and removed sometime afterward .
= = Track layout = =
This station was not intended to be the terminus of the Concourse Line or the D train ; both were supposed to have been extended east past Bronx Park and the IRT White Plains Road Line along Burke Avenue to serve the northeast section of the Bronx . This idea was postponed due to lack of funding , and ultimately abandoned when the City of New York bought the right @-@ of @-@ way of the bankrupt New York , Westchester and Boston Railway and converted it for subway use in 1941 . Another proposal in the 1970s involved extending the Concourse Line to White Plains Road , but financial troubles caused the plan to be aborted .
As a result of the planned extension , the two tracks continue east of this station for about 700 feet along 205th Street to Webster Avenue , ending at a concrete wall , and this station does not have any crew quarters . Crews are changed at Bedford Park Boulevard , the next station south . Additionally , there is no diamond crossover between the tracks west of this station ; here , a center track forms leading west to the Concourse Yard . Because of this , terminating trains arrive on the southern ( railroad northbound ) track and discharge their passengers before continuing east to the end of the track . They then use the diamond crossover there to return to this station on the northern ( railroad southbound ) track and begin service to Manhattan and Brooklyn . Due to the track configuration , trains may reverse into the yard from the southern track , and trains from the yard may start service on the northern track .
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= Corey Taylor =
Corey Todd Taylor ( born December 8 , 1973 ) is an American musician , author , and actor best known as the lead singer and lyricist of the heavy metal band Slipknot and hard rock / alternative metal band Stone Sour .
Taylor is a founding member of Stone Sour , and has released five studio albums with that band . Taylor joined Slipknot in 1997 to replace their original vocalist , Anders Colsefni . He has released five studio albums with them . He has worked with several bands , including Junk Beer Kidnap Band , Apocalyptica , Anthrax , Aaron Lewis of Staind , and Soulfly . Taylor was ranked number 86 in Hit Parader 's Top 100 Metal Vocalists of All Time . He was also named 7th greatest heavy metal frontman by NME . Taylor was also found , by VVN Music , to possess the second @-@ highest vocal range of any known singer in popular music with a range of 5 and a half octaves . He was beaten only by Mike Patton ( 6 octaves ) .
= = Personal life = =
Corey Todd Taylor was born in Des Moines , Iowa on December 8 , 1973 . Taylor was mostly raised by his mother in Waterloo , Iowa , a place described by Taylor as a " hole in the ground with buildings around it . " He is of German and Native American background from his father 's side and Irish and Dutch on his mother 's side . Taylor was raised by his single mother . He developed a fond feeling toward rock ' n ' roll after his grandmother introduced him to Elvis Presley .
In 1979 , Taylor and his mother saw the science fiction series Buck Rogers in the 25th Century . Before the series , there was a trailer for the 1978 horror film Halloween . Taylor said this " developed some sense of Slipknot in [ himself ] . " While Halloween introduced Taylor to masks and horror themes , Taylor 's grandmother introduced him to rock music , showing him a collection of Elvis Presley records from the mid @-@ fifties to late seventies . He especially found some songs like " Teddy Bear " , " In the Ghetto " , and " Suspicious Minds " , to appeal to his interests the most , describing them as " good times . " Taylor also began listening to Black Sabbath at a young age , beginning with their early work .
Taylor , along with his mother and sister , lived at one point in an " old dilapidated farmhouse , " which on days in late autumn would " look like Black Sabbath album covers . " By age fifteen , Taylor had developed a drug addiction and had overdosed on cocaine twice . By this time , Taylor was living in Waterloo , Iowa , but later set out on his own and ended up at his grandmother 's house in Iowa . She took legal custody of him and helped him buy musical equipment . When Taylor was eighteen , he left his grandmother 's home and went to various places , Des Moines being a place to which he frequently returned .
In his early twenties , when Taylor was living with his grandmother , he attempted suicide by way of overdose . Taylor 's ex @-@ girlfriend 's mother drove him to the hospital in Des Moines and doctors were able to resuscitate him . He describes this as the lowest point in his life .
Taylor and his father first met when Taylor was 30 years old , and now have a relationship , although he said their paths do not cross that often . On September 17 , 2002 , Taylor 's then @-@ fiancée , Scarlett Stone , gave birth to their son Griffin Parker . Taylor also has a daughter named Angeline from an earlier relationship . Taylor and Stone married on March 11 , 2004 , and divorced three years later .
Taylor has also had alcohol abuse problems , which his wife , Scarlett , helped him through as well as keeping him from committing suicide . In 2006 , Taylor told MTV that he had attempted to jump off a balcony of the eighth floor of the Hyatt on Sunset Boulevard in 2003 , but " somehow [ Scarlett ] stopped me " . This was later recanted by Taylor in an interview with Kerrang ! radio and stated that it was , in fact , his friend Thom Hazaert who stopped him from jumping . Scarlett then told him that either he would have to get sober or she would annul their marriage . Before Stone Sour started recording Come What ( ever ) May in January 2006 , Taylor was sober .
On August 3 , 2009 , he co @-@ hosted the 2009 Kerrang ! Awards alongside Scott Ian of Anthrax . The following year , they both once again co @-@ hosted The Kerrang Awards , where Corey collected the K ! Services to Metal award on behalf of Paul Gray who died after an accidental overdose of morphine and fentanyl .
In early September 2010 , Taylor announced that his book , Seven Deadly Sins : Settling The Argument Between Born Bad And Damaged Good would be released on July 12 , 2011 through Da Capo Press .
On November 13 , 2009 , Taylor married Stephanie Luby at the Palms Hotel in Las Vegas .
= = Music career = =
= = = Slipknot = = =
In Des Moines , Iowa , Joey Jordison , Shawn Crahan , and Mick Thomson approached him asking him to join Slipknot . He agreed to go to one of their practices , and ended up singing in front of them . Of Slipknot 's nine members , Corey was the sixth to join the band . Performing with Slipknot , he would also come to be known as " Number Eight " , being that the band follows a numbering scheme for its members , ranging from 0 – 8 . According to Shawn Crahan , Corey wanted number eight , because it symbolizes infinity .
Feeling he could expand more inside Slipknot than in Stone Sour , Taylor temporarily quit Stone Sour , even though they were recording an album with Sean McMahon . Taylor 's first gig with Slipknot was on August 22 , 1997 , which according to band members did not go well . During his first gig , Taylor did not perform wearing a mask ; however , for his second show nearly a month later , Corey wore a mask that resembles his debut album mask . Taylor 's current mask was described by MTV 's Chris Harris as looking " as though it were made of dried , human flesh — like Leatherface , if only he used moisturizer . "
Taylor has recorded with Slipknot since the release of their second demo album , a self @-@ titled demo used to promote the band to prospective labels and producers . As permanent vocalist , he recorded with Slipknot at Indigo Ranch in Malibu , California and released Slipknot , the band 's debut album that peaked number one on the Top Heatseekers chart , went 2 × Platinum in the United States , and was included in the 2006 book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . Taylor was accused of copyright infringement , regarding the lyrics of the song " Purity " , but no action was taken . Taylor began recording for their second studio album , Iowa , in 2001 at Sound City and Sound Image in Van Nuys , Los Angeles . It was released August 28 , 2001 and peaked number one on the UK Albums Chart , as well as number three on the Billboard 200 . While writing Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) , Taylor decided to write lyrics that would not warrant an explicit label . It peaked number two on the Billboard 200 . All Hope Is Gone was the first Slipknot album to peak number one on the Billboard 200 .
= = = Stone Sour = = =
Taylor is a founding member of the American hard rock band Stone Sour . After he formed the band with drummer Joel Ekman , Shawn Economaki joined filling in the bass position , leaving the electric guitar position to be filled by Josh Rand . Stone Sour recorded a demo album in 1993 , and another in 1994 . In 1997 , Taylor was approached by the metal band , Slipknot , resulting in him abandoning Stone Sour while they were recording a demo album with Sean McMahon at SR studios . Taylor did not return until five years later to record their debut album , Stone Sour in 2002 . Both Taylor and guitarist Josh Rand contacted Jim Root , Slipknot 's guitarist , and Shawn Economaki , Stone Sour 's original bassist , to begin writing songs for their debut album . Drummer Joel Ekman came back on board as well . This " reformation " later resulted in Stone Sour recording at Catamount Studios in Cedar Falls , Iowa .
Their self @-@ titled debut album was released August 27 , 2002 , and it debuted at number 46 on the Billboard 200 . Their second album , Come What ( ever ) May debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 . It was released August 1 , 2006 , and charted on several different charts . Live in Moscow is currently their only album specifically released only for music download . During the recording of the album , drummer Joel Ekman left the band for personal reasons . As a result , drummer Roy Mayorga was recruited , taking his place . The group released their third studio album , Audio Secrecy , on September 7 , 2010 .
Later , Corey Taylor has announced the release of a concept double album with Stone Sour . The albums are titled " House of Gold And Bones " . During the process of making the double album , bassist Shawn Economaki left the band . He was temporarily replaced for touring purposes by Johny Chow . The first part was released in October 2012 and the second part in April 2013 . There are 23 songs in total , 11 on the first part and 12 on the second . In addition to these two albums is a four @-@ part comic book series written by Taylor and published by Dark Horse Comics . They are set to go on sale in 2013 . With these albums came a story that was written by Taylor that coincide with the album . Fans can also construct a miniature " house of gold and bones " from the packaging design of the physical versions of the two albums . Taylor has also said that he would like to finish off the project by making the story into a movie but nothing has come of this yet .
= = = Other work = = =
Taylor has appeared as a guest musician on albums by Soulfly , Apocalyptica and Damageplan . At one point , he was heavily involved in the recording of thrash metal band Anthrax 's album , Worship Music , but the sessions remain unreleased . He also contributed to the Roadrunner United all @-@ star album in 2005 , providing vocals for the song " Rich Man " . Taylor has also made a brief appearance in Steel Panther 's singles " Death to All but Metal " , " Eyes of a Panther " , and " Asian Hooker " . In 2006 , Taylor founded the record company Great Big Mouth Records . Taylor has produced two albums : Face Cage 's self @-@ titled album and Walls of Jericho 's Redemption . Taylor provided guest narration on the track " Repentance " for Dream Theater 's 2007 album Systematic Chaos . In an interview with Billboard magazine , Taylor confirmed that on January 13 , 2009 , he was planning on making a solo album , as well as returning to his side project Stone Sour after Slipknot 's All Hope Is Gone World Tour . Taylor has stated that he was writing songs that " don 't fit either of his main bands . " He describes them as a cross between Foo Fighters , Johnny Cash , and Social Distortion , saying that there 's " a country background that comes built @-@ in with living in Iowa " .
On March 30 , 2009 , it was confirmed that Taylor and the Junk Beer Kidnap Band would be performing at Rockfest in 2009 . The group performed on April 24 , 2009 at People 's Court in Des Moines , Iowa , marking Taylor 's first official solo show . Taylor performs with his band the Dum Fux , who make covers for 1970s punk rock and 1980s hair metal . Taylor also performs with Audacious P , a band that is primarily a Tenacious D cover band . Rapper Tech N9ne confirmed that Taylor was to perform on his album K.O.D. , but was removed because Taylor did not submit his vocals in time . Taylor recently admitted that he tried out for the vacant singer spot in the band Velvet Revolver , but said that it just did not work out . However , according to a recent Billboard article , it seems likely that he may in fact become the vocalist for Velvet Revolver , though no official confirmation has been made . Duff McKagan added that they can neither " confirm or deny " Taylor 's membership in the band but believes that Taylor is the " real deal " . Slash has since ruled Corey out as the possible new vocalist explaining that " [ it ] just wasn 't right " although he does love him . He however , has recorded 10 new songs with the band , drummer Matt Sorum stated it 's unlikely it will ever be released . Taylor explained to Mark Hoppus on Hoppus on Music that McKagan and he were writing new music for a possible new supergroup .
In July 2011 Taylor collaborated with Aaron Lewis while promoting Lewis ' solo album , Town Line for a one night only acoustic duet show covering songs such as , Pearl Jam 's " Black " , Pink Floyd 's Comfortably Numb , and Alice in Chains ' Down in a Hole , videos from this show with Taylor and Lewis can be found on YouTube . Taylor also shared the stage with Aaron Lewis on August 16 , 2009 during the Ride For Dime memorial concert . They performed Pantera covers with a variety of other musicians .
As a solo artist he recorded a song , " X @-@ M @ $ " , for The Teenage Cancer Trust . The single was made available to digital retailers on December 12 , 2010 . It debuted at number thirty @-@ seven in the UK . Taylor clarified on YouTube that the song was just a joke about people who don 't enjoy Christmas . He personally loves Christmas especially due to the fact he gets to see his extended family but finds the frustration of people who don 't like it to be hilarious .
In 2011 , Taylor collaborated with Blink @-@ 182 drummer Travis Barker on Barker 's solo album Give the Drummer Some on the song " On My Own " .
in 2016 Taylor started to host " A Series of Bleeps " , a rocksentered radioshow on Beats 1 .
Taylor is confirmed to be a guest vocalist in Korn 's upcoming album .
= = Acting career = =
On December 4 , 2013 , Corey Taylor joined the cast of Fear Clinic with Robert Englund . He played Bauer , one of the employees of the clinic who struggles to keep things under control when all hell breaks loose . He played in a horror movie called Bullied that came out in 2013 . In October 2015 . Taylor provided the roars for The Fisher King in the Doctor Who episode " Before the Flood " .
= = Style and influence = =
The first two Slipknot albums with Taylor 's vocals , Slipknot and Iowa , both contain gratuitous explicit content . Many critics claimed Taylor relied on the profanity , which is why Slipknot 's third album , Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) is profanity @-@ free , ( with the exceptions of the word bitch on the song " Duality " and bastard on the spoken intro of " Pulse of the Maggots " ) , and did not warrant the explicit label . Compared with the previous vocalist for Slipknot , Anders Colsefni , Taylor has a vocal style that was characterized by drummer Joey Jordison as " really good melodic singing " . Taylor 's vocal style , which contains at times melodic singing , growling , screaming , shouting , and rapping , led him to place at number 86 on the Hit Parader 's Top 100 Metal Vocalists of All Time and is often compared to other vocalists such as Ivan L. Moody , John Bush , Phil Anselmo and Jamey Jasta .
Taylor 's two major projects have contrasting temperaments . Slipknot is considered to be heavy metal , nu metal and alternative metal , and expresses moods such as depression , hostility , anger , misanthropy , and rebellion . Stone Sour is classified as alternative metal , expressing moods of bleakness and somberness as well as anger and rebellion . Taylor cites Mötley Crüe , AC / DC , The Who , The Beatles , Led Zeppelin , The Doors , Pink Floyd , Faith No More , Van Halen , Aerosmith , Rush , Motörhead , Judas Priest , Iron Maiden , Metallica , Alice in Chains , Bon Jovi , Guns N ' Roses , Nine Inch Nails , Dokken , Misfits , Black Sabbath , Deep Purple , Queen , Anthrax , Black Flag , Slayer , Def Leppard , The Stooges , Sex Pistols , Lynyrd Skynyrd , Neil Young , Cheap Trick , Pearl Jam , The Damned , The Cramps , Soundgarden , Mr. Bungle , Megadeth , Nirvana , Journey , Bob Dylan , Kiss , ZZ Top , White Zombie , Pantera , Korn , and Marilyn Manson as influences .
= = Discography as featured artist = =
= = Filmography = =
= = Books and other writings = =
= = Equipment = =
= = Awards = =
Revolver Golden Gods Awards
Loudwire Music Awards
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= International Association for Plant Taxonomy =
The International Association for Plant Taxonomy ( IAPT ) promotes an understanding of plant biodiversity , facilitates international communication of research between botanists , and oversees matters of uniformity and stability in plant names . The IAPT was founded on July 18 , 1950 at the Seventh International Botanical Congress in Stockholm , Sweden . Currently , the IAPT headquarters is located in Bratislava , Slovakia . Its current president , since 2011 , is Vicki Funk of the Smithsonian Institution , Washington , DC . ; vice @-@ president is Sandra Knapp of the Natural History Museum , London ; and secretary @-@ general is Karol Marhold of the Institute of Botany , Slovak Academy of Sciences , Bratislava .
Both the taxonomic journal Taxon and the series Regnum Vegetabile are published by the IAPT . The latter series includes the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants , the Index Nominum Genericorum , and Index Herbariorum .
= = Purpose = =
The IAPT 's primary purpose is the promotion and understanding of biodiversity — the discovery , naming , classification , and systematics of plants — for both living and fossil plants . Additionally , it promotes the study and conservation of plant biodiversity , and works to raise awareness of the general public to this issue . The organization also facilitates international cooperation among botanists working in the fields of plant systematics , taxonomy , and nomenclature . This is accomplished in part through sponsorship of meetings and publication of resources , such as reference publications and journals .
The IAPT also seeks to achieve uniformity and stability in plant names . It accomplishes this through the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants , previously known as the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature , and through the oversight of the International Bureau for Plant Taxonomy and Nomenclature .
= = Publications and online resources = =
= = = Taxon = = =
Taxon is the bi @-@ monthly journal of the IAPT . The journal , which was initiated in 1951 , publishes original papers and reviews dealing with systematic botany in the broadest sense . Preference is given to integrative papers combining the results of modern analysis with their consequences for classification . Taxon also contains matters related to botanical nomenclature , and is the medium for the publication of both proposals to conserve or reject names and proposals to amend the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants ( ICN ) . Publication of such matters in Taxon satisfies the required submission to the General Committee . The journal also contains sections devoted to the International Organisation of Plant Biosystematics , reviews and notices of books and other publications , and news in the world of plant systematics . Although the journal is " devoted to systematic and evolutionary biology with emphasis on botany " , it has been in the past criticized for focusing overly on nomenclature and less on the principles and advancements made in the field of plant systematics .
= = = Regnum Vegetabile = = =
Regnum Vegetabile is a published series of books on topics of interest to plant taxonomists . Many of the volumes are literature surveys or monographs in the area of plant systematics . There are several volumes of general use :
International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants ( Vol . 154 , 2012 ) The ICN is a set of rules and recommendations dealing with the formal names that are given to plants . The current edition is known as the " Melbourne Code " , as it was drafted in 2011 at the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress in Melbourne , Australia .
International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants , 8th edition ( Vol . 151 , 2010 ) Companion to the ICN , this volume sets forth rules regarding the names of plant cultivars .
Index Nominum Genericorum ( Vols . 100 @-@ 102 & 113 ) An index of all published generic names covered by the ICN , including the place of publication and information about the type species . The index is prepared in collaboration with the Smithsonian Institution . An electronic version is available online .
Index Herbariorum , the first six editions ( Vol . 15 , 31 , 86 , 92 , 93 , 106 , 109 , 114 , 117 , 120 ) A directory and guide to the herbaria of the world , including contact information , abbreviation codes , and important collections located in each herbarium . Index Herbariorum is now an online database , managed by The New York Botanical Garden , and available for on @-@ line searching .
International Directory of Botanical Gardens ( Updated as Vol . 95 , 1977 ) A directory to botanical gardens and arboreta around the world .
The series includes many additional volumes of interest to specialists in specific subdisciplines of botany , in addition to the ones listed above .
= = = Databases = = =
In addition to electronic versions of its print publications , the IAPT maintains the following :
" Names in Current Use " - A database of scientific names of extant botanical genera .
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= Lhasa ( prefecture @-@ level city ) =
Lhasa City , is a prefecture @-@ level city , formerly a prefecture until 7 January 1960 , one of the main administrative divisions of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China . It covers an area of 29 @,@ 274 square kilometres ( 11 @,@ 303 sq mi ) of rugged and sparsely populated terrain . The prefecture @-@ level city contains two districts Chengguan District and Doilungdêqên District .
The prefecture @-@ level city roughly corresponds to the basin of the Lhasa River , a major tributary of the Yarlung Tsangpo River . It lies on the Lhasa terrane , the last unit of crust to accrete to the Eurasian plate before the continent of India collided with Asia about 50 million years ago and pushed up the Himalayas . The terrane is high , contains a complex pattern of faults and is tectonically active . The temperature is generally warm in summer and rises above freezing on sunny days in winter . Most of the rain falls in summer . The upland areas and northern grasslands are used for grazing yaks , sheep and goats , while the river valleys support agriculture with crops such as barley , wheat and vegetables . Wildlife is not abundant , but includes the rare snow leopard and black @-@ necked crane . Mining has caused some environmental problems .
The former prefecture is divided into seven mostly rural counties and one district , which contains the main urban area of Lhasa . The 2000 census gave a total population of 474 @,@ 490 , of whom 387 @,@ 124 were ethnic Tibetans . The Han Chinese population at the time was mainly concentrated in urban areas . The prefecture @-@ level city is traversed by two major highways and by the Qinghai – Tibet Railway , which terminates in the city of Lhasa . Two large dams on the Lhasa River deliver hydroelectric power , as do many smaller dams and the Yangbajain Geothermal Station . The population is well @-@ served by primary schools and basic medical facilities , although more advanced facilities are lacking . Tibetan Buddhism and monastic life have been dominant aspects of the local culture since the 7th century . Most of the monasteries were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution , but since then many have been restored and serve as tourist attractions .
= = Geography = =
= = = Location = = =
Lhasa lies in south @-@ central Tibet , to the north of the Himalayas . The prefecture @-@ level city is 277 kilometres ( 172 mi ) from east to west and 202 kilometres ( 126 mi ) from north to south . It covers an area of 29 @,@ 518 square kilometres ( 11 @,@ 397 sq mi ) . It is bordered by Nagqu Prefecture to the north , Nyingchi Prefecture to the east , Lhoka ( Shannan ) Prefecture to the south and Shigatse prefecture @-@ level city to the west . The prefecture @-@ level city roughly corresponds to the basin of the Lhasa River , which is the center of Tibet politically , economically and culturally . Chengguan District is also the center of Tibet in terms of transport , communications , education and religion , as well as being the most developed part of Tibet and a major tourist destination with sights such as the Potala Palace , Jokhang and Ramoche Temple .
= = = Lhasa River basin = = =
Lhasa prefecture @-@ level city roughly corresponds to the basin of the Lhasa River , a major tributary of the Yarlung Tsangpo River . Exceptions are the north of Damxung County , which crosses the watershed of the Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains and includes part of the Namtso lake , and Nyêmo County , which covers the basin of the Nimu Maqu River , a direct tributary of the Yarlung Tsangpo . The river basin is separated from the Yarlung Tsangpo valley to the south by the Goikarla Rigyu range . The largest tributary of the Lhasa River , the Reting Tsangpo , originates in the Chenthangula Mountains in Nagqu Prefecture at an elevation of about 5 @,@ 500 metres ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) , and flows southwest into Lhasa past Reting Monastery .
The Lhasa River drains an area of 32 @,@ 471 square kilometres ( 12 @,@ 537 sq mi ) , and is the largest tributary of the middle section of the Yarlung Tsangpo . The average altitude of the basin is around 4 @,@ 500 metres ( 14 @,@ 800 ft ) . The basin has complex geology and is tectonically active . Earthquakes are common . Annual runoff is 10 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 3 @.@ 73 × 1011 cu ft ) . Water quality is good , with little discharge of sewage and minimal chemical pesticides and fertilizers .
The Lhasa River forms where three smaller rivers converge . These are the Phak Chu , the Phongdolha Chu which flows from Damxung County and the Reting Tsangpo , which rises beyond the Reting Monastery . The highest tributary rises at around 5 @,@ 290 metres ( 17 @,@ 360 ft ) on the southern slope of the Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains . In its upper reaches the river flows southeast through a deep valley . Lower down the river valley is flatter and changes its direction to the southwest , The river expands to a width of 150 to 200 metres ( 490 to 660 ft ) . Major tributaries in the lower reaches include the Pengbo River and the Duilong River . At its mouth the Lhasa Valley is about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) wide .
The bulk of the water is supplied by the summer monsoon rains , which fall from July to September . There are floods in the summer from July to September , with about 17 % of the annual runoff flowing in September . In winter the river has low water , and sometimes freezes . Total flow is about 4 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 96 cu mi ) , with average flow about 125 cubic metres per second ( 4 @,@ 400 cu ft / s ) . The total hydropower potential of the river basin is 2 @,@ 560 @,@ 000 kW . Zhikong Hydro Power Station in Maizhokunggar County delivers 100 MW . The Pangduo Hydro Power Station in Lhünzhub County has total installed capacity of 160 MW .
= = Geology = =
The former Lhasa prefecture lies in the Lhasa terrane , to which it gives its name . This is thought to be the last crustal block to accrete to the Eurasian plate before the collision with the Indian plate in the Cenozoic . The terrane is separated from the Himalayas to the south by the Yarlung @-@ Tsangpo suture , and from the Qiangtang terrane to the north by the Bangong @-@ Nujiang suture . The Lhasa terrane consisted of two blocks before the Mesozoic , the North Lhasa Block and the South Lhasa Block . These blocks were joined in the Late Paleozoic .
The Lhasa terrane moved northward and collided with the Qiangtang terrane along the Bangong suture . The collision began towards the end of the late Jurassic ( c . 163 – 145 Ma ) , and collision activity continued until the early Late Cretaceous ( c . 100 – 66 Ma ) . During this period the terrane may have been shortened by at least 180 kilometres ( 110 mi ) . The collision caused a peripheral foreland basin to form in the north part of the Lhasa terrane . In some parts of the foreland basin the north @-@ dipping subduction of the Neotethyan oceanic crust below the Lhasa terrane caused volcanism . The Gangdese batholith was formed as this subduction continued along the southern margin of the Lhasa terrane . The Gangdese intrudes the southern half of the Lhasa terrain .
Contact with India began along the Yarlung @-@ Zangbo suture around 50 Ma during the Eocene , and the two continents continue to converge . Magmatism continued in the Gangdese arc until as late as 40 Ma . There was significant crustal shortening as the collision progressed . The South Lhasa terrane experienced metamorphism and magmatism in the Early Cenozoic ( 55 – 45 Ma ) and metamorphism in the Late Eocene ( 40 – 30 Ma ) , presumably due to the collision between the continents of India and Eurasia .
Rocks in this region include sedimentary rocks from the Paleozoic and Mesozoic into which granite has intruded during the Cretaceous . The rocks have metamorphosed and are deeply eroded and faulted . The rocks exposed in the Reting Tsangpo canyon range in age from 400 Ma to 50 Ma . The result of faulting has been to often juxtapose relatively recent rocks with much older rocks . Some parts of the ocean floor were pushed up onto the Tibetan Plateau and formed marble or slate . Sea fossils from 400 Ma are found in the river 's canyons , and houses are roofed with slate .
The Yangbajing Basin lies between the Nyainquentanglha Range to the northwest and the Yarlu @-@ Zangbo suture to the south . The Yangbajain Geothermal Field is in the central part of a half @-@ graben fault @-@ depression basin caused by the foremontane fault zone of the Nyainqentanglha Mountains . The SE @-@ dipping detachment fault began to form about 8 Ma . The geothermal reservoir is basically a Quaternary basin underlaid by a large granite batholith . The basin has been filled with glacial deposits from the north and alluvial @-@ pluvial sediments from the south . Fluid flows horizontally into the reservoir through the faults around the basin . Chemical analysis of the thermal fluid indicate that there is shallow @-@ seated magmatic activity not far below the geothermal field .
During the ice ages of the last two million years the Tibetan plateau and the Himalayas have been covered by the expanded polar ice cap several times . As the ice moved it eroded the rock , filling the river canyons with gravel . In some sections the rivers have cut through the gravel and flow swiftly over bedrock , and in some areas large boulders have fallen into the rivers and formed rapids .
= = Climate = =
The Lhasa valley is roughly the same latitude as the southern United States , but at an altitude of 3 @,@ 610 metres ( 11 @,@ 840 ft ) or more it is of course cooler . The central river valleys of Tibet are warm in summer , and even in the coldest months of winter the temperature is above freezing on sunny days . The climate is semi @-@ arid monsoon , with a low average temperature of 1 @.@ 2 to 7 @.@ 5 ° C ( 34 @.@ 2 to 45 @.@ 5 ° F ) . Average annual precipitation is 466 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 18 @.@ 36 in ) , with 85 % falling in the June – September period . Typically there are 3 @,@ 000 hours of sunshine each year . It is cooler in the northern regions , warmer in the south . Annual figures :
Studies of temperature and precipitation data from 1979 to 2005 indicate that higher temperatures are leading to longer snow @-@ free periods at the lower elevations . However , at higher levels the amount of precipitation has increased , so despite warming the snow @-@ free period is shorter .
= = Environment = =
Most of the population of Tibet lives in the southern valleys , including those around Lhasa . The higher regions are used by nomadic drokpa who tend herds of yaks , sheep and goats on the steppe grasslands of the hills and high valleys . In the lower parts it is possible to cultivate products that include barley , wheat , black peas , beans , mustard , hemp , potatoes , cabbage , cauliflower , onions , garlic , celery and tomatoes . The traditional staple food is barley flour called tsampa , often combined with buttered tea and made into a paste .
A visitor described the valley around Lhasa in 1889 as follows ,
The plain over which we are riding is a wonderfully fruitful one . It is skirted on the south by the Kyi river , and is watered , moreover , by another smaller stream from the north , which flows into the Kyi ... some five miles west of Lhasa . All this land is carefully irrigated by means of dikes and cross @-@ channels from both rivers . Fields of buckwheat , barley , pea , rape , and lindseed lie in orderly series everywhere . The meadows near the water display the richest emerald @-@ green pasturage . Groves of poplar and willow , in shapely clumps , combine with the grassy stretches to give in places a parklike appearance to the scene . Several hamlets and villages , such as Cheri , Daru , and Shing Dongkhar , are dotted over these lands . A fertile plain truly for a besieging army !
The Lhasa region does not have abundant wildlife or great numbers of species , but the Lhasa valley does support wintering populations of hundreds of black @-@ necked cranes . Hutoushan Reservoir lies in Qangka Township , Lhünzhub County . The reservoir is bordered by large swamps and wet meadows , and has abundant plants and shellfish . The reservoir , which lies in the Pengbo valley , is the largest in Tibet , with total storage of 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 420 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) . Endangered black @-@ necked cranes migrate to the middle and southern part of Tibet every winter , and may be seen on the reservoir and elsewhere in the Lhasa region . Other wildlife includes bharal , pheasants , roe deer , Thorold 's deer , Mongolian gazelle , Siberian ibex , otter , brown bear , snow leopard and duck . Medicinal plants include fritillaries ( fritillaria ) , stonecrop ( rhodiola ) , Indian barberry ( berberis aristata ) , Chinese caterpillar fungus ( ophiocordyceps sinensis ) , codonopsis and Lingzhi mushroom ( ganoderma ) .
The dams on the Lhasa river built as part of the Three Rivers Development Project are unlikely to affect the flow of the Brahmaputra in India . However , the climate and soil are unsuitable for large @-@ scale irrigation . Where grasslands have been converted into irrigated farms fed by dams the result may damage the environment . Jama wetland in Maizhokunggar County is vulnerable to grazing and climate change . Extensive mining in some mountainous regions have turned areas of what was green pasturage into a grey wasteland . The authorities are reported to have suppressed protests by the local people . Military personnel have been involved in efforts to protect and improve the environment , including replanting programs .
A 2015 study reported that during the non @-@ monsoon season the levels of arsenic in the Duilong River , at 205 @.@ 6 μg / L were higher than the WHO guideline of 10 μg / L for drinking water . The source of the pollution seems to be untreated water from the Yangbajain Geothermal Field power station . It can be detected 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) downstream from this site .
= = Administrative divisions = =
Lhasa prefecture @-@ level city consists of two district and six counties . Chengguan District and Doilungdêqên District contains most of the urban area of Lhasa , which lies in the Lhasa River valley floor .
= = = Chengguan District = = =
Chengguan District is located on the middle reaches of the Lhasa River , with land that rises to the north and south of the river . It is 28 kilometres ( 17 mi ) from east to west and 31 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from north to south . Chengguan District is bordered by Doilungdêqên District to the west , Dagzê County to the east and Lhünzhub County to the north . Gonggar County of Lhoka ( Shannan ) Prefecture lies to the south . Chengguan District has an elevation of 3 @,@ 650 metres ( 11 @,@ 980 ft ) and covers 525 square kilometres ( 203 sq mi ) . The urban built @-@ up area covers 60 square kilometres ( 23 sq mi ) . The average annual temperature is 8 ° C ( 46 ° F ) . Annual precipitation is about 500 millimetres ( 20 in ) , mostly falling between July and September .
Before the Chinese takeover the city of Lhasa had a population of 25 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 , or 45 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 if the large monasteries around the city are included . The old city formed a quadrangle about 3 square kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 sq mi ) around the Jokhang temple , about 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) to the east of the Potala Palace . During the period before the reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping the old city of Lhasa was left largely intact , while bleakly functional compounds containing symmetrical dormitory @-@ type buildings for both living and working were built apart from the city along the main roads .
By 1990 the city had expanded to cover 40 square kilometres ( 15 sq mi ) , with an official population of 160 @,@ 000 . The 2000 official census gave a total population of 223 @,@ 001 , of which 171 @,@ 719 lived in the areas administered by sub @-@ districts and residential committees . 133 @,@ 603 had urban registrations and 86 @,@ 395 had rural registrations , based on their place of origin . By 2013 the urban area filled most of the natural Lhasa River valley in Chengguan District . A 2011 book estimated that up to two @-@ thirds of the city 's residents are non @-@ Tibetan , although the government states that Chengguan District as a whole is still 63 % ethnic Tibetan .
= = = Doilungdêqên District = = =
Doilungdêqên District contains the western suburbs of the city of Lhasa , which begin about 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from the city center . It covers an area of 2 @,@ 704 square kilometers , with 94 @,@ 969 acres of farmland . The county borders on the north Tibet grasslands in the northwest . The valley of the Duilong River leads south to the Lhasa River . The Duilong is 95 kilometres ( 59 mi ) in length . In the south the county occupies part of the south bank of the Lhasa River . The county has an average elevation of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) , with a highest elevation of 5 @,@ 500 metres ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) and a lowest point at 3 @,@ 640 metres ( 11 @,@ 940 ft ) .
There are about 120 frost @-@ free days annually . Annual mean temperature is 7 ° C ( 45 ° F ) , with temperatures in January falling below − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) Annual precipitation is about 440 millimetres ( 17 in ) , with autumn rainfall of 310 millimetres ( 12 in ) . The county is agriculturally rich and was used by the Tibetan kings as a source of food for Lhasa .
The seat of government is in the town of Donggar . This is just 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) from downtown Lhasa . In 1992 there were 33 @,@ 581 people in 6 @,@ 500 households , with 94 @.@ 28 % of the people engaged in farming . About 90 % of the people were ethnic Tibetan , with most people of other ethnicity living in Donggar . The main mineral resources are coal , iron , clay , lead and zinc . Tsurphu Monastery , built in 1189 , is treated as a regional cultural relic reserve . The Nechung Monastery , former home of the Nechung Oracle , is located in Naiquong township . Nechung was built by the 5th Dalai Lama ( 1617 – 82 ) .
= = = Dagzê County = = =
Dagzê County has a total area of 1 @,@ 373 square kilometres ( 530 sq mi ) . It has an average elevation of 4 @,@ 100 metres ( 13 @,@ 500 ft ) above sea level , and descends from higher ground in the north and south to 3 @,@ 730 metres ( 12 @,@ 240 ft ) in the lowest part of the Lhasa river valley . The average temperature is 7 @.@ 5 ° C ( 45 @.@ 5 ° F ) , with about 130 days free of frost . Average rainfall is 450 millimetres ( 18 in ) . About 80 % – 90 % of precipitation falls in the summer .
As of 2013 the total population was 29 @,@ 152 . The main occupation is agriculture . As of 2012 per capita income of farmers and herdsmen was 6 @,@ 740 yuan . In 2010 there were 28 schools in the county , including one junior high school and one kindergarten , with 276 full @-@ time teachers . There is a county hospital and five township hospitals . The Sichuan @-@ Tibet Highway ( China National Highway 318 ) runs through the county . The main monasteries in Dagzê are Ganden Monastery and Yerpa .
= = = Damxung County = = =
Damxung County has an area of 10 @,@ 036 square kilometres ( 3 @,@ 875 sq mi ) , with rugged topography . As of 2013 the population was 40 @,@ 000 , up from 35 @,@ 000 in 1997 . It is tectonically active . On 6 October 2008 an earthquake measuring 6 @.@ 6 on the Richter magnitude scale was reported . In November 2010 a moderate quake in Damxung at 5 @.@ 2 on the Richter scale shook office windows in Lhasa . There were no casualties , but houses were damaged .
In the extreme northeast of the county , Namtso lake has an area of 1 @,@ 920 square kilometres ( 740 sq mi ) , of which 45 % lies in Damxung county . Namtso is one of the great lakes of the Tibetan plateau . The Nyenchen Tanglha ( or Nyainqentanglha ) mountains extend along the northwest of the county . Mount Nyenchen Tanglha is the highest peak in the region , at 7 @,@ 111 metres ( 23 @,@ 330 ft ) . The Nyainqêntanglha mountains define the watershed between northern and southern Tibet . A valley with elevation of about 4 @,@ 200 metres ( 13 @,@ 800 ft ) runs parallel to the mountains to their southeast , sloping from northwest to southeast . 30 % of the county 's total area is in the prairie of this valley .
Damxung is cold and dry in the winter , cool and wet in summer , with very variable weather . The average annual temperature is 1 @.@ 3 ° C ( 34 @.@ 3 ° F ) , with only 62 frost @-@ free days . The land is frozen from the start of November to the following March . Pasture has 90 – 120 days for growth . Average annual precipitation is 481 millimetres ( 18 @.@ 9 in ) . Natural grasslands cover 693 @,@ 171 hectares ( 1 @,@ 712 @,@ 860 acres ) , of which 68 % is considered excellent . Almost all the people are engaged in rearing livestock , including yaks , sheep , goats and horses .
The Qinghai @-@ Tibet Highway ( China National Highway 109 ) runs from east to west across the county . Damxung Railway Station links the county to the city of Lhasa to the south . There is a large geothermal field at Yangbajain harnessed by generating units that deliver 25 @,@ 181 kilowatts to the city of Lhasa to the south . The transmission line follows the Duilong River south through Doilungdêqên District . Kangma Monastery is 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) from the county seat . The meditation room has 1 @,@ 213 carved stone reliefs of Buddha that are about three hundred years old . Yangpachen Monastery in Yangbajain is historically the seat of the Shamarpas of Karma Kagyu . The monastery was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution , but later was rebuilt .
= = = Lhünzhub County = = =
Lhünzhub County is located around 65 km ( 40 mi ) northeast of metropolitan Lhasa . It includes the Pengbo River Valley and the upper reaches of the Lhasa River . It covers an area of 4 @,@ 512 km2 ( 1 @,@ 742 sq mi ) . The county is geologically complex , with an average elevation of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . The administrative center is the town of Lhünzhub .
As of 2000 the county had a total population of 50 @,@ 895 , of which 8 @,@ 111 lived in a community designated as urban . 2 @,@ 254 had non @-@ agricultural registration and 48 @,@ 362 had agricultural registration . In the south the Pengbo valley has an average elevation of 3 @,@ 680 metres ( 12 @,@ 070 ft ) with a mild climate . The average temperature is 5 @.@ 8 ° C ( 42 @.@ 4 ° F ) . The northern " three rivers " section , crossed by the Lhasa River and its tributary the Razheng River , is mountainous and has an average elevation of 4 @,@ 200 metres ( 13 @,@ 800 ft ) . It has average annual temperature of 2 @.@ 9 ° C ( 37 @.@ 2 ° F ) and is mostly pastoral , with yak , sheep and goats .
The Pengbo valley is the main grain @-@ producing region of Lhasa prefecture @-@ level city and Tibet , with a total of 11 @,@ 931 hectares ( 29 @,@ 480 acres ) of arable land . Crops include barley , winter wheat , spring wheat , canola and vegetables such as potato . Livestock includes yak , sheep , goats and horses . In 2010 the per capita income of farmers and herdsmen was 4 @,@ 587 yuan . The Pengbo valley has a long history of pottery @-@ making . Products include braziers , flower pots , vases and jugs . Mining is an important source of income . In 2011 the government has plans to more actively promote tourism . The Pangduo Hydro Power Station became operational in 2014 . It has been called the " Tibetan Three Gorges " .
The county is a center of Tibetan Buddhism . There were thirty @-@ seven gompas including twenty @-@ five lamaseries with 919 monks and twelve nunneries with 844 nuns as of 2011 . Reting Monastery was built in 1056 by Dromtön ( 1005 – 1064 ) , a student of Atiśa . It was the earliest monastery of the Gedain sect , and the patriarchal seat of that sect .
= = = Maizhokunggar County = = =
Maizhokunggar County is located on the middle and upper sections of the Lhasa River and the west of Mila Mountain . Mila ( or Mira ) Mountain , at 5 @,@ 018 metres ( 16 @,@ 463 ft ) , forms the watershed between the Lhasa River and the Nyang River . The Gyama Zhungchu , which runs through Gyama Township , is a tributary of the Lhasa River . Maizhokunggar County is about 68 kilometres ( 42 mi ) east of Lhasa , has an area of 5 @,@ 492 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 120 sq mi ) with an average elevation of more than 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . The annual average temperature is 5 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 1 ° C ( 41 @.@ 2 to 48 @.@ 4 ° F ) . There are about 90 frost @-@ free days each year . Annual rainfall is 515 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 20 @.@ 31 in ) . China National Highway 318 runs through the county from east to west . The 100 MW Zhikong Hydro Power Station on the Lhasa River came into operation in September 2007 .
The total population as of 2010 was 48 @,@ 561 people in 9 @,@ 719 households , the great majority engaged in farming and herding . 98 % of the population are ethnic Tibetan . The seat of government is in Kunggar in the west of the county . Many of the people depend on farming or herding . Development efforts include increased farm animal husbandry , feedstock production , greenhouses for vegetables , and breeding programs . Crops include barley , winter wheat , spring wheat , canola , peas , cabbage , carrots , eggplant , cucumbers , lettuce , spinach , green peppers , pumpkins , potatoes and other greenhouse crops . The economy is driven by mineral extraction , which was expected to account for 73 @.@ 85 % of total tax revenue in 2007 while employing 419 people .
Traditional folk handicrafts include pottery , willow basketwork , wooden objects , mats and gold and silver items . The county is especially noted for its pottery , which does not corrode , retains heat and has an ethnic style . It has a more @-@ than @-@ 1000 @-@ year @-@ old history . The Drikhung Thil Monastery of the Kagyu Sect was founded in 1179 by Lingchen Repa , a disciple of Phagmo Drupa . The monastery is the home of the Drikhung Kagyu School of the Kagyu sect . The ruined Gyama Palace , in the Gyama Gully in the south of the county , was built by Namri Songtsen in the 6th century after he had gained control of the area from Supi .
= = = Nyêmo County = = =
Nyêmo County is located in the middle section of the Brahmaputra , 140 kilometres ( 87 mi ) from Lhasa . It is mainly agricultural and pastoral , with an area of 3 @,@ 276 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 265 sq mi ) and an average elevation of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . The Nimu Maqu River flows through the county from north to south . The Yarlung Tsangpo River forms its southern boundary . The highest point is a peak at 7 @,@ 048 @.@ 8 metres ( 23 @,@ 126 ft ) above sea level , and the lowest point is where the Maqu River empties into the Brahmaputra at an elevation of 3 @,@ 701 metres ( 12 @,@ 142 ft ) . The county has a temperate semi @-@ arid plateau monsoon climate , with about 100 frost @-@ free days . Annual rainfall is 324 @.@ 2 millimetres ( 12 @.@ 76 in ) .
Nyêmo County has its headquarters in Nyêmo Town . The county seat is 3 @,@ 809 metres ( 12 @,@ 497 ft ) above sea level . As of 2011 the total population was 30 @,@ 844 people , of whom 28 @,@ 474 were engaged in agriculture or herding . By 2012 the per capita income of farmers and herdsmen had reached 6 @,@ 881 yuan . In the 7th century Nyêmo was producing printing materials , clay @-@ based incense and wooden @-@ sole shoes . Nyêmo 's long tradition of making paper and printing texts using woodblocks dates back to this period . Nyêmo County has China 's first museum of Tibetan text . There are 22 temples . As of 2011 there were 118 monks and 99 nuns . The Nyêmo Chekar monastery is known for its 16th century murals depicting reincarnations of the Samding Dorje Phagmo .
= = = Qüxü County = = =
Qüxü County has a total area of 1 @,@ 680 square kilometres ( 650 sq mi ) , with an average elevation of 3 @,@ 650 metres ( 11 @,@ 980 ft ) . The county is in the Yarlung Tsangpo valley , and is mostly relatively flat , but rises to the Nyainqêntanglha Mountains in the north . The Lhasa River runs south through the eastern part of the county to its confluence with the Yarlung Tsangpo River , which forms the southern boundary of the county . The lowest elevation is 3 @,@ 500 metres ( 11 @,@ 500 ft ) , and the highest summit elevation is 5 @,@ 894 metres ( 19 @,@ 337 ft ) . Qüxü County has about 150 days a year without frost . Annual precipitation is 441 @.@ 9 millimeters ( 17 @.@ 40 in ) .
Qüxü County has its headquarters in Qüxü Town . The fifth census in 2000 recorded a population of 29 @,@ 690 . The county seat has been growing fast , and had 5 @,@ 000 people by 2002 . China National Highway 318 runs through Qüxü County from Lhasa towards the west . Bridges span the Lhasa River and the Yarlung Tsangpo River .
Qüxü County is semi @-@ agricultural and crops grown are mainly highland barley , winter wheat , spring wheat , peas and rapeseed . Apples and walnuts are also produced . Animal husbandry is also strong , with the main animals farmed including yak , cattle , goats , sheep , horses , donkeys , pigs , and chickens . As of 2002 the per capita net income of farmers and herdsmen was 1 @,@ 960 yuan . The Nyethang Drolma Lhakhang Temple is located in Qüxü County , said to have been founded in 1055 by Dromtön , a pupil of Atiśa .
= = Demographics = =
The demographics of Lhasa prefecture @-@ level city are difficult to define precisely due to the way in which administrative boundaries have been drawn , and the way in which statistics are collected . The population of Lhasa prefectural @-@ level city is about 500 @,@ 000 , of whom about 80 % are ethnic Tibetan and most of the others are ethnic Han Chinese . Approximately 250 @,@ 000 people live in the city and in towns , most of them in or near Chengguan District , and the remainder live in rural areas .
= = = Ethnicity = = =
The 2000 census give the following breakdown for the population of the prefecture @-@ level city as a whole :
The 2000 census counts more than 105 @,@ 000 people in Chengguan District who are registered elsewhere . Most of them are Han , with agricultural registrations . Outside Chengguan District , in 2000 the rural townships almost all had Han populations below 2 @.@ 85 % , other than one in Duilongdeqing County and one in Qushui County , both near the metropolitan district of Lhasa . Urban towns other than Yangbajain had Han populations of between 2 @.@ 86 % and 11 @.@ 25 % . Within the metropolitan district Han population ranged from 11 @.@ 26 % to 11 @.@ 25 % in the southern rural township to 46 @.@ 56 % to 47 @.@ 46 % in the city street offices . Han migrants accounted for 20 % of the population , but held a much higher percentage of the higher @-@ status office and service @-@ sector jobs . Hans also dominated construction , mining and trade .
According to the November 2000 census , the ethnic distribution in Lhasa Prefecture @-@ level City was as follows :
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
Lhasa metropolitan district includes most of the built @-@ up area , which counts as urban , and four rural townships . The counties also contain urban towns , of which there are nine in the prefectural municipality .
Official census figures for 2000 are :
The census figures differ considerably from the Tibet Statistical Yearbooks for the same period , since the yearbook only includes the registered population and counts them based on place of origin rather than place of residence . The 1990 census used an approach similar to the yearbook , so the numbers are misleading , but the 2000 census tried to count people who had actually been present in Lhasa for over six months . The census distinguishes between " agricultural " and " non @-@ agricultural " registration , but this does not reflect the actual occupations of the people . Many with an " agricultural " registration may in fact work in the city or in a town . Also , the census was taken in November , when many of the ethnic Han workers in seasonal industries such as construction would have been away from Tibet . Finally , the census does not count the military .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Highways = = =
China National Highway 318 enters the prefecture @-@ level city from the east at Mila Mountain , where it reaches an elevation of 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 404 ft ) . The highway runs through Maizhokunggar County from east to west . It continues along the south bank of the Lhasa River through Dagzê County , then crosses to the north of the river in Chengguan District and runs through the center of the urban district . It turns south to cross Doilungdêqên District , where it is joined by 109 , and continues down the west side of the Lhasa River through Qüxü County , and then along the north shore of the Yarlung Tsangpo through Nyêmo County , and onward to the west .
China National Highway 109 ( the Qinghai – Tibet Highway ) runs through Damxung County from the northeast to southwest , then turns to the southeast at Yangbajain . It then runs through Doilungdêqên District along the Duilong River valley , to join China National Highway 318 just west of Lhasa . The Lhasa Airport Expressway from Lhasa to Lhasa Gonggar Airport in Lhoka ( Shannan ) Prefecture is the first expressway in the Tibet Autonomous Region . Construction began in April , 2009 . The expressway is 37 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 23 @.@ 5 mi ) long and has four lanes .
= = = Railroad = = =
The Qinghai – Tibet Railway runs through the Lhasa prefecture @-@ level city beside the Qinghai – Tibet Highway through Damxung County and Doilungdêqên District . It terminates at Lhasa Railway Station in Niu New Area ( Liuwu Township ) . The terminus of the Qinghai – Tibet line , this station is over 3 @,@ 600 metres ( 11 @,@ 800 ft ) above sea level , and is its largest passenger transport station . It includes a clinic with oxygen treatment facilities . The station uses solar energy for heating . The Liuwu Bridge links central Lhasa to Lhasa Railway Station and the newly developed Niu New Area of Doilungdêqên District on the south bank of the Lhasa River . Residents in the area were resettled to make way for the new development .
= = = Power = = =
The Yangbajain Geothermal Station was established in 1977 to exploit the Yangbajain Geothermal Field in Damxung . It is the first geothermal power station to be built in Tibet and is the largest geothermal steam power plant in China . 4 @,@ 000 kW of electricity from Yangbajain began to be delivered to Lhasa in 1981 along a transmission line that followed the Doilung Qu River . It was the main power supply for Lhasa until the Yamdrok Hydropower Station came into operation . By the end of 2000 eight steam turbo generators had been installed at the Yangbajain Geothermal Station , each with capacity of 3 @,@ 000 kW , giving a total of 25 @,@ 000 kW . The geothermal field delivers 25 @,@ 181 kilowatts , or 100 million kilowatts annually , to the city of Lhasa to the south .
The Pangduo Hydro Power Station has been called " Tibet 's Three Gorges Dam " . It impounds the Lhasa River in Pondo Township of Lhünzhub County , about 63 kilometres ( 39 mi ) from Lhasa . It is at an elevation of 13 @,@ 390 feet ( 4 @,@ 080 m ) above sea level , upstream from the 100MW Zhikong Dam at 12 @,@ 660 feet ( 3 @,@ 860 m ) . The rock @-@ fill dam impounds 1 @,@ 170 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 4 @.@ 1 × 1010 cu ft ) of water . The power station has total installed capacity of 160 MW .
The Zhikong Hydro Power Station lies between the middle and lower reaches of the Lhasa River , also called the Kyi River . It is about 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) northeast of Lhasa , in Maizhokunggar County . It is at an elevation of 12 @,@ 660 feet ( 3 @,@ 860 m ) above sea level , downstream from the Pangduo Hydro Power Station . The Zhikong Dam , a rock @-@ fill dam , is 50 metres ( 160 ft ) tall . It impounds 225 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 7 @.@ 9 × 109 cu ft ) of water . Installed capacity is 100 MW .
= = = Other facilities = = =
The rural counties generally have numerous primary schools at the village level , with high levels of attendance , and at least one secondary school . In 2010 there were 28 schools in Dagzê County , including one junior high school and one kindergarten . As of 2009 there were 37 primary and secondary school buildings in Damxung County . Maizhokunggar County has one high school , 14 full primary schools and 74 village schools . Nyêmo County has 24 primary and secondary schools , including one junior high school . As of 2002 Qüxü County had one County Middle School , and 18 primary schools . Outside Lhasa most of the Tibetans do not understand the Chinese language , so Tibetan is the natural language for basic instruction . However , this may be affected by the availability of teachers and the preference of the local administration . As of 2003 the former bilingual mode of instruction had been changed to giving instruction in Chinese in some of the counties near Lhasa . Examination results were already poor in subjects such as mathematics and physics . Marks dropped further after the change .
Some of the township seats have a small clinic . Most have only a health station , usually poorly supplied . There is a county hospital and five township hospitals in Dagzê County . There were seven hospitals in Damxung in 2009 , including a county hospital , with a total of 40 beds . The first drug rehabilitation center in Tibet was being constructed in Duilongdeqing County in 2009 . It was planned to provide physiological rehabilitation , psychological therapy and job training for up to 150 drug addicts . Lhünzhub County has 23 health care establishments , including a County People 's Hospital with 30 beds . Maizhokunggar has been selected as a Cooperative Medical System experimental site , which has resulted in a very high percentage of people with health care coverage . Nyêmo County has a county hospital with 42 medical staff , eight rural health centers and 26 village clinics .
The local television stations are Xizang TV ( XZTV ) and Lhasa Broadcasting and Television Center . Lhünzhub County has a local radio and television station . TV coverage is received by 72 @.@ 1 % of the population , and radio by 83 @.@ 4 % of the population . In Maizhokunggar County television is available to 36 % of the population and radio to 48 % . There is a county television station in Nyêmo County . As of 2002 in Qüxü County 98 % of the population received radio coverage and 94 % received television . In 2015 there were 359 @,@ 000 fixed line telephone subscribers in the whole of Tibet . The rugged high @-@ altitude terrain makes it expensive to provide telecommunications services . The first mobile phone service was launched in 1993 with just one base station in Lhasa , and as late as 2005 mobile phones were expensive status symbols . Since then both mobile phones and internet usage have grown fast .
As of 1996 the sole prison ( jianyu ) for judicially @-@ sentenced political prisoners in Tibet was TAR Prison No. 1 , also called Drapchi Prison after the neighborhood in Lhasa where it stands . It is for men serving sentences of five or more years . There is a labor camp ( laogai ) in Lhasa for men serving shorter sentences . There are various other institutions where prisoners from Lhasa shi are held while they are being investigated , or where they undergo reform @-@ through @-@ labor .
= = Temples and monasteries = =
Buddhism was adopted as the official religion of Tibet by king Songtsän Gampo ( died 649 ) at a time when the rise of Hinduism was sweeping away Buddhism in India , the land of its birth . Over the next two centuries Buddhism became established in Tibet , now the center of the religion . Tibetan Buddhism would become a pervasive influence on the lives of the people . The first monastery , Samyé , was founded by Trisong Detsen ( c . 740 – 798 ) . Its buildings were arranged in a mandala pattern after the Odantapuri monastery in Bihar . The three @-@ story monastery was completed in 766 and consecrated in 767 . Seven Tibetans took monastic vows in a ceremony that marked the start of the long Tibetan tradition of monastic Buddhism .
= = = Early foundations = = =
Yerpa , on a hillside in Dagze County , is known for its meditation cave connected with Songtsän Gampo . The cliffs contain some of the earliest known meditation sites in Tibet , some dating back to pre @-@ Buddhist times . There are a number of small temples , shrines and hermitages . Songtsän Gampo 's queen , Monza Triucham , founded the Dra Yerpa temple here . Jokhang in Chengguan District is the most sacred temple in Tibet , built in the 7th century when Songtsän Gampo transferred his capital to Lhasa . It was designed to house an image of Buddha that the Nepalese queen Tritsun had brought . Later rulers and Dalai Lamas enlarged and elaborated the temple .
Ramoche Temple to the north of Jokhang is considered the most important temple in Lhasa after Jokhang , and was completed about the same time . Muru Nyingba Monastery is a small monastery located between the larger Jokhang temple and Barkhor in the city of Lhasa . It was the Lhasa seat of the former State Oracle who had his main residence at Nechung Monastery . It was destroyed during the persecution of Buddhism under Langdarma ( c . 838 – 841 ) but rebuilt by Atiśa ( 980 – 1054 ) . The monastery was part of the Sakya sect at one time. but became Gelug under Sonam Gyatso , the 3rd Dalai Lama ( 1543 – 89 ) .
= = = Middle period = = =
The Nyethang Drolma Temple is southwest of Lhasa , 36 kilometres ( 22 mi ) from the county seat and 33 kilometres ( 21 mi ) from Lhasa . It is in Nyétang , Qüxü County . Some sources say that Atiśa ( 980 – 1054 ) built the monastery , which was expanded after his death by his pupil Dromtön ( 1004 – 64 ) . Another version says that Dromtön raised funds to build the temple to commemorate his old friend . Dromtön built Reting Monastery in Lhünzhub County in 1056 . It was the earliest monastery of the Gedain sect , and the patriarchal seat of that sect . In 1240 a Mongol force sacked Reting monastery and killed 500 people . The gompa was rebuilt . When the Gedain sect joined the Gelug sect in the 16th century the monastery adopted the reincarnation system .
Tsurphu Monastery in Doilungdêqên District was built in 1189 and is treated as a regional cultural relic reserve . The monastery was founded by Düsum Khyenpa , 1st Karmapa Lama , founder of Karma Kagyu school . It is the main Kagyu temple . The Drigung Monastery of the Kagyu Sect was founded in 1179 in Maizhokunggar County . It is the home of the Drikhung Kagyu School of the Kagyu sect . At one time Drigung was highly influential in both the political and religious spheres . It was destroyed in 1290 by Mongols led by a general from the rival Sakya sect , and although rebuilt was never able to regain its power .
Yangpachen Monastery in Yangbajain , Damxung County was historically the seat of the Shamarpas of Karma Kagyu . It is the main monastery of the Red Hat school of the Karma Kagyu sect . It was built in 1490 , and through extensive repairs and additions grew into a major architectural complex that contained a large collection of cultural relics . The Red Hat school of Karma Kagyu died out in 1791 . Other monasteries founded outside the Gelug tradition include Taklung Monastery of the Kagyu school , founded in 1180 in Lhünzhub County , and Nyêmo Chekar monastery of the Bodongpa school , founded in the 16th century in Nyêmo County .
= = = Gelug foundations = = =
Ganden Monastery was built after 1409 at the initiative of Je Tsongkhapa , founder of the Gelug sect , and is the most important of this sect . It is 57 kilometres ( 35 mi ) from Lhasa on the slopes of Wangbori Mountain at an elevation of 3 @,@ 800 metres ( 12 @,@ 500 ft ) , on the south bank of the Lhasa River in Dagze County . The mountain is said to have the shape of a reclining elephant . The monastery includes Buddha halls , palace residences , Buddhist colleges and other buildings .
Drepung Monastery in Chengguan District was founded in 1416 by Jamyang Choge Tashi Palden ( 1397 – 1449 ) , one of Tsongkhapa 's main disciples . It was named after the sacred abode in South India of Shridhanyakataka . At one time Drepung Monastery , with up to 10 @,@ 000 resident monks , was the largest in the world . Sera Monastery was not much smaller . Sera Monastery , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Lhasa , was founded in 1419 by Jamchen Chöjé Shakya Yeshé ( 1354 – 1435 ) , a close disciple of Tsongkhapa . Ganden , Drepung and Sera are called the great " Three Seats of Learning " of the Gulugpa school .
The Nechung Monastery , former home of the Nechung Oracle , is located in Naiquong township , also in Duilongdeqing County . Nechung was built by the 5th Dalai Lama ( 1617 – 82 ) . Other Gelug foundations include Sanga Monastery ( 1419 , Dagzê County ) , Ani Tsankhung Nunnery ( 15th century , Chengguan District ) , Kundeling Monastery ( 1663 , Chengguan District ) , and Tsomon Ling ( 17th century , Chengguan District ) .
= = = Revolution and reconstruction = = =
Most of the monasteries in the prefecture @-@ level city suffered damage , and many were destroyed , before and during the Cultural Revolution ( 1966 – 76 ) . Jokhang was used as a military barracks and a slaughterhouse during the Cultural Revolution , and then as a hotel for Chinese officials . Many of the statues were taken , or were damaged or destroyed , so most of the present statues are recent copies . Jokhang was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000 . Ramoche Temple was badly damaged during the Cultural Revolution but has been restored with assistance from the Swiss . The Nyethang Drolma Temple survived the Cultural Revolution without much damage , and was able to preserve most of its valuable artifacts , due to the intervention of Premier Zhou Enlai at the request of the government of what is now Bangladesh .
Reting Monastery was devastated by the Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution , and has only been partially restored . Tsurphu monastery was reduced to rubble , but the huge temples and chanting halls have been rebuilt . Before and during the Cultural Revolution ( 1966 – 76 ) Drigung Monastery was looted of almost all its collection of statues , stupas , thangkas , manuscripts and other objects apart from a few small statues that the monks managed to hide . The buildings were severely damaged . Reconstruction began in 1983 and seven of the fifteen temples were rebuilt . Yangpachen Monastery was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution , but later was rebuilt .
Ganden Monastery was completely destroyed during the rebellion of 1959 . In 1966 it was severely shelled by Red Guard artillery , and monks had to dismantle the remains . The buildings were reduced to rubble using dynamite during the Cultural Revolution . Re @-@ building has continued since the 1980s . Nechung was almost completely destroyed but has been largely restored . There is a huge new statue of Guru Rinpoche ( Padmasambhava ) on the second floor .
Nine sites in the Lhasa valley were listed in 1985 by the TAR Cultural Relics Authority as " regionally protected buildings " . These were Tsangkung Nunnery , Meru Monastery and Great Kashmiri Mosque in the old city , and the Karmashar Temple , Meru Nyingba Monastery and Northern , Southern , Eastern and Western Rigsum Temples elsewhere in the former prefecture .
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= 33 ( Battlestar Galactica ) =
" 33 " is the first episode of first season and the pilot episode of the reimagined military science fiction television program Battlestar Galactica , immediately following the events of the 2003 miniseries . " 33 " follows Galactica and her civilian fleet as they are forced to contend with constant Cylon pursuit for days without sleep ; they are forced to ultimately destroy one of their own ships to foil the Cylons and earn their first respite of the series .
The episode was written by series creator Ronald D. Moore , and the television directoral debut of Michael Rymer . Moore and executive producer David Eick made the decision to slot this episode as the first of the season because of its potential impact on the audience . " 33 " distinguished the themes of the new Battlestar Galactica series by following characters on the spaceships , on the planets that were fled , and in the minds of other characters . Attention to detail was prevalent in this first episode ; the production team , the editing team , and even the actors themselves strove for authenticity of specific portrayals and moments .
Though there were compromises made due to concerns of the episode being too dark for audiences , the episode was lauded by both cast and crew in addition to winning the 2005 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form . " 33 " originally aired on Sky One in the United Kingdom on October 18 , 2004 , and subsequently aired on the Sci Fi Channel in the United States on January 14 , 2005 , along with the following episode " Water " .
= = Plot = =
Having fled the besieged Ragnar Anchorage , the convoy of refugee spaceships is relentlessly pursued and attacked by Cylon Basestars . The colonial fleet must execute a faster @-@ than @-@ light ( FTL ) jump every 33 minutes to escape the Cylons , who consistently arrive at the new jump coordinates approximately 33 minutes later . After over 130 hours and 237 jumps , the fleet 's crew and passengers , particularly those aboard Galactica , have been operating without sleep while facing the strain of nearly constant military action .
Upon the 238th consecutive jump , the Olympic Carrier ( a commercial passenger vessel with 1 @,@ 345 souls aboard ) is accidentally left behind and the attacks unexpectedly cease , allowing the fleet some respite . When it arrives three hours later , President Laura Roslin and Commander Adama order Capt. Lee " Apollo " Adama and Lt. Kara " Starbuck " Thrace to destroy it , believing that it has been infiltrated by Cylons and now poses a threat to the fleet 's safety . The colonial officers destroy the ship while the rest of the colonial fleet jumps away . Baltar 's internal Number Six explains to him that God is looking after his interests , implying that a scientist on the Olympic Carrier was preparing to reveal Baltar 's unwitting collusion with the Cylon attack on the colonies . After the fleet 's last jump , the Cylons do not return , and the President 's survivor whiteboard aboard Colonial One , the result of a fleetwide census , is updated with one additional soul ( to 47 @,@ 973 ) with the birth of the fleet 's first child aboard the Rising Star — a boy .
Meanwhile , on Caprica , Lt. Karl Agathon ( call sign " Helo " ) is captured by a Cylon patrol and then " rescued " from his Cylon captors by a Number Eight in the guise of his crewmate Sharon " Boomer " Valerii , who shoots a Number Six to free him .
= = Writing = =
Preparing for production of Battlestar Galactica 's first season , writer and series creator Ronald D. Moore wrote a short list of potential storylines , one of which was " the fleet jumps every 33 minutes ; because the Cylons are relentlessly pursuing them , the crew gets no sleep . " Conferring with fellow executive producer David Eick , the two decided that this story would be " the best way to kick off the season " . Moore described writing " 33 " as a great experience ; he wrote the whole script without a story outline or much structure , excited to begin the first episode of the first season and start the first year already " at the end of the road " . Moore wrote the episode over his Christmas break before the series was officially picked up ; he later claimed that this aspect was what made the episode " one of the more fun projects that [ he ] wrote all of the first season . "
David Eick found the episode to be a " standalone concept " that did not require having seen the miniseries to understand it . Because the miniseries ended " at a very happy place " , starting the series in the middle of a crisis without explanation , and showing the audience that " actually , while you — the audience — were away , really bad things have been happening " made for a much more intriguing and interesting story . " 33 " ' s complex storyline was a harbinger for episodes to come , and laid the groundwork with the network and audiences alike .
Moore explained on his blog that the number 33 had no hidden meaning or significance , only that he felt it sufficiently long to allow minor functions like snacking , showering , or cat napping , but was too short to allow anybody to gain any meaningful sleep and recharge their batteries . Further , Moore intentionally gave the number no meaning to avoid creating and inserting unnecessary technobabble into a drama @-@ driven episode .
= = Production = =
" 33 " was director Michael Rymer 's first television episode . He accepted the job without reading the script , saying that based on his writing experience , " 33 " went well beyond his expectations and excited him . Bear McCreary originally composed the musical theme " Boomer Theme " for this episode ; it was later expanded for use with the Athena character , before becoming the de facto " Hera Theme " for the character Hera Agathon in the fourth season episode , " Islanded in a Stream of Stars " . Joel Ransom was the director of photography for the miniseries , but when Eick learned he was unavailable for the series , he turned to Stephen McNutt , with whom he had worked on American Gothic . In the interim , McNutt had moved on to shooting in high @-@ definition video ; this was fortuitous for the production team because , while Ransom had filmed the miniseries on 35 mm film , the production team was switching to high @-@ definition video for the series .
Executive producer David Eick opined that " 33 " was the " silver bullet " that ultimately tipped the scales in their favor and convinced the Sci Fi Channel to pick up the series . The network 's biggest concern in picking up the series was that Battlestar Galactica would fall victim to the same trappings of space opera as other television properties ( Star Trek , Andromeda , Stargate ) . Two aspects that assuaged these concerns were specifically discussed in the episode 's DVD commentary . First , " 33 " went into Gaius Baltar 's ( James Callis ) mind and visited his house on Caprica ( shot in Lions Bay , British Columbia ) ; being swept away by the blue skies and beaches in his fantasy was not the sort of imagery expected of space opera @-@ type shows . Second was going back to the devastated Caprica and following @-@ up with Helo 's ( Tahmoh Penikett ) story .
With sleep deprivation one of the major plot points of the episode , actor Edward James Olmos ( William Adama ) liaised with an expert on the subject and the crew to best depict the actual effects realistically . Following up , director Michael Rymer gave each main cast member a specific symptom to play up , so as to avoid repetition on screen . Olmos and several other cast members took their study a step further , to immerse themselves by restricting their sleep patterns to about three hours a night to emphasize what their expert was imparting .
In the episode 's DVD commentary , Moore and Rymer related how there were endless discussion about the clocks to feature in this episode . Concerns over digital versus analog , size and shape , the ratio of digital to analog clocks , whether they should run forwards or backwards , and whether any labels should be stenciled or hand @-@ drawn were all brought up . David Eick also noted that as of the commentary 's recording , the clock at Felix Gaeta 's ( Juliani ) station still had its " 33 " label affixed .
= = = Editing = = =
The first cut of " 33 " was ten minutes too long . Despite this , the production crew took extra care not to eliminate " human moments " in their efforts to trim the episode . These included a shot of Galen Tyrol ( Douglas ) and Cally Henderson ( Clyne ) walking across Galactica 's hangar bay , a shot of Crewman Socinus ( Oyarzun ) giving a bedraggled look over the shoulder of another crewmember , and a shot of PO2 Dualla ( McClure ) walking through Galactica 's remembrance corridor .
In a question @-@ and @-@ answer session , Moore revealed a scene written for , but cut from , the episode . In the cut scene , the recurring prop in the characters ' briefing room was to have been explicitly introduced and explained ; the prop remained in the series , but its backstory was cut .
There was a scene cut from " 33 " where we saw Laura being given her copy of the photo along with a card that said it was taken on the roof of the capitol building on Aerilon during the attack . The photo was inspired by the famous shot of the fire @-@ fighters raising the flag at Ground Zero that became iconic . I thought the Colonies would have their own version of this -- a snapshot taken in the moment that becomes a symbol of the day they can never forget and of all they had lost . The photo itself is of a soldier falling to his knees ( possibly shot or simply overcome by emotion ) as he stands on the rooftop over looking the devastation of his city , while the Colonial flag waves at the edge of frame . The inscription below the photo on Laura 's plaque reads , " Lest We Forget " in itself a reference to the inscription on the watch presented to John Wayne 's character in She Wore a Yellow Ribbon .
Other cut scenes included one shot in the pilots ' head , showing the pilots " wrecked and exhausted [ ... ] with an exchange between Starbuck and Apollo " , as well as several shots of Commander Adama ( Olmos ) gagging and vomiting because of acid reflux brought on by sleep deprivation . Another line of Olmos ' — an ad @-@ lib about suicides in the fleet — was cut so as not to alienate audiences by being " too dark " .
As originally written and shot , when Apollo ( Jamie Bamber ) fires on the Olympic Carrier , it was made clear that he sees people inside . Moore wrote the scene to be strong and clear that the characters were making the decision to fire on the passenger liner in full awareness of the consequences to illustrate and emphasize " the uncompromising nature of the show . " This was an " enormous fight " between Moore and the network , with the latter feeling this was another scene that was " too dark " and had the potential to turn away audiences ; the network further implied that if the scene were left intact , they may have been compelled to air the episodes out of order . To placate the network , Moore and Eick changed the ending of the episode and " cheated " ; instead , when Apollo flies by the Olympic Carrier , it is unclear whether or not there is anybody inside . In a " small act of defiance " , visual effects supervisor Gary Hutzel snuck in small , indeterminate movement behind one or two of the Olympic Carrier 's windows on behalf of the production and writing teams . The episode also originally ended with Helo 's escape from the Cylons on Caprica ; again tasked by the network to keep the episode from being " too dark " , Moore wrote in an additional scene — President Roslin ( Mary McDonnell ) learning of the newborn — upon which to end the episode on a hopeful note .
= = Release and reception = =
" 33 " first aired in the United Kingdom on October 18 , 2004 ( 2004 @-@ 10 @-@ 18 ) , and in the United States on January 14 , 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 01 @-@ 14 ) , almost three months later . UK viewers obliged US Battlestar Galactica fans by illegally copying the episode — uploading Torrents to the Internet — within hours of its Sky One airing . " 33 " has been released thrice on home video as part of the first season collected sets ; on July 26 , 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 07 @-@ 26 ) as a Best Buy exclusive , again on September 20 , 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 09 @-@ 20 ) , and finally as an HD DVD set on December 4 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 12 @-@ 04 ) . The episode was also released on July 28 , 2009 ( 2009 @-@ 07 @-@ 28 ) as part of the entire series ' home video set on both DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc .
Both series creator Ronald D. Moore and star Jamie Bamber ( Lee Adama ) claim " 33 " as their favourite episode . Bamber described it as " ... the perfect episode of Battlestar Galactica . " Emphasizing the dark , gritty , and nightmarish aspects of the episode , the actor felt it was a microcosm of the series as a whole . In interviews with Wired UK and the Los Angeles Times , Moore opined that the episode subverted viewers ' expectations and was a " fantastic way to open that first year . "
" 33 " won the 2005 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form , and drew a 2 @.@ 6 household Nielsen rating , attracting 3 @.@ 1 million viewers and making it the # 2 program on cable ( 8pm @-@ 11pm ) . At the website Television Without Pity , the staff review rated the episode an " A + " , while ( as of November 2010 ) 546 of their readers awarded it an average grade of " B " . The New York Post 's " 10 Most Dramatic Moments of the ' 00s " included " 33 " in its # 10 spot , describing it as the premiere episode of " a sci @-@ fi show with high stakes and serious guts . "
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= Ralph d 'Escures =
Ralph d 'Escures ( died 20 October 1122 ) was a medieval Abbot of Séez , Bishop of Rochester and then Archbishop of Canterbury . He studied at the school at the Abbey of Bec . In 1079 he entered the abbey of St Martin at Séez , and became abbot there in 1091 . He was a friend of both Anselm of Canterbury and Gundulf , Bishop of Rochester , whose see , or bishopric , he took over on Gundulf 's death .
Ralph was not chosen archbishop of Canterbury by the chapter of Canterbury alone . His election involved an assembly of the lords and bishops meeting with King Henry I of England . Ralph then received his pallium from Pope Paschal II , rather than travelling to Rome to retrieve it . As archbishop , Ralph was very assertive of the rights of the see of Canterbury and of the liberties of the English church . He claimed authority in Wales and Scotland . Ralph also quarrelled for a time with Pope Paschal II .
Ralph suffered a stroke on 11 July 1119 and was left partially paralysed and unable to speak clearly from that time until his death on 20 October 1122 . A surviving English translation of a sermon delivered by Ralph is preserved in a manuscript in the British Library . The sermon survives in some fifty Latin manuscripts .
= = Early life = =
Ralph was the son of Seffrid d 'Escures and his first wife Rascendis , and a half brother of Seffrid I , Bishop of Chichester from 1125 to 1145 . The surname of de Turbine , by which he is sometimes known in older scholarship , is only attested in the fourteenth century and possibly resulted from confusion with William de Corbeil , Ralph 's successor at Canterbury . Ralph studied at the school at the Abbey of Bec before entering the abbey of St Martin at Séez in 1079 . St. Martin was a house founded by the Montgomery and Bellême families , and was still under their lordship . He became abbot of the house in 1091 , and his election was attended by Anselm , abbot of Bec .
= = Time in England = =
Soon afterwards Ralph paid a visit to England , perhaps to visit Shrewsbury Abbey , which was a daughter house of Séez . He may have been involved in the mediating the surrender of Robert of Bellême at Shrewsbury in 1102 , for some chroniclers state that it was Ralph who delivered the keys of the castle to King Henry I of England . In 1103 he took refuge in England from the demands of Robert of Bellême for homage . Ralph declined to do homage because Pope Urban II had ordered that no clergy could do homage to the laity . Robert was also demanding heavy taxes , and Ralph fled with Serlo , Bishop of Séez , who was also subjected to Robert 's demands . He passed his time in England with his friends Saint Anselm and Gundulf the Bishop of Rochester . He attended the translation of Saint Cuthbert 's remains at Durham , where he was one of examiners of the body , and declared the saint 's remains uncorrupt . In 1106 he visited Anselm at the Abbey of Bec , but probably did not try to assert himself at Séez . After Anselm was elected to the see of Canterbury , Ralph appears to have become part of the archbishop 's household .
In June 1108 Ralph succeeded Gundulf as Bishop of Rochester , having been nominated by Gundulf before his death . Ralph was consecrated on 9 August 1108 . He was at Anselm 's deathbed in April 1109 , and , afterwards , Ralph acted as administrator of the see of Canterbury until 26 April 1114 , when he was chosen Archbishop at Windsor . The king had wanted his doctor , Faricus , who was an Italian and Abbot of Abingdon , but the nobles and the bishops objected to anyone but a Norman being appointed . The bishops also desired someone who was not a monk , or at least not one who was so close to Henry . As a compromise , Ralph was chosen , rather than the secular clergy that the bishops favoured . Although Ralph was a monk and had not served as a royal clerk , he was also a bishop , which seems to have reconciled the other bishops to his selection .
= = Archbishop of Canterbury = =
It is noteworthy that , while Ralph was not chosen by the chapter of Canterbury alone , his election involved an assembly of the magnates and bishops meeting with the king . He was not selected solely by the king , nor solely by the bishops or chapter . Ralph received his pallium from the pope , rather than travelling to Rome to retrieve it . It was only with difficulty , however , that Pope Paschal II was persuaded to grant the pallium , as the papacy was attempting to again assert papal jurisdiction over the English Church . It was Anselm of St Saba who brought the pallium to England , along with letters from Paschal complaining that the English Church was translating bishops from see to see without papal permission , that legates from the papacy were being refused entry to England and that the king was allowing no appeals to be made to the pope over ecclesiastical issues . In 1116 the pope even demanded the payment of Peter 's Pence , a payment direct to the papacy of a penny from every household in England . Ralph , when he took the pallium , professed " fidelity and canonical obedience " to the pope , but did not submit to the papal demands and , in fact , supported King Henry in opposing the pope 's demands .
As archbishop Ralph championed the rights of the see of Canterbury and the English church . He claimed authority in Wales and Scotland , writing to the pope that " the church of Canterbury has not ceased to provide pastoral care for the whole of Britain and Ireland , both as a benevolence and from its rights of primacy . " He advised the bishop of Llandaff that a new Llandaff Cathedral should be built and granted an indulgence to contributors . He even refused to consecrate Thurstan as Archbishop of York because Thurstan would not profess obedience to the Archbishop of Canterbury , part of the Canterbury @-@ York dispute . At first , Ralph depended only on the king to demand Thurstan to submit , but later he appealed to the popes to force Thurstan to obey . His refusal brought him into a dispute with the papacy , for Pope Paschal II supported Thurstan . Ralph visited Rome in 1117 , but was unable to obtain an interview with Paschal as the pope had fled the city in front of an invading imperial army . Ralph had taken ill with an ulcer on his face during the trip to Rome and , for a time , it was feared that he would die . He recovered enough to continue on to Rome , however , although it was a fruitless trip . Despite instructions from Paschal ’ s successors , Gelasius II and Calixtus II , the archbishop continued to refuse to consecrate Thurstan , and Thurstan was still unconsecrated when Ralph died . Thurstan was eventually consecrated at Rheims by Pope Calixtus II in May 1119 , although the issue of primacy remained unresolved .
Although he feuded with York over the primacy , it appears clear that Ralph considered the Investiture Crisis settled in England for , in 1117 while visiting Rome , he took a neutral position as regards the issues between the Pope and the Emperor . In 1115 , however , he refused to consecrate Bernard as Bishop of St David 's in the royal chapel , although Robert of Meulan , the king 's chief counsellor , advocated that the consecration must take place in the royal chapel according to ancient custom . The king did not insist and Ralph won the confrontation . He was also involved in ecclesiastical affairs in Normanday , as he attended the provincial synod , or Council of Rouen , held in 1118 .
= = Final years and legacy = =
Ralph suffered a stroke on 11 July 1119 as he was removing his vestments after celebrating Mass . From then until his death , Ralph was partially paralysed and unable to speak clearly . He was still involved in decision making and , in 1120 , he agreed to King Alexander I of Scotland 's suggestion that Eadmer become the next Bishop of St Andrew 's . Ralph was one of the lords consulted about the remarriage of Henry I to Adeliza of Leuven at London in 1121 . He also successfully asserted his right to celebrate the king 's new marriage , over attempts by Roger of Salisbury to officiate instead . Due to the damage from the stroke , Ralph was unable to perform the ceremony but , when Roger made an attempt to do so , Ralph successfully insisted on choosing the officiant and William Giffard the Bishop of Winchester performed the marriage . Ralph died on 20 October 1122 , at Canterbury . He was buried in the nave of Canterbury Cathedral on 23 October 1122 . His nephew , John , was a clerk under Ralph , and later Ralph appointed him Archdeacon of Canterbury . After Ralph 's death , John was elected to the see of Rochester .
Ralph was regarded as a " witty , easygoing " man . The struggle with York , however , along with his illnesses and the effects of the stroke , turned Ralph in his last years into a quarrelsome person . Orderic Vitalis said that he was well educated and well loved by people . Even William of Malmesbury , no lover of ecclesiastics and always ready to find fault with them , could only find fault with him for his occasional lapses into unbecoming frivolity .
Ralph wrote a sermon for the feast of the Assumption of the Virgin and it survives in some fifty Latin manuscripts , probably because it was thought to have been written by Anselm of Canterbury , until shown to be Ralph 's in 1927 . A surviving English translation of the sermon is also preserved in the manuscript British Library , Cotton Vespasian D. xiv . The Latin version , which Ralph was a translation of his originally spoken French version , has been edited and published in 1997 . Ralph also had the monks of Christ Church , Canterbury search for documents relating to the privileges of Canterbury and had those documents copied into a manuscript which still survives , BM MS Cotton Cleopatra E. His seal is one of the first to take the usual form for bishop 's seals , with Ralph standing , in full vestments including a mitre , and performing a benediction with his right hand while holding his crosier in his left . The seal took the form of a pointed oval .
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= Bow Back Rivers =
Bow Back Rivers or Stratford Back Rivers is a complex of waterways between Bow and Stratford in east London , England , which connect the River Lea to the River Thames . Starting in the twelfth century , works were carried out to drain Stratford Marshes and several of the waterways were constructed to power watermills . Bow Creek provided the final outfall to the Thames , and the other channels were called Abbey Creek , Channelsea River , City Mill River , Prescott Channel , Pudding Mill River , Three Mills Back River , Three Mills Wall River and Waterworks River .
The rivers have been subject to change over centuries , with Alfred the Great diverting the river in 896 to create a second channel , and Queen Matilda bridging both channels around 1110 . Because the river system was tidal as far as Hackney Wick , several of the mills were tide mills , including those at Abbey Mills and those at Three Mills , one of which survives . Construction of the New River in the seventeenth century to supply drinking water to London , with subsequent extraction by waterworks companies , led to a lowering of water levels , and the river was gradually canalised to maintain navigation . Significant changes occurred with the creation of the Lee Navigation in 1767 , which resulted in the construction of the Hackney Cut and the Limehouse Cut , allowing barges to bypass most of the back rivers . A major reconstruction of the rivers took place in the 1930s , authorised by the River Lee ( Flood Relief ) Act , but by the 1960s , commercial usage of the waterways had largely ceased . Deteriorating infrastructure led to the rivers dwindling to little more than tidal creeks , and they were categorised in 1968 as having no economic or long @-@ term future .
However , British Waterways decided that their full restoration was an important aim in 2002 , and the construction of the main stadium for the 2012 Summer Olympics on an island formed by the rivers provided funding to construct a new lock and sluices which stabilised water levels throughout the Olympic site . It was hoped that significant amounts of materials for the construction of the Olympic facilities would be delivered by barge , but this did not happen . Improvements to the channels which form a central feature of the Olympic Park included the largest aquatic planting scheme ever carried out in Britain .
= = Name = =
It is unclear when the individually named rivers became known collectively as Bow Back Rivers . Charles Tween , writing on behalf of the Lee Conservancy , referred to them as both the Stratford Back Rivers and the Stratford Back Streams in 1905 . The section to the west of the more recent City Mills Lock was labelled Bow Back River on a map of 1895 , but had previously been part of Pudding Mill River . Powell , writing in 1973 , still referred to them as the Stratford Back Rivers .
The 1939 edition of " Inland Waterways of Great Britain " , an early attempt to provide a guide for the leisure use of canals , noted that the River Lee had " several subsidiary canalised waterways " , and listed Bow Creek , Old River Lee , City Mills River and Waterworks River , but did not describe them collectively . Boyes and Russell writing in 1977 referred to them as the Bow Back Rivers or Stratford Back Rivers , and by the sixth edition of " Inland Waterways of Great Britain " , published in 1985 , they were referred to as Bow Back Rivers .
The river which supplies the Bow Back Rivers has been known as the River Lee or River Lea , but modern usage tends to use " Lea " when referring to the natural river , and " Lee " when referring to the navigation , so that the Lee Navigation is a canalisation of the River Lea . The name Bow may derive from either an arched bridge over the River Lea in the 12th century or a bend in the road east of Bow Road station .
= = History = =
The Bow Back Rivers cross an area originally known as Stratford Marsh , an area of common Lammas land , where inhabitants had common rights to graze horses and cattle between Lammas Day ( 1 August ) and Lady Day ( 25 March ) , but which was used for growing hay for the rest of the year . The Marsh was between Stratford @-@ Langthorne and Stratford @-@ at @-@ Bow . Little remains from pre @-@ history , but the names suggest that the two settlements lay at either end of a stone causeway across the marsh . Remains of a stone causeway have been found , but no traces of an associated road . The ford at Old Ford is of pre @-@ Roman origin , part of a route from London to Essex which crossed Bethnal Green . In the Roman era , a new road was built from London to the ford , which carried the principal road to Colchester . There may also have been a ford further south at Bow , and a further causeway existed between Homerton and Leyton , known as Wanstead Slip .
These crossings passed across a true marsh , either side of the River Lea . This wide , fast flowing river was then tidal as far as Hackney Wick , and navigable as far as Hertfordshire . Dates for the earliest use of the rivers by boats are unknown , although a late Bronze Age dugout canoe and parts of a Saxon barge have been found in the marshes at Walthamstow . The first alteration to the natural river may have been made by Alfred the Great , who cut another channel to strand a force of Danes in 896 , according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . This lowered the tide head to Old Ford , and prevented large boats sailing the river until the 15th century .
During the reign of King Henry I between 1100 and 1118 , his wife Queen Matilda ( or Maud ) , on hearing of the problems of crossing the river at Old Ford , directed that the road should be routed further south , and paid for two bridges , one to cross the Lee and the other to cross the Channelsea River , from her own funds . She also paid for the road to be built between them , and the location of the bridge became known as Stratford @-@ atte @-@ Boghe , later Stratford @-@ le @-@ Bow , and finally dropped Stratford to become Bow or Bow Bridge . John Leland , writing in the 1500s , gives a more fanciful account , in which the queen falling into the water prompted the action . The addition of le @-@ Bow probably had less to do with the shape of the bridge than the fact that arch was derived from arcus , meaning bow .
In 1135 , Stratford Langthorne Abbey was founded . The Abbey continued the process of draining Stratford marsh begun in the Middle Ages , and creating artificial channels to drive water and tide mills . A small river port developed at Stratford , mentioned in the 15th century , to serve the needs of Stratford Abbey and the mills at Stratford , and there is similar evidence in later centuries . The Abbey took on responsibility to maintain the marsh walls around Bow Creek , to keep the tidal waters out . The river was being used for the transport of goods and passengers by 1571 , when an Act of Parliament empowered the Lord Mayor of London to make improvements to the river to ensure that supplies of grain continued to reach the capital . These works included a new cut near the Thames , probably the section of river between Bow Tidal Gates and Old Ford , on which no tolls were to be charged , and a pound lock was constructed at Waltham Abbey , only the second to be built in England .
Between Bow Bridge and Channelsea Bridge there were three others , said in 1303 to have been built to fill the gaps caused by the cutting of mill streams through Maud 's causeway , although there is evidence that the mills pre @-@ dated the causeway . However , the mill owners took responsibility for the bridges , which crossed the mill streams for St Thomas 's , Spileman 's and Saynes mills . The last two were owned by the City of London , and the bridges were called Pegshole and St Michael 's Bridges . An administrative mistake around 1814 resulted in the City of London taking responsibility for St Thomas 's Bridge , but the miller did not complain as Pegshole bridge was smaller and therefore less costly to maintain . The names were eventually swapped , and all three were replaced by Groves Bridge in 1933 , which crossed the widened Three Mills Wall River , the two branches of the Waterworks River having been combined into Three Mills Wall River , while Three Mills Wall Back River was filled in .
Crossing the Back Rivers by a series of low @-@ level bridges is the Northern Outfall Sewer which leads to the Abbey Mill Pumping Station , both of which were designed by Joseph Bazalgette in the 1860s . Today , the route of the embankment that encloses the sewer from Bow to Beckton is followed by a public footpath , The Greenway .
= = = Public water supply = = =
Water was extracted from the rivers to provide a public water supply . The opening of the New River in 1633 , a 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) channel built to bring water to London from Amwell springs , and soon afterwards from the River Lea near Ware , had a detrimental effect on both navigation and milling by reducing water levels . Around 1745 , the West Ham Waterworks Company built a waterworks at Saynes Mill in Stratford , the river on which it was located later being known as Waterworks River . The East London Waterworks Company was set up in 1807 , and built works at Old Ford , where they extracted water from the river . The supply to the works was moved further upstream in 1829 , and in 1830 they built a canal , running parallel to the Hackney Cut , so that water could be obtained from Lea Bridge . Much of the work was carried out by the contractor William Hoof , who had gained a reputation as a specialist tunnelling contractor , after working on Strood Tunnel for the Thames and Medway Canal and Harecastle Tunnel on the Trent and Mersey Canal . He worked on the waterworks project from 1829 until 1834 . Where there had been a reservoir to the south of the Middlesex Filter Beds weir in 1850 , maps from 1870 show the site occupied by a waterworks , and the canal which supplied the Old Ford works running beside the Hackney Cut . Another large reservoir , triangular in shape , was located between the old river and the Hackney Cut at Old Ford , with two connections to the old river . The water supply canal passed under the old river to feed two compensation reservoirs to the north of the Great Eastern Railway tracks . A covered reservoir was situated on the west bank of the old river .
The Waterworks River underwent considerable change over the years . In 1850 , it left the channel of the Old River Lee much further to the north , to the south @-@ west of Temple Mills railway depot . It was called Lead Mills Stream at this point . Near Temple Mills bridge , now on the A12 road , Channelsea River split off . The two channels ran parallel to the Old River Lee , before Channelsea River turned to the south @-@ east . There was another small connection between the Old River Lee and the Waterworks River called Bully Fence , where the northern Channelsea River is shown on modern maps . By 1870 , it was called Waterworks River as far north as Temple Mills depot , and by 1896 , its present connection to the old river near to Carpenters Road had been established . Twenty years later , the northern Waterworks River rejoined the Lee at Bully Fence , and the section between there and Carpenters Road had been filled in . At some point , the connection at Bully Fence became the main source for the Channelsea River , although the 1953 / 66 map still shows it connected to the remnants of the system to the north , for drainage . Administrative boundaries still follow the northern course of the Waterworks River .
= = = Navigation = = =
Although the River Lee was navigable up to Hertford , this had been achieved by the use of flash locks , where a single gate created a channel through a weir . These caused conflict between the bargemen and the millers , since operation of the lock lowered the water level above it , hindering the operation of the mill . In 1765 , the engineer John Smeaton was asked to survey the river , with a view to improving it " for the good of the public " . His report of September 1766 highlighted the need to replace the flash locks with the more modern locks or pen sluices , each with two sets of gates . Significantly for the Bow Back Rivers , he suggested a new cut from Lea Bridge to Old Ford , and another from Bow Tidal Gates to a basin at Limehouse . The first became known as the Hackney Cut , and the second as the Limehouse Cut . An Act of Parliament was obtained on 29 June 1767 , and work began .
The Limehouse Cut would give direct access to the River Thames , avoiding the tidal Bow Creek . It was expected to open in July 1770 , but some of the brickwork collapsed , and had to be repaired before the cut opened on 17 September 1770 . It closed again briefly in December , when a bridge collapsed into it , and it was soon decided that it was too narrow , and so was widened to allow barges to pass each other along its complete length . This work was finished on 1 September 1777 . The contract for the Hackney Cut was given to Jeremiah Ilsley on 18 January 1768 , and a bricklayer called Henry Holland was asked to build two locks on the cut on 23 April 1768 . A millwright from Bromley called Mr Cooper was given the job of building Bromley Lock ( close to Bow tidal gates ) . Work progressed quickly , and the cut was opened for traffic on 7 August 1769 .
The Act of 1767 had specified points on the river at which tolls could be collected , but had made no mention of tolls for use of Bow Creek , Bow Back Rivers , or the section of the navigation between Bow tidal gates and Old Ford , and these had remained toll @-@ free . An Act of Parliament obtained on 14 August 1850 allowed the trustees to build a pound lock at Bow tidal gates . To prevent opposition from the bargees , the Act had formalised the freedom from tolls on the Bow River section . Once the lock was built , however , the trustees charged a toll for using it . This was unpopular , but there was still the option of using the tidal gates at certain states of the tide , which did not incur a toll . A clause to authorise the lock toll was deleted by Parliament from a subsequent Act of 1868 , and it was still the case in 1977 that a charge was made for using the lock but not for using the gates .
By 1821 , Stratford was served by a number of wharfs , some located on the Lea and others on the Channelsea River or other branches . In addition to wharfs for general goods , some specifically handled timber , chalk , stone , coal , or wheat . Several of the factories and mills had private wharfs . By this date , a dock had been built near Bow Bridge to the south of the High Street . It was about 80 by 50 yards ( 73 by 46 m ) , and was connected to the river by its own channel . It was initially called Stratford Dock , later becoming Meggs Dock and was probably constructed by the Middlesex and Essex Turnpike Trust . Half of it had been filled in by 1896 , and the rest by 1920 .
In the 1860s , the income from the navigation had dropped , as a result of attempts to compete against the railways , but economies were made , and capital works continued . The lock at Lea Bridge was removed , and replaced by Old Ford Lock further to the south , which was built to take 100 @-@ ton barges , rather than the 40 @-@ ton barges specified by an Act of 1805 . Although the original Lee trustees , and after 1868 the Conservators of the River Lee , were officially responsible for the Bow Back Rivers , there was little incentive to maintain them , since they did not generate any revenue . Nor could they be closed , since they allowed surplus water from the upper river to reach the Thames , without causing flooding .
= = = Regeneration = = =
The rivers were run down by the 1920s and , with high unemployment in the area , West Ham Corporation and the Lee Conservancy Board applied for a government unemployment relief grant , with which to fund major improvements . In addition to work on the channels , Bow Tidal Lock was duplicated , Marshgate Lock was rebuilt further east as City Mill Lock , and a second new lock at Carpenters Road was constructed . It used up @-@ and @-@ over radial gates operated by winches , rather than the traditional mitre gates used at City Mill Lock . The gates were quadrant @-@ shaped , and were lowered into the bed of the river to allow boats to enter or leave the lock . An Act of Parliament was obtained in 1930 to authorise the work , called the River Lee ( Flood Relief ) Act , and work began the following year . The project was completed in 1935 . Before the work , there had been a floodgate on the Waterworks River above its junction with the Three Mills Wall River , and a large pool , the City Mill Pool , connecting to the City Mills River and Bow Back River . Marshgate Lock was situated to the west of the junction between the Pudding Mill River and Bow Back River . It was originally built in 1864 , by adding a second set of gates to Hunters Gates , a floodgate which had been built around 1847 . The reconstructed lock was built on the site of the City Mill Pool , and had two sets of gates at its eastern end , to prevent high tidal levels in Waterworks River flooding the waterways to the west . It was labelled Marshgate Lane Lock on the 1948 map , but was called Ward Lock , after a local councillor , and is now known as City Mills Lock . The course of the Bow Back River was then straightened , and the original Marshgate Lock was bypassed . Pudding Mill River became a dead end when the lower section was filled in , as was most of the Three Mills Back River , and the floodgate on Waterworks River was also removed . Reconstruction of the channels included widening City Mill River to 50 feet ( 15 m ) , while Three Mills Wall River and Waterworks River were made twice that width .
Prior to the work , the arrangement had been to regulate the navigation with the Pond Lane Flood Gates and Marshgate Lane tidal lock . The new lock at Carpenter 's Road gave access to the Waterworks River , providing barge access to Temple Mills . At high tides , the low headroom of the Northern Outfall Sewer aqueduct prevented access to the southern reaches of the system , and to allow access City Mill Lock was constructed near Blaker Road . In 2005 , the lock was partially restored as part of the planning gain required from the developers of the adjacent Bellamy Homes housing scheme .
The 1930s improvements included the construction of the Prescott Channel , designed to allow flood water to bypass the Three Mills tide mills . The channel included sluices to regulate water levels above it , but these became redundant once the tide mills ceased to operate , and eventually seized up . They were removed soon after parts of the Channelsea River were culverted .
By the 1960s , only the Bow Back River , the City Mills River and the Channelsea River were still being used for commercial traffic . A section of the Channelsea River between Stratford High Street and Lett Road was culverted between 1957 and 1958 . As traffic ceased , the lock structures deteriorated , and by 2006 , City Mills Lock and Carpenters Road Lock were officially disused . The 1968 British Waterways Act had classified most waterways into commercial , cruising and remainder waterways . Remainder waterways were those for which the government of the time could see no economic future , and which would only therefore be subject to maintenance to prevent them becoming unsafe . The Bow Back Rivers fell into this category , and remained neglected until their full restoration was enshrined in a British Waterways policy document in 2002 .
= = Olympics = =
The Olympic Stadium for the London 2012 Summer Olympics is constructed on former industrial land between the Lea Navigation to the west and the City Mill River to the east . The land was formerly bisected by the remains of the Pudding Mill River , but this was filled in to provide a site which was large enough . As part of the construction phase for the event , Three Mills Lock was constructed on the Prescott Channel . This consists of a barge lock , suitable for 350 @-@ tonne ( 344 @.@ 5 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 385 @.@ 8 @-@ short @-@ ton ) barges , and an adjacent sluice , which enables the water levels above the structure to be regulated , rather than navigation being subject to the tides . The lock was built to allow construction materials to be delivered to the site and spoil to be removed , and the final cost was £ 23 million , which included a sluice on the Three Mills Wall River . Work began in March 2007 , and the project lasted for just over two years . Despite hopes that it would transport 1 @.@ 75 million tonnes while the stadium was being built , very little commercial traffic used the new lock .
With water levels above the structure remaining fairly constant , £ 400 @,@ 000 was spent on refurbishing City Mills Lock . Although some work had been carried out in 2006 , including the fitting of new metal gates , it was not operational , and had not been used for around 40 years . The second phase of restoration included fitting the equipment to automate its operation . The first public use of the lock occurred on 31 July 2010 . British Waterways hoped to restore the Carpenters Road Lock soon afterwards , but the project was postponed until after the completion of the Olympic games , as temporary ' Land Bridges ' were erected over the site of the lock to enable pedestrians to reach the stadium , some of which will be removed after the event . Following the Olympic games , it is hoped the waterways will continue to be used by both commercial and leisure craft .
The Olympic Delivery Authority took the decision to culvert more of the Channelsea River , where it crossed the northern part of the site . It remains a designated main river , and so they had to liaise with the Environment Agency on matters of flood @-@ risk management , and a site was identified which would provide compensation for the loss of habitat caused by the culverting . Much of the old River Lea was inaccessible to the public prior to the project , but is a central feature of the northern parklands that have been created . Two ' wetland bowls ' were designed , which have been planted with water @-@ loving plants such as reeds , rushes , sedges and iris . They also provide spawning grounds and refuges during flood conditions for fish , as well as providing storage capacity for flood water . It was the largest aquatic planting scheme ever carried out in Britain when it was completed , and most of the 350 @,@ 000 plants were grown in Norfolk from seeds and cuttings removed from the site . At the southern end of the site , the Waterworks River was reconstructed . Improvements in the 1930s created channels with vertical concrete sides , and little thought for habitat . The channel was made 26 feet ( 8 m ) wider , with sloping banks and ramps down to the water 's edge , and was improved visually and ecologically by the planting of aquatic marginal plants .
With the exception of Bow Creek , the Bow Back Rivers were closed for public access during the Olympics construction works , and remained closed until after the events . Access to sections of the Lee Navigation which pass close to the Olympic Stadium , including part of Bow River , part of the Hackney Cut , and the Hertford Union Canal were restricted during the summer of 2012 . The Bow Back Rivers were intended to form a major feature of the Olympic site . The stadium formed the centrepiece of the Olympics on an island site , with the Waterworks River to the east , and the Aquatics Centre on the eastern bank . Five new pedestrian bridges were built across the waterways to provide the principal access to the stadium .
= = Locks = =
The locks on the Bow Back Rivers are not built to a single standard , and sizes vary .
= = Points of interest = =
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= OSI ( band ) =
OSI is an American progressive rock band , originally formed by Fates Warning guitarist Jim Matheos in 2002 . Chroma Key keyboardist and vocalist Kevin Moore is the only other full @-@ time member of the band . The collaboration may be considered a studio project , as its members and contributors write and track most of their material independently , sharing and developing tracks long @-@ distance , only coming together at the end of the process for mixing and additional tracking . The band 's name is a reference to the Office of Strategic Influence , a short @-@ lived American government agency formed in 2001 to support the War on Terror through propaganda . The band has featured a number of guest musicians on its albums , including Sean Malone , Steven Wilson , Mikael Åkerfeldt , Joey Vera and Gavin Harrison .
Matheos recruited Moore , Dream Theater 's then @-@ drummer Mike Portnoy and Sean Malone ( Fretless Bass and Chapman Stickist ) to perform on what was originally planned to be a Matheos solo album . Matheos and Portnoy originally planned to produce a progressive metal album similar to Matheos ' work in Fates Warning , however Moore 's impact changed the music 's direction and genre , incorporating electronica into the original progressive metal sound . The band 's debut album was released by InsideOut Music in 2003 .
OSI was originally intended to be a one @-@ off project , but Matheos and Moore found they both had gaps in their schedules so produced a follow @-@ up . Free was released in 2006 , with Portnoy returning to play drums as a session musician rather than a full band member , due to personal and musical differences between him and Moore . Blood was released in 2009 , with Porcupine Tree drummer Gavin Harrison replacing Portnoy . The fourth album Fire Make Thunder was released in 2012 by Metal Blade Records , with Harrison once again on drums .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and Office of Strategic Influence ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = =
Fates Warning guitarist Jim Matheos originally intended to create a progressive metal supergroup while Fates Warning went on hiatus . He recruited Cynic & Gordian Knot Fretless Bass and Chapman Stickist Sean Malone and then @-@ Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy to work on the project . Matheos then asked Chroma Key and ex @-@ Dream Theater keyboardist Kevin Moore to contribute by adding keyboard arrangements to the music he had written . Moore instead heavily edited the music , changing the song structures and adding vocals . Matheos decided to pursue this new direction , sounding closer to Chroma Key than standard progressive metal , over his and Portnoy 's original idea .
Many vocalists were considered to perform on the album ; Matheos and Portnoy briefly considered having a different vocalist perform on each track . Daniel Gildenlöw of Pain of Salvation wrote some vocal melodies and lyrics , but Moore ultimately performed most of the vocals and wrote most of the lyrics . Steven Wilson of Porcupine Tree wrote lyrics and performed vocals on one track . Cynic and Gordian Knot bassist Sean Malone performed bass , but was credited as a guest musician because his schedule meant he was unable to join Matheos , Moore and Portnoy for the basic tracking sessions .
Matheos , Moore and Portnoy recorded the album at Carriage House Studios in Stamford , Connecticut from June 2 to June 9 , 2002 . Songs with a strong progressive metal influence were mostly written by Matheos , while Moore had greater influence over the vocal @-@ driven tracks . Portnoy made minor arrangement suggestions but did not take part in the actual writing of the album . The album 's recording sessions were the first time Moore and Portnoy collaborated since 1994 in their work in Dream Theater . In 2009 , Portnoy recalled that he found the experience of making the record difficult , and that he was frustrated by the lack of collaboration between him and Moore . Differences between Moore and Portnoy led to his return on the follow @-@ up album as a session drummer rather than full @-@ time member .
InsideOut Music released Office of Strategic Influence on February 17 , 2003 . Moore chose the group 's name and album 's title , referring to the Office of Strategic Influence , established by the US Government after the September 11 attacks to spread propaganda . The album was critically well received . Critics praised the members ' musicianship and the fact that the album differed significantly from the members ' other projects .
= = = Free and Blood ( 2005 – 2009 ) = = =
Matheos and Moore did not plan to make a second OSI album , and returned to their own projects after the first album 's completion . In 2005 , they both had free schedules , so decided to produce a follow @-@ up album . Joey Vera ( also of Fates Warning ) played bass on the album . Portnoy originally told Matheos and Moore that he did not want to perform drums on the album , but was persuaded to perform on the album as a session musician .
Free was released on April 24 , 2006 , receiving generally positive critical reception . Critics noted that the album was darker and more keyboard @-@ focused than the band 's debut. re : free , an EP featuring remixes of three tracks from Free , was released on October 24 , 2006 . The band were keen to tour in support of Free , but no live shows materialised . " The reality of it is in order to [ tour ] the way we would like ... and present it the way we would want to present it ... would cost too much money for the kind of fan base that we have right now , " Matheos said in 2009 . In 2010 he anticipated that OSI will " remain a studio band . "
In September 2008 , Moore posted an update on the Chroma Key website , stating that he and Matheos had been working on a third OSI album for several months . Portnoy was replaced by Porcupine Tree drummer Gavin Harrison and Matheos played bass on the album . Opeth vocalist and guitarist Mikael Åkerfeldt and No @-@ Man vocalist Tim Bowness wrote lyrics and sang on one track each .
Blood was released on April 27 , 2009 in Europe and May 19 in North America . The album received positive reviews : Andrew Reilly of Madeloud said that " with Blood the two have finally found the stylistic fusion their first two discs hinted at " , and praised Harrison 's drumming .
= = = Fire Make Thunder ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = =
In 2010 , OSI signed with Metal Blade Records . The label reissued Office of Strategic Influence on September 28 , 2010 .
Written and recorded throughout most of 2011 , OSI 's fourth album " Fire Make Thunder " was released on March 27 , 2012 . Gavin Harrison of Porcupine Tree was once again enlisted as session drummer along with a co @-@ writing credit for the song " Enemy Prayer " . All other instruments and programming were performed by Matheos and Moore , while lyrics and vocals were handled exclusively by Moore . The recordings for the album , with the exception of drums , were performed at the musician 's respective home studio . In July 2011 at Sound Farm Studio & Recording Environment final overdubs as well as some additional writing and arranging were completed . The band mixed the album alongside engineer Matt Sepanic . Engineer Roger Siebel handled the final mastering . The record was produced by both Moore and Matheos . During the development process , Kevin Moore kept frequent updates referring to the mixing process of the album on his official Facebook and Twitter accounts .
= = Musical style = =
Moore has described OSI 's sound as " a new approach to progressive rock " , combining elements of progressive metal and electronica . Moore considers the two genres to be " almost natural enemies " , and that the conflict between the two genres " keeps [ the music ] interesting " . Matheos cites progressive rock and heavy metal bands such as Genesis , Jethro Tull , Black Sabbath and UFO as influences . Moore described his influences as minimal techno , experimental , electronic musicians and " bands that play live and then chop it up " .
Matheos and Moore primarily work alone , exchanging files and ideas by email . The writing process for all OSI 's albums has been the same , with Matheos sending Moore an idea " from just a guitar riff to elaborate , almost completed songs " , which Moore then edits and sends back to Matheos . Moore , the band 's vocalist and lyricist , has described the process of writing lyrics as an " audio Rorschach test " . The lyrics on Office of Strategic Influence feature political themes , but the lyrics on later releases are less political , instead being based on Moore 's personal experiences . " I 'll start writing a song that has a little bit of a world view or political view or something , " he said , " but then by the time I 'm finished the lyrics it 'll be about a relationship or something like that . " On Blood , Moore largely abandoned his earlier stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness approach to writing lyrics , in an attempt to make the lyrics more coherent . " I didn 't want it to be like ' Oh , you get your own impression of the lyrics . Everybody has their own idea ! ' I wanted to have an idea that I wanted to communicate , and something communicable , " he explained .
Moore has acknowledged the narrow range of his vocals . He considers his vocal style to " [ come ] from how I feel when I ’ m singing , when I 'm in the zone of writing lyrics and recording which , a lot of times , comes as the same time . It 's sort of an introspective time . A lot of the material lends itself to that kind of voice and that kind of spirit . "
= = Members = =
Current members
Jim Matheos ( Fates Warning ) – guitars , bass ( Since Blood ) , keyboards , programming
Kevin Moore ( Chroma Key , ex @-@ Dream Theater ) – vocals , keyboards , programming
Former members
Mike Portnoy ( ex @-@ Dream Theater ) – drums on Office of Strategic Influence as a full band member and on Free as a session musician
Guest musicians
Gavin Harrison ( Porcupine Tree ) – drums on Blood and Fire Make Thunder
Sean Malone ( Gordian Knot , Cynic ) – bass , Chapman Stick on Office of Strategic Influence
Joey Vera ( Fates Warning ) – bass on Free
Steven Wilson ( Porcupine Tree ) – vocals on the track " shutDOWN " on Office of Strategic Influence
Tim Bowness ( No @-@ Man ) – vocals on the track " No Celebrations " on Blood
Mikael Åkerfeldt ( Opeth ) – vocals on the track " Stockholm " on Blood
= = Discography = =
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= First interracial kiss on television =
The first interracial kiss on television is a much debated topic concerning who the first two persons of different races to kiss on television were . For a time , it was understood to have occurred during an episode of the British soap opera Emergency – Ward 10 in 1964 . However , in November 2015 , a Granada Play of the Week , You in Your Small Corner , was uncovered which was broadcast in June 1962 ; that quickly led to the rediscovery of another play featuring the same young Jamaican actor , Hot Summer Night , televised in Britain on 1 February 1959 . Competing claims have also been made in favor of I Love Lucy .
= = Claims = =
= = = I Love Lucy = = =
The 1950s American television program I Love Lucy broadcast multiple instances of real @-@ life husband and wife Desi Arnaz , an Hispanic male , and Lucille Ball , a woman of North European ancestry , kissing . However , despite Arnaz and Ball being frequently described as an " interracial couple , " " Hispanic " is generally understood to be a catchall indicating persons of a Latin American or Iberian cultural background , as opposed to a race . Arnaz was usually considered to be a white male of Cuban ancestry .
= = = You in Your Small Corner and Hot Summer Night = = =
In June 1962 , a live performance of the play You in Your Small Corner by Barry Reckord was broadcast on British television as part of the series Granada Play of the Week . The central theme of the play is a relationship between a young black intellectual and a white working class girl . During the play , a kiss takes place between actors Lloyd Reckord and Elizabeth MacLennan , and what has been described as an " explicit post @-@ coital scene " .
You In Your Small Corner was rediscovered during preparations for a November 2015 British Film Institute panel discussion on " Race and Romance on TV " and was used in publicity for the event . As a result , panel moderator Samira Ahmed was able , on the night , to announce the rediscovery of an even earlier TV kiss by Lloyd Reckord , with Andrée Melly , in the ITV Armchair Theatre adaptation of Ted Willis 's play Hot Summer Night , broadcast on 1 February 1959 .
= = = Emergency Ward 10 = = =
One of the earliest interracial kisses on television occurred in a July 1964 episode of British soap opera Emergency Ward 10 , during which characters Louise Mahler ( portrayed by Joan Hooley ) and Giles Farmer ( portrayed by John White ) kissed . The scene in which Mahler and Farmer kissed was originally scripted to occur in Mahler 's bedroom , but was rewritten so as to occur outdoors , due to concerns it would otherwise be too risqué ( the earlier Lloyd Reckord plays had both been shown well after the 9pm adult @-@ content watershed ) . According to an issue of the Daily Express published after the episode aired , " not a viewer rang @-@ up to complain " . In a 2015 interview , conducted prior to the discovery of the You in Your Small Corner footage , Hooley noted that the historic importance of what had been known as the " first interracial kiss on television " had been inflated in popular memory :
A lot of people spoke about it more ten years later than they did at the time it was happening . So , it was much later that it occurred to me that I was part of history . I find it odd to have to admit that I was part of history because I don 't see why there should be anything to do about it . I don 't think there should have been all this fuss about it .
= = Star Trek claim = =
The first interracial kiss on American network television is often attributed to a 1968 episode of Star Trek , " Plato 's Stepchildren " .
Other sources contend that both The Wild Wild West ( " The Night the Dragon Screamed " , aired 1966 Jan. 14 ) and I Spy had broadcast interracial kisses between Caucasian and Asian actors prior to the Star Trek episode . In addition , a December 1967 episode of Movin ' with Nancy featured a kiss between Nancy Sinatra and Sammy Davis , Jr . , more than a year before " Plato 's Stepchildren " aired . Further , some contend that " Plato 's Stepchildren " did not include an interracial kiss at all , full lip contact between William Shatner and Nichelle Nichols not having occurred , the actors having turned their heads away from the camera at the last moment to present the illusion of a kiss . The latter point has been disputed , Shatner claiming that he and Nichols ' lips never fully touched , while Nichols has alternately asserted that the kiss was , in fact , real .
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= Geographical name changes in Turkey =
Geographical name changes in Turkey have been undertaken , periodically , in bulk from 1913 to the present by successive Turkish governments . Thousands of names within the Turkish Republic or the Ottoman Empire have lost or departed from their popular or historic alternatives in favour of recognizably Turkish names , as part of the Turkification policy . The governments have argued that such names are foreign and / or divisive against Turkish unity . Names changed were usually of Armenian , Greek , Laz , Georgian , Bulgarian , Kurdish , Assyrian , or Arabic origin .
Turkey 's efforts to join the European Union in the early 21st century has led to a decrease in the incidence of such changes from local , and particularly the central government . In some cases legislation has restored the names of certain villages ( primarily those housing Kurdish minorities ) . Place names that have formally changed frequently persist in local dialects and languages throughout the ethnically diverse country .
The policy commenced during the final years of the Ottoman Empire and continued into the Turkish Republic . Under the Kemalist oriented government , specialized governmental commissions were created for the purpose of changing names . Approximately 28 @,@ 000 topographic names were changed , which included 12 @,@ 211 village and town names and 4 @,@ 000 mountain , river , and other topographic names . Most name changes occurred in the eastern regions of the country where minority ethnicities form a large part or a majority of the population . Policies at times included banning the use of foreign names that were considered divisive and inappropriate .
= = History = =
= = = Ottoman Empire = = =
The Committee of Union and Progress took the reins of the Ottoman government through a coup d 'état in 1913 . At the height of World War I and during the final years of the Ottoman Empire , when the ethnic cleansing policies of non @-@ Muslim Greek , Armenian , and Assyrian minorities were underway , Minister of War Enver Pasha issued an edict ( ferman ) on October 6 , 1916 , declaring :
It has been decided that provinces , districts , towns , villages , mountains , and rivers , which are named in languages belonging to non @-@ Muslim nations such as Armenian , Greek or Bulgarian , will be renamed into Turkish . In order to benefit from this suitable moment , this aim should be achieved in due course .
General Directorate of State Archives of the Republic of Turkey , İstanbul Vilayet Mektupçuluğu , no . 000955 , 23 Kânunuevvel 1331 ( October 6 , 1916 ) Ordinance of Enver Paşa
Enver Pasha did not change the geographical names belonging to Muslim minorities ( i.e. Arabs and Kurds ) due to the Ottoman government 's role as a Caliphate . His decree inspired many Turkish intellectuals to write in support of such measures . One such intellectual , Hüseyin Avni Alparslan ( 1877 – 1921 ) , a Turkish soldier and author of books about Turkish language and culture , was inspired by the efforts of Enver Pasha , writing in his book Trabzon İli Lâz mı ? Türk mü ? ( Is the Trabzon province Laz or Turkish ? ) that :
If we want to be the owner of our country , then we should turn even the name of the smallest village into Turkish and not leave its Armenian , Greek or Arabic variants .
Only in this way can we paint our country with its colors .
It is not known how many geographical names were changed under the ordinance . The ultimate overarching objective behind it failed due to the collapse of the Ottoman government and trials of its leaders before Ottoman and European courts for massacres against ethnic minorities committed in 1915 .
A decreased level of cultural repression has taken place in the Turkish Republic , however non @-@ mainstream Turkic origin place names have invariably been officially renamed over the course of time .
= = = Republic of Turkey = = =
Turkish nationalism and secularism were two of the six founding principles of the Turkish Republic . Mustafa Kemal Ataturk , the leader of the early decades of the Republic , aimed to create a nation state ( Turkish : Ulus ) from the Turkish remnants of the Ottoman Empire . During the first three decades of the Republic , efforts to Turkify geographical names were a recurring theme . Imported maps containing references to historical regions such as Armenia , Kurdistan , or Lazistan ( the official name of the province of Rize until 1921 ) were prohibited ( as was the case with Der Grosse Weltatlas , a map published in Leipzig ) .
Journalist and writer Ayşe Hür has noted that after the death of Ataturk and during the Democratic period of the Turkish Republic in the late 1940s and 50s , " ugly , humiliating , insulting or derisive names , even if they were Turkish , were subjected to changes . Village names with lexical components meaning red ( kizil ) , bell ( çan ) , church ( kilise , e.g. Kirk Kilise ) were all changed . To do away with " separatist notions " , the Arabic , Persian , Armenian , Kurdish , Georgian , Tatar , Circassian , and Laz village names were also changed . "
The Special Commission for Name Change ( Ad Degistirme Ihtisas Komisyonu ) was created under the supervision of the Ministry of the Interior . It brought together professors , politicians , generals , linguists , and academicians throughout Turkey to take up the task of official name changing . Among the commission 's participants were members of the Office of the General Staff , Ministry of Defense , Ministry of Education , and history and geography professors from Ankara University . The initiative proved successful , as approximately 28 @,@ 000 topographic names were changed , including 12 @,@ 211 village and town names and 4 @,@ 000 mountain , river , and other topographic names . This figure also included names of streets , monuments , quarters , neighborhoods , and other components that make up certain municipalities . By 1927 , all street and square names in Istanbul which were not of Turkish origin were changed . The campaign continued until 1978 , and was reintroduced after the military coup of 1980 in 1981 – 83 . During the heightened tension between Kurdish rebels and the Turkish government , the focus of geographical name changing in the 1980s was on Kurdish villages , towns , rivers , etc .
In 1981 , the Turkish government stated in the preface of Köylerimiz , a publication dedicated to names of Turkish villages , that :
Approximately 12 @,@ 000 village names that are non @-@ Turkish , understood to originate from non @-@ Turkish roots , and identified as causing confusion have been examined and replaced with Turkish names , and put into effect by the Substitution Committee for Foreign Names functioning at the Directorate General for Provincial Governments in our Ministry .
At the culmination of the policy , no geographical or topographical names of non @-@ Turkish origin remained . Some of the newer names resembled their native names , but with revised Turkish connotations ( i.e. Aghtamar was changed to Akdamar ) .
= = = Current status = = =
Although geographical names have been formally changed in Turkey , their native names persist and continue in local dialects throughout the country . At times , Turkish politicians have also used the native names of cities during their speeches . In 2009 , when addressing a crowd in the town of Güroymak , president Abdullah Gul used the native name Norşin . Also that year , when talking about his family origins , Prime Minister Recep Tayip Erdogan used the native Greek name of Potamya instead of Güneysu .
Efforts at restoring the former names of geographical terms have been recently introduced in Turkey . In September 2012 , legislation was introduced to restore the names of ( primarily Kurdish ) villages to their former native names . According to the bill , the province of Tunceli would be named Dersim , Güroymak would be named Norşin , and Aydınlar would be named Tilo .
= = Comparative analysis = =
Most of the geographical name changes occurred in the eastern provinces of the country and on the coast of the eastern Black Sea , where minority populations tend to live . Through independent study , etymologist Sevan Nisanyan estimates that , of the geographical location name changes , 4 @,@ 200 were Greek , 4 @,@ 000 Kurdish , 3 @,@ 600 Armenian , 750 Arabic , 400 Assyrian , 300 Georgian , 200 Laz , and 50 others . The official statistics of The Special Commission for Name Change ( Ad Degistirme Ihtisas Komisyonu ) claim that the total number of villages , towns , cities , and settlements renamed is 12 @,@ 211 . The chart below lists the provinces and the number of villages or towns renamed .
= = Notable geographical name changes = =
= = = Armenian = = =
Armenian geographic names were first changed under the reign of Sultan Abdulhamit II . In 1880 , the word Armenia was banned from use in the press , schoolbooks , and governmental establishments , to be replaced with words like Anatolia or Kurdistan . Armenian name changing continued under the early Republican era up until the 21st century . It included the Turkification of last names , change of animal names , change of the names of Armenian historical figures ( i.e. the name of the prominent Balyan family was concealed under the identity of a superficial Italian family called Baliani ) , and the change and distortion of Armenian historical events .
Most Armenian geographical names were in the eastern provinces of the Ottoman empire . Villages , settlements , or towns that contain the suffix -kert , meaning built or built by ( i.e. Manavazkert ( today Malazgirt ) , Norakert , Dikranagert , Noyakert ) , -shen , meaning village ( i.e. Aratashen , Pemzashen , Norashen ) , and -van , meaning town ( i.e. Charentsavan , Nakhichevan , Tatvan ) , signify an Armenian name . Throughout Ottoman history , Turkish and Kurdish tribesmen have settled into Armenian villages and changed the native Armenian names ( i.e. the Armenian Norashen was changed to Norşin ) . This was especially true after the Armenian genocide , when much of eastern Turkey was depopulated of its Armenian population .
Sevan Nişanyan estimates that 3 @,@ 600 Armenian geographical locations have been changed .
Notable name changes of Armenian geographical locations :
= = = Assyrian = = =
Most Assyrian name changes occurred in the southeast of Turkey near the Syrian border in the Tur Abdin region . The Tur Abdin ( Syriac : ܛܘܼܪ ܥܒ ݂ ܕܝܼܢ ) is a hilly region incorporating the eastern half of Mardin Province , and Şırnak Province west of the Tigris , on the border with Syria . The name ' Tur Abdin ' is from the Syriac language meaning ' mountain of the servants ( of God ) ' . Tur Abdin is of great importance to Syriac Orthodox Christians , for whom the region used to be a monastic and cultural heartland . The Assyrian / Syriac people of Tur Abdin call themselves Suroye and Suryoye , and traditionally speak an Eastern Aramaic dialect called Turoyo .
After the Assyrian genocide , the Assyrians of the region were either depopulated or massacred . Currently , there are 5 , 000 Assyrians living in the region .
Nişanyan estimates that 400 Assyrian geographical locations have been changed .
Notable name changes of Assyrian geographical locations :
= = = Greek = = =
Many of the Greek names have maintained their origins from the Byzantine empire and Empire of Trebizond era .
With the establishment of the Ottoman empire , many Turkish name changes have continued to retain their Greek origins . For example , the modern name " İzmir " derives from the former Greek name Σμύρνη " Smyrna " , through the first two syllables of the phrase " εις Σμύρνην " ( pronounced " is Smirnin " ) , which means " to Smyrna " in Greek . A similar etymology also applies to other Turkish cities with former Greek names , such as İznik ( from the phrase " is Nikaean " , meaning " to Nicaea " ) , Istanbul ( from the phrase " is tan Polin " or " to the City " ) , or even for the Greek island of Kos , called " İstanköy " in Turkish .
Nişanyan estimates that 4 @,@ 200 Greek geographical locations have been changed , the most of any ethnic minority .
Notable name changes of Greek geographical locations :
= = = Kurdish = = =
The Kurdish geographical name changes were exempt under the Ottoman Empire due to the Islamic religious orientation of Kurds . During the Republican era and especially after the Dersim massacre , Kurdish geographical name changes became more common . During the Turkish Republican era , the words Kurdistan and Kurds were banned . The Turkish government had disguised the presence of the Kurds statistically by categorizing them as Mountain Turks . This classification was changed to the new euphemism of Eastern Turk in 1980 .
Also included in the category of Kurdish geographical name changes are Zazaki , which is considered among Kurdish group , along with Kurmanci . Nişanyan estimates that 4 @,@ 000 Kurdish geographical locations have been changed .
Notable name changes of Kurdish geographical locations :
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= Solar energy =
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever @-@ evolving technologies such as solar heating , photovoltaics , solar thermal energy , solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis .
It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power . Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems , concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy . Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun , selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light @-@ dispersing properties , and designing spaces that naturally circulate air .
The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of electricity . The United Nations Development Programme in its 2000 World Energy Assessment found that the annual potential of solar energy was 1 @,@ 575 – 49 @,@ 837 exajoules ( EJ ) . This is several times larger than the total world energy consumption , which was 559 @.@ 8 EJ in 2012 .
In 2011 , the International Energy Agency said that " the development of affordable , inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer @-@ term benefits . It will increase countries ’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import @-@ independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating global warming , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . These advantages are global . Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments ; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared " .
= = Potential = =
The Earth receives 174 @,@ 000 terawatts ( TW ) of incoming solar radiation ( insolation ) at the upper atmosphere . Approximately 30 % is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds , oceans and land masses . The spectrum of solar light at the Earth 's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near @-@ infrared ranges with a small part in the near @-@ ultraviolet . Most of the world 's population live in areas with insolation levels of 150 @-@ 300 watts / m ² , or 3 @.@ 5 @-@ 7 @.@ 0 kWh / m ² per day .
Solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth 's land surface , oceans – which cover about 71 % of the globe – and atmosphere . Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises , causing atmospheric circulation or convection . When the air reaches a high altitude , where the temperature is low , water vapor condenses into clouds , which rain onto the Earth 's surface , completing the water cycle . The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection , producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind , cyclones and anti @-@ cyclones . Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 ° C. By photosynthesis , green plants convert solar energy into chemically stored energy , which produces food , wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived .
The total solar energy absorbed by Earth 's atmosphere , oceans and land masses is approximately 3 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 exajoules ( EJ ) per year . In 2002 , this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year . Photosynthesis captures approximately 3 @,@ 000 EJ per year in biomass . The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth 's non @-@ renewable resources of coal , oil , natural gas , and mined uranium combined ,
The potential solar energy that could be used by humans differs from the amount of solar energy present near the surface of the planet because factors such as geography , time variation , cloud cover , and the land available to humans limit the amount of solar energy that we can acquire .
Geography affects solar energy potential because areas that are closer to the equator have a greater amount of solar radiation . However , the use of photovoltaics that can follow the position of the sun can significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are farther from the equator . Time variation effects the potential of solar energy because during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the Earth for solar panels to absorb . This limits the amount of energy that solar panels can absorb in one day . Cloud cover can affect the potential of solar panels because clouds block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells .
In addition , land availability has a large effect on the available solar energy because solar panels can only be set up on land that is otherwise unused and suitable for solar panels . Roofs have been found to be a suitable place for solar cells , as many people have discovered that they can collect energy directly from their homes this way . Other areas that are suitable for solar cells are lands that are not being used for businesses where solar plants can be established .
Solar technologies are characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture , convert and distribute sunlight and enable solar energy to be harnessed at different levels around the world , mostly depending on distance from the equator . Although solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends , all renewable energies , other than Geothermal power and Tidal power , derive their energy either directly or indirectly from the Sun .
Active solar techniques use photovoltaics , concentrated solar power , solar thermal collectors , pumps , and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs . Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties , designing spaces that naturally circulate air , and referencing the position of a building to the Sun . Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies , while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies .
In 2000 , the United Nations Development Programme , UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs , and World Energy Council published an estimate of the potential solar energy that could be used by humans each year that took into account factors such as insolation , cloud cover , and the land that is usable by humans . The estimate found that solar energy has a global potential of 1 @,@ 575 – 49 @,@ 837 EJ per year ( see table below ) .
= = Thermal energy = =
Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating , space heating , space cooling and process heat generation .
= = = Early commercial adaptation = = =
In 1897 , Frank Shuman , a U.S. inventor , engineer and solar energy pioneer built a small demonstration solar engine that worked by reflecting solar energy onto square boxes filled with ether , which has a lower boiling point than water , and were fitted internally with black pipes which in turn powered a steam engine . In 1908 Shuman formed the Sun Power Company with the intent of building larger solar power plants . He , along with his technical advisor A.S.E. Ackermann and British physicist Sir Charles Vernon Boys , developed an improved system using mirrors to reflect solar energy upon collector boxes , increasing heating capacity to the extent that water could now be used instead of ether . Shuman then constructed a full @-@ scale steam engine powered by low @-@ pressure water , enabling him to patent the entire solar engine system by 1912 .
Shuman built the world ’ s first solar thermal power station in Maadi , Egypt , between 1912 and 1913 . His plant used parabolic troughs to power a 45 – 52 kilowatts ( 60 – 70 hp ) engine that pumped more than 22 @,@ 000 litres ( 4 @,@ 800 imp gal ; 5 @,@ 800 US gal ) of water per minute from the Nile River to adjacent cotton fields . Although the outbreak of World War I and the discovery of cheap oil in the 1930s discouraged the advancement of solar energy , Shuman ’ s vision and basic design were resurrected in the 1970s with a new wave of interest in solar thermal energy . In 1916 Shuman was quoted in the media advocating solar energy 's utilization , saying :
We have proved the commercial profit of sun power in the tropics and have more particularly proved that after our stores of oil and coal are exhausted the human race can receive unlimited power from the rays of the sun .
= = = Water heating = = =
Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water . In low geographical latitudes ( below 40 degrees ) from 60 to 70 % of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60 ° C can be provided by solar heating systems . The most common types of solar water heaters are evacuated tube collectors ( 44 % ) and glazed flat plate collectors ( 34 % ) generally used for domestic hot water ; and unglazed plastic collectors ( 21 % ) used mainly to heat swimming pools .
As of 2007 , the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems was approximately 154 thermal gigawatt ( GWth ) . China is the world leader in their deployment with 70 GWth installed as of 2006 and a long @-@ term goal of 210 GWth by 2020 . Israel and Cyprus are the per capita leaders in the use of solar hot water systems with over 90 % of homes using them . In the United States , Canada , and Australia , heating swimming pools is the dominant application of solar hot water with an installed capacity of 18 GWth as of 2005 .
= = = Heating , cooling and ventilation = = =
In the United States , heating , ventilation and air conditioning ( HVAC ) systems account for 30 % ( 4 @.@ 65 EJ / yr ) of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50 % ( 10 @.@ 1 EJ / yr ) of the energy used in residential buildings . Solar heating , cooling and ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy .
Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat — heat from the Sun in the case of solar energy . Common thermal mass materials include stone , cement and water . Historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night . However , they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as well . The size and placement of thermal mass depend on several factors such as climate , daylighting and shading conditions . When properly incorporated , thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable range and reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment .
A solar chimney ( or thermal chimney , in this context ) is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building . As the chimney warms , the air inside is heated causing an updraft that pulls air through the building . Performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass materials in a way that mimics greenhouses .
Deciduous trees and plants have been promoted as a means of controlling solar heating and cooling . When planted on the southern side of a building in the northern hemisphere or the northern side in the southern hemisphere , their leaves provide shade during the summer , while the bare limbs allow light to pass during the winter . Since bare , leafless trees shade 1 / 3 to 1 / 2 of incident solar radiation , there is a balance between the benefits of summer shading and the corresponding loss of winter heating . In climates with significant heating loads , deciduous trees should not be planted on the Equator @-@ facing side of a building because they will interfere with winter solar availability . They can , however , be used on the east and west sides to provide a degree of summer shading without appreciably affecting winter solar gain .
= = = Cooking = = =
Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking , drying and pasteurization . They can be grouped into three broad categories : box cookers , panel cookers and reflector cookers . The simplest solar cooker is the box cooker first built by Horace de Saussure in 1767 . A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid . It can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90 – 150 ° C ( 194 – 302 ° F ) . Panel cookers use a reflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated container and reach temperatures comparable to box cookers . Reflector cookers use various concentrating geometries ( dish , trough , Fresnel mirrors ) to focus light on a cooking container . These cookers reach temperatures of 315 ° C ( 599 ° F ) and above but require direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the Sun .
= = = Process heat = = =
Solar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish , trough and Scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and industrial applications . The first commercial system was the Solar Total Energy Project ( STEP ) in Shenandoah , Georgia , USA where a field of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50 % of the process heating , air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory . This grid @-@ connected cogeneration system provided 400 kW of electricity plus thermal energy in the form of 401 kW steam and 468 kW chilled water , and had a one @-@ hour peak load thermal storage . Evaporation ponds are shallow pools that concentrate dissolved solids through evaporation . The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from seawater is one of the oldest applications of solar energy . Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams . Clothes lines , clotheshorses , and clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation by wind and sunlight without consuming electricity or gas . In some states of the United States legislation protects the " right to dry " clothes . Unglazed transpired collectors ( UTC ) are perforated sun @-@ facing walls used for preheating ventilation air . UTCs can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22 ° C ( 40 ° F ) and deliver outlet temperatures of 45 – 60 ° C ( 113 – 140 ° F ) . The short payback period of transpired collectors ( 3 to 12 years ) makes them a more cost @-@ effective alternative than glazed collection systems . As of 2003 , over 80 systems with a combined collector area of 35 @,@ 000 square metres ( 380 @,@ 000 sq ft ) had been installed worldwide , including an 860 m2 ( 9 @,@ 300 sq ft ) collector in Costa Rica used for drying coffee beans and a 1 @,@ 300 m2 ( 14 @,@ 000 sq ft ) collector in Coimbatore , India , used for drying marigolds .
= = = Water treatment = = =
Solar distillation can be used to make saline or brackish water potable . The first recorded instance of this was by 16th @-@ century Arab alchemists . A large @-@ scale solar distillation project was first constructed in 1872 in the Chilean mining town of Las Salinas . The plant , which had solar collection area of 4 @,@ 700 m2 ( 51 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , could produce up to 22 @,@ 700 L ( 5 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 6 @,@ 000 US gal ) per day and operate for 40 years . Individual still designs include single @-@ slope , double @-@ slope ( or greenhouse type ) , vertical , conical , inverted absorber , multi @-@ wick , and multiple effect . These stills can operate in passive , active , or hybrid modes . Double @-@ slope stills are the most economical for decentralized domestic purposes , while active multiple effect units are more suitable for large @-@ scale applications .
Solar water disinfection ( SODIS ) involves exposing water @-@ filled plastic polyethylene terephthalate ( PET ) bottles to sunlight for several hours . Exposure times vary depending on weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to two days during fully overcast conditions . It is recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage . Over two million people in developing countries use this method for their daily drinking water .
Solar energy may be used in a water stabilization pond to treat waste water without chemicals or electricity . A further environmental advantage is that algae grow in such ponds and consume carbon dioxide in photosynthesis , although algae may produce toxic chemicals that make the water unusable .
= = Electricity production = =
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity , either directly using photovoltaics ( PV ) , or indirectly using concentrated solar power ( CSP ) . CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam . PV converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect .
Solar power is anticipated to become the world 's largest source of electricity by 2050 , with solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power contributing 16 and 11 percent to the global overall consumption , respectively .
Commercial CSP plants were first developed in the 1980s . Since 1985 the eventually 354 MW SEGS CSP installation , in the Mojave Desert of California , is the largest solar power plant in the world . Other large CSP plants include the 150 MW Solnova Solar Power Station and the 100 MW Andasol solar power station , both in Spain . The 250 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project , in the United States , and the 221 MW Charanka Solar Park in India , are the world ’ s largest photovoltaic plants . Solar projects exceeding 1 GW are being developed , but most of the deployed photovoltaics are in small rooftop arrays of less than 5 kW , which are connected to the grid using net metering and / or a feed @-@ in tariff . In 2013 solar generated less than 1 % of the world 's total grid electricity .
= = = Photovoltaics = = =
In the last two decades , photovoltaics ( PV ) , also known as solar PV , has evolved from a pure niche market of small scale applications towards becoming a mainstream electricity source . A solar cell is a device that converts light directly into electricity using the photoelectric effect . The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s . In 1931 a German engineer , Dr Bruno Lange , developed a photo cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide . Although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1 % of incident light into electricity , both Ernst Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell recognized the importance of this discovery . Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s , researchers Gerald Pearson , Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the crystalline silicon solar cell in 1954 . These early solar cells cost 286 USD / watt and reached efficiencies of 4 @.@ 5 – 6 % . By 2012 available efficiencies exceeded 20 % , and the maximum efficiency of research photovoltaics was in excess of 40 % .
= = = Concentrated solar power = = =
Concentrating Solar Power ( CSP ) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam . The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant . A wide range of concentrating technologies exists ; the most developed are the parabolic trough , the concentrating linear fresnel reflector , the Stirling dish and the solar power tower . Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light . In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight , and is then used for power generation or energy storage .
= = Architecture and urban planning = =
Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history . Advanced solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the Greeks and Chinese , who oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth .
The common features of passive solar architecture are orientation relative to the Sun , compact proportion ( a low surface area to volume ratio ) , selective shading ( overhangs ) and thermal mass . When these features are tailored to the local climate and environment they can produce well @-@ lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range . Socrates ' Megaron House is a classic example of passive solar design . The most recent approaches to solar design use computer modeling tying together solar lighting , heating and ventilation systems in an integrated solar design package . Active solar equipment such as pumps , fans and switchable windows can complement passive design and improve system performance .
Urban heat islands ( UHI ) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of the surrounding environment . The higher temperatures result from increased absorption of solar energy by urban materials such as asphalt and concrete , which have lower albedos and higher heat capacities than those in the natural environment . A straightforward method of counteracting the UHI effect is to paint buildings and roads white , and to plant trees in the area . Using these methods , a hypothetical " cool communities " program in Los Angeles has projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3 ° C at an estimated cost of US $ 1 billion , giving estimated total annual benefits of US $ 530 million from reduced air @-@ conditioning costs and healthcare savings .
= = Agriculture and horticulture = =
Agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to optimize the productivity of plants . Techniques such as timed planting cycles , tailored row orientation , staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields . While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource , the exceptions highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture . During the short growing seasons of the Little Ice Age , French and English farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the collection of solar energy . These walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm . Early fruit walls were built perpendicular to the ground and facing south , but over time , sloping walls were developed to make better use of sunlight . In 1699 , Nicolas Fatio de Duillier even suggested using a tracking mechanism which could pivot to follow the Sun . Applications of solar energy in agriculture aside from growing crops include pumping water , drying crops , brooding chicks and drying chicken manure . More recently the technology has been embraced by vintners , who use the energy generated by solar panels to power grape presses .
Greenhouses convert solar light to heat , enabling year @-@ round production and the growth ( in enclosed environments ) of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to the local climate . Primitive greenhouses were first used during Roman times to produce cucumbers year @-@ round for the Roman emperor Tiberius . The first modern greenhouses were built in Europe in the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad . Greenhouses remain an important part of horticulture today , and plastic transparent materials have also been used to similar effect in polytunnels and row covers .
= = Transport = =
Development of a solar @-@ powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s . The World Solar Challenge is a biannual solar @-@ powered car race , where teams from universities and enterprises compete over 3 @,@ 021 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 877 mi ) across central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide . In 1987 , when it was founded , the winner 's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour ( 42 mph ) and by 2007 the winner 's average speed had improved to 90 @.@ 87 kilometres per hour ( 56 @.@ 46 mph ) . The North American Solar Challenge and the planned South African Solar Challenge are comparable competitions that reflect an international interest in the engineering and development of solar powered vehicles .
Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power , such as for air conditioning , to keep the interior cool , thus reducing fuel consumption .
In 1975 , the first practical solar boat was constructed in England . By 1995 , passenger boats incorporating PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively . In 1996 , Kenichi Horie made the first solar @-@ powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean , and the Sun21 catamaran made the first solar @-@ powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 2006 – 2007 . There were plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2010 .
In 1974 , the unmanned AstroFlight Sunrise airplane made the first solar flight . On 29 April 1979 , the Solar Riser made the first flight in a solar @-@ powered , fully controlled , man @-@ carrying flying machine , reaching an altitude of 40 feet ( 12 m ) . In 1980 , the Gossamer Penguin made the first piloted flights powered solely by photovoltaics . This was quickly followed by the Solar Challenger which crossed the English Channel in July 1981 . In 1990 Eric Scott Raymond in 21 hops flew from California to North Carolina using solar power . Developments then turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles ( UAV ) with the Pathfinder ( 1997 ) and subsequent designs , culminating in the Helios which set the altitude record for a non @-@ rocket @-@ propelled aircraft at 29 @,@ 524 metres ( 96 @,@ 864 ft ) in 2001 . The Zephyr , developed by BAE Systems , is the latest in a line of record @-@ breaking solar aircraft , making a 54 @-@ hour flight in 2007 , and month @-@ long flights were envisioned by 2010 . As of 2016 , Solar Impulse , an electric aircraft , is currently circumnavigating the globe . It is a single @-@ seat plane powered by solar cells and capable of taking off under its own power . The design allows the aircraft to remain airborne for several days .
A solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air . As sunlight shines on the balloon , the air inside is heated and expands causing an upward buoyancy force , much like an artificially heated hot air balloon . Some solar balloons are large enough for human flight , but usage is generally limited to the toy market as the surface @-@ area to payload @-@ weight ratio is relatively high .
= = Fuel production = =
Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical reactions . These processes offset energy that would otherwise come from a fossil fuel source and can also convert solar energy into storable and transportable fuels . Solar induced chemical reactions can be divided into thermochemical or photochemical . A variety of fuels can be produced by artificial photosynthesis . The multielectron catalytic chemistry involved in making carbon @-@ based fuels ( such as methanol ) from reduction of carbon dioxide is challenging ; a feasible alternative is hydrogen production from protons , though use of water as the source of electrons ( as plants do ) requires mastering the multielectron oxidation of two water molecules to molecular oxygen . Some have envisaged working solar fuel plants in coastal metropolitan areas by 2050 – the splitting of sea water providing hydrogen to be run through adjacent fuel @-@ cell electric power plants and the pure water by @-@ product going directly into the municipal water system . Another vision involves all human structures covering the earth 's surface ( i.e. , roads , vehicles and buildings ) doing photosynthesis more efficiently than plants .
Hydrogen production technologies have been a significant area of solar chemical research since the 1970s . Aside from electrolysis driven by photovoltaic or photochemical cells , several thermochemical processes have also been explored . One such route uses concentrators to split water into oxygen and hydrogen at high temperatures ( 2 @,@ 300 – 2 @,@ 600 ° C or 4 @,@ 200 – 4 @,@ 700 ° F ) . Another approach uses the heat from solar concentrators to drive the steam reformation of natural gas thereby increasing the overall hydrogen yield compared to conventional reforming methods . Thermochemical cycles characterized by the decomposition and regeneration of reactants present another avenue for hydrogen production . The Solzinc process under development at the Weizmann Institute of Science uses a 1 MW solar furnace to decompose zinc oxide ( ZnO ) at temperatures above 1 @,@ 200 ° C ( 2 @,@ 200 ° F ) . This initial reaction produces pure zinc , which can subsequently be reacted with water to produce hydrogen .
= = Energy storage methods = =
Thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically useful temperatures for daily or interseasonal durations . Thermal storage systems generally use readily available materials with high specific heat capacities such as water , earth and stone . Well @-@ designed systems can lower peak demand , shift time @-@ of @-@ use to off @-@ peak hours and reduce overall heating and cooling requirements .
Phase change materials such as paraffin wax and Glauber 's salt are another thermal storage medium . These materials are inexpensive , readily available , and can deliver domestically useful temperatures ( approximately 64 ° C or 147 ° F ) . The " Dover House " ( in Dover , Massachusetts ) was the first to use a Glauber 's salt heating system , in 1948 . Solar energy can also be stored at high temperatures using molten salts . Salts are an effective storage medium because they are low @-@ cost , have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems . The Solar Two project used this method of energy storage , allowing it to store 1 @.@ 44 terajoules ( 400 @,@ 000 kWh ) in its 68 m ³ storage tank with an annual storage efficiency of about 99 % .
Off @-@ grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity . With grid @-@ tied systems , excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid , while standard grid electricity can be used to meet shortfalls . Net metering programs give household systems a credit for any electricity they deliver to the grid . This is handled by ' rolling back ' the meter whenever the home produces more electricity than it consumes . If the net electricity use is below zero , the utility then rolls over the kilowatt hour credit to the next month . Other approaches involve the use of two meters , to measure electricity consumed vs. electricity produced . This is less common due to the increased installation cost of the second meter . Most standard meters accurately measure in both directions , making a second meter unnecessary .
Pumped @-@ storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when energy is available from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one . The energy is recovered when demand is high by releasing the water , with the pump becoming a hydroelectric power generator .
= = Development , deployment and economics = =
Beginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied the Industrial Revolution , energy consumption has steadily transitioned from wood and biomass to fossil fuels . The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce . However , development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability , economy , and utility of coal and petroleum .
The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies . Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the U.S. and the Sunshine Program in Japan . Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the U.S. ( SERI , now NREL ) , Japan ( NEDO ) , and Germany ( Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE ) .
Commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the United States in the 1890s . These systems saw increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by cheaper and more reliable heating fuels . As with photovoltaics , solar water heating attracted renewed attention as a result of the oil crises in the 1970s but interest subsided in the 1980s due to falling petroleum prices . Development in the solar water heating sector progressed steadily throughout the 1990s and annual growth rates have averaged 20 % since 1999 . Although generally underestimated , solar water heating and cooling is by far the most widely deployed solar technology with an estimated capacity of 154 GW as of 2007 .
The International Energy Agency has said that solar energy can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces :
The development of affordable , inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer @-@ term benefits . It will increase countries ’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import @-@ independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating climate change , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . These advantages are global . Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments ; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared .
In 2011 , a report by the International Energy Agency found that solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics , solar hot water and concentrated solar power could provide a third of the world ’ s energy by 2060 if politicians commit to limiting climate change . The energy from the sun could play a key role in de @-@ carbonizing the global economy alongside improvements in energy efficiency and imposing costs on greenhouse gas emitters . " The strength of solar is the incredible variety and flexibility of applications , from small scale to big scale " .
We have proved ... that after our stores of oil and coal are exhausted the human race can receive unlimited power from the rays of the sun .
= = ISO standards = =
The International Organization for Standardization has established several standards relating to solar energy equipment . For example , ISO 9050 relates to glass in building while ISO 10217 relates to the materials used in solar water heaters .
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= The Garden of Earthly Delights =
The Garden of Earthly Delights is the modern title given to a triptych painted by the Early Netherlandish master Hieronymus Bosch , housed in the Museo del Prado in Madrid since 1939 . It dates from between 1490 and 1510 , when Bosch was between about 40 and 60 years old , and is his best @-@ known and most ambitious surviving work .
The triptych is painted in oil on oak and is formed from a square middle panel flanked by two other oak rectangular wings that close over the center as shutters . The outer wings , when folded , show a grisaille painting of the earth during the biblical narrative of Creation . The three scenes of the inner triptych are probably ( but not necessarily ) intended to be read chronologically from left to right . The left panel depicts God presenting Eve to Adam , the central panel is a broad panorama of socially engaged nude figures , fantastical animals , oversized fruit and hybrid stone formations . The right panel is a hellscape and portrays the torments of damnation .
Art historians frequently interpret the painting as a didactic warning on the perils of life 's temptations . However , the intricacy of its symbolism , particularly that of the central panel , has led to a wide range of scholarly interpretations over the centuries . Twentieth @-@ century art historians are divided as to whether the triptych 's central panel is a moral warning or a panorama of paradise lost . American writer Peter S. Beagle describes it as an " erotic derangement that turns us all into voyeurs , a place filled with the intoxicating air of perfect liberty " .
Bosch painted three large triptychs ( the others are The Last Judgment of c . 1482 and The Haywain Triptych of c . 1516 ) that can be read from left to right and in which each panel was essential to the meaning of the whole . Each of these three works presents distinct yet linked themes addressing history and faith . Triptychs from this period were generally intended to be read sequentially , the left and right panels often portraying Eden and the Last Judgment respectively , while the main subject was contained in the center piece . It is not known whether " The Garden " was intended as an altarpiece , but the general view is that the extreme subject matter of the inner center and right panels make it unlikely that it was intended to function in a church or monastery , but was instead commissioned by a lay patron .
= = Description = =
= = = Exterior = = =
When the triptych 's wings are closed , the design of the outer panels becomes visible . Rendered in a green – gray grisaille , these panels lack colour , probably because most Netherlandish triptychs were thus painted , but possibly indicating that the painting reflects a time before the creation of the sun and moon , which were formed , according to Christian theology , to " give light to the earth " . It was common for the outer panels of Netherlandish altarpieces to be in grisaille , such that their blandness highlighted the splendid colour inside .
The outer panels are generally thought to depict the creation of the world , showing greenery beginning to clothe the still @-@ pristine Earth . God , wearing a crown similar to a papal tiara ( a common convention in Netherlandish painting ) , is visible as a tiny figure at the upper left . Bosch shows God as the father sitting with a Bible on his lap , creating the Earth in a passive manner by divine fiat . Above him is inscribed a quote from Psalm 33 reading " Ipse dixit , et facta sunt : ipse mandāvit , et creāta sunt " — For he spake and it was done ; he commanded , and it stood fast . The Earth is encapsulated in a transparent sphere recalling the traditional depiction of the created world as a crystal sphere held by God or Christ . It hangs suspended in the cosmos , which is shown as an impermeable darkness , whose only other inhabitant is God himself .
Despite the presence of vegetation , the earth does not yet contain human or animal life , indicating that the scene represents the events of the biblical Third Day . Bosch renders the plant life in an unusual fashion , using uniformly gray tints which make it difficult to determine whether the subjects are purely vegetable or perhaps include some mineral formations . Surrounding the interior of the globe is the sea , partially illuminated by beams of light shining through clouds . The exterior wings have a clear position within the sequential narrative of the work as a whole . They show an unpopulated earth composed solely of rock and plants , contrasting sharply with the inner central panel which contains a paradise teeming with lustful humanity .
= = = Interior = = =
Scholars have proposed that Bosch used the outer panels to establish a Biblical setting for the inner elements of the work , and the exterior image is generally interpreted as set in an earlier time than those in the interior . As with Bosch 's Haywain triptych , the inner centerpiece is flanked by heavenly and hellish imagery . The scenes depicted in the triptych are thought to follow a chronological order : flowing from left @-@ to @-@ right they represent Eden , the garden of earthly delights , and Hell . God appears as the creator of humanity in the left hand wing , while the consequences of humanity 's failure to follow his will are shown in the right .
However , in contrast to Bosch 's two other complete triptychs , The Last Judgment ( around 1482 ) and The Haywain ( after 1510 ) , God is absent from the central panel . Instead , this panel shows humanity acting with apparent free will as naked men and women engage in various pleasure @-@ seeking activities . According to some interpretations , the right hand panel is believed to show God 's penalties in a hellscape .
Art historian Charles de Tolnay believed that , through the seductive gaze of Adam , the left panel already shows God 's waning influence upon the newly created earth . This view is reinforced by the rendering of God in the outer panels as a tiny figure in comparison to the immensity of the earth . According to Belting , the three inner panels seek to broadly convey the Old Testament notion that , before the Fall , there was no defined boundary between good and evil ; humanity in its innocence was unaware of consequence .
= = = = Left panel = = = =
The left panel ( 220 × 97 @.@ 5 cm , 87 × 38 @.@ 4 in ) ( sometimes known as the Joining of Adam and Eve ) depicts a scene from the paradise of the Garden of Eden commonly interpreted as the moment when God presents Eve to Adam . The painting shows Adam waking from a deep sleep to find God holding Eve by her wrist and giving the sign of his blessing to their union . God is younger @-@ looking than on the outer panels , blue @-@ eyed and with golden curls . His youthful appearance may be a device by the artist to illustrate the concept of Christ as the incarnation of the Word of God . God 's right hand is raised in blessing , while he holds Eve 's wrist with his left . According to the work 's most controversial interpreter , the 20th @-@ century folklorist and art historian Wilhelm Fraenger :
... " As though enjoying the pulsation of the living blood and as though too he were setting a seal on the eternal and immutable communion between this human blood and his own . This physical contact between the Creator and Eve is repeated even more noticeably in the way Adam 's toes touch the Lord 's foot . Here is the stressing of a rapport : Adam seems indeed to be stretching to his full length in order to make contact with the Creator . And the billowing out of the cloak around the Creator 's heart , from where the garment falls in marked folds and contours to Adam 's feet , also seems to indicate that here a current of divine power flows down , so that this group of three actually forms a closed circuit , a complex of magical energy " ...
Eve avoids Adam 's gaze , although , according to art historian Walter S. Gibson , she is shown " seductively presenting her body to Adam " . Adam 's expression is one of amazement , and Fraenger has identified three elements to his seeming astonishment . Firstly , there is surprise at the presence of the God . Secondly , he is reacting to an awareness that Eve is of the same nature as himself , and has been created from his own body . Finally , from the intensity of Adam 's gaze , it can be concluded that he is experiencing sexual arousal and the primal urge to reproduce for the first time .
The surrounding landscape is populated by hut @-@ shaped forms , some of which are made from stone , while others are at least partially organic . Behind Eve rabbits , symbolising fecundity , play in the grass , and a dragon tree opposite is thought to represent eternal life . The background reveals several animals that would have been exotic to contemporaneous Europeans , including a giraffe , an elephant and a lion that has killed and is about to devour his prey . In the foreground , from a large hole in the ground , emerge birds and winged animals , some of which are realistic , some fantastic . Behind a fish , a person clothed in a short @-@ sleeved hooded jacket and with a duck 's beak holds an open book as if reading . To the left of the area a cat holds a small lizard @-@ like creature in its jaws . Belting observes that , despite the fact that the creatures in the foreground are fantastical imaginings , many of the animals in the mid and background are drawn from contemporary travel literature , and here Bosch is appealing to " the knowledge of a humanistic and aristocratic readership " . Erhard Reuwich 's pictures for Bernhard von Breydenbach 's 1486 Pilgrimages to the Holy Land were long thought to be the source for both the elephant and the giraffe , though more recent research indicates the mid @-@ 15th @-@ century humanist scholar Cyriac of Ancona 's travelogues served as Bosch 's exposure to these exotic animals .
According to art historian Virginia Tuttle , the scene is " highly unconventional [ and ] cannot be identified as any of the events from the Book of Genesis traditionally depicted in Western art " . Some of the image 's details seem to contradict the innocence that might be expected in the Garden of Eden before the expulsion . Tuttle and other critics have interpreted the gaze of Adam upon his wife as lustful , and indicative of the Christian belief that humanity was doomed from the beginning . Gibson believes that Adam 's facial expression betrays not just surprise but also expectation . According to a belief common in the Middle Ages , before the Fall Adam and Eve would have copulated without lust , solely to reproduce . Many believed that the first sin committed after Eve tasted the forbidden fruit was carnal lust . On a tree to the right a snake curls around a tree trunk , while to its right a mouse creeps ; according to Fraenger , both animals are universal phallic symbols .
= = = = Center panel = = = =
The skyline of the center panel ( 220 × 195 cm , 87 × 77 in ) matches exactly with that of the left wing , while the positioning of its central pool and the lake behind it echoes the lake in the earlier scene . The center image depicts the expansive " garden " landscape which gives the triptych its name . The panel shares a common horizon with the left wing , suggesting a spatial connection between the two scenes . The garden is teeming with male and female nudes , together with a variety of animals , plants and fruit . The setting is not the paradise shown in the left panel , but neither is it based in the terrestrial realm . Fantastic creatures mingle with the real ; otherwise ordinary fruits appear engorged to a gigantic size . The figures are engaged in diverse amorous sports and activities , both in couples and in groups . Gibson describes them as behaving " overtly and without shame " , while art historian Laurinda Dixon writes that the human figures exhibit " a certain adolescent sexual curiosity " .
Many of the numerous human figures revel in an innocent , self @-@ absorbed joy as they engage in a wide range of activities : some appear to enjoy sensory pleasures , others play unselfconsciously in the water , and yet others cavort in meadows with a variety of animals , seemingly at one with nature . In the middle of the background , a large blue globe resembling a fruit pod rises in the middle of a lake . Visible through its circular window is a man holding his right hand close to his partner 's genitals , and the bare buttocks of yet another figure hover in the vicinity . According to Fraenger , the eroticism of the center frame could be considered either as an allegory of spiritual transition or a playground of corruption .
On the right @-@ hand side of the foreground stand a group of three fair and one black @-@ skinned figures . The fair @-@ skinned figures , two males and one female , are covered from head to foot in light @-@ brown body hair . Scholars generally agree that these hirsute figures represent wild or primeval humanity but disagree on the symbolism of their inclusion . Art historian Patrik Reuterswärd , for example , posits that they may be seen as " the noble savage " who represents " an imagined alternative to our civilized life " , imbuing the panel with " a more clear @-@ cut primitivistic note " . Writer Peter Glum , in contrast , sees the figures as intrinsically connected with whoredom and lust .
In a cave to their lower right a male figure points towards a reclining female who is also covered in hair . ( image ) The pointing man is the only clothed figure in the panel , and as Fraenger observes , " he is clothed with emphatic austerity right up to his throat " . In addition , he is one of the few human figures with dark hair . According to Fraenger :
The way this man 's dark hair grows , with the sharp dip in the middle of his high forehead , as though concentrating there all the energy of the masculine M , makes his face different from all the others . His coal @-@ black eyes are rigidly focused in a gaze that expresses compelling force . The nose is unusually long and boldly curved . The mouth is wide and sensual , but the lips are firmly shut in a straight line , the corners strongly marked and tightened into final points , and this strengthens the impression — already suggested by the eyes — of a strong controlling will . It is an extraordinarily fascinating face , reminding us of faces of famous men , especially of Machiavelli 's ; and indeed the whole aspect of the head suggests something Mediterranean , as though this man had acquired his frank , searching , superior air at Italian academies .
The pointing man has variously been described as either the patron of the work ( Fraenger in 1947 ) , as an advocate of Adam denouncing Eve ( Dirk Bax in 1956 ) , as Saint John the Baptist in his camel 's skin ( Isabel Mateo Goméz in 1963 ) , or as a self @-@ portrait . The woman below him lies within a semicylindrical transparent shield , while her mouth is sealed , devices implying that she bears a secret . To their left , a man crowned by leaves lies on top of what appears to be an actual but gigantic strawberry , and is joined by a male and female who contemplate another equally huge strawberry . ( image )
There is no perspectival order in the foreground ; instead it comprises a series of small motifs wherein proportion and terrestrial logic are abandoned . Bosch presents the viewer with gigantic ducks playing with tiny humans under the cover of oversized fruit ; ( image ) fish walking on land while birds dwell in the water ; a passionate couple encased in an amniotic fluid bubble ; and a man inside of a red fruit staring at a mouse in a transparent cylinder .
The pools in the fore and background contain bathers of both sexes . In the central circular pool , the sexes are mostly segregated , with several females adorned by peacocks and fruit . Four women carry cherry @-@ like fruits on their heads , perhaps a symbol of pride at the time , as has been deduced from the contemporaneous saying : " Don 't eat cherries with great lords — they 'll throw the pits in your face . " The women are surrounded by a parade of naked men riding horses , donkeys , unicorns , camels and other exotic or fantastic creatures . Several men show acrobatics while riding , apparently acts designed to gain the females ' attention , which highlights the attraction felt between the two sexes as groups . The two outer springs also contain both men and women cavorting with abandon . Around them , birds infest the water while winged fish crawl on land . Humans inhabit giant shells . All are surrounded by oversized fruit pods and eggshells , and both humans and animals feast on strawberries and cherries .
The impression of a life lived without consequence , or what art historian Hans Belting describes as " unspoilt and pre @-@ moral existence " , is underscored by the absence of children and old people . According to the second and third chapters of Genesis , Adam and Eve 's children were born after they were expelled from Eden . This has led some commentators , in particular Belting , to theorise that the panel represents the world if the two had not been driven out " among the thorns and thistles of the world " . In Fraenger 's view , the scene illustrates " a utopia , a garden of divine delight before the Fall , or — since Bosch could not deny the existence of the dogma of original sin — a millennial condition that would arise if , after expiation of Original Sin , humanity were permitted to return to Paradise and to a state of tranquil harmony embracing all Creation . "
In the high distance of the background , above the hybrid stone formations , four groups of people and creatures are seen in flight . On the immediate left a human male rides on a chthonic solar eagle @-@ lion . The human carries a triple @-@ branched tree of life on which perches a bird ; according to Fraenger " a symbolic bird of death " . Fraenger believes the man is intended to represent a genius , " he is the symbol of the extinction of the duality of the sexes , which are resolved in the ether into their original state of unity " . To their right a knight with a dolphin tail sails on a winged fish . The knight 's tail curls back to touch the back of his head , which references the common symbol of eternity : the snake biting its own tail . On the immediate right of the panel , a winged youth soars upwards carrying a fish in his hands and a falcon on his back . According to Belting , in these passages Bosch 's " imagination triumphs ... the ambivalence of [ his ] visual syntax exceeds even the enigma of content , opening up that new dimension of freedom by which painting becomes art . " Fraenger titled his chapter on the high background " The Ascent to Heaven " , and wrote that the airborne figures were likely intended as a link between " what is above " and " what is below " , just as the left and right hand panels represent " what was " and " what will be " .
= = = = Right panel = = = =
The right panel ( 220 × 97 @.@ 5 cm , 87 × 38 @.@ 4 in ) illustrates Hell , the setting of a number of Bosch paintings . Bosch depicts a world in which humans have succumbed to temptations that lead to evil and reap eternal damnation . The tone of this final panel strikes a harsh contrast to those preceding it . The scene is set at night , and the natural beauty that adorned the earlier panels is noticeably absent . Compared to the warmth of the center panel , the right wing possesses a chilling quality — rendered through cold colourisation and frozen waterways — and presents a tableau that has shifted from the paradise of the center image to a spectacle of cruel torture and retribution . In a single , densely detailed scene , the viewer is made witness to cities on fire in the background ; war , torture chambers , infernal taverns , and demons in the midground ; and mutated animals feeding on human flesh in the foreground . The nakedness of the human figures has lost all its eroticism , and many now attempt to cover their genitalia and breasts with their hands .
Large explosions in the background throw light through the city gate and spill forth onto the water in the midground ; according to writer Walter S. Gibson , " their fiery reflection turning the water below into blood " . The light illuminates a road filled with fleeing figures , while hordes of tormentors prepare to burn a neighbouring village . A short distance away , a rabbit carries an impaled and bleeding corpse , while a group of victims above are thrown into a burning lantern . The foreground is populated by a variety of distressed or tortured figures . Some are shown vomiting or excreting , others are crucified by harp and lute , in an allegory of music , thus sharpening the contrast between pleasure and torture . A choir sings from a score inscribed on a pair of buttocks , part of a group that has been described as the " Musicians ' Hell " .
The focal point of the scene is the " Tree @-@ Man " , whose cavernous torso is supported by what could be contorted arms or rotting tree trunks . His head supports a disk populated by demons and victims parading around a huge set of bagpipes — often used as a dual sexual symbol — reminiscent of human scrotum and penis . The tree @-@ man 's torso is formed from a broken eggshell , and the supporting trunk has thorn @-@ like branches which pierce the fragile body . A grey figure in a hood bearing an arrow jammed between his buttocks climbs a ladder into the tree @-@ man 's central cavity , where nude men sit in a tavern @-@ like setting . The tree @-@ man gazes outwards beyond the viewer , his conspiratorial expression a mix of wistfulness and resignation . Belting wondered if the tree @-@ man 's face is a self @-@ portrait , citing the figure 's " expression of irony and the slightly sideways gaze [ which would ] then constitute the signature of an artist who claimed a bizarre pictorial world for his own personal imagination " .
Many elements in the panel incorporate earlier iconographical conventions depicting hell . However , Bosch is innovative in that he describes hell not as a fantastical space , but as a realistic world containing many elements from day @-@ to @-@ day human life .
Animals are shown punishing humans , subjecting them to nightmarish torments that may symbolise the seven deadly sins , matching the torment to the sin . Sitting on an object that may be a toilet or a throne , the panel 's centerpiece is a gigantic bird @-@ headed monster feasting on human corpses , which he excretes through a cavity below him , into the transparent chamber pot on which he sits . The monster is sometimes referred to as the " Prince of Hell " , a name derived from the cauldron he wears on his head , perhaps representing a debased crown . To his feet a female has her face reflected on the buttocks of a demon . Further to the left , next to a hare @-@ headed demon , a group of naked persons around a toppled gambling table are being massacred with swords and knives . Other brutal violence is shown by a knight torn down and eaten up by a pack of wolves to the right of the tree @-@ man .
During the Middle Ages , sexuality and lust were seen , by some , as evidence of humanity 's fall from grace , and the most foul of the seven deadly sins . In the eyes of some viewers , this sin is depicted in the left @-@ hand panel through Adam 's , allegedly lustful , gaze towards Eve , and it has been proposed that the center panel was created as a warning to the viewer to avoid a life of sinful pleasure . According to this view , the penalty for such sins is shown in the right panel of the triptych . In the lower right @-@ hand corner , a man is approached by a pig wearing the veil of a nun . The pig is shown trying to seduce the man to sign legal documents . Lust is further said to be symbolised by the gigantic musical instruments and by the choral singers in the left foreground of the panel . Musical instruments often carried erotic connotations in works of art of the period , and lust was referred to in moralising sources as the " music of the flesh " . There has also been the view that Bosch 's use of music here might be a rebuke against traveling minstrels , often thought of as purveyors of bawdy song and verse .
= = Dating and provenance = =
The dating of The Garden of Earthly Delights is uncertain . Ludwig von Baldass ( 1917 ) considered the painting to be an early work by Bosch . However , since De Tolnay ( 1937 ) consensus among 20th @-@ century art historians placed the work in 1503 – 1504 or even later . Both early and late datings were based on the " archaic " treatment of space . Dendrochronology dates the oak of the panels between the years 1460 and 1466 , providing a terminus post quem for the work . Wood used for panel paintings during this period customarily underwent a lengthy period of storage for seasoning purposes , so the age of the oak might be expected to predate the actual date of the painting by several years . Internal evidence , specifically the depiction of a pineapple ( a " New World " fruit ) , suggests that the painting itself postdates Columbus ' voyages to the Americas , between 1492 and 1504 . The dendrochronological research brought Vermet to reconsider an early dating and , consequently , to dispute the presence of any " New World " objects , stressing the presence of African ones instead . He considers De Tolnay 's idea of Bosch developing towards more archaism as an anachronism , based on the development of modern art and suggests that the triptych was ordered by Engelbrecht II of Nassau , in or shortly after 1481 , when he attended the Chapter of the Order of the Golden Fleece in ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch .
The Garden was first documented in 1517 , one year after the artist 's death , when Antonio de Beatis , a canon from Molfetta , Italy , described the work as part of the decoration in the town palace of the Counts of the House of Nassau in Brussels . The palace was a high @-@ profile location , a house often visited by heads of state and leading court figures . The prominence of the painting has led some to conclude that the work was commissioned , and not " solely ... a flight of the imagination " . A description of the triptych in 1605 called it the " strawberry painting " , because the fruit of the strawberry tree ( madroño in Spanish ) features prominently in the center panel . Early Spanish writers referred to the work as La Lujuria ( " Lust " ) .
The aristocracy of the Burgundian Netherlands , influenced by the humanist movement , were the most likely collectors of Bosch 's paintings , but there are few records of the location of his works in the years immediately following his death . It is probable that the patron of the work was Engelbrecht II of Nassau , who died in 1504 , or his successor Henry III of Nassau @-@ Breda , the governor of several of the Habsburg provinces in the Low Countries . De Beatis wrote in his travel journal that " there are some panels on which bizarre things have been painted . They represent seas , skies , woods , meadows , and many other things , such as people crawling out of a shell , others that bring forth birds , men and women , white and blacks doing all sorts of different activities and poses . " Because the triptych was publicly displayed in the palace of the House of Nassau , it was visible to many , and Bosch 's reputation and fame quickly spread across Europe . The work 's popularity can be measured by the numerous surviving copies — in oil , engraving and tapestry — commissioned by wealthy patrons , as well as by the number of forgeries in circulation after his death . Most are of the central panel only and do not deviate from the original . These copies were usually painted on a much smaller scale , and they vary considerably in quality . Many were created a generation after Bosch , and some took the form of wall tapestries .
The De Beatis description , only rediscovered by Steppe in the 1960s , cast new light on the commissioning of a work that was previously thought — since it has no central religious image — to be an atypical altarpiece . Many Netherlandish diptychs intended for private use are known , and even a few triptychs , but the Bosch panels are unusually large compared with these and contain no donor portraits . Possibly they were commissioned to celebrate a wedding , as large Italian paintings for private houses frequently were . Nevertheless , The Garden 's bold depictions do not rule out a church commission , such was the contemporaneous fervor to warn against immorality . In 1566 , the triptych served as the model for a tapestry that hangs at El Escorial monastery near Madrid .
Upon the death of Henry III , the painting passed into the hands of his nephew William the Silent , the founder of the House of Orange @-@ Nassau and leader of the Dutch Revolt against Spain . In 1568 , however , the Duke of Alba confiscated the picture and brought it to Spain , where it became the property of one Don Fernando , the Duke 's illegitimate son and heir and the Spanish commander in the Netherlands . Phillip II acquired the painting at auction in 1591 ; two years later he presented it to El Escorial . A contemporaneous description of the transfer records the gift on 8 July 1593 of a " painting in oils , with two wings depicting the variety of the world , illustrated with grotesqueries by Hieronymus Bosch , known as ' Del Madroño ' " . After an unbroken 342 years at El Escorial , the work moved to the Museo del Prado in 1939 , along with other works by Bosch . The triptych is not particularly well @-@ preserved ; the paint of the middle panel especially has flaked off around joints in the wood .
= = Interpretation = =
Because only bare details are known of Bosch 's life , biographical interpretation of his work becomes extremely difficult for academics , who must largely rely on conjecture . Individual motifs and elements of symbolism may be explained , but so far relating these to each other and to his work as a whole has remained elusive . The enigmatic scenes depicted on the panels of the inner triptych of The Garden of Earthly Delights have been studied by many scholars , who have often arrived at contradictory interpretations . Analyses based on symbolic systems ranging from the alchemical , astrological , and heretical to the folkloric and subconscious have all attempted to explain the complex objects and ideas presented in the work . Until the early 20th century , Bosch 's paintings were generally thought to incorporate attitudes of Medieval didactic literature and sermons . Charles De Tolnay wrote :
The oldest writers , Dominicus Lampsonius and Karel van Mander , attached themselves to his most evident side , to the subject ; their conception of Bosch , inventor of fantastic pieces of devilry and of infernal scenes , which prevails today ( 1937 ) in the public at large , and prevailed with historians until the last quarter of the 19th century .
= = = Warning against sin = = =
Some critics have interpreted the triptych as a warning on the transience of earthly pleasure . In 1960 art historian Ludwig von Baldass wrote that Bosch shows " how sin came into the world through the Creation of Eve , how fleshly lusts spread over the entire earth , promoting all the Deadly Sins , and how this necessarily leads straight to Hell " . Charles De Tolnay wrote that the center panel represents " the nightmare of humanity " , where " the artist 's purpose above all is to show the evil consequences of sensual pleasure and to stress its ephemeral character " . Supporters of this view see the painting as a sequential narrative , with the left @-@ hand panel showing humanity 's innocence in Eden , the central panel the corruption of that innocence , and finally humanity 's punishment in Hell . At various times in its history , the triptych was known as La Lujuria ( Lust ) , The Sins of the World and The Wages of Sin .
= = = Woman 's temptation = = =
Proponents of this idea point out that moralists during Bosch 's era believed that it was woman 's — ultimately Eve 's — temptation that drew men into a life of lechery and sin . This would explain why the women in the center panel are very much among the active participants in bringing about the Fall . At the time , the power of femininity was often rendered by showing a female surrounded by a circle of males . A late 15th @-@ century engraving by Israhel van Meckenem shows a group of men prancing ecstatically around a female figure . The Master of the Banderoles 's 1460 work the Pool of Youth similarly shows a group of females standing in a space surrounded by admiring figures . Here in Bosch 's center panel the image of males circulating around females has grown into fully grotesque dimensions . The 31 females in the central pool are surrounded by about 100 males performing stunts while riding on fancy animals in an endless , circular caravan .
= = = A false paradise = = =
This line of reasoning is consistent with interpretations of Bosch 's other major moralising works which hold up the folly of humans , e.g. , the Death and the Miser and the Haywain Triptych . The rendering of each of these works is such that , according to the art historian Walter Bosing , it is difficult to believe " Bosch intended to condemn what he painted with such visually enchanting forms and colors " . Bosing concluded however that a medieval mindset was naturally suspicious of material beauty , in any form , and that the sumptuousness of Bosch 's description may have been intended to convey a false paradise , teeming with transient beauty .
= = = Rebirth of a joyous world = = =
In 1947 , Wilhelm Fraenger argued that the triptych 's center panel portrays a joyous world when humanity will experience a rebirth of the innocence enjoyed by Adam and Eve before their fall . In his book The Millennium of Hieronymus Bosch , Fraenger wrote that Bosch was a member of the heretical sect known as the Adamites — who were also known as the Homines intelligentia and Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit . This radical group , active in the area of the Rhine and the Netherlands , strove for a form of spirituality immune from sin even in the flesh and imbued the concept of lust with a paradisical innocence .
Fraenger believed The Garden of Earthly Delights was commissioned by the order 's Grand Master . Later critics have agreed that , because of their obscure complexity , Bosch 's " altarpieces " may well have been commissioned for non @-@ devotional purposes . The Homines intelligentia cult sought to regain the innocent sexuality enjoyed by Adam and Eve before the Fall . Fraenger writes that the figures in Bosch 's work " are peacefully frolicking about the tranquil garden in vegetative innocence , at one with animals and plants and the sexuality that inspires them seems to be pure joy , pure bliss . " Fraenger argued against the notion that the hellscape shows the retribution handed down for sins committed in the center panel . Fraenger saw the figures in the garden as peaceful , naïve , and innocent in expressing their sexuality , and at one with nature . In contrast , those being punished in Hell comprise " musicians , gamblers , desecrators of judgment and punishment " .
Examining the symbolism in Bosch 's art — " the freakish riddles ... the irresponsible phantasmagoria of an ecstatic " — Fraenger concluded that his interpretation applied to Bosch 's three ( fully survived ) triptychs only : The Garden of Earthly Delights , Temptation of Saint Anthony , and The Haywain Triptych . Fraenger distinguished these pieces from the artist 's other works and argued that despite their anti @-@ cleric polemic they were nevertheless all altarpieces , probably commissioned for the devotional purposes of a mystery cult . While commentators accept Fraenger 's analysis as astute and broad in scope , they have often questioned his final conclusions . These are regarded by many scholars as hypothesis only , and built on an unstable foundation and what can only be conjecture . Critics argue that artists during this period painted not for their own pleasure but for commission , while the language and secularization of a post @-@ Renaissance mind @-@ set projected onto Bosch would have been alien to the late @-@ medieval painter .
= = = Humanity on the eve of the Flood = = =
Fraenger 's thesis stimulated others to examine The Garden more closely . Writer Carl Linfert also senses the joyfulness of the people in the center panel , but rejects Fraenger 's assertion that the painting is a " doctrinaire " work espousing the " guiltless sexuality " of the Adamite sect . While the figures engage in amorous acts without any suggestion of the forbidden , Linfert points to the elements in the center panel suggesting death and temporality : some figures turn away from the activity , seeming to lose hope in deriving pleasure from the passionate frolicking of their cohorts . Writing in 1969 , art historian E. H. Gombrich drew on a close reading of Genesis and the Gospel According to Saint Matthew to suggest that the central panel is , according to Linfert , " the state of mankind on the eve of the Flood , when men still pursued pleasure with no thought of the morrow , their only sin the unawareness of sin " .
= = = Irony and anachronisms = = =
In recent years several art historians have emphasized the ironic elements of The Garden . Erwin Pokorny concluded after many years of research on the complete work of Bosch , including the drawings , that in The Garden Bosch presented " a moralizing ironical wisdom that is sometimes reminiscent of Sebastian Brant ( 1457 – 1521 ) or Erasmus of Rotterdam ( 1465 – 1536 ) " . He pointed out that literature and art of Bosch 's time reflected not only the belief in hell after life , but also the belief in paradise after life . But then he listed many examples from the center panel showing that Bosch presented a new perspective by ridiculing this longing for paradise . Examples are fantastic acrobatics , equivalence of fruits and body parts , the parade of 100 males riding around the pool of females , and women signaling boredom by holding their heads in their hands .
Art historian Guido Boulboullé arrived at a similar conclusion concerning the two side panels . Adam and Eve are created within a mockery of a paradise that is already polluted by ugly and hideous creatures . About the hellscape he writes : " [ A ] gruesome comedy pervades the whole panel " . While the " Prince of Hell " ( see above ) clearly alluded to earlier devil images , he can no longer be taken seriously here because of the many ridiculous attributes that he is equipped with . Boulboullé concludes that " Bosch does not present a clear , but an ambiguous world . ... It can be understood as a moral insight into the incurability of human folly , whose ridiculousness only becomes endurable by laughing . "
Bosch 's ironic intention is also conspicuous in the three anachronisms in the lower right corner of each of the three panels . During the creation of Adam and Eve there is already a book in the hands of a fantastic creature . In The Garden a clothed person appears ; and in the hell , objects from the real world of contracts and business — pen , paper , and seal — enter the scene . " Bosch 's innovative concept of vice allusions in the Garden of Delights " thus can be viewed both as a grim warning and as an entertaining satire . These two contrasting interpretations are documented already in 1605 ( José de Sigüenza ) and 1627 ( Francisco de Quevedo ) , respectively .
= = = The corrupt gardens of Coudenberg = = =
Following this perspective , the triptych allegorically represents the gardens of the old Palace of Coudenberg ( Brussels ) , which were actually often depicted as an expression of the luxurious and corrupting headquarters of the Habsburg domination .
In brief , the first panel represents the once heavenly Burgundian Netherlands starting to be defiled ( after the death of Charles the Bold ) . The large central panel expresses the current situation , with the local Flemish @-@ Dutch elites being completely corrupted . The last panel anticipates the tragic fate of the region under the imperial government .
All details were carefully planned and are meaningful . For instance , the so @-@ called " Tree @-@ Man " symbolizes Bosch ( e.g. , " forest " , " wood " ) in the role of an eternal hangover ( the consequence of the dissolute party ) . By this way the artist punished himself because he was receiving well @-@ paid commissions from both the Habsburgs and the Nassau ( at that time , the imperial mais courtiers ) . In this context , Bosch systematically selected Maximilian Habsburg ( the Holy Roman Emperor ) to be his nemesis , whose anthropomorphic head is even shaped into the right limb of the " Tree @-@ Man " , aggravating the expiatory punishment of the artist .
= = Legacy = =
Because Bosch was such a unique and visionary artist , his influence has not spread as widely as that of other major painters of his era . However , there have been instances of later artists incorporating elements of The Garden of Earthly Delights into their own work . Pieter Bruegel the Elder ( c . 1525 – 1569 ) in particular directly acknowledged Bosch as an important influence and inspiration , and incorporated many elements of the inner right panel into several of his most popular works . Bruegel 's Mad Meg depicts a peasant woman leading an army of women to pillage Hell , while his The Triumph of Death ( c . 1562 ) echoes the monstrous Hellscape of The Garden , and utilizes , according to the Royal Museum of Fine Arts Antwerp , the same " unbridled imagination and the fascinating colours " .
While the Italian court painter Giuseppe Arcimboldo ( c . 1527 – 1593 ) did not create Hellscapes , he painted a body of strange and " fantastic " vegetable portraits — generally heads of people composed of plants , roots , webs and various other organic matter . These strange portraits rely on and echo a motif that was in part inspired by Bosch 's willingness to break from strict and faithful representations of nature .
David Teniers the Younger ( c . 1610 – 1690 ) was a Flemish painter who quoted both Bosch and Bruegel throughout his career in such works as his versions of the Temptation of St Anthony , the Rich Man in Hell and his version of Mad Meg .
During the early 20th century , Bosch 's work enjoyed a popular resurrection . The early surrealists ' fascination with dreamscapes , the autonomy of the imagination , and a free @-@ flowing connection to the unconscious brought about a renewed interest in his work . Bosch 's imagery struck a chord with Joan Miró and Salvador Dalí in particular . Both knew his paintings firsthand , having seen The Garden of Earthly Delights in the Museo del Prado , and both regarded him as an art @-@ historical mentor . Miró 's The Tilled Field contains several parallels to Bosch 's Garden : similar flocks of birds ; pools from which living creatures emerge ; and oversize disembodied ears all echo the Dutch master 's work . Dalí 's 1929 The Great Masturbator is similar to an image on the right side of the left panel of Bosch 's Garden , composed of rocks , bushes and little animals resembling a face with a prominent nose and long eyelashes .
When André Breton wrote his first Surrealist Manifesto in 1924 , his historical precedents as inclusions named only Gustave Moreau , Georges Seurat and Uccello . However , the Surrealist movement soon rediscovered Bosch and Breughel , who quickly became popular among the Surrealist painters . René Magritte and Max Ernst both were inspired by Bosch 's The Garden of Earthly Delights .
The triptych has also been the inspiration for works of fiction , among them Ian Watson 's science fiction novel The Garden of Delights , based around the discovery of a planet which resembles Bosch 's painting .
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= 1994 Gator Bowl =
The 1994 Gator Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Tennessee Volunteers at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium in Gainesville , Florida on December 30 , 1994 . The game was the final contest of the 1994 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , and ended in a 45 @-@ 23 victory for Tennessee .
The 1994 Gator Bowl saw 17th @-@ ranked Virginia Tech face off against regional rival Tennessee at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium on the campus of the University of Florida . The game was moved to Gainesville in 1994 due to renovations to the Gator Bowl for the Jacksonville Jaguars . Virginia Tech came into the game with an 8 – 3 regular @-@ season record that included a record of 5 – 2 in Big East Conference competition . The Tennessee Volunteers came entered the game with a regular @-@ season record of 7 – 4 under head coach Phillip Fulmer that included a 5 – 3 record in Southeastern Conference competition .
The game kicked off on December 30 , 1994 in Gainesville , Florida . From the start , Tennessee 's high @-@ scoring offense dominated . The Volunteers scored two touchdowns in the first quarter and three in the second , while Virginia Tech was able to muster a lone touchdown and field goal in the second quarter . At halftime , Tennessee had a commanding 35 – 10 lead , behind the strong play of Freshman QB Peyton Manning .
The Hokies struggled back in the third quarter , scoring six unanswered points to close the score to 35 – 16 . In the fourth quarter , however , Tennessee answered Virginia Tech 's effort with 10 points , putting the game out of reach for the Hokies , who managed only a single touchdown in the fourth quarter . The Hokies fumbled the ball five times — losing it once — and threw two interceptions , allowing Tennessee to cruise to an easy victory , 45 – 23 . Tennessee running back James Stewart was named the game 's most valuable player .
= = Renovations = =
In early 1994 , Jacksonville Mayor Ed Austin proposed $ 49 million in renovations to Jacksonville 's aging Gator Bowl Stadium in order to keep the stadium up to date for the annual Florida @-@ Georgia rivalry game . After Florida and Georgia accepted the renovations , agreeing to play the rivalry game in Athens , Georgia during the renovations , Jacksonville investors proposed expanding the renovation plan in order to attract a National Football League team . The price tag was revised upward — to $ 121 million — and the city successfully attracted a team . Shortly after Jacksonville was awarded its new franchise — the Jacksonville Jaguars — the final plans were unveiled . The stadium would have additional luxury boxes , expanded seating , and upgraded facilities for teams and fans .
The renovations were much more extensive than had initially been proposed , and required more time to be completed . Instead of beginning in early 1995 , work would have to begin in 1994 , leaving the site of the 1994 Gator Bowl ( played on Dec. 30 ) in doubt . By the end of January 1994 , as the Gator Bowl was being demolished , that doubt was also demolished when a deal was struck to host the Gator Bowl at the University of Florida , in that school 's Ben Hill Griffin Stadium . The game 's title sponsor , Outback Steakhouse , and its television sponsor , TBS , would remain constant , and both were in their final year of contracts with the Gator Bowl .
= = Team selection = =
Prior to the start of the 1994 @-@ 1995 college football season , the Gator Bowl was snubbed by the newly formed Bowl Alliance , a group of football conferences , bowl games , and television networks created to match up the No. 1 and No. 2 college football teams at the conclusion of each season . Though the Gator Bowl offered to pay $ 115 million for the right to become a Bowl Alliance game , the Orange Bowl was selected in place of the Gator Bowl . This event had repercussions at the end of the season , when the bowl was passed over by high @-@ ranked teams that elected to accept bids to bowls in the new Bowl Alliance .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
During the annual preseason poll of media members covering the Big East conference , Virginia Tech was picked to finish second among Big East teams , behind only Miami . The Hokies entered the 1994 college football season having finished the 1993 season with a win in the 1993 Independence Bowl , and hopes were high that they would return to a bowl game again in 1994 .
The Hokies started the season well , winning their first four games in succession and culminating with a victory against West Virginia in the annual battle for the Black Diamond Trophy . The Hokies , who had begun the season ranked No. 21 in the country , rose to No. 14 by their fifth game of the season , a trip to Syracuse , New York , to play the Syracuse Orange . There , Virginia Tech suffered its first loss of the season , permitting 100 @-@ yard rushing games from Syracuse 's Malcolm Thomas and Kirby Dar Dar , the last time the Hokies allowed two hundred @-@ yard rushers in the same game . Tech responded to the loss by reeling off another three wins in succession . That winning streak ended at No. 6 Miami , when Tech lost its second game of the season , a loss that was followed by a season @-@ ending defeat to perennial rival Virginia . The Hokies concluded the regular season with an 8 – 4 record overall and a 5 – 2 record in the Big East . Ironically , despite their season @-@ ending loss to Virginia , the Hokies were awarded an invitation to the Gator Bowl over the Cavaliers , who lost to North Carolina State in their season @-@ ending game . In addition to that loss , Gator Bowl officials later stated they were reluctant to invite an Atlantic Coast Conference team for a fourth straight year , thus opening the door for the Hokies from the Big East .
= = = Tennessee = = =
The Tennessee Volunteers had finished the 1993 season with a 10 – 2 record and a season @-@ ending loss to the Penn State Nittany Lions under first @-@ year head coach Phillip Fulmer in the Citrus Bowl . Hopes were high that Tennessee 's second year under Fulmer 's command would end better than its first .
Tennessee was ranked No. 13 in the Associated Press preseason poll at the start of the season , but won just one game in its first four of the season , causing the Volunteers to drop out of the top 25 for the first time since 1989 , breaking a streak of 84 consecutive weeks in the poll . To make matters worse , Tennessee 's two starting quarterbacks suffered season @-@ ending injuries during that four @-@ game span . In the Volunteers ' season @-@ opener against UCLA , Jerry Colquitt suffered a knee injury . Backup quarterback Todd Helton was hurt in the fourth game of the season , a loss to Mississippi State . In response to the poor start , Fulmer overhauled his defense and coped with the loss of his first- and second @-@ string quarterbacks by bringing in acclaimed freshman Peyton Manning , son of National Football League star Archie Manning .
Manning 's first start , a Tennessee homecoming game against Washington State , resulted in a 10 – 9 win . Things got progressively better for the Volunteers after Manning assumed the starting role , as they won six of their final regular @-@ season games . The sole loss was a 13 – 17 defeat at the hands of then @-@ No. 10 Alabama in Knoxville . The loss was merely a bump in the road , however , as Tennessee won all four regular @-@ season games that followed , ending the regular season with a 65 – 0 drubbing of in @-@ state rival Vanderbilt . In response to Fulmer 's success at turning the team around from a slow start , he was awarded with a one @-@ year contract extension by the university .
= = Pregame buildup = =
The matchup of Virginia Tech and Tennessee was the first game between the two teams since 1937 , an unusual fact since both teams are located in the Appalachian Mountains and the two schools are just 3 @.@ 5 hours by car apart . This proximity generated multiple news stories about towns lying between the two schools and the divided loyalties of their fans . In Washington County , Virginia , which lies along the Tennessee border , the county supervisor — a Virginia Tech graduate — proclaimed the week of the Gator Bowl to be " Hokie Week " over the objections of the county attorney , who graduated from Tennessee . This natural rivalry was amplified by a basketball game held the day prior to the Gator Bowl that pitted the two schools ' varsity teams against each other . In exchange for participating in the game , each team received $ 1 @.@ 5 million from the Gator Bowl Association .
Ticket sales were brisk in the month between the announcement of the Tech @-@ Tennessee matchup and the day of the game . By December 14 , two weeks after the initial announcement , Virginia Tech had sold 16 @,@ 000 tickets to Tennessee 's 9 @,@ 000 . On December 23 , one week before the game , Tech had sold 17 @,@ 653 tickets . By the day of the game , the two teams had combined to sell approximately 33 @,@ 000 tickets . Two days prior to the game , spread bettors favored Tennessee to win by seven points .
= = = Tennessee offense = = =
The Tennessee offense was led by freshman quarterback Peyton Manning , son of NFL great Archie Manning , who had played against the Hokies in the 1968 Liberty Bowl . During the regular season , Peyton played in seven games , winning six of them and completing 86 of his 139 pass attempts for 1 @,@ 114 yards , 11 touchdowns , and six interceptions . Manning 's passer rating of 145 @.@ 2 was the third @-@ highest among starting quarterbacks in the SEC . In recognition of his achievements , Manning was named the Southeastern Conference Freshman of the Year . One of Manning 's more prominent passing targets was Billy Williams , who , despite suffering a stress fracture in the first game of the season , recovered to catch 20 passes for 217 yards and two touchdowns . He also returned 17 kickoffs for an average of 20 @.@ 8 yards per return . Manning 's favorite target was Joey Kent , who caught 36 passes for 470 yards during the regular season , but slightly injured his ankle in a pre @-@ Gator Bowl practice .
The Volunteers ' rushing offense had been led by Aaron Hayden during the regular season , but Hayden broke his leg during Tennessee 's final regular season game . Due to the injury , James Stewart was forecast to start the game at running back for the Volunteers . During the regular season , Tennessee was ranked No. 13 in rushing , accumulating an average of 231 @.@ 2 rushing yards per game . Stewart accounted for 93 @.@ 5 yards of that total , having carried the ball 170 times for 1 @,@ 028 yards and 11 touchdowns during the regular season . One of Tennessee 's other backup running backs , Jay Graham , was predicted to be kept out of the game due to an injury , but played after undergoing surgery . Graham , who rushed 61 times for 275 yards during the regular season , suffered a broken jaw after being punched in the face by a teammate . Because of the injury to Graham , fourth @-@ string running back Ronnie Pillow , who had carried the ball just five times during the regular season , was predicted to back up Stewart during the game .
Prior to the game , Tennessee coach Fulmer pronounced himself unsatisfied with the Vols ' performance in opponents ' red zone during the regular season . Tennessee scored on just 36 of 52 possessions inside the opposition 's 20 @-@ yard line , a conversion rate of 69 @.@ 2 percent . Fulmer vowed to raise that percentage to what it had been the previous season , when Tennessee converted 41 of 46 possessions , or 89 @.@ 1 percent .
= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =
On offense , the Virginia Tech Hokies were led by quarterback Maurice DeShazo , who completed 164 of his 296 pass attempts during the regular season for 2 @,@ 110 yards , 13 touchdowns , and 13 interceptions . DeShazo 's success during the season helped him become the No. 4 all @-@ time passing leader in Virginia Tech history , finishing his career with 5 @,@ 720 passing yards . DeShazo 's favorite passing target was wide receiver Antonio Freeman , who finished the season having caught 38 passes for 586 yards and five touchdowns . The Gator Bowl was Freeman 's final collegiate game , just as it was DeShazo 's . Freeman finished his career as the No. 1 receiver in Virginia Tech history in terms of yardage ( bowl games were not counted in statistics until 2003 ) with 2 @,@ 207 receiving yards . Freeman also was the team 's leading punt returner , having returned 39 kicks for 467 yards and a touchdown , and received second @-@ team All @-@ Big East honors .
On the ground , Virginia Tech 's rushing offense was led by running back Dwayne Thomas , who carried the ball 142 times for 642 yards and five touchdowns . Backing up Thomas was Tommy Edwards , son of former Virginia Tech player Ken Edwards , who played with the Hokies from 1967 to 1969 , including the Hokies ' trip to the 1968 Liberty Bowl . By participating in the Gator Bowl and in the previous season 's Independence Bowl , the Edwardses became the first father @-@ son combo in Virginia Tech history to have competed in a bowl game .
At the beginning of December , Virginia Tech 's offensive preparations for the Gator Bowl were disrupted when offensive coordinator Gary Tranquill abruptly quit the team in order to join friend Nick Saban , who had been hired as the head coach at Michigan State . Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer announced simultaneous with Tranquill 's departure that assistant head coach Billy Hite would control the offense during the Gator Bowl . Shortly after the announcement of Tranquill 's departure , Virginia Tech announced that former offensive coordinator Ricky Bustle would be returning to the team to fill the position after the Gator Bowl . Though he was not able to actively coach the team during the Gator Bowl , Bustle offered advice and strategy to Beamer during the weeks before the game .
Virginia Tech receiver Cornelius White fractured his patella while playing pick @-@ up basketball .
= = = Tennessee defense = = =
During the regular season , the Volunteers ' scoring defense was ranked the second @-@ best in the SEC , allowing an average of just 16 @.@ 82 points per game . Tennessee also allowed just eight passing touchdowns and 20 touchdowns overall . One of Tennessee 's defensive leaders was defensive end Steve White , who led the Volunteers in sacks and tackles for loss with seven and eight , respectively . Tennessee 's leader in interceptions was Ronald Davis , who had two during the regular season . Scott Galyon had the most tackles on the team , with 93 .
Strong safety Ray Austin , who had been named most valuable player in the Volunteers ' loss to Penn State during the 1993 Citrus Bowl , had 50 tackles — second @-@ best among Tennessee defensive backs — two fumble recoveries , a sack , and two tackles for loss despite playing in only six games . The Volunteers ' defense also featured a cornerback named Tony Edge , a player from Virginia 's Phoebus High School who had been heavily recruited by both Virginia Tech and Tennessee . Edge suffered a dislocated shoulder in the Volunteers ' last regular @-@ season game , but pledged he would play against the Hokies despite doctors ' disapproval .
= = = Virginia Tech defense = = =
Defensively , the Virginia Tech Hokies allowed an average of 308 yards per game and 18 @.@ 4 points per game . During the last two games of the regular season , however , the Hokies permitted 34 points and 42 points to Rutgers and Virginia , respectively . The Virginia Tech defense was led by two strong performers in the defensive secondary . Safety Torrian Gray intercepted four passes during the regular season , returning one of the catches for a touchdown . He tied with cornerback William Yarborough for the most interceptions on the team during the regular season . Neither player was the team 's leading tackler , however . That honor went to linebacker George DelRicco , who had 130 tackles during the regular season .
Fellow linebacker Ken Brown was named a first @-@ team All @-@ Big East selection , signifying his status as one of the best players at his position in the conference . He finished the season with 93 tackles , including six for loss and two sacks , enough for No. 3 on the team in tackles . Despite that success , Brown suffered a pulled hamstring before Virginia Tech 's final regular @-@ season game and his presence in the Gator Bowl was doubtful . Virginia Tech sophomore defensive end Cornell Brown was named the best defensive college player in the state of Virginia by the Roanoke Times after earning 20 tackles for loss , including 11 sacks , and 35 quarterback hurries during the regular season .
= = Game summary = =
The 1994 Gator Bowl kicked off on December 30 , 1994 at 8 p.m. EST at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium in Gainesville , Florida . An estimated 62 @,@ 200 fans were in attendance , and millions more people watched the game on television . TBS televised the game in the United States , and Gary Bender , Pat Haden , and Craig Sager were the broadcasters . Tennessee won the ceremonial pre @-@ game coin toss and elected to kick off to Virginia Tech to begin the game .
= = = First quarter = = =
Virginia Tech 's Tommy Edwards fielded the opening kickoff , which was returned to the Tech 29 @-@ yard line , where the Hokies ' offense began the first play of the game , an incomplete pass by Virginia Tech quarterback Maurice DeShazo . On the second play of the game , DeShazo again attempted a forward pass . This time , however , the ball was intercepted by Tennessee linebacker Tyrone Hines . Hines returned the ball to the Tech 28 @-@ yard line , allowing the Volunteers ' offense to begin the game already in scoring position . Tennessee 's first play was a run up the middle by James Stewart , who gained three yards . On the second play , Tennessee quarterback Peyton Manning completed a nine @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Nilo Silvan . During the play , Silvan suffered a broken ankle and did not return to the game . Now at the 16 @-@ yard line , Tennessee continued its drive with a rush by Stewart , who wasn 't able to advance the ball . On the next play , the Volunteers were penalized 10 yards for a block in the back of a Virginia Tech player . Despite the penalty and an incomplete pass on a subsequent play , Tennessee was able to gain a first down to the five @-@ yard line with a pass from Manning to Joey Kent . Two plays later , the Volunteers scored on a one @-@ yard touchdown run by Stewart . The extra point kick was successful , and Tennessee took a 7 – 0 lead with 11 : 41 remaining in the first quarter .
Following Tennessee 's touchdown , the two teams traded possessions , each going three and out . Virginia Tech regained the ball after a Tennessee punt to its 20 @-@ yard line with 7 : 31 remaining in the quarter . After a Tech fumble that was recovered by the Hokies , Tech running back Dwayne Thomas ran nine yards for the first Tech first down of the game . After an incomplete pass , DeShazo and Thomas connected on an eight @-@ yard pass before Thomas broke free for an 11 @-@ yard run and another first down . Thomas continued advancing the ball , picking up eight yards on two rushing plays . DeShazo then completed a four @-@ yard pass for a first down at the Tennessee 39 @-@ yard line . There , however , Tennessee 's defense stiffened and did not allow the Hokies another first down . The Tech punt was downed at the Tennessee 7 @-@ yard line , where the Volunteers began their third possession of the game .
On the first play of the drive , Tennessee committed a five @-@ yard false start penalty , pushing the Volunteers back toward their goal line . A Tennessee rush was stopped for no gain , then Stewart picked up eight yards on a running play . Needing eight yards for a first down , Manning threw an 11 @-@ yard pass to Kent for the first down . On the next play , Manning completed a 43 @-@ yard toss to Kent , driving the Volunteers into the Virginia Tech half of the field . Manning 's next throw was a 35 @-@ yard touchdown throw to Marcus Nash . The extra point was good , and Tennessee took a 14 – 0 lead with 1 : 08 remaining in the quarter .
Tennessee 's kickoff went out of bounds , allowing Tech 's offense to start at its 35 @-@ yard line . DeShazo threw an incomplete pass , then completed one for a nine @-@ yard gain . Needing one yard for a first down , Tech fullback Bryan Edwards was stopped for a loss and the Hokies were forced to punt . Tennessee fair caught the ball at their 20 @-@ yard line , where the Volunteers ' offense again began to work . A five @-@ yard penalty pushed the Volunteers backward , but running back Jay Graham regained the lost five yards with a run on the next play and the clock ran out in the quarter . At the end of the first quarter , Tennessee led , 14 – 0 .
= = = Second quarter = = =
At the beginning of the second quarter , Tennessee had the ball at its 19 @-@ yard line , facing a second down and ten . On the first play of the quarter , Tennessee ran an end @-@ around to Kendrick Jones , who ran the ball for 76 yards , giving the Volunteers a first down at the Virginia Tech five @-@ yard line . Three plays later , running back Jay Graham crossed the goal line for the first Tennessee touchdown of the second quarter . The extra point was good , and with 13 : 23 remaining in the first half , Tennessee took a 21 – 0 lead .
Following Tennessee 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff and a short kick return , the Virginia Tech offense began at its 24 @-@ yard line . The first Tech play of the quarter , a run up the middle by Edmonds , resulted in a 17 @-@ yard gain and a first down . Dwayne Thomas followed Edmonds ' run with one of his own , advancing the ball to the 50 @-@ yard line . He pushed into Tennessee territory on the next play , a five @-@ yard run that gave the Hokies a first down at the Tennessee 45 @-@ yard line . DeShazo then ran nine yards , and Tech gained a first down on the next play . Inside the Tennessee 35 @-@ yard line , however , the Volunteers ' defense stiffened . DeShazo passed for a seven @-@ yard gain , but the Hokies were unable to gain a first down until DeShazo scrambled for a 13 @-@ yard gain on fourth down . The run kept the Tech drive alive as the Hokies now had a first down at the Tennessee 14 @-@ yard line . Tennessee forced another third @-@ down play , but the Hokies gained a first down at the Tennessee three @-@ yard line with a pass from DeShazo to Thomas . Four plays later , the Hokies scored their first points of the game as Thomas dove across the goal line on fourth down . The subsequent extra point was good , and the Hokies cut Tennessee 's lead to 21 – 7 with 5 : 17 remaining in the first half .
Virginia Tech 's kickoff was returned to the Tennessee 26 @-@ yard line , and the Volunteers ' offense returned to the field . Instead of Peyton Manning , backup quarterback Branndon Stewart came on the field to lead Tennessee . On the second play of the Tennessee drive , Stewart gained 24 yards on a quarterback scramble , giving the Volunteers a first down at the Tennessee 49 @-@ yard line . On the next play , he completed a 27 @-@ yard pass to Kent for another first down . Two plays later , James Stewart broke free for an 18 @-@ yard run that gave Tennessee a first down at the Virginia Tech one @-@ yard line . One play later , Stewart crossed the goal line for Tennessee 's second touchdown of the quarter . The extra point was good , and Tennessee 's lead was again 21 points , 28 – 7 , with 3 : 22 remaining in the quarter .
The Volunteers ' kickoff was returned to the Tech 22 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began another drive . On the first play of the drive , however , Maurice DeShazo scrambled for a ten @-@ yard gain but fumbled the ball . The loose ball was recovered by a Tennessee defender , and the Volunteers took over on offense from the Tech 32 @-@ yard line . Branndon Stewart came out onto the field in place of Manning , and completed an eight @-@ yard pass to James Stewart to begin the drive . James Stewart then ran to the 20 @-@ yard line for a first down . On the next play , Tennessee executed a trick play in which James Stewart received the ball via a hand @-@ off , imitating a running play , but threw the ball instead . The pass was caught by James Kendrick for a touchdown , and after the extra point , Tennessee had a 35 – 7 lead with 2 : 08 remaining in the first half .
The kickoff was returned to the Tech 27 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began the final drive of the second quarter . Antonio Freeman caught a six @-@ yard pass from DeShazo , then DeShazo completed a five @-@ yard pass to Shawn Scales . DeShazo completed a four @-@ yard pass , then Ken Oxendine had a seven @-@ yard catch from DeShazo at the Tech 49 @-@ yard line . On the next play , Oxendine caught a short pass that pushed the Hokies to the Tennessee 45 @-@ yard line , then DeShazo threw his first incomplete pass of the drive . The incompletion stopped the clock with 37 seconds remaining , allowing time for DeShazo to complete a 26 @-@ yard pass to Bryan Still on the next play . Now inside the Tennessee red zone , the Hokies continued to move the ball via short passes . Tech gained a first down at the Tennessee six @-@ yard line , and used a timeout to stop the clock in order to have a chance to earn a touchdown before halftime . On a subsequent play , however , Tech committed a five @-@ yard penalty , and Tech head coach Frank Beamer ordered kicker Ryan Williams into the game . Williams ' 27 @-@ yard field goal attempt was good , and Tech cut Tennessee 's lead to 35 – 10 at the end of the first half .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the game , Tennessee received the ball to begin the second half . Tech 's kickoff was returned to the Tennessee 13 @-@ yard line , and Peyton Manning returned to the field to lead the Volunteers ' offense . The first play of the second half was an eight @-@ yard run by James Stewart , which was followed by a six @-@ yard run by Stewart for a first down at the Tennessee 27 @-@ yard line . Another Stewart run was followed by two short completions from Manning , and the Volunteers had another first down at the 37 @-@ yard line . Tennessee 's next play was negated by an offensive pass interference penalty against the Volunteers , who were pushed back to the 22 @-@ yard line by the penalty . Though Manning gained 22 yards with a third @-@ down pass , Tennessee was unable to gain enough yards for a first down and punted . During the kick , Tennessee committed a penalty and had to kick again after the five @-@ yard penalty was assessed . The punt was fair caught at the Tech 25 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began their first offensive possession of the second half with 10 : 14 remaining in the third quarter .
On the first play , DeShazo completed an 18 @-@ yard pass to Still , who gave the Hokies a first down at their 43 @-@ yard line . On the next play , Tech wide receiver Antonio Freeman committed a pass interference penalty , pushing the Hokies back 15 yards . Dwayne Thomas made good the penalty by gaining 16 yards on an option run , which was followed by a 17 @-@ yard pass from DeShazo to Freeman , who kept the Hokies ' drive going with a first down at the Tennessee 39 @-@ yard line . After an incomplete pass , Thomas broke free for a 27 @-@ yard run along the left side of the field , giving Tech a first down at the Tennessee 13 @-@ yard line . Tennessee 's defense held for three plays , forcing a fourth down . Instead of kicking a field goal , the Hokies attempted to convert the fourth down by running the ball . DeShazo scrambled , broke free of the defense , and crossed the goal line for the first Tech touchdown of the second half . Williams missed the extra point kick , however , and Tech cut Tennessee 's lead to 35 – 16 with 7 : 03 remaining in the quarter .
The kickoff was returned to the Tennessee 17 @-@ yard line , and Tennessee 's offense began work . The Volunteers were aided by a five @-@ yard offsides penalty against Virginia Tech on the first play of the drive , but the Hokies stopped the Tennessee offense for losses or no gain until Manning threw a 14 @-@ yard pass on third down , pushing Tennessee to the 34 @-@ yard line . After two incomplete passes , Manning scrambled 27 yards for another first down , this time at the Tech 39 @-@ yard line . Once there , however , the Virginia Tech defense stiffened and did not allow another first down during the drive . Tennessee kicker John Becksvoort came into the game , seemingly to attempt a 48 @-@ yard field goal . The kick turned out to be a trick play — an attempted pass by the kick holder — but Hokie defender Mike Williams tackled the holder for a loss .
After the failed trick play , the Hokies ' offense started at their 44 @-@ yard line . The first Tech play of the drive was a 15 @-@ yard pass from DeShazo to Still for a first down . A three @-@ yard run by Thomas was followed by a seven @-@ yard reverse by Still for another first down at the Tennessee 29 @-@ yard line . On first down , Thomas pushed the Hokies eight yards forward with a run up the middle . This was followed by two incomplete passes , bringing up fourth down . Again , Tech head coach Frank Beamer elected to try to convert the fourth down rather than kick a field goal . Unlike Tech 's previous fourth down , however , the try was unsuccessful after DeShazo mishandled the snap and was tackled for a loss . Virginia Tech turned the ball over on downs , and Tennessee 's offense returned to the game with 1 : 31 remaining in the quarter .
The Volunteers started at their 27 @-@ yard line to begin the drive , but went three and out and punted back to the Hokies without gaining a first down . The kick was returned to the Tech 39 @-@ yard line , where the Hokies ' offense started with 31 seconds remaining in the quarter . On the first play of the drive , wide receiver Bryan Still broke away from the Tennessee defense and was wide open for a pass . Maurice DeShazo threw the ball to Still , but Still dropped the pass after it bounced off his chest , thus denying the Hokies a touchdown . Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer later cited the dropped pass as a critical turning point in the game , saying , " I think if he could have made that catch , we could have gotten back in the game . " Tech player Torrian Gray agreed , saying , " When he dropped the ball , that took a lot out of us . " After Still 's dropped pass , DeShazo threw two incomplete passes and Virginia Tech punted back to Tennessee . The kick was caught by near the Tennessee 10 @-@ yard line , and returned all the way to the Virginia Tech 37 @-@ yard line . At the end of the third quarter , Tennessee still led , 35 – 16 .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
The fourth quarter began with Tennessee in possession of the ball and facing a first @-@ and @-@ 10 at the Virginia Tech 37 @-@ yard line after a long punt return . Stewart ran twice for six yards , then Manning completed a pass to Kent at the 20 @-@ yard line for a first down . Manning then completed a pass to Nash for another first down at the Tech five @-@ yard line . Two plays later , Stewart scored his third touchdown of the game with a five @-@ yard run to the right side of the field . The extra point was good , and with 13 : 17 remaining in the game , Tennessee took a 42 – 16 lead .
Bryan Still fielded the Tennessee kickoff and returned it to the 19 @-@ yard line of Virginia Tech . After a short pass , DeShazo threw his second interception of the game . Tennessee defender John Summers returned the catch to the Tech 19 @-@ yard line , and backup quarterback Branndon Stewart returned to the game for Tennessee 's offense . James Stewart took the first play of the Volunteers ' drive , an eight @-@ yard gain , then backup Jay Graham entered the game and ran to the five @-@ yard line for a first down . After the next play — , a two @-@ yard run by Graham — Tennessee committed a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty , pushing the Volunteers back to the 17 @-@ yard line . Branndon Stewart completed a pass to tight end David Horn , pushing Tennessee back to the three @-@ yard line , but not gaining enough for a first down . Tennessee kicker John Becksvoort returned to the game , and his 19 @-@ yard field goal attempt was good , giving the Volunteers a 45 – 16 lead with 9 : 41 to go in the game .
Following the kickoff and return , backup Virginia Tech quarterback Jim Druckenmiller entered the game to guide the Hokies ' offense . The first play of the drive , however , was a run by backup running back Ken Oxendine , who gained five yards . Two more runs by Oxendine failed to gain a first down , however , and Virginia Tech punted . Tennessee 's Sean Summers returned the kick to the Volunteers ' 40 @-@ yard line , and the Volunteers continued trying to run out the clock . Tennessee failed to gain a first down , and the resulting punt rolled into the end zone for a touchback .
From the Tech 20 @-@ yard line , Druckenmiller completed a 13 @-@ yard pass to Still for a first down at the Tech 33 @-@ yard line . On the next play , Druckenmiller completed a long pass to tight end Bryan Jennings , who carried the ball 41 yards . Following the play , the Volunteers completed a penalty , advancing the ball to the Tennessee 22 @-@ yard line . Two short runs advanced the Hokies to the 19 @-@ yard line , then Druckenmiller completed a 10 @-@ yard pass to Freeman for a first down . On the next play , Druckenmiller connected with Still for a nine @-@ yard touchdown pass . The extra point was good , and Tennessee 's lead was cut to 45 – 23 , but with only 4 : 13 remaining in the game , the game seemed out of reach for the Hokies .
Virginia Tech 's kickoff was recovered in the end zone for a touchback , and the Volunteers started at their 20 @-@ yard line . Tennessee resumed running out the clock via short runs up the middle of the field that kept the game clock ticking down . After not gaining a first down , Tennessee punted to the Hokies with less than two minutes remaining in the game . Tech wide receiver Antonio Freeman returned the kick to the Tech 42 @-@ yard line , and on the first play of the Hokie drive , Druckenmiller completed a 17 @-@ yard pass to the Tennessee 41 @-@ yard line . That completion was followed by a nine @-@ yard pass to Jermaine Holmes . After an incomplete pass that almost was intercepted , Druckenmiller threw an incomplete pass before Oxendine failed to gain enough yards for a first down and Tech turned the ball over on downs . With less than a minute remaining , Tennessee 's offense ran out the remaining seconds on the clock and secured a 45 – 23 victory .
= = Statistical summary = =
In recognition of their performances during the game , Tennessee 's James Stewart and Virginia Tech 's Maurice DeShazo were named the game 's most valuable players . Stewart finished the game having carried the ball 22 times for 85 yards and three rushing touchdowns . Stewart also caught one pass for seven yards and threw a touchdown pass for 19 yards . On the other side , DeShazo completed 17 of his 30 passes for 140 yards and two interceptions . He also ran the ball 11 times for 39 yards and a rushing touchdown .
Though Stewart was named the most valuable player for the Volunteers , multiple Tennessee players had statistically significant games . Volunteer quarterback Peyton Manning finished the game having completed 12 of his 19 pass attempts for 189 yards , one touchdown , and one interception . Backup Tennessee quarterback Brandon Stewart completed all three of his pass attempts , accumulating 49 yards in the process . Tennessee receiver Joey Kent was the primary beneficiary of the Volunteer passing attack , leading all receivers during the game with six receptions for 116 yards . Tennessee 's passing touchdowns went to Kendrick Jones , who also had 37 receiving yards and 76 rushing yards ; and Marcus Nash , who caught three passes for 54 yards .
Virginia Tech 's offense , though far less successful than Tennessee 's , also had some high performers . Running Back Dwayne Thomas finished the game with 19 carries for 102 yards and a touchdown , becoming the game 's leading rusher in terms of yardage , if not points scored . The Hokies ' leading receiver , Bryan Still , caught five passes for 79 yards and a touchdown . The touchdown pass came from Tech backup quarterback Jim Druckenmiller , who finished the game having completed six of his eight pass attempts for 97 yards and the touchdown .
The 68 points scored in the game were a Gator Bowl record at the time , and Tennessee 's 35 first @-@ half points also were a Gator Bowl record . Kendrick Jones ' 76 @-@ yard run on the first play of the second quarter was the longest in Gator Bowl history at the time . Stewart 's three touchdowns and the Volunteers ' six touchdowns were Tennessee bowl game records at the time , and the Volunteers also set Tennessee bowl @-@ game records for most points and offensive yardage .
= = Postgame effects = =
With the win , Tennessee finished the 1994 college football season with an overall record of 8 – 4 . In the final Associated Press poll of the year , the Volunteers were ranked No. 22 . Virginia Tech 's also took it to a final record of 8 – 4 , and the Hokies fell from their No. 17 spot in the AP poll to being unranked . In the USA Today Coaches ' Poll , Tech dropped to No. 24 . This game was also the final meeting of the Hokies and the Volunteers until the 2009 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl . Despite their regional proximity to each other , there were numerous failed attempts at scheduling a game between the universities . These efforts finally paid off in October 2013 when the two schools announced the Battle at Bristol , which will be at the Bristol Motor Speedway in Bristol , Tennessee , on September 10 , 2016 . The game will feature the largest crowd in history to see a football game , i.e. approximately 150 @,@ 000 fans over the current record of 115 @,@ 109 fans who saw Michigan play Notre Dame in September 2013 .
This was the last appearance of an SEC team in the Gator Bowl until 2011 . Conversely , it was the last Gator Bowl which did not feature a team from the ACC ( which admitted Virginia Tech in 2004 ) for the same period . After this game , the Gator Bowl entered into exclusive tie @-@ in contracts with the ACC and the Big East until 2010 ( with the addition of the Big 12 and Notre Dame from 2006 @-@ 2010 ) .
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= Baggage ( U.S. game show ) =
Baggage is an American dating game show hosted by Jerry Springer and broadcast by Game Show Network . The original series premiered on April 19 , 2010 , airing for four seasons . A spin @-@ off series , entitled Baggage on the Road , aired for one season , which debuted January 7 , 2015 . The show has earned high ratings by GSN 's standards ; despite this , it has also received mixed critical reception .
The series gives three contestants the chance to win the eye of a prospective date . The contestants carry three suitcases onstage : a small , medium , and large one . Each suitcase contains an embarrassing , gross , unique , or weird proposition the contestant may have . These cases represent the " baggage " to which they will confess and defend . The bigger the suitcase , the bigger the secret . Once the three contestants are pared down to one , the potential dater must admit to a fault of his or her own .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is played by first introducing the central character . Three contestants are then introduced , each accompanied by three pieces of baggage : a small one , a medium one , and a large one , with each one containing a corresponding secret . The central contestant also has a piece of baggage of his or her own , which is only revealed at the end of the show . During the show , three possible secrets about the central contestant are given , one of which is the actual secret contained in their baggage . These secrets can include bad habits , strange relationship preferences , issues with one 's past , or strange hobbies . After the three other contestants are introduced , they each open the smallest piece of baggage , and explain the secrets they contain .
In the second segment , Springer reveals the second piece of baggage , contained in the medium @-@ sized suitcase . The three contestants are placed on the other side of the stage , along with the central contestant . Only the three contestants know which piece of baggage belongs to whom . The main contestant chooses the one piece of baggage which is the " deal breaker " ( i.e. , the one secret that they cannot accept ) . After stating this , the contestants then return to the other side of the stage and reveal which suitcase belongs to them . The person who claims the deal breaker baggage is immediately eliminated , and reveals the largest piece of baggage that would have been shown in the final round . The central contestant and two remaining contestants discuss the secrets in the medium pieces of baggage ; the two contestants then plead their cases as to why they should be the central contestant 's choice . The two remaining contestants , one at a time , are then asked a few questions ( usually five or six each ) by Springer about their personal lives .
The two remaining contestants open their largest pieces of baggage and reveal the secrets they contain . Each contestant makes one final statement , and the main contestant eliminates a second contestant . The main contestant 's own baggage is then opened and the contents revealed to the remaining contestant . If the contestant accepts the secret belonging to the central character , the couple is given an expense @-@ covered evening together . However , if the contestant can not accept the secret , the pair part ways .
= = Production = =
The series was officially announced on March 23 , 2010 , with Jerry Springer being confirmed as the host . The original series was produced by Comcast Entertainment Group ; Jay James and Tim Puntillo served as executive producers . On July 26 , GSN announced plans to renew the show for a second season , which began airing on August 16 , 2010 . A syndication test run was shown on a select group of Sinclair Broadcast Group 's stations January 10 , 2011 . The series began airing in syndication in the United States in September 2012 , becoming to first original program the network 's history to achieve such a feat .
A third season began airing on June 6 , 2011 . During season three , a half @-@ hour special entitled Baggage First Dates aired during a five @-@ hour " Best of Baggage Marathon . " The special followed a couple who had previously appeared on the show talking to Springer about what happened on their first date following their appearance . A fourth season of the show premiered on March 14 , 2012 .
With GSN ’ s Executive Vice President of Programming , Amy Introcaso @-@ Davis , citing that the series continued to remain " extremely popular " in reruns , GSN announced plans to order twenty episodes of a traveling version of the series . The spin @-@ off , entitled Baggage on the Road , follows an identical format to its predecessor while traveling to tape episodes in various U.S. cities . Prior to the spin @-@ off , a one @-@ hour special entitled Baggage : Most Outrageous Moments aired on January 1 , 2015 , featuring highlights from the original series ' run . The spin @-@ off premiered on January 7 , 2015 ; Wilshire Studios produced the revival with Lisa Tucker serving as executive producer .
= = Reception = =
The show quickly became a ratings success for GSN , becoming the highest @-@ rated weekday series in the network 's history . The original series averaged 473 @,@ 000 viewers during its first season , while the 2015 version saw a season @-@ high of 524 @,@ 000 viewers for its only season . Despite earning respectable ratings by GSN 's standards , Baggage has received mixed critical reviews . Carrie Grosvenor of About Entertainment argued that the series " isn 't exactly must @-@ see TV , but it 's entertaining enough to catch an episode here and there . " Additionally , Josef Adalian of The Wrap gave a negative pre @-@ review of the show , calling it and Springer " GSN 's latest bad idea . " In 2012 , however , Baggage appeared in Entertainment Weekly as a " top guilty pleasure , " and was also featured in the HBO television series Girls . Writing for Yahoo ! , Gabrielle Rice called the series " very entertaining , " and argued Springer to be " the perfect host for the show . " June Thomas , writing for Slate , opened her review by calling the series " real , and ... spectacular . " Additionally , Jordan Carr of The Awl titled his review , " Jerry Springer 's Baggage Is The Greatest TV Show Ever . " Carr called the formula of the show " brilliant " despite it being " predictable and not that exciting . "
The series has also spawned Australian and British versions under the same title . The British series , hosted by Gok Wan , aired on Channel 4 in 2012 .
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= Churchill War Rooms =
The Churchill War Rooms is a museum in London and one of the five branches of the Imperial War Museum . The museum comprises the Cabinet War Rooms , a historic underground complex that housed a British government command centre throughout the Second World War , and the Churchill Museum , a biographical museum exploring the life of British statesman Winston Churchill .
Construction of the Cabinet War Rooms , located beneath the Treasury building in the Whitehall area of Westminster , began in 1938 . They became operational in August 1939 , shortly before the outbreak of war in Europe . They remained in operation throughout the Second World War , before being abandoned in August 1945 after the surrender of Japan . After the war the historic value of the Cabinet War Rooms was recognised . Their preservation became the responsibility of the Ministry of Works and later the Department for the Environment , during which time very limited numbers of the public were able to visit by appointment . In the early 1980s the Imperial War Museum was asked to take over the administration of the site , and the Cabinet War Rooms were opened to the public in April 1984 . The museum was reopened in 2005 following a major redevelopment as the Churchill Museum and Cabinet War Rooms , but in 2010 this was shortened to the Churchill War Rooms .
= = Construction = =
In 1936 the Air Ministry , the British government department responsible for the Royal Air Force , believed that in the event of war enemy aerial bombing of London would cause up to 200 @,@ 000 casualties per week . British government commissions under Warren Fisher and Sir James Rae in 1937 and 1938 considered that key government offices should be dispersed from central London to the suburbs , and non @-@ essential offices to the Midlands or North West . Pending this dispersal , in May 1938 Sir Hastings Ismay , then Deputy Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence , ordered an Office of Works survey of Whitehall to identify a suitable site for a temporary emergency government centre . The Office concluded the most suitable site was the basement of the New Public Offices , a government building located on the corner of Horse Guards Road and Great George Street , near Parliament Square . The building now accommodates HM Treasury .
Work to convert the basement of the New Public Offices began , under the supervision of Ismay and Sir Leslie Hollis , in June 1938 . The work included installing communications and broadcasting equipment , sound @-@ proofing , ventilation and reinforcement . Meanwhile , by the summer of 1938 the War Office , Admiralty and Air Ministry had developed the concept of a Central War Room that would facilitate discussion and decision @-@ making between the Chiefs of Staff of the armed forces . As ultimate authority lay with the civilian government the Cabinet , or a smaller War Cabinet , would require close access to senior military figures . This implied accommodation close to the armed forces ' Central War Room . In May 1939 it was decided that the Cabinet would be housed within the Central War Room . In August 1939 , with war imminent and protected government facilities in the suburbs not yet ready , the War Rooms became operational on 27 August 1939 , only days before the invasion of Poland on 1 September , and Britain 's declaration of war on Germany on 3 September .
= = Wartime use = =
During its operational life two of the Cabinet War Rooms were of particular importance . Once operational , the facility 's Map Room was in constant use and manned around the clock by officers of the Royal Navy , British army and Royal Air Force . These officers were responsible for producing a daily intelligence summary for the King , Prime Minister and the military Chiefs of Staff .
The other key room was the Cabinet Room . Until the opening of the Battle of France , which began on 10 May 1940 , Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain 's war cabinet met at the War Rooms only once , in October 1939 . Following Winston Churchill 's appointment as Prime Minister , Churchill visited the Cabinet Room in May 1940 and declared : ' This is the room from which I will direct the war ' . In total 115 Cabinet meetings were held at the Cabinet War Rooms , the last on 28 March 1945 , when the German V @-@ weapon bombing campaign came to an end .
On 22 October 1940 , during the Blitz bombing campaign against Britain , it was decided to increase the protection of the Cabinet War Rooms by the installation of a massive layer of concrete known as ' the Slab ' . Up to 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 metres ) thick , the Slab was progressively extended and by spring 1941 the increased protection had enabled the Cabinet War Rooms to expand to three times their original size . While the usage of many of the War Rooms ' individual rooms changed over the course of the war , the facility included dormitories for staff , private bedrooms for military officers and senior ministers , and rooms for typists or telephone switchboard operators .
Two other notable rooms include the Transatlantic Telephone Room and Churchill 's office @-@ bedroom . From 1943 , a SIGSALY code @-@ scrambling encrypted telephone was installed in the basement of Selfridges , Oxford Street connected to a similar terminal in the Pentagon building . This enabled Churchill to speak securely with American President Roosevelt in Washington , with the first conference taking place on 15 July 1943 . Later extensions were installed to both 10 Downing Street and the specially constructed Transatlantic Telephone Room within the Cabinet War Rooms . Churchill 's office @-@ bedroom included BBC broadcasting equipment ; Churchill made four wartime broadcasts from the Cabinet War Rooms . Although the office room was also fitted out as a bedroom , Churchill rarely slept underground , preferring to sleep at 10 Downing Street or the No.10 Annexe , a flat in the New Public Offices directly above the Cabinet War Rooms . His daughter Mary Soames often slept in the bedroom allocated to Mrs Churchill .
= = Abandonment and preservation = =
After the end of the war , the Cabinet War Rooms became redundant and were abandoned . Their maintenance became the responsibility of the Ministry of Works . In March 1948 the question of public access to the War Rooms was raised in Parliament and the Minister responsible , Charles Key MP , considered that ' it would not be practicable to throw open for inspection by the general public accommodation which forms part of an office where confidential work is carried on ' . Even so , a tour was organised for journalists on 17 March , with members of the press being welcomed by Lord Ismay and shown around the Rooms by their custodian , Mr. George Rance .
While the Rooms were not open to the general public , they could be accessed by appointment , with access being restricted to small groups . Even so , by the 1970s ( with responsibility for the Rooms having passed to the Department for the Environment in 1975 ) tens of thousands of requests to visit the Rooms were being received every year , of which only 5 @,@ 000 were successful . Meanwhile , the atmospheric conditions of the site , being dry and dusty , were having a detrimental effect on the rooms ' furnishings and historic maps and other documents . The prospect was raised of decanting the contents of the Rooms to an established museum , with the National Army Museum and Imperial War Museum being suggested as candidates . In the event , £ 7 @,@ 000 was secured to conserve the material in situ .
= = Opening and redevelopment = =
In 1974 the Imperial War Museum was approached by the government and asked to consider taking over the administration of the site . A feasibility study was prepared but came to nothing , the museum feeling it did not have sufficient resources to commit to the War Rooms . In 1981 Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , known as an admirer of Winston Churchill , expressed the hope that the Rooms could be opened before the next general election . The Imperial War Museum was again approached . Initially still reluctant , the museum 's trustees decided in January 1982 that the museum would take over the site , on the understanding that the government would make the necessary resources available . The initial costs were to be met by the Department for the Environment , and the War Rooms intended to be self @-@ supporting thereafter . The Rooms were opened to the public by Thatcher on 4 April 1984 , in a ceremony attended by Churchill family members and former Cabinet War Rooms staff . At first the Rooms were administered by the museum on behalf of Department for the Environment ; in 1989 responsibility was transferred to the Imperial War Museum .
Following a major expansion in 2003 , a suite of rooms , used as accommodation by Churchill , his wife and close associates , was added to the museum . The restoration of these rooms , which since the war had been stripped out and used for storage , cost £ 7 @.@ 5 million . In 2005 the War Rooms were rebranded as the Churchill Museum and Cabinet War Rooms , with 850m2 of the site redeveloped as a biographical museum exploring Churchill 's life . The museum , the development of which cost a further £ 6 million raised from private fundraising , makes extensive use of audiovisual technology . The centrepiece is a 15 @-@ metre interactive table that enables visitors to access digitised material , particularly from the Churchill Archives Centre , via an ' electronic filing cabinet ' . The Churchill Museum won the 2006 Council of Europe Museum Prize . During 2009 @-@ 2011 the museum received over 300 @,@ 000 visitors a year . In May 2010 the name of the museum was shortened to Churchill War Rooms .
In June 2012 the museum 's entrance was redesigned by Clash Architects with consulting engineers Price & Myers . Intended to act as a ' beacon ' for the museum , the new external design included a faceted bronze entranceway , while the interior showed the cleaned and restored Portland stone walls of the Treasury building and Clive Steps . The design was described as ' appropriately martial and bulldog @-@ like ' and as ' a fusion of architecture and sculpture ' .
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= Plitvice Lakes incident =
The Plitvice Lakes incident ( Croatian : Krvavi Uskrs na Plitvicama or Plitvički krvavi Uskrs , both translating as " Plitvice Bloody Easter " ) was an armed clash at the beginning of the Croatian War of Independence . It was fought between Croatian police and armed forces from the Croatian Serb @-@ established SAO Krajina at the Plitvice Lakes in Croatia , on 31 March 1991 . The fighting followed the SAO Krajina 's takeover of the Plitvice Lakes National Park and resulted in Croatia recapturing the area . The clash resulted in one killed on each side and contributed to the worsening ethnic tensions .
The fighting prompted the Presidency of Yugoslavia to order the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) to step in and create a buffer zone between the opposing forces . The JNA arrived at the scene the following day and presented Croatia with an ultimatum requesting the police to withdraw . Even though the special police units which captured the Plitvice Lakes area did pull out on 2 April , a newly established Croatian police station , staffed by 90 officers , remained in place . The police station was blockaded by the JNA three months later , and captured in late August 1991 .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia , ethnic tensions worsened . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , the tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina regions and eastern Croatia . They established a Serbian National Council in July 1990 , to coordinate opposition to Croatian President Franjo Tuđman 's policy of pursuing independence for Croatia . Milan Babić , a dentist from the southern town of Knin , was elected president . Knin 's police chief , Milan Martić , established paramilitary militias . The two men eventually became the political and military leaders of the SAO Krajina , a self @-@ declared state incorporating the Serb @-@ inhabited areas of Croatia .
In the beginning of 1991 , Croatia had no regular army . In an effort to bolster its defence , Croatia doubled the size of its police force to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the force was the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police that were deployed in 12 battalions adopting military organisation . In addition there were 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally organised reserve police . The reserve police were set up in 16 battalions and 10 companies , but they lacked weapons .
In an effort to consolidate territory under their control , Croatian Serb leaders organised a political rally at the Plitvice Lakes on 25 March 1991 , demanding the area be annexed to the SAO Krajina . Three days later , on 28 March , SAO Krajina special police seized the area , and with the help of armed civilians , removed the Croatian management of the Plitvice Lakes National Park . The force deployed by the SAO Krajina to the Plitvice Lakes was estimated to be approximately 100 @-@ strong . The region was relatively sparsely populated and there was no obvious threat to Serbs there . Journalist Tim Judah suggests that the move may have been motivated by a desire to control a strategic road that ran north @-@ south through the park , linking the Serb communities in the Lika and Banovina regions .
= = Timeline = =
Croatia deployed special police forces , specifically the Lučko , Rakitje and Sljeme special police units based in and around Zagreb , supported by additional police forces drawn from Karlovac and Gospić to retake the Plitvice Lakes area . The Croatian police force , commanded by Josip Lucić , used several buses and passenger cars , as well as an armoured personnel carrier to approach the Plitvice Lakes area . The main 180 @-@ strong group of the Rakitje Special Police Unit ( SPU ) , directly commanded by Lucić , arrived in dense fog , along the main road from Zagreb via the Korana River bridge . The bridge was secured by the Lučko unit shortly before midnight on 30 / 31 March 1991 . An auxiliary force approached the Plitvice Lakes via Ličko Petrovo Selo , while the Kumrovec SPU was deployed in the area between the lakes and Gospić , where it captured the Ljubovo Pass to secure the right flank of the main effort . The total attacking force comprised approximately 300 troops .
The approaching convoy was ambushed at a barricade set up by the SAO Krajina force near Plitvice Lakes before 7 : 00 in the morning of Easter Sunday , 31 March 1991 . The SAO Krajina force attacked the vehicles carrying the Croatian police and held their position until they fell back to the national park post office two and a half hours later . The Croatian advance , additionally hindered by deep snow , was achieved at a cost of six wounded . The attacking force secured its objectives by 11 : 00 am . As the attacking operation reached its completion , the Croatian military sustained its first combat fatality of the Croatian War of Independence , when Josip Jović was killed by a machine gun covering retreating SAO Krajina troops . Shortly afterwards , the Yugoslav Air Force dispatched a Mil Mi @-@ 8 helicopter to attend to wounded on both sides , and it left the area after an hour and a half . The helicopter was dispatched by Colonel General Anton Tus , head of the Yugoslav Air Force at the time , following a request by Josip Boljkovac , Interior Minister of Croatia . As the fighting around Plitvice ended , sporadic gunfire was reported near Titova Korenica , to the south . The same afternoon , a Croatian police station was established at the Plitvice Lakes and Tomislav Iljić was appointed its commanding officer . The station was staffed by approximately 90 police officers who were redeployed from Gospić .
The Presidency of Yugoslavia met in an emergency session the same evening to discuss the clash . At the insistence of Serbia 's representative on the Presidency , Borisav Jović , the JNA was ordered to intervene , gain control in the area and prevent further combat . The Serbian parliament also met in an emergency session , treating the clashes as a virtual casus belli and voting to offer the Krajina Serbs " all necessary help " in their conflict with Zagreb . The following day , the SAO Krajina adopted a resolution to the effect that the territory was incorporated into Serbia , whose constitution and laws were adopted for use in the Serb @-@ held areas of Croatia . Croatian authorities accused Serbia 's president , Slobodan Milošević , of stage @-@ managing the unrest in order to break Croatia 's resolve to declare independence unless Yugoslavia was transformed into a loose confederation . They also accused him of attempting to coax the JNA to overthrow Croatian government .
= = = JNA intervention = = =
On 1 April , the JNA established a buffer zone to separate the belligerents at Plitvice Lakes , deploying elements of the 1st and the 5th Military Districts . Those were an armoured battalion of the 329th Armoured Brigade based in Banja Luka , a battalion of the 6th Mountain Brigade based in Delnice , a reconnaissance company and a mechanised battalion of the 4th Armoured Brigade based in Jastrebarsko and Karlovac , a battalion of the 306th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Artillery Regiment based in Zagreb , a signals company of the 367th Signals Regiment based in Samobor , a company of the 13th Military Police Battalion based in Rijeka and an anti @-@ aircraft artillery battery drawn from the 13th Proletarian Motorised Brigade based in Rijeka . Finally , the 5th Military District set up a forward command post at the Plitvice Lakes . The JNA force at the Plitvice Lakes was commanded by Colonel Ivan Štimac .
The commanding officer of the 5th Military District , Major General Andrija Rašeta , in overall command of the JNA intervention , told the media that his men were not protecting either side and were there only to prevent ethnic confrontations for an indeterminate period . However , the Croatian government reacted furiously to the JNA move . Tuđman 's aide , Mario Nobilo , claimed that the JNA had told Croatian officials that it would engage the police if they did not leave Plitvice . In a radio address , Tuđman said that the JNA would be regarded as a hostile army of occupation if its course of action remained unchanged . On 2 April , the JNA handed the Croatian authorities an ultimatum , requesting the police leave Plitvice . The special police left Plitvice the same day , but the 90 officers staffing the newly established police station remained in place .
= = Aftermath = =
Police officer Josip Jović was the only Croatian fatality in the incident . The SAO Krajina force also suffered one killed in the fighting — Rajko Vukadinović , who was the first Croatian Serb combat fatality in the war . A total of 20 people were wounded , seven of whom were the Croatian police . The Croatian forces captured 29 SAO Krajina troops , 18 of whom were formally charged with insurgency . Among the prisoners was Goran Hadžić , later to become the President of the Republic of Serbian Krajina , although he was quickly released . Hadžić 's release was explained as a goodwill gesture by the authorities , but Boljkovac claims he was released because he was collaborating with the Croatian authorities in 1991 . Approximately 400 tourists , most of them Italian , were evacuated from the Plitvice Lakes after the fighting .
The clash at the Plitvice Lakes worsened the overall situation in Croatia and led to an escalation of the conflict . Even though the Croatian and Serb forces were separated by the JNA at the Plitvice Lakes , the situation in the area continued to deteriorate following the clash . In nearby Plaški , Croatian police personnel left the local police station and were replaced by Serb officers . Both SAO Krajina and Croatian forces set up several roadblocks on the Saborsko – Lička Jasenica – Ogulin road . By summer , the blockades were extended to the north of Plaški and south of Saborsko , where Croatian authorities established another 30 @-@ strong police station on 2 April . Only JNA vehicles were permitted to pass the roadblocks , and that brought about a shortage of food , medicine and electricity in the area .
On 2 May , the Serb Democratic Party , the ruling party in the SAO Krajina , organised a protest march to the Plitvice Lakes and a political rally demanding the Croatian police withdraw from Plitvice . The march , led by Babić and Vojislav Šešelj , was prevented from reaching the Plitvice Lakes by the JNA and forced to return to Titova Korenica . The JNA imposed a blockade of the Plitvice Lakes police station on 1 July , on the pretext that the Croatian police had abducted and imprisoned two JNA officers . By 6 July , the SAO Krajina forces and the JNA commenced attacks on the Ljubovo Pass southeast of the Plitvice Lakes , on the Titova Korenica – Gospić road , driving the Croatian National Guard back and capturing the pass by the end of the month . Throughout the summer , the JNA continued to engage Croatian forces in Lika using the units deployed to the Plitvice Lakes in April . The fighting escalated further on 30 August , when the JNA captured the Plitvice Lakes police station and the following day when the Battle of Gospić began .
Jović is largely viewed in Croatia as the first casualty of the Croatian War of Independence . A monument dedicated to him was erected in his birthplace of Aržano in 1994 . After the war , a monument was erected at the site of his death , where annual commemorations of the clash are held . The clash and Jović 's death are commemorated annually at the Plitvice Lakes .
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= Silky sifaka =
The silky sifaka ( Propithecus candidus ) , or silky simpona , is a large lemur characterized by long , silky , white fur . It has a very restricted range in northeastern Madagascar , where it is known locally as the simpona . It is one of the rarest mammals on Earth , and is listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) as one of the world 's 25 most critically endangered primates . The silky sifaka is one of nine sifaka species ( genus Propithecus ) , and one of four former subspecies of diademed sifaka ( P. diadema ) . Studies in 2004 and 2007 compared external proportions , genetics , and cranio @-@ dental anatomy supporting full species status , which has generally been accepted .
The silky sifaka has a variable social structure , and lives in groups of two to nine individuals . It spends most of its day feeding and resting , though it also devotes a considerable amount of time to social behaviors , such as playing and grooming , as well as traveling . Females occasionally take priority over males during feeding . Like other eastern sifakas , it consumes mainly leaves and seeds , but also fruit , flowers , and even soil on occasion . It is a seasonal breeder and only mates one day a year during the start of the rainy season . As with other sifaka species , non @-@ maternal infant care is common . Group members of all ages and both sexes will often groom , play with , occasionally carry , and even nurse infants that are not their own . The silky sifaka vocalizes frequently despite its moderately sized vocal repertoire consisting of seven adult calls . Like all lemurs , it relies strongly on scent for communication . Males will frequently scent @-@ mark on top of scent @-@ marks made by other group members , particularly females . Males also gouge trees with their toothcomb ( a special arrangement of the bottom , front teeth ) prior to chest scent @-@ marking . This chest marking results in males having brown @-@ stained chests , the only visible trait that can be used to distinguish between adult males and adult females .
The species is only found within a few protected areas in the rainforests of northeastern Madagascar , with the majority of the remaining population in Marojejy National Park and Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve . A few groups have also been found in the Makira Forest Protected Area , the Betaolana Corridor , and some unprotected forest fragments . The silky sifaka is hunted throughout its range as there is no local fady ( taboo ) against eating this species . Habitat disturbance , such as slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture ( tavy ) , illegal logging of precious woods ( particularly , rosewood ) and fuel @-@ wood , also occurs within the protected areas where it is found .
= = Etymology = =
The name " sifaka " is a reference to a common general alarm vocalization given by western dry forest sifakas in which they emit an explosive , hiss @-@ like " shee @-@ faak " call several times in succession . On the east coast , local residents refer to the larger bodied diademed sifaka as simpona , a name which refers to the species ' sneeze @-@ like " zzuss " alarm vocalizations . The calls are emitted in a variety of stressful circumstances such as presence of humans , falling trees , terrestrial predators , and after aggression between group members . The specific name , candidus , is Latin for " white " , while the specific name of the taxonomic synonym sericeus is derived from the Greek word for " silk " .
= = Taxonomy = =
The silky sifaka was initially described in 1871 by French naturalist Alfred Grandidier in a formally published letter to French zoologist Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards . Grandidier 's description was based on his own observations north of Antongil Bay in the last few months of 1870 . He then named the species Propithecus candidus due to its white color , which he likened to that of the Verreaux 's sifaka ( Propithecus verreauxi ) , but without the dark fur on its head or the ash @-@ colored spot on the back . The first specimen was obtained in 1872 and provided by " Monsieur Guinet " , a planter from Sambava . The specimen allowed both Grandidier and Milne @-@ Edwards to more thoroughly describe the species based on its skin , coat , and skull . Upon those findings , they changed the name to P. sericeus . Upon further review in 1875 , Grandidier demoted the silky sifaka to a variety or " race " of the diademed sifaka . By the time German zoologist Ernst Schwarz standardized lemur taxonomy in 1931 , P. sericeus had become a taxonomic synonym for the species , with the original name , Propithecus candidus , taking priority .
Schwarz placed all sifakas into two species , the larger diademed sifaka from the eastern rainforests and the smaller Verreaux 's sifaka from the dry forests and spiny forests of the west and south . At the time , both species comprised four subspecies , and the silky sifaka was listed as P. diadema candidus , a subspecies of the diademed sifaka . In his 1982 book Primates of Madagascar , anthropologist Ian Tattersall upheld this classification . When anthropologist Colin Groves reviewed the taxonomy in his book Primate Taxonomy in 2001 , he also upheld the subspecies status of the silky sifaka because variations in fur coloration between the available specimens suggested converging similarities with the diademed sifaka 's coloration . Groves later noted that the coloration of the two species did not overlap , suggesting that the populations were distinct .
In 2004 , Mayor et al. showed that despite having a similar karyotype ( the number and appearance of chromosomes ) of 42 chromosomes ( 2n = 42 ) , the silky sifaka was distinct from the diademed sifaka . This was shown through genetic tests ( D @-@ loop sequencing ) and by comparing external proportions . For example , the silky sifaka has a shorter tail . Their analysis indicated a closer relationship with Perrier 's sifaka ( Propithecus perrieri ) . Russell Mittermeier and colleagues followed by adopting the full species status of the silky sifaka for the 2nd edition of Lemurs of Madagascar in 2006 . Although Groves maintained the silky sifaka as a subspecies in the 3rd edition of Mammal Species of the World in 2005 , he recognized it as a distinct species in 2007 by acknowledging the work of Mayor et al. and also noting the additional distinction that the silky sifaka has relatively long molar teeth compared to the length of its toothrow . Despite the promotion to full species status , the silky sifaka is still considered to be a member of the P. diadema group , a group of four closely related , large @-@ bodied , eastern rainforest sifakas . The other three members of this group are the diademed sifaka , Perrier 's sifaka , and Milne @-@ Edwards ' sifaka ( Propithecus edwardsi ) . The species status of the silky sifaka , as well as other sifakas , does not have universal support : in 2007 , Tattersall argued against species distinctions within Propithecus , claiming the decisions were made prematurely .
In 1974 , Tattersall spotted what he thought was a color variant of the silky sifaka north of Vohemar in northeast Madagascar . Describing it as such eight years later in The Primates of Madagascar , he not only cited its mostly white fur , but also uncharacteristic traits such as a patch of orange on its crown and tufted ears . It was not observed again until 1986 , when a team led by paleoanthropologist Elwyn L. Simons captured specimens for captive breeding and identified it as a new species , named as the golden @-@ crowned sifaka ( Propithecus tattersalli ) in 1988 .
= = Geographic range and habitat = =
The silky sifaka is confined to a small region of northeastern Madagascar within a strip of humid forest stretching from Maroantsetra in the south to the Andapa Basin and the Marojejy Massif in the north . Marojejy National Park represents the northern limit of its current distribution , although historical sifaka range maps created by Grandidier and Milne @-@ Edwards in the late 19th century show the silky sifaka as far north as the Bemarivo River , north of Sambava . The Androranga River may represent the northwestern range limit within the Tsaratanana Corridor . The southern limit of its range appears to be the Antainambalana River , within the Makira Conservation Site . It is not known if the silky sifaka has ever ranged as far south as the Masoala Peninsula . As of 2009 , new observations of a few groups of the silky sifaka in unprotected forest fragments adjacent to northeastern Makira ( Antohaka Lava and Maherivaratra ) may slightly enlarge the known geographic range of this species . The presence of the silky sifaka has been documented within Marojejy National Park , Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve , the Makira Forest Protected Area , the Betaolana Corridor , and the Tsaratanana Corridor . In 2008 , 16 groups were discovered in western Marojejy near Antsahaberoaka .
The silky sifaka tends to be found at higher elevations than any of the other sifaka species and also occupies the greatest range of elevations for the group . In Marojejy National Park and Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve , where most of the remaining groups exist , it is not found below 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) of elevation and not above 1 @,@ 875 m ( 6 @,@ 152 ft ) . However , at its southernmost location in Makira ( Andaparaty ) , several groups inhabit forest fragments at an unusually low elevation of 300 m ( 980 ft ) . The silky sifaka inhabits three types of elevation @-@ specific habitats : primary montane rainforest , sclerophyllous forest , and the most elevated portions of low ericoid bush . It is unknown how sensitive the silky sifaka is to disturbance or whether it avoids habitat edges ( " edge @-@ intolerant " ) or is more edge @-@ tolerant like the diademed sifaka . Like other rainforest sifaka species , it seldom crosses unforested regions between forest fragments .
In the Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve , the silky sifaka is sympatric ( shares the same geographic range ) with the white @-@ fronted brown lemur ( Eulemur albifrons ) and an all @-@ black population of indri ( Indri indri ) . In Marojejy National Park , it is sympatric with the white @-@ fronted brown lemur . In 2008 , it was suggested that the silky sifaka may be sympatric with the red ruffed lemur ( Varecia rubra ) near Maherivaratra and Andaparaty .
= = Description = =
The silky sifaka is one of the larger sifaka species , with a head @-@ body length of 48 – 54 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 8 ft ) , a tail length of 45 – 51 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 7 ft ) , a total length of 93 – 105 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 4 ft ) , and a weight of 5 – 6 @.@ 5 kg ( 11 – 14 lb ) . As its common English name suggests , its long , white fur has a silky texture . Not all individuals are completely white : some have silver @-@ gray or black tints on the crown , back , and limbs . The base of the tail ( " pygal region " ) can be yellow . The ears and face are hairless , and the skin may be a mix of pink and black , completely black , or completely pink . The tips of the ears protrude slightly above the fur on the rest of the head . Its eyes have a deep orange @-@ red coloration . Its appearance is distinctive , and since no other sifakas share its range , it is not easily confused with other lemur species .
While it is difficult to distinguish adult males and females in other eastern rainforest sifakas , such as the Perrier 's sifaka and Milne @-@ Edwards ' sifaka , gender in the silky sifaka is easily discerned due to differences in fur coloration of the upper chest . Females have white fur , while males have a large brown patch of fur that results from scent marking with a gland on the chest and throat ( the sternal gular gland ) . During mating season , the size of the " chest patch " increases to cover both the chest and abdomen as a result of increased scent marking .
= = Behavior = =
Until the 21st century , brief observations and lemur surveys had merely documented the presence of the silky sifaka in special reserves and national parks . More recently , a 14 @-@ month study and two short @-@ term studies in Marojejy National Park have revealed previously unknown details about its behavioral biology , communication , and feeding ecology . The silky sifaka has a variable social structure and is known to live in male @-@ female pairs , one @-@ male groups , and multi @-@ male / multi @-@ female groups . Group sizes range from two to nine individuals , while the home ranges are estimated to range from 34 to 47 ha ( 0 @.@ 13 to 0 @.@ 18 sq mi ) , varying in size by location .
According to some studies , the silky sifaka spends most of its day resting and feeding ( approximately 44 @.@ 4 % and 25 % respectively ) . It also devotes approximately 16 @.@ 8 % of the day to social behavior , such as personal grooming , social grooming ( allogrooming ) , and play . The rest of the day is spent traveling and sleeping . Other sources report that the species divides half of the day between traveling and foraging , while the rest is spent resting . Daily foraging usually starts at dawn unless delayed by rain . Group movement is usually led by females , and groups usually travel 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) per day , and may climb 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) along vertical slopes . Although the species spends its time in the trees , terrestrial play is not uncommon , even among adults , with play sessions lasting 30 minutes or more . Like other sifakas , it uses a type of arboreal locomotion known as vertical clinging and leaping . Dominance hierarchies have not been documented among female sifakas , including the silky sifaka , although seasonal hierarchies are known to occur . Aggression , which is generally infrequent , occurs primarily during feeding , where females take priority over males , although submissive signals are not always obvious .
The silky sifaka 's diet is similar to that of other eastern rainforest sifakas , consisting primarily of leaves ( folivory ) and seeds ( seed predation ) . It is highly varied and includes many plant species . A two @-@ month study from the mid @-@ 2000s showed that the silky sifaka can feed on as many as 76 species of plant from 42 families . Its favorites included primarily tree species , but also some lianas . The most prominent plant families in the diet were Moraceae ( 20 @.@ 30 % ) , Fabaceae ( 12 @.@ 87 % ) , Myrtaceae ( 12 @.@ 65 % ) , Clusiaceae ( 10 @.@ 13 % ) and Apocynaceae ( 9 @.@ 49 % ) . In the study , feeding upon these four plant families took up as much as 37 @.@ 06 % of the total feeding time for the silky sifaka : 16 @.@ 09 % on the fruit of Pachytrophe dimepate , 8 @.@ 43 % on the seeds of Senna sp . , 6 @.@ 52 % on the young leaves of Plectaneia thouarsii , and 6 @.@ 02 % on the fruit of Eugenia sp . In sum , folivory accounted for 52 % of the feeding time , while frugivory ( fruit @-@ eating ) accounted for 34 % , and seed predation made up 11 % . The consumption of flowers , as well as soil ( geophagy ) , was rarely observed in this study . Prior to this , preliminary studies had reported that folivory account for 75 % of the diet , while fruits and 15 % was seed predation , 7 % was flower consumption , and bark and soil made up the remainder .
Like all other lemurs , the silky sifaka is a seasonal breeder , and it is thought that it mates only one day a year during the start of the rainy season sometime in December or January . Infants are born six months later in June or July . Females typically give birth to a single infant once every two years , although births in consecutive years have been observed . Infants initially cling to the fur of their mother 's chest for nearly four weeks and then switch to riding on her back . As with other eastern rainforest sifakas , the infants of this species develop rapidly . This may be due to assistance in the care of infants by all group members ( known as alloparental care ) — a trait typical among all sifakas . Non @-@ maternal care usually takes the form of allogrooming , but also playing , occasional carrying , and in rare cases , nursing . The dispersal of offspring is thought to be similar to that of other eastern rainforest sifakas , with both males and females transferring out of the group at sexual maturity . However , dispersal has only been observed once with a young adult male , who left its natal group and proceeded to oust an older male from a group in which he had been a member for seven years . Female dispersal and group transfer has not yet been observed .
The only documented predator of the silky sifaka , other than humans , is the fossa , a cat @-@ like carnivore found only on Madagascar . Although no aerial predators are known , the silky sifaka often watch the sky and emit loud " aerial disturbance " roars at the sight of the large Madagascar buzzard ( Buteo brachypterus ) and other small birds . Another more general alarm call is the loud , sneeze @-@ like " zzuss " vocalization , which are emitted in response to terrestrial disturbances , calls from lost group members , and aggression by other group members . Acoustic analyses of the " zzuss " vocalization have shown that the call 's acoustic structure differs between individuals and by gender .
Adult eastern sifakas have a moderately sized vocal repertoire of about seven call types . It is uncertain if their vocalizations have specific or varied contexts , and as with other primates , arousal level may play a role in the acoustic structure of its calls . Despite the limited size of the silky sifaka 's vocal repertoire , it does exhibit high call rates of seven calls per hour , on average . Even infants are known to have several specialized vocalizations . The most frequently emitted silky sifaka vocalizations are low @-@ amplitude , low @-@ frequency , tonal " hum " and " mum " vocalizations . These contact calls are used in a variety of circumstances including group movement , affiliation , foraging , and while resting .
The silky sifaka uses well @-@ developed olfactory ( smell @-@ based ) communication , as with all other strepsirrhine primates . Like other eastern rainforest sifakas , it has several specialized glands for scent @-@ marking , including a sebaceous gland on the chest , found only in males , and mixed apocrine @-@ sebaceous glands on the genitals in both sexes . Unlike the true lemurs of the genus Eulemur , the silky sifaka does not directly scent @-@ mark its conspecifics ( allomarking ) , although it does scent @-@ mark its territory . Both sexes will often urinate while scent @-@ marking . Males and females scent @-@ mark in different ways : females rub their genital glands in an up @-@ and @-@ down motion against trees , while males may use their chest gland , genital glands , or a combination of both . Males will also use their specialized toothcomb to gouge trees before scent @-@ marking with their chest — a behavior that leaves long @-@ lasting visible marks . The gouging is thought to serve a role in communication and has no dietary component , since males do not eat the bark or tree gum .
Males scent @-@ mark more frequently than females , as much as two or three times as often . Males also respond to female scent @-@ marking by overmarking with their own scent glands , usually by combining chest and genital marking . They will also overmark other males , although less quickly and less often . In a one @-@ year study , males responded to 71 % of the marks made by females within an average of 61 seconds while only 17 % of male marks received a response from other group members . Because males overmark frequently , this results in " totem @-@ tree marking " , where certain trees become covered by male scent and gouge marks . However , no observations of widespread home range border scent @-@ marking have been reported . Scent @-@ marks are usually left on trees in the core area of the home range , as opposed to the territorial boundaries .
= = Conservation = =
According to the most recent IUCN Red List assessment , the silky sifaka is Critically Endangered . It is one of the rarest and most critically endangered lemurs . The silky sifaka is one of five lemurs listed as one of " The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates " and has been on the list all five times since its inception in 2000 . Its population size is estimated to range between 100 and 1 @,@ 000 individuals , while the number of mature individuals is thought to be less than 250 . There are no silky sifakas in captivity , such as in zoos .
The silky sifaka is the flagship species for the protected areas in which it is found , particularly for Marojejy , which has recently been inaugurated as part of a World Heritage Site cluster known as the Rainforests of the Atsinanana . Habitat disturbance , such as slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture ( known locally as tavy ) , logging of precious woods ( e.g. , rosewood ) and fuel @-@ wood , also occurs within the protected areas where it is found . Unlike the golden @-@ crowned sifaka ( Propithecus tattersalli ) , there is no local taboo ( fady ) against eating this species , and the hunting of bushmeat is a known issue within its range . It is most heavily hunted in the northern and western parts of Marojejy , as well as other areas around the Andapa Basin . The species is restricted to 90 @,@ 000 ha ( 350 sq mi ) of protected areas , although this may be an overestimation because in much of its range the silky sifaka is not found below 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) in altitude , possibly due to either hunting pressure or habitat preference .
Illegal logging of precious hardwoods , such as rosewood and ebony , has become one of the greatest threats to the silky sifaka 's habitat , especially since the 2009 Malagasy political crisis . Its two largest protected areas , Masoala National Park and Marojejy National Park , have been the hardest hit . The disturbance caused by selective logging increases the likelihood of forest fires , helps invasive species take root , impairs habitat , and causes the loss of genetic diversity .
Local villages adjacent to its remaining protected areas adopted a two @-@ pronged strategy towards silky sifaka conservation education . First , a " cognitive component " was implemented to increase knowledge and awareness through radio interviews , slide presentations , and the disbursement of literature in twelve primary and secondary schools . Additionally , an " emotional component " was begun to link silky sifaka conservation with positive emotional experiences , with the goal of establishing a psychological connection between the children and the lemur . To do this , groups of children were taken on three @-@ day educational eco @-@ tours in Marojejy National Park . Both the teachers and the students showed interest and genuine concern about the plight of the silky sifaka .
Plans are being made to both expand Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve and link existing parks and reserves in the region with wildlife corridors . These corridors include the Betaolana Corridor between Marojejy and Anjananharibe @-@ Sud and Makira , which will connect Anjananharibe @-@ Sud with Masoala National Park to the south . In addition to providing additional habitat for the silky sifaka , the corridors would promote genetic exchange between currently isolated populations .
= = = Books cited = = =
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= Transformer =
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction . Electromagnetic induction produces an electromotive force within a conductor which is exposed to time varying magnetic fields . Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power applications .
A varying current in the transformer 's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core and a varying field impinging on the transformer 's secondary winding . This varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force ( EMF ) or voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction . Making use of Faraday 's Law ( discovered in 1831 ) in conjunction with high magnetic permeability core properties , transformers can be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage level to another within power networks .
Since the invention of the first constant potential transformer in 1885 , transformers have become essential for the transmission , distribution , and utilization of alternating current electrical energy . A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications . Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons .
= = Basic principles = =
= = = Ideal transformer = = =
For simplification or approximation purposes , it is very common to analyze the transformer as an ideal transformer model as presented in the two images . An ideal transformer is a theoretical , linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled ; that is , there are no energy losses and flux is completely confined within the magnetic core . Perfect coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and winding inductances and zero net magnetomotive force .
A varying current in the transformer 's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding . This varying magnetic field at the secondary induces a varying electromotive force ( EMF ) or voltage in the secondary winding . The primary and secondary windings are wrapped around a core of infinitely high magnetic permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings . With a voltage source connected to the primary winding and load impedance connected to the secondary winding , the transformer currents flow in the indicated directions . ( See also Polarity . )
According to Faraday 's Law , since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer , a voltage is induced in each winding , according to eq . ( 1 ) in the secondary winding case , according to eq . ( 2 ) in the primary winding case . The primary EMF is sometimes termed counter EMF . This is in accordance with Lenz 's law , which states that induction of EMF always opposes development of any such change in magnetic field .
The transformer winding voltage ratio is thus shown to be directly proportional to the winding turns ratio according to eq . ( 3 ) .
According to the law of conservation of energy , any load impedance connected to the ideal transformer 's secondary winding results in conservation of apparent , real and reactive power consistent with eq . ( 4 ) .
The ideal transformer identity shown in eq . ( 5 ) is a reasonable approximation for the typical commercial transformer , with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both being inversely proportional to the corresponding current ratio .
By Ohm 's law and the ideal transformer identity :
the secondary circuit load impedance can be expressed as eq . ( 6 )
the apparent load impedance referred to the primary circuit is derived in eq . ( 7 ) to be equal to the turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit load impedance .
= = = = Polarity = = = =
A dot convention is often used in transformer circuit diagrams , nameplates or terminal markings to define the relative polarity of transformer windings . Positively increasing instantaneous current entering the primary winding 's dot end induces positive polarity voltage at the secondary winding 's dot end .
= = = Real transformer = = =
= = = = Deviations from ideal = = = =
The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear aspects in real transformers .
Core losses , collectively called magnetizing current losses , consist of
Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear application of the voltage applied in the transformer core , and
Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are proportional to the square of the transformer 's applied voltage .
Whereas windings in the ideal model have no resistances and infinite inductances , the windings in a real transformer have finite non @-@ zero resistances and inductances associated with :
Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings
Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one winding only resulting in primary and secondary reactive impedance .
= = = = Leakage flux = = = =
The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding , including itself . In practice , some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings . Such flux is termed leakage flux , and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings . Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply . It is not directly a power loss , but results in inferior voltage regulation , causing the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage , particularly under heavy load . Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance .
In some applications increased leakage is desired , and long magnetic paths , air gaps , or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit the short @-@ circuit current it will supply . Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance , such as electric arcs , mercury vapor lamps , and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become periodically short @-@ circuited such as electric arc welders .
Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating , especially audio @-@ frequency transformers in circuits that have a DC component flowing in the windings .
Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are operated in parallel . It can be shown that if the percent impedance and associated winding leakage reactance @-@ to @-@ resistance ( X / R ) ratio of two transformers were hypothetically exactly the same , the transformers would share power in proportion to their respective volt @-@ ampere ratings ( e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1 @,@ 000 kVA unit , the larger unit would carry twice the current ) . However , the impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are significant . Also , the Z impedance and X / R ratio of different capacity transformers tends to vary , corresponding 1 @,@ 000 kVA and 500 kVA units ' values being , to illustrate , respectively , Z ≈ 5 @.@ 75 % , X / R ≈ 3 @.@ 75 and Z ≈ 5 % , X / R ≈ 4 @.@ 75 .
= = = = Equivalent circuit = = = =
Referring to the diagram , a practical transformer 's physical behavior may be represented by an equivalent circuit model , which can incorporate an ideal transformer .
Winding joule losses and leakage reactances are represented by the following series loop impedances of the model :
Primary winding : RP , XP
Secondary winding : RS , XS .
In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation , RS and XS are in practice usually referred to the primary side by multiplying these impedances by the turns ratio squared , ( NP / NS ) 2 = a2 .
Core loss and reactance is represented by the following shunt leg impedances of the model :
Core or iron losses : RC
Magnetizing reactance : XM .
RC and XM are collectively termed the magnetizing branch of the model .
Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core and are proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given frequency . The finite permeability core requires a magnetizing current IM to maintain mutual flux in the core . Magnetizing current is in phase with the flux , the relationship between the two being non @-@ linear due to saturation effects . However , all impedances of the equivalent circuit shown are by definition linear and such non @-@ linearity effects are not typically reflected in transformer equivalent circuits . With sinusoidal supply , core flux lags the induced EMF by 90 ° . With open @-@ circuited secondary winding , magnetizing branch current I0 equals transformer no @-@ load current .
The resulting model , though sometimes termed ' exact ' equivalent circuit based on linearity assumptions , retains a number of approximations . Analysis may be simplified by assuming that magnetizing branch impedance is relatively high and relocating the branch to the left of the primary impedances . This introduces error but allows combination of primary and referred secondary resistances and reactances by simple summation as two series impedances .
Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and transformer ratio parameters can be derived from the following tests : open @-@ circuit test , short @-@ circuit test , winding resistance test , and transformer ratio test .
= = Basic transformer parameters and construction = =
= = = Effect of frequency = = =
By Faraday 's Law of induction shown in eq . ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , transformer EMFs vary according to the derivative of flux with respect to time . The ideal transformer 's core behaves linearly with time for any non @-@ zero frequency . Flux in a real transformer 's core behaves non @-@ linearly in relation to magnetization current as the instantaneous flux increases beyond a finite linear range resulting in magnetic saturation associated with increasingly large magnetizing current , which eventually leads to transformer overheating .
The EMF of a transformer at a given flux density increases with frequency . By operating at higher frequencies , transformers can be physically more compact because a given core is able to transfer more power without reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same impedance . However , properties such as core loss and conductor skin effect also increase with frequency . Aircraft and military equipment employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and winding weight . Conversely , frequencies used for some railway electrification systems were much lower ( e.g. 16 @.@ 7 Hz and 25 Hz ) than normal utility frequencies ( 50 – 60 Hz ) for historical reasons concerned mainly with the limitations of early electric traction motors . Consequently , the transformers used to step @-@ down the high overhead line voltages ( e.g. 15 kV ) were much larger and heavier for the same power rating than those required for the higher frequencies .
Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current . At a lower frequency , the magnetizing current will increase . Operation of a transformer at other than its design frequency may require assessment of voltages , losses , and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical . For example , transformers may need to be equipped with ' volts per hertz ' over @-@ excitation relays to protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency .
One example is in traction transformers used for electric multiple unit and high @-@ speed train service operating across regions with different electrical standards . The converter equipment and traction transformers have to accommodate different input frequencies and voltage ( ranging from as high as 50 Hz down to 16 @.@ 7 Hz and rated up to 25 kV ) while being suitable for multiple AC asynchronous motor and DC converters and motors with varying harmonics mitigation filtering requirements .
Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due to transient voltages with high @-@ frequency components , such as caused in switching or by lightning .
At much higher frequencies the transformer core size required drops dramatically : a physically small and cheap transformer can handle power levels that would require a massive iron core at mains frequency . The development of switching power semiconductor devices and complex integrated circuits made switch @-@ mode power supplies viable , to generate a high frequency from a much lower one ( or DC ) , change the voltage level with a small transformer , and , if necessary , rectify the changed voltage .
= = = Energy losses = = =
Real transformer energy losses are dominated by winding resistance joule and core losses . Transformers ' efficiency tends to improve with increasing transformer capacity . The efficiency of typical distribution transformers is between about 98 and 99 percent .
As transformer losses vary with load , it is often useful to express these losses in terms of no @-@ load loss , full @-@ load loss , half @-@ load loss , and so on . Hysteresis and eddy current losses are constant at all load levels and dominate overwhelmingly without load , while variable winding joule losses dominating increasingly as load increases . The no @-@ load loss can be significant , so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply . Designing energy efficient transformers for lower loss requires a larger core , good @-@ quality silicon steel , or even amorphous steel for the core and thicker wire , increasing initial cost . The choice of construction represents a trade @-@ off between initial cost and operating cost .
Transformer losses arise from :
Winding joule losses
Current flowing through a winding 's conductor causes joule heating . As frequency increases , skin effect and proximity effect causes the winding 's resistance and , hence , losses to increase .
Core losses
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed , a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core . According to Steinmetz 's formula , the heat energy due to hysteresis is given by
<formula> , and ,
hysteresis loss is thus given by
<formula>
where , f is the frequency , η is the hysteresis coefficient and βmax is the maximum flux density , the empirical exponent of which varies from about 1 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 8 but is often given as 1 @.@ 6 for iron .
Eddy current losses
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors and a core made from such a material also constitutes a single short @-@ circuited turn throughout its entire length . Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux , and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material . The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness . Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of plates electrically insulated from each other , rather than a solid block ; all transformers operating at low frequencies use laminated or similar cores .
Magnetostriction related transformer hum
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material , such as the core , causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field , an effect known as magnetostriction , the frictional energy of which produces an audible noise known as mains hum or transformer hum . This transformer hum is especially objectionable in transformers supplied at power frequencies and in high @-@ frequency flyback transformers associated with television CRTs .
Stray losses
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless , since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half @-@ cycle . However , any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer 's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat . There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field but these are usually small .
Mechanical vibration and audible noise transmission
In addition to magnetostriction , the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary windings . This energy incites vibration transmission in interconnected metalwork , thus amplifying audible transformer hum .
= = = Core form and shell form transformers = = =
Closed @-@ core transformers are constructed in ' core form ' or ' shell form ' . When windings surround the core , the transformer is core form ; when windings are surrounded by the core , the transformer is shell form . Shell form design may be more prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core around winding coils . Core form design tends to , as a general rule , be more economical , and therefore more prevalent , than shell form design for high voltage power transformer applications at the lower end of their voltage and power rating ranges ( less than or equal to , nominally , 230 kV or 75 MVA ) . At higher voltage and power ratings , shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent . Shell form design tends to be preferred for extra @-@ high voltage and higher MVA applications because , though more labor @-@ intensive to manufacture , shell form transformers are characterized as having inherently better kVA @-@ to @-@ weight ratio , better short @-@ circuit strength characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage .
= = Construction = =
= = = Cores = = =
= = = = Laminated steel cores = = = =
Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of high permeability silicon steel . The steel has a permeability many times that of free space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings . Early transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current losses , and their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires . Later designs constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations , a principle that has remained in use . Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non @-@ conducting layer of insulation . The universal transformer equation indicates a minimum cross @-@ sectional area for the core to avoid saturation .
The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that enclose little flux , and so reduce their magnitude . Thinner laminations reduce losses , but are more laborious and expensive to construct . Thin laminations are generally used on high @-@ frequency transformers , with some of very thin steel laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz .
One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of E @-@ shaped steel sheets capped with I @-@ shaped pieces , leading to its name of ' E @-@ I transformer ' . Such a design tends to exhibit more losses , but is very economical to manufacture . The cut @-@ core or C @-@ core type is made by winding a steel strip around a rectangular form and then bonding the layers together . It is then cut in two , forming two C shapes , and the core assembled by binding the two C halves together with a steel strap . They have the advantage that the flux is always oriented parallel to the metal grains , reducing reluctance .
A steel core 's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is removed . When power is then reapplied , the residual field will cause a high inrush current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced , usually after a few cycles of the applied AC waveform . Overcurrent protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass . On transformers connected to long , overhead power transmission lines , induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can cause saturation of the core and operation of transformer protection devices .
Distribution transformers can achieve low no @-@ load losses by using cores made with low @-@ loss high @-@ permeability silicon steel or amorphous ( non @-@ crystalline ) metal alloy . The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the transformer by its lower losses at light load .
= = = = Solid cores = = = =
Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switch @-@ mode power supplies that operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz . These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk electrical resistivity . For frequencies extending beyond the VHF band , cores made from non @-@ conductive magnetic ceramic materials called ferrites are common . Some radio @-@ frequency transformers also have movable cores ( sometimes called ' slugs ' ) which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient ( and bandwidth ) of tuned radio @-@ frequency circuits .
= = = = Toroidal cores = = = =
Toroidal transformers are built around a ring @-@ shaped core , which , depending on operating frequency , is made from a long strip of silicon steel or permalloy wound into a coil , powdered iron , or ferrite . A strip construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned , improving the transformer 's efficiency by reducing the core 's reluctance . The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an E @-@ I core . The cross @-@ section of the ring is usually square or rectangular , but more expensive cores with circular cross @-@ sections are also available . The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core . This minimizes the length of wire needed and provides screening to minimize the core 's magnetic field from generating electromagnetic interference .
Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E @-@ I types for a similar power level . Other advantages compared to E @-@ I types , include smaller size ( about half ) , lower weight ( about half ) , less mechanical hum ( making them superior in audio amplifiers ) , lower exterior magnetic field ( about one tenth ) , low off @-@ load losses ( making them more efficient in standby circuits ) , single @-@ bolt mounting , and greater choice of shapes . The main disadvantages are higher cost and limited power capacity ( see Classification parameters below ) . Because of the lack of a residual gap in the magnetic path , toroidal transformers also tend to exhibit higher inrush current , compared to laminated E @-@ I types .
Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies , typically between a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz , to reduce losses , physical size , and weight of inductive components . A drawback of toroidal transformer construction is the higher labor cost of winding . This is because it is necessary to pass the entire length of a coil winding through the core aperture each time a single turn is added to the coil . As a consequence , toroidal transformers rated more than a few kVA are uncommon . Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open , then inserting a bobbin containing primary and secondary windings .
= = = = Air cores = = = =
A physical core is not an absolute requisite and a functioning transformer can be produced simply by placing the windings near each other , an arrangement termed an ' air @-@ core ' transformer . The air which comprises the magnetic circuit is essentially lossless , and so an air @-@ core transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material . The leakage inductance is inevitably high , resulting in very poor regulation , and so such designs are unsuitable for use in power distribution . They have however very high bandwidth , and are frequently employed in radio @-@ frequency applications , for which a satisfactory coupling coefficient is maintained by carefully overlapping the primary and secondary windings . They 're also used for resonant transformers such as Tesla coils where they can achieve reasonably low loss in spite of the high leakage inductance .
= = = Windings = = =
The conducting material used for the windings depends upon the application , but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throughout every turn . For small power and signal transformers , in which currents are low and the potential difference between adjacent turns is small , the coils are often wound from enamelled magnet wire , such as Formvar wire . Larger power transformers operating at high voltages may be wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil @-@ impregnated paper and blocks of pressboard .
High @-@ frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz often have windings made of braided Litz wire to minimize the skin @-@ effect and proximity effect losses . Large power transformers use multiple @-@ stranded conductors as well , since even at low power frequencies non @-@ uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in high @-@ current windings . Each strand is individually insulated , and the strands are arranged so that at certain points in the winding , or throughout the whole winding , each portion occupies different relative positions in the complete conductor . The transposition equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the conductor , and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself . The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar size , aiding manufacture .
The windings of signal transformers minimize leakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve high @-@ frequency response . Coils are split into sections , and those sections interleaved between the sections of the other winding .
Power @-@ frequency transformers may have taps at intermediate points on the winding , usually on the higher voltage winding side , for voltage adjustment . Taps may be manually reconnected , or a manual or automatic switch may be provided for changing taps . Automatic on @-@ load tap changers are used in electric power transmission or distribution , on equipment such as arc furnace transformers , or for automatic voltage regulators for sensitive loads . Audio @-@ frequency transformers , used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers , have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each speaker . A center @-@ tapped transformer is often used in the output stage of an audio power amplifier in a push @-@ pull circuit . Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar .
Dry @-@ type transformer winding insulation systems can be either of standard open @-@ wound ' dip @-@ and @-@ bake ' construction or of higher quality designs that include vacuum pressure impregnation ( VPI ) , vacuum pressure encapsulation ( VPE ) , and cast coil encapsulation processes . In the VPI process , a combination of heat , vacuum and pressure is used to thoroughly seal , bind , and eliminate entrained air voids in the winding polyester resin insulation coat layer , thus increasing resistance to corona . VPE windings are similar to VPI windings but provide more protection against environmental effects , such as from water , dirt or corrosive ambients , by multiple dips including typically in terms of final epoxy coat .
= = = Cooling = = =
To place the cooling problem in perspective , the accepted rule of thumb is that the life expectancy of insulation in all electrics , including all transformers , is halved for about every 7 ° C to 10 ° C increase in operating temperature , this life expectancy halving rule holding more narrowly when the increase is between about 7 ° C to 8 ° C in the case of transformer winding cellulose insulation .
Small dry @-@ type and liquid @-@ immersed transformers are often self @-@ cooled by natural convection and radiation heat dissipation . As power ratings increase , transformers are often cooled by forced @-@ air cooling , forced @-@ oil cooling , water @-@ cooling , or combinations of these . Large transformers are filled with transformer oil that both cools and insulates the windings . Transformer oil is a highly refined mineral oil that cools the windings and insulation by circulating within the transformer tank . The mineral oil and paper insulation system has been extensively studied and used for more than 100 years . It is estimated that 50 % of power transformers will survive 50 years of use , that the average age of failure of power transformers is about 10 to 15 years , and that about 30 % of power transformer failures are due to insulation and overloading failures . Prolonged operation at elevated temperature degrades insulating properties of winding insulation and dielectric coolant , which not only shortens transformer life but can ultimately lead to catastrophic transformer failure . With a great body of empirical study as a guide , transformer oil testing including dissolved gas analysis provides valuable maintenance information . This underlines the need to monitor , model , forecast and manage oil and winding conductor insulation temperature conditions under varying , possibly difficult , power loading conditions .
Building regulations in many jurisdictions require indoor liquid @-@ filled transformers to either use dielectric fluids that are less flammable than oil , or be installed in fire @-@ resistant rooms . Air @-@ cooled dry transformers can be more economical where they eliminate the cost of a fire @-@ resistant transformer room .
The tank of liquid filled transformers often has radiators through which the liquid coolant circulates by natural convection or fins . Some large transformers employ electric fans for forced @-@ air cooling , pumps for forced @-@ liquid cooling , or have heat exchangers for water @-@ cooling . An oil @-@ immersed transformer may be equipped with a Buchholz relay , which , depending on severity of gas accumulation due to internal arcing , is used to either alarm or de @-@ energize the transformer . Oil @-@ immersed transformer installations usually include fire protection measures such as walls , oil containment , and fire @-@ suppression sprinkler systems .
Polychlorinated biphenyls have properties that once favored their use as a dielectric coolant , though concerns over their environmental persistence led to a widespread ban on their use . Today , non @-@ toxic , stable silicone @-@ based oils , or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used where the expense of a fire @-@ resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault . PCBs for new equipment were banned in 1981 and in 2000 for use in existing equipment in United Kingdom Legislation enacted in Canada between 1977 and 1985 essentially bans PCB use in transformers manufactured in or imported into the country after 1980 , the maximum allowable level of PCB contamination in existing mineral oil transformers being 50 ppm .
Some transformers , instead of being liquid @-@ filled , have their windings enclosed in sealed , pressurized tanks and cooled by nitrogen or sulfur hexafluoride gas .
Experimental power transformers in the 500 ‐ to ‐ 1 @,@ 000 kVA range have been built with liquid nitrogen or helium cooled superconducting windings , which eliminates winding losses without affecting core losses .
= = = Insulation drying = = =
Construction of oil @-@ filled transformers requires that the insulation covering the windings be thoroughly dried of residual moisture before the oil is introduced . Drying is carried out at the factory , and may also be required as a field service . Drying may be done by circulating hot air around the core , or by vapor @-@ phase drying ( VPD ) where an evaporated solvent transfers heat by condensation on the coil and core .
For small transformers , resistance heating by injection of current into the windings is used . The heating can be controlled very well , and it is energy efficient . The method is called low @-@ frequency heating ( LFH ) since the current used is at a much lower frequency than that of the power grid , which is normally 50 or 60 Hz . A lower frequency reduces the effect of inductance , so the voltage required can be reduced . The LFH drying method is also used for service of older transformers .
= = = Bushings = = =
Larger transformers are provided with high @-@ voltage insulated bushings made of polymers or porcelain . A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide careful control of the electric field gradient without letting the transformer leak oil .
= = Classification parameters = =
Transformers can be classified in many ways , such as the following :
Power capacity : From a fraction of a volt @-@ ampere ( VA ) to over a thousand MVA .
Duty of a transformer : Continuous , short @-@ time , intermittent , periodic , varying .
Frequency range : Power @-@ frequency , audio @-@ frequency , or radio @-@ frequency .
Voltage class : From a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts .
Cooling type : Dry and liquid @-@ immersed – self @-@ cooled , forced air @-@ cooled ; liquid @-@ immersed – forced oil @-@ cooled , water @-@ cooled .
Circuit application : Such as power supply , impedance matching , output voltage and current stabilizer or circuit isolation .
Utilization : Pulse , power , distribution , rectifier , arc furnace , amplifier output , etc ..
Basic magnetic form : Core form , shell form .
Constant @-@ potential transformer descriptor : Step @-@ up , step @-@ down , isolation .
General winding configuration : By EIC vector group – various possible two @-@ winding combinations of the phase designations delta , wye or star , and zigzag or interconnected star ; other – autotransformer , Scott @-@ T , zigzag grounding transformer winding .
Rectifier phase @-@ shift winding configuration : 2 @-@ winding , 6 @-@ pulse ; 3 @-@ winding , 12 @-@ pulse ; . . . n @-@ winding , [ n @-@ 1 ] * 6 @-@ pulse ; polygon ; etc ..
= = Types = =
Various specific electrical application designs require a variety of transformer types . Although they all share the basic characteristic transformer principles , they are customize in construction or electrical properties for certain installation requirements or circuit conditions .
Autotransformer : Transformer in which part of the winding is common to both primary and secondary circuits .
Capacitor voltage transformer : Transformer in which capacitor divider is used to reduce high voltage before application to the primary winding .
Distribution transformer , power transformer : International standards make a distinction in terms of distribution transformers being used to distribute energy from transmission lines and networks for local consumption and power transformers being used to transfer electric energy between the generator and distribution primary circuits .
Phase angle regulating transformer : A specialised transformer used to control the flow of real power on three @-@ phase electricity transmission networks .
Scott @-@ T transformer : Transformer used for phase transformation from three @-@ phase to two @-@ phase and vice versa .
Polyphase transformer : Any transformer with more than one phase .
Grounding transformer : Transformer used for grounding three @-@ phase circuits to create a neutral in a three wire system , using a wye @-@ delta transformer , or more commonly , a zigzag grounding winding .
Leakage transformer : Transformer that has loosely coupled windings .
Resonant transformer : Transformer that uses resonance to generate a high secondary voltage .
Audio transformer : Transformer used in audio equipment .
Output transformer : Transformer used to match the output of a valve amplifier to its load .
Instrument transformer : Potential or current transformer used to accurately and safely represent voltage , current or phase position of high voltage or high power circuits .
Pulse transformer : Specialized small @-@ signal transformer used to transmit digital signaling while providing electrical isolation , commonly used in Ethernet computer networks as 10BASE @-@ T , 100BASE @-@ T and 1000BASE @-@ T.
= = Applications = =
Transformers are used to increase ( or step @-@ up ) voltage before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires . Wires have resistance which loses energy through joule heating at a rate corresponding to square of the current . By transforming power to a higher voltage transformers enable economical transmission of power and distribution . Consequently , transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry , permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand . All but a tiny fraction of the world 's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer .
Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to decrease ( or step @-@ down ) the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain . The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage .
Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers . Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two @-@ way conversation over a single pair of wires . A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced voltages to ground , such as between external cables and internal circuits .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery of induction = = =
Electromagnetic induction , the principle of the operation of the transformer , was discovered independently by Michael Faraday in 1831 , Joseph Henry in 1832 , and others . The relationship between EMF and magnetic flux is an equation now known as Faraday 's law of induction :
<formula> .
where <formula> is the magnitude of the EMF in Volts and ΦB is the magnetic flux through the circuit in webers .
Preceded by Francesco Zantedeschi in 1830 , Faraday performed early experiments on induction between coils of wire , including winding a pair of coils around an iron ring , thus creating the first toroidal closed @-@ core transformer . However he only applied individual pulses of current to his transformer , and never discovered the relation between the turns ratio and EMF in the windings .
= = = Induction coils = = =
The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil , invented by Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College , Ireland in 1836 . He was one of the first researchers to realize the more turns the secondary winding has in relation to the primary winding , the larger the induced secondary EMF will be . Induction coils evolved from scientists ' and inventors ' efforts to get higher voltages from batteries . Since batteries produce direct current ( DC ) rather than AC , induction coils relied upon vibrating electrical contacts that regularly interrupted the current in the primary to create the flux changes necessary for induction . Between the 1830s and the 1870s , efforts to build better induction coils , mostly by trial and error , slowly revealed the basic principles of transformers .
= = = First alternating current transformers = = =
By the 1870s , efficient generators producing alternating current ( AC ) were available , and it was found AC could power an induction coil directly , without an interrupter .
In 1876 , Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov invented a lighting system based on a set of induction coils where the primary windings were connected to a source of AC . The secondary windings could be connected to several ' electric candles ' ( arc lamps ) of his own design . The coils Yablochkov employed functioned essentially as transformers .
In 1878 , the Ganz factory , Budapest , Hungary , began equipment for electric lighting and , by 1883 , had installed over fifty systems in Austria @-@ Hungary . Their AC systems used arc and incandescent lamps , generators , and other equipment .
Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs first exhibited a device with an open iron core called a ' secondary generator ' in London in 1882 , then sold the idea to the Westinghouse company in the United States . They also exhibited the invention in Turin , Italy in 1884 , where it was adopted for an electric lighting system . However , the efficiency of their open @-@ core bipolar apparatus remained very low .
= = = Early series circuit transformer distribution = = =
Induction coils with open magnetic circuits are inefficient at transferring power to loads . Until about 1880 , the paradigm for AC power transmission from a high voltage supply to a low voltage load was a series circuit . Open @-@ core transformers with a ratio near 1 : 1 were connected with their primaries in series to allow use of a high voltage for transmission while presenting a low voltage to the lamps . The inherent flaw in this method was that turning off a single lamp ( or other electric device ) affected the voltage supplied to all others on the same circuit . Many adjustable transformer designs were introduced to compensate for this problematic characteristic of the series circuit , including those employing methods of adjusting the core or bypassing the magnetic flux around part of a coil . Efficient , practical transformer designs did not appear until the 1880s , but within a decade , the transformer would be instrumental in the War of Currents , and in seeing AC distribution systems triumph over their DC counterparts , a position in which they have remained dominant ever since .
= = = Closed @-@ core transformers and parallel power distribution = = =
In the autumn of 1884 , Károly Zipernowsky , Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri ( ZBD ) , three engineers associated with the Ganz factory , had determined that open @-@ core devices were impracticable , as they were incapable of reliably regulating voltage . In their joint 1885 patent applications for novel transformers ( later called ZBD transformers ) , they described two designs with closed magnetic circuits where copper windings were either a ) wound around iron wire ring core or b ) surrounded by iron wire core . The two designs were the first application of the two basic transformer constructions in common use to this day , which can as a class all be termed as either core form or shell form ( or alternatively , core type or shell type ) , as in a ) or b ) , respectively ( see images ) . The Ganz factory had also in the autumn of 1884 made delivery of the world 's first five high @-@ efficiency AC transformers , the first of these units having been shipped on September 16 , 1884 . This first unit had been manufactured to the following specifications : 1 @,@ 400 W , 40 Hz , 120 : 72 V , 11 @.@ 6 : 19 @.@ 4 A , ratio 1 @.@ 67 : 1 , one @-@ phase , shell form .
In both designs , the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary windings traveled almost entirely within the confines of the iron core , with no intentional path through air ( see Toroidal cores below ) . The new transformers were 3 @.@ 4 times more efficient than the open @-@ core bipolar devices of Gaulard and Gibbs . The ZBD patents included two other major interrelated innovations : one concerning the use of parallel connected , instead of series connected , utilization loads , the other concerning the ability to have high turns ratio transformers such that the supply network voltage could be much higher ( initially 1 @,@ 400 to 2 @,@ 000 V ) than the voltage of utilization loads ( 100 V initially preferred ) . When employed in parallel connected electric distribution systems , closed @-@ core transformers finally made it technically and economically feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes , businesses and public spaces . Bláthy had suggested the use of closed cores , Zipernowsky had suggested the use of parallel shunt connections , and Déri had performed the experiments ;
Transformers today are designed on the principles discovered by the three engineers . They also popularized the word ' transformer ' to describe a device for altering the EMF of an electric current , although the term had already been in use by 1882 . In 1886 , the ZBD engineers designed , and the Ganz factory supplied electrical equipment for , the world 's first power station that used AC generators to power a parallel connected common electrical network , the steam @-@ powered Rome @-@ Cerchi power plant .
Although George Westinghouse had bought Gaulard and Gibbs ' patents in 1885 , the Edison Electric Light Company held an option on the US rights for the ZBD transformers , requiring Westinghouse to pursue alternative designs on the same principles . He assigned to William Stanley the task of developing a device for commercial use in United States . Stanley 's first patented design was for induction coils with single cores of soft iron and adjustable gaps to regulate the EMF present in the secondary winding ( see image ) . This design was first used commercially in the US in 1886 but Westinghouse was intent on improving the Stanley design to make it ( unlike the ZBD type ) easy and cheap to produce .
Westinghouse , Stanley and associates soon developed an easier to manufacture core , consisting of a stack of thin ' E ‑ shaped ' iron plates , insulated by thin sheets of paper or other insulating material . Prewound copper coils could then be slid into place , and straight iron plates laid in to create a closed magnetic circuit . Westinghouse applied for a patent for the new low @-@ cost design in December 1886 ; it was granted in July 1887 .
= = = Other early transformer designs = = =
In 1889 , Russian @-@ born engineer Mikhail Dolivo @-@ Dobrovolsky developed the first three @-@ phase transformer at the Allgemeine Elektricitäts @-@ Gesellschaft ( ' General Electricity Company ' ) in Germany .
In 1891 , Nikola Tesla invented the Tesla coil , an air @-@ cored , dual @-@ tuned resonant transformer for producing very high voltages at high frequency .
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= Jeff Hanneman =
Jeffrey John " Jeff " Hanneman ( January 31 , 1964 – May 2 , 2013 ) was an American musician , best known as a founding member of the American thrash metal band Slayer . Hanneman contributed both lyrical and musical material to every Slayer album and wrote the songs " Raining Blood " , " War Ensemble , " " South of Heaven , " " Seasons in the Abyss , " and " Angel of Death , " all of which have been played at almost every live Slayer performance after their respective compositions . He had his own signature guitar , the ESP Jeff Hanneman Signature model .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Hanneman was born January 31 , 1964 , in Oakland , California , and grew up in Long Beach in a family containing several war veterans : his father fought in Normandy during World War II and his brothers in Vietnam , making warfare a common conversation topic at the dinner table . War films were popular on TV at the time , and Hanneman often joined his brothers in constructing and coloring tank and plane models . His interest in warfare and military history has been attributed to his upbringing .
In a 2009 interview with Decibel magazine , he stated his father is German , but fought for the Allied side in World War II . In the same interview , he also goes into detail of what district of Germany his father and grandparents hail from . His grandfather was fluent in German .
Hanneman was introduced to heavy metal music as a child through his older sister Mary , when she was listening to Black Sabbath at her house . Once he reached high school , he discovered hardcore punk , which had a significant influence on his style and attitude .
= = = Slayer = = =
In 1981 Hanneman , who was working as a telemarketer at the time , met Kerry King , when King was auditioning for a southern rock band called " Ledger " . King remembered : " As I was leaving , I saw Jeff just kinda standing around playing guitar , and he was playing stuff that I was into , like Def Leppard 's ' Wasted ' and AC / DC and Priest " . After the try @-@ out session , the two guitarists started talking and playing Iron Maiden and Judas Priest songs . Slayer was born when King asked " Why don 't we start our own band ? " , to which Hanneman replied " ... Fuck yeah ! " .
Hanneman stated that he was playing guitar " for like a month " by the time he met King and put an effort into improving his skills after watching him play . Hanneman , who was heavily influenced by hardcore punk music , got the other members into the genre , leading Slayer into a faster and more aggressive approach . The band 's drummer Dave Lombardo asserted that his hardcore influences pushed him to play faster , contributing to shape his drumming style .
In 1984 , Hanneman , Lombardo and Suicidal Tendencies guitarist Rocky George had a brief hardcore punk side project called " Pap Smear " – the band had many tracks and was due to start recording when Hanneman was advised to avoid the side project by Slayer 's producer , Rick Rubin , who is quoted as saying " Ahhhh , don 't do it , man – this is the kind of thing that breaks bands up ! " and Hanneman took Rubin 's advice . Only a demo was recorded , consisting of Hanneman on vocals and bass , Lombardo on drums and George on guitar . Later two of the songs were re @-@ recorded on Slayer 's 1996 album Undisputed Attitude .
= = = Illness and death = = =
In early 2011 , Hanneman contracted necrotizing fasciitis . Reports linked this illness with a spider bite he claimed to have received while in a friend 's hot tub .
In light of his illness and Slayer 's upcoming participation in the Australian Soundwave Festival tour that was set to begin on February 26 , 2011 , the band made the decision to play the dates without Hanneman , and on February 16 , 2011 , brought on Gary Holt ( guitarist of the band Exodus ) to fill in for him . Pat O 'Brien joined as Slayer 's temporary second guitarist when Holt left the tour to play with Exodus . In 2012 , bandmate Tom Araya announced a recovery from the disease . However , later in February 2013 , Kerry King revealed continuing health problems that kept Hanneman from working .
Hanneman died of liver failure on May 2 , 2013 , in a Southern California hospital near his home . On May 9 , 2013 , the official cause of death was announced as alcohol @-@ related cirrhosis . Hanneman and his family had apparently been unaware of the extent of the condition until shortly before his death .
= = Personal life = =
In 1989 , Hanneman married Kathryn in Las Vegas . They had met in 1983 before the release of the debut album Show No Mercy , during a Slayer show in Buena Park , California . The couple had no children and lived in Los Angeles . Kathryn stayed at home when Slayer toured ; Hanneman claimed to prefer this , having said that when he came home , she was " all brand new again . " Kathryn only toured with the band twice in twenty years .
Hanneman was a reserved person when he was offstage . Unlike the other members , he was very selective in socializing and rarely gave interviews . As vocalist / bassist Araya said : " If he didn 't like you , he wouldn 't hang with you . " Hanneman was a reformed cocaine and pill abuser , much like Araya . They decided to quit when they realized " this can lead to only death or something , this is going too far . " Hanneman was a long @-@ time fan of the Oakland Raiders and the Los Angeles Kings .
= = German history = =
Hanneman 's interest in German war medals and Nazi Germany was illustrated by many of his lyrics . Those interests in the Wehrmacht and Waffen @-@ SS began with medals given to him by his father , including some taken from a dead German soldier . His most prized medal was his Knight 's Cross , which he had bought from a Slayer fan for $ 1000 . While touring with Motörhead , Hanneman discovered Motörhead vocalist Lemmy 's interest in medals , and the two discussed medal designs , weapons and tactics used by the Wehrmacht .
Hanneman 's lyrics for the song " Angel of Death " led to accusations of Slayer being Nazi sympathizers . Hanneman defended himself with " nothing I put in the lyrics that says necessarily he ( Josef Mengele ) was a bad man , because to me – well , isn 't that obvious ? I shouldn 't have to tell you that . " The band has stated numerous times that they are not Nazis and do not condone Nazism .
= = Influences and style = =
Hanneman 's major influences included hard rock and heavy metal bands like Led Zeppelin , Iron Maiden , Judas Priest , Black Sabbath , Aerosmith and hardcore punk acts such as Wasted Youth , Minor Threat , Dead Kennedys , Black Flag , T.S.O.L. , which led to Slayer 's 1996 album Undisputed Attitude . Hanneman 's and King 's dual guitar solos have been called " wildly chaotic , " and " twisted genius " . Early albums , such as Hell Awaits and Reign in Blood , featured a " wailing style " and " demented soloing often mimicking the screams of the song 's victims . " South of Heaven featured " more technical " guitar riffs , utilizing the aforementioned tremolo picking and down @-@ picked notes , improving musicianship while retaining a melodic sense . Both Hanneman and King were ranked # 10 in Guitar World 's " 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists of All Time . "
= = Legacy = =
Hanneman 's guitar work had a notable impact on the heavy metal scene . Musicians like Robb Flynn ( Machine Head ) , Dino Cazares ( Fear Factory , Divine Heresy ) , Mille Petrozza ( Kreator ) , Andreas Kisser ( Sepultura ) , Dan Lilker ( Anthrax , Nuclear Assault ) , Eric Hoffman ( Deicide , Amon ) , Trevor Peres ( Obituary ) , Mark Morton ( Lamb of God ) and Kelly Shaefer ( Atheist ) cited him as an influence on their playing and songwriting . Jeff Walker said that " Hanneman 's playing and riff writing and attitude has had a big impact on Carcass " . Shavo Odadjian declared that " without Jeff Hanneman , there would be no System of a Down " .
John Consterdine of Terrorizer magazine noted : " without Jeff Hanneman , Slayer certainly would not have created some of the most famous riffs in metal , which undoubtedly changed the entire genre " . According to Jeff Kitts of Guitar World , he " influenced a generation and changed the course of metal forever " . Alex Webster of Cannibal Corpse , who considers Hanneman his major influence as a composer , regarded him as " one of the greatest musicians and songwriters in metal " and Alexi Laiho of Children of Bodom described him as " one of the fathers of metal " .
Alex Skolnick of Testament asserted that he " wrote some of the best riffs of all @-@ time " and " he impacted music in such a way that an entire genre will never be the same " . According to Corey Taylor of Slipknot and Stone Sour , Hanneman is " one of the most underrated writers and underrated players that ever was " while Slash of Guns n ' Roses and Velvet Revolver defined him " the king of thrash / speed metal guitar " .
= = Lyrics and music = =
Hanneman wrote the music for most of the band 's fan favorites , songs such as " Angel of Death " , " Raining Blood " , " Die by the Sword " , " South of Heaven " , " War Ensemble " , " Postmortem " , " Dead Skin Mask " and " Seasons in the Abyss " , which have all become staples for live performance at Slayer shows . Hanneman 's favorite album was Reign in Blood , and he enjoyed performing the songs " Raining Blood " and " Angel of Death . " He contributed lyrics and music to every Slayer album , having formed a music and lyric writing partnership with Araya , which sometimes overshadowed King 's creative input .
When writing new material , the band writes the music before the lyrics . Hanneman often composed riffs at his house , using a 24 @-@ track and a drum machine and then by gathering opinions from the other band members ; King and Lombardo made suggestions of alterations . The band will play the riff to get the basic song structure , and then figure out where the lyrics and solos go . Hanneman stated that writing lyrics and music is a " free for all " ; " It 's all just whoever comes up with what . Sometimes I 'll be more on a roll and I 'll have more stuff , same with Kerry – it 's whoever 's hot , really . Anybody can write anything ; if it 's good we use it , if not we don 't . "
= = Equipment = =
In Slayer 's early days , Hanneman used a black Gibson Les Paul modified with a Kahler Pro tremolo and a Joe Barden Two / Tone Humbucker bridge pickup during the Show No Mercy and Hell Awaits era . In mid 1985 he began playing B.C. Rich , notably a Rich Bich model he bought off his band colleague Kerry King , he subsequently applied various graphics to . His first Bich had a 3x3 headstock , chrome hardware ( including the Kahler Pro bridge ) and the pickups were DiMarzio Super Distortions . He and King can both also be seen with a second set of BC Rich 's around 1986 @-@ 1987 , which had 6 @-@ in @-@ line headstocks , black hardware and DiMarzio pickups . More rarely he also used a BC Rich Ironbird model . From 1987 he was seen using a custom made BC Rich Gunslinger with similar specs as his ' 86- ' 87 era Bich , he shortly after had the pickups replaced with two active EMG @-@ 81 humbuckers . In 1988 he began playing the famous Jackson Soloist that he would use constantly as his main guitar for songs played in E @-@ flat tuning until 2001 . It originally shipped to him with passive Jackson pickups ( probably a J @-@ 50 and J @-@ 80 ) and a JE @-@ 1200 mid @-@ boost circuit , but were soon changed for EMG @-@ 81 pickups as well . Around 1990 @-@ 1991 Hanneman began using ESP guitars , he mostly used as backup for this Jackson Soloist and other tunings . He had his own signature model made , based on the specs of his original Jackson Soloist . When touring , Hanneman carried six guitars due to the different tunings he utilized . Most albums such as Haunting the Chapel – Divine Intervention and World Painted Blood have E @-@ flat tuning . However , albums such as Diabolus in Musica – Christ Illusion feature alternate tunings such as Drop B and utilizing seven string guitars . The first album , Show No Mercy , was recorded in standard tuning , while live performances of those songs were played in E @-@ flat since about 1984 .
= = = Guitars = = =
ESP Jeff Hanneman Signature model
Jackson Custom Shop Soloist
EMG 81 / 85 Pickups with EMG SPC Mid @-@ Boost circuit
Kahler Pro bridges
Dunlop .009-.042 Strings
D 'Addario .009-.042 Strings ( earlier )
= = = Effects = = =
Shure Wireless System
Eventide H3000S Harmonizer
Yamaha SPX @-@ 90 Effects Processor
Rocktron Super C HUSH
MXR Smart Gate
BOSS RGE @-@ 10 ( 10 band EQ )
= = = Amplification = = =
Marshall JCM800 2203 amplifiers
Marshall JCM800 1960 Cabinets , later ModeFour Speaker Cabinet , supposedly loaded with Celestion G12T @-@ 75 Speakers
= = Discography = =
1983 : Show No Mercy
1984 : Haunting the Chapel
1985 : Hell Awaits
1986 : Reign in Blood
1988 : South of Heaven
1990 : Seasons in the Abyss
1994 : Divine Intervention
1996 : Undisputed Attitude
1998 : Diabolus in Musica
2001 : God Hates Us All
2006 : Christ Illusion
2009 : World Painted Blood
2015 : Repentless ( writing credit " Piano Wire " )
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= Robert McLachlan ( cinematographer ) =
Robert McLachlan is a Canadian cinematographer . A successful cyclist in his youth , McLachlan quit the sport to take up cinematography , and entered the field after studying at Simon Fraser University , McLachlan was mentored by Richard Leiterman . His professional career began with documentary work for Greenpeace , before he became involved in both television and feature films ; his work has subsequently earned him several industry awards and award nominations .
McLachlan , who was inspired by both his father 's photography and his own appreciation for the films Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid and Walkabout to choose his career path , would go on to find recognition as the chief cinematographer for the television series Millennium , for which he was scouted specifically . McLachlan 's style on this series led to several industry awards and briefly became popular in the medium , as well as leading him directly to future work on Game of Thrones . He founded the documentary production company Omni Film Productions in the 1970s , later selling his share of the company .
= = Early life and education = =
In his youth , McLachlan was an avid cyclist , accrediting this to the fact that his home town Vancouver was not cold enough for ponds to freeze over to play ice hockey on . During his teenage years , he trained upwards of six hours a day , and won several national championships in the sport . He qualified to represent Canada in the 1976 Summer Olympics , but the lack of funding for cycling in North America at the time would have necessitated him funding his own journey and leaving school to do so ; McLachlan opted instead to remain in education and focus on his interest in photography .
McLachlan first became interested in cinematography after viewing the 1969 film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid ; Nicolas Roeg 's work on the 1971 film Walkabout further cemented his interest in the field . McLachlan was also motivated by his father , who was an avid photographer . An early school assignment to create a Super 8 film project , for which he received an A grade , also proved a formative influence .
McLachlan studied fine art at the University of British Columbia for a year , before changing courses to attend classes at Simon Fraser University 's film department . McLachlan 's education focussed on the documentary style of John Grierson ; however , when he began work in 1987 , he was mentored by Richard Leiterman . McLachlan also cites influences outside the field of cinematography , drawing influence from the chiaroscuro , Dutch art and pre @-@ Raphaelite movements of visual art , and the works of Andrew Wyeth and Georges de La Tour in particular .
= = Career = =
Having graduated , McLachlan and Michael Chechik founded the production company Omni Film Productions in 1979 , and began to work with Greenpeace , filming documentary footage on a range of subjects . McLachlan narrowly avoided trouble on several of these shoots , finding himself arrested for filming too close to an Exxon oil tanker and scarcely missing being assaulted by trophy hunters in British Columbia . McLachlan would later sell his stake in Omni , but remains proud of their documentary work . At the time , McLachlan was unsuccessful in joining an industry union , relegating his work to advertising and small @-@ scale productions ; his first union @-@ backed project was on the revival of the television series Sea Hunt .
McLachlan found success on the Fox television series Millennium , earning several awards for his work on the show . He was head @-@ hunted for the series by its creator Chris Carter , who had seen his work on the series Strange Luck . McLachlan was initially offered a position shooting Carter 's other active series , The X @-@ Files , then in its third season , but was unable to start work in time . He developed a distinctive style for the series , shooting it with desaturated colours and lighting scenes as though they were to be filmed in black and white ; he also made use of high @-@ intensity strobe lighting usually employed for advertising and macro cinematography . McLachlan has noted that this style briefly became popular after the series ' broadcast but that other cinematographers had difficulty adjusting to it .
Having worked on Millennium with director David Nutter , McLachlan was able to parley this connection into a role on the HBO fantasy series Game of Thrones . McLachlan has called working on the show 's ten @-@ person cinematography team " a major logistical challenge " , noting the complexity of its out @-@ of @-@ sequence filming schedules as something unseen on a television series before . McLachlan has also worked on the programme Ray Donovan , and has based that series ' cinematography on both film noir aesthetics and thse of 1970s cinema , specifically citing The Long Goodbye , The Parallax View and All the President 's Men , as well as the work of Gordon Willis .
= = Accolades = =
McLachlan has been nominated for , and won , several awards over the course of his career . He has been nominated four times for the American Society of Cinematographers awards , three times for his work on the television series Millennium and once for the television film High Noon . He has also won several Canadian Society of Cinematographers awards , including wins for the films Willard and Impolite , as well as for several episodes of Millennium and The Lone Gunmen . McLachlan 's work on Game of Thrones received Emmy Award nominations in 2013 and 2015 , and a Canadian Society of Cinematographers award nomination in 2015 ; he was also nominated by the latter society for his cinematography on the series Ray Donovan .
= = Partial filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
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= Otto Julius Zobel =
Otto Julius Zobel ( October 20 , 1887 – January 1970 ) was an electrical engineer who worked for the American Telephone & Telegraph Company ( AT & T ) in the early part of the 20th century . Zobel 's work on filter design was revolutionary and led , in conjunction with the work of John R. Carson , to significant commercial advances for AT & T in the field of frequency division multiplex ( FDM ) telephone transmissions .
Although much of Zobel 's work has been superseded by more modern filter designs , it remains the basis of filter theory and his papers are still referenced today . Zobel invented the m @-@ derived filter and the constant @-@ resistance filter , which remains in use .
Zobel and Carson helped to establish the nature of noise in electric circuits , concluding that — contrary to mainstream belief — it is not even theoretically possible to filter out noise entirely and that noise will always be a limiting factor in what is possible to transmit . Thus , they anticipated the later work of Claude Shannon , who showed how the theoretical information rate of a channel is related to the noise of the channel .
= = Life = =
Otto Julius Zobel was born on October 20 , 1887 in Ripon , Wisconsin . He first studied at Ripon College , where he received his BA in 1909 with a thesis on Theoretical and experimental treatment of electrical condensers . He later received a Distinguished Alumnus Award from Ripon . He then went to the University of Wisconsin and graduated with an MA in physics in 1910 . Zobel stayed at the University of Wisconsin as a physics instructor from 1910 to 1915 , and graduated with his PhD in 1914 ; his dissertation concerned " Thermal Conduction and Radiation " . This followed his 1913 co @-@ authoring of a book on the subject of geophysical thermodynamics . From 1915 to 1916 he taught physics at the University of Minnesota . Having moved to Maplewood , New Jersey , he joined AT & T in 1916 , where he worked on transmission techniques . In 1926 , still with the company , he moved to New York and in 1934 , he transferred to Bell Telephone Laboratories ( Bell Labs ) , the research organisation created jointly by AT & T and Western Electric a few years earlier .
The last of his prolific list of patents occurred for Bell Labs in the 1950s , by which time he was residing in Morristown , New Jersey . He died there in January 1970 .
= = Thermal conduction = =
Zobel 's early work on heat conduction was not pursued in his later career . There are , however , some interesting connections . Lord Kelvin in his early work on the transmission line derived the properties of the electric line by analogy with heat conduction . This is based on Fourier 's law and the Fourier conduction equation . Ingersoll and Zobel describe the work of Kelvin and Fourier in their book and Kelvin 's approach to the representation of transmission functions would consequently have been very familiar to Zobel . It is therefore no surprise that in Zobel 's paper on the electric wave filter a very similar representation is found for the transmission function of filters .
Solutions to the Fourier equation can be provided by Fourier series . Ingersoll and Zobel state that in many cases the calculation involved makes the solution " well @-@ nigh impossible " by analytical means . With modern technology such a calculation is trivially easy , but Ingersoll and Zobel recommend the use of harmonic analysers , which are the mechanical counterpart of today 's spectrum analysers . These machines add together mechanical oscillations of various frequencies , phases and amplitudes by combining them through a set of pulleys or springs ; one for each oscillator . The reverse process is also possible , driving the machine with the function and measuring the Fourier components as output .
= = Background to AT & T research = =
After the work of John R. Carson in 1915 it became clear that multiplexed telephone transmissions could be greatly improved by the use of single sideband suppressed carrier ( SSB ) transmission . Compared to basic amplitude modulation ( AM ) SSB has the advantage of half the bandwidth and a fraction of the power ( one sideband can have no more than 1 / 6 of the total power and would typically be a lot less ) . AM analysed in the frequency domain consists of a carrier and two sidebands . The carrier wave in AM represents the majority of the transmitted power but contains no information whatsoever . The two sidebands both contain identical information so only one is required , at least from an information transmission point of view . Up to this point filtering had been by simple tuned circuits . However , SSB required a flat response over the sideband of interest and maximum rejection of the other sideband with a very sharp transition between the two . As the idea was to put another ( completely different ) signal in the slot vacated by the unwanted sideband it was important that all traces of it were removed to prevent crosstalk . At the same time minimum distortion ( i.e. flat response ) is obviously desirable for the sideband being retained . This requirement led to a big research effort in the design of electric wave filters .
George A. Campbell and Zobel worked on this problem of extracting a single sideband from an amplitude @-@ modulated composite wave for use in multiplexing telephone channels and the related problem of extracting ( de @-@ multiplexing ) the signal at the far end of the transmission .
Initially , the baseband pass range used was 200 Hz to 2500 Hz but later the International Telecommunication Union set a standard of 300 Hz to 3 @.@ 4 kHz with 4 kHz spacing . Thus the filtering was required to go from fully pass to fully stop in the space of 900 Hz . This standard in telephony is still in use today and had remained widespread until it began to be supplanted by digital techniques from the 1980s onwards .
Campbell had previously utilised the condition discovered in the work of Oliver Heaviside for lossless transmission to improve the frequency response of transmission lines using lumped component inductors ( loading coils ) . When Campbell started investigating electric wave filter design from 1910 , this previous work naturally led him to filters using ladder network topology using capacitors and inductors . Low @-@ pass , high @-@ pass and band @-@ pass filters were designed . Sharper cut @-@ offs and higher stop @-@ band rejection to any arbitrary design specification could be achieved merely by increasing the length of the ladder . The filter designs used by Campbell were described by Zobel as constant k filters although this was not a term used by Campbell himself .
= = Innovations = =
After Zobel arrived at the Engineering Department of AT & T he used his mathematical skills to further improve the design of electric wave filters . Carson and Zobel developed the mathematical method of analyzing the behavior of filters now known as the image method whereby the impedance and transmission parameters of each section are calculated as if it is part of an infinite chain of identical sections .
= = = Wave filters = = =
Zobel invented the m @-@ derived ( or m @-@ type ) filter section in 1920 , the distinguishing feature of this design being a pole of attenuation close to the filter cut @-@ off frequency . The result of this design is a filter response which falls very rapidly past the cut @-@ off frequency . To use a well known quaint engineer 's expression it " goes off like the side of a house " . A fast transition between pass @-@ band and stop @-@ band was , of course , one of the primary requirements for cramming as many telephone channels as possible into one cable .
One disadvantage of the m @-@ type section was that at frequencies past the pole of attenuation , the response of the filter started to increase again , reaching a peak somewhere in the stop @-@ band and then falling again . Zobel overcame this problem by designing hybrid filters using a mixture of constant k and m @-@ type sections . This gave Zobel the advantages of both : the fast transition of the m @-@ type and good stop @-@ band rejection of the constant k .
By 1921 Zobel had further perfected his composite filter designs . He was now using , in addition , m @-@ type half sections at the ends of his composite filters to improve the impedance matching of the filter to the source and the load , a technique in which he held a patent . The difficulty that he was trying to overcome was that the image impedance techniques being used to design filter sections only gave the mathematically predicted response if they were terminated in their respective image impedances . Technically , this was easy to do within the filter as it could always be arranged that adjacent filter sections had matching image impedances ( one of the characteristics of m @-@ type sections is that one side or the other of the m @-@ type section will have an image impedance identical to the equivalent constant k section ) . However , the terminating impedances are a different story . These are normally required to be resistive but the image impedance will be complex . Even worse , it is not even mathematically possible to construct a filter image impedance out of discrete components . The result of impedance mismatch is reflections and a degraded filter performance . Zobel found that a value of m = 0 @.@ 6 for the end half sections , while not mathematically exact , gave a good match to resistive terminations in the pass @-@ band .
Around 1923 , Zobel 's filter designs were reaching the peak of their complexity . He now had a filter section to which he had doubly applied the m @-@ derivation process resulting in filter sections which he called the mm ' -type . This had all the advantages of the previous m @-@ type , but more so . An even faster transition into the stop @-@ band and an even more constant characteristic impedance in the pass @-@ band . At the same time one side would match into the old m @-@ type , just as the m @-@ type could match into the k @-@ type . Because there were now two arbitrary parameters ( m and m ' ) that the filter designer could adjust , much better end matching half @-@ sections could be designed . A composite filter using these sections would have been the very best that could have been achieved at that time . However , the mm ' -type sections never became as widespread and well known as the m @-@ type sections , possibly because their greater complexity has deterred designers . They would have been inconvenient to implement with microwave technology and the increased count of components , especially wound components , made them more expensive to implement with conventional LC technology . Certainly , it is hard to find a textbook from any period which covers their design .
= = = Transmission line simulation = = =
Zobel directed much of his effort in the 1920s to constructing networks which could simulate transmission lines . These networks were derived from filter sections , which themselves had been derived from transmission line theory and the filters were used on transmission line signals . In turn , these artificial lines were used to develop and test better filter sections . Zobel used a design technique based on his theoretical discovery that the impedance looking into the end of a filter chain was practically the same ( within the limits of component tolerances ) as the theoretical impedance of an infinite chain after only a small number of sections had been added to the chain . These " image " impedances have a mathematical characterization impossible to construct simply out of discrete components , and can only ever be approximated . Zobel found that using these impedances constructed out of small filter chains as components in a greater network allowed him to build realistic line simulators . These were not in any sense intended as practical filters in the field , but rather the intention was to construct good controllable line simulators without having the inconvenience of miles of cable to contend with .
= = = Equalisers = = =
Zobel invented several filters whose defining characteristic was a constant resistance as the input impedance . The resistance remained constant through the pass band and the stop band . With these designs Zobel had completely solved the impedance matching problem . The main application of these sections has been not so much for filtering out unwanted frequencies , the k @-@ type and m @-@ type filters remained best for this , but rather to equalize the response in the pass band to a flat response .
Perhaps one of Zobel 's most fascinating inventions is the lattice filter section . This section is both constant resistance and flat response zero attenuation across the band , yet it is constructed out of inductors and capacitors . The only signal parameter it modifies is the phase of the signal at different frequencies .
= = = Impedance matching = = =
A common theme throughout Zobel 's work is the issue of impedance matching . The obvious approach to filter design is to design directly for the attenuation characteristics desired . With modern computing power , a brute force approach is possible and easy , simply incrementally adjusting each component while recalculating in an iterative process until the desired response is achieved . However , Zobel developed a more indirect line of attack . He realized very early on that mismatched impedances inevitably meant reflections , and reflections meant a loss of signal . Improving the impedance match , conversely , would automatically improve a filter 's pass @-@ band response .
This impedance matching approach not only led to better filters but the techniques developed could be used to construct circuits whose sole purpose was to match together two disparate impedances . Zobel continued to invent impedance matching networks throughout his career . During World War II he moved on to waveguide filters for use in the newly developed radar technology . Little was published during the war for obvious reasons but towards the end with Bell Labs in the 1950s , Zobel designs for sections to match physically different waveguide sizes appear . However , the circuit noted above which still bears Zobel 's name today , the constant @-@ resistance network , can be viewed as an impedance matching circuit and remains Zobel 's finest achievement in this regard .
= = Loudspeaker equalisation = =
The name of Zobel is , perhaps , most well known with regard to impedance compensation networks for loudspeakers . Clearly , his designs have applications in this field . However , none of Zobel 's patents or articles appear to discuss this topic . It is unclear whether he actually designed anything specifically for loudspeakers . The closest we get to this is where he speaks of impedance matching into a transducer , but here he is discussing a circuit to equalize a submarine cable , or in another instance where clearly he has in mind the hybrid transformer which terminates a line going into a telephone instrument on a phantom circuit .
= = Noise = =
While Carson led the way theoretically , Zobel was involved in the design of filters for the purpose of noise reduction on transmission systems .
= = = Background = = =
At the beginning of the 1920s and through to the 1930s , the thinking on noise was dominated by the radio engineers ' concern with external static . In modern terminology , this would include random ( thermal and shot ) noise but those concepts were relatively unknown and little understood at the time despite an early paper by Schottky in 1918 on shot noise . To the radio engineers of the time , static meant externally generated interference . The line of attack against noise from the radio engineers included developing directional antennae and moving to higher frequencies where the problem was known not to be so severe .
For telephone engineers , what was then called " fluctuating noise " , and would now be described as random noise , i.e. shot and thermal noise , was much more noticeable than with early radio systems . Carson broadened the radio engineers ' concept of signal @-@ to @-@ static ratio to a more general signal @-@ to @-@ noise ratio and introduced a figure of merit for noise .
= = = Impossibility of noise cancellation = = =
The radio engineers ' preoccupation with static and the techniques being used to reduce it led to the idea that noise could be totally eliminated by , in some way , compensating for it or canceling it out . The culmination of this viewpoint was expressed in a 1928 paper by Edwin Armstrong . This led to a famous retort by Carson in a subsequent paper , " Noise , like the poor , will always be with us " . Armstrong was technically in the wrong in this exchange , but in 1933 , ironically and paradoxically , went on to invent wide @-@ band FM which enormously improved the noise performance of radio by increasing the bandwidth .
Carson and Zobel in 1923 had conclusively shown that filtering cannot remove noise to the same degree as , say , interference from another station could be removed . To do this they had analyzed random noise in the frequency domain and postulated that it contains all frequencies in its spectrum . This was the first use of Fourier analysis to describe random noise and hence described it in terms of a spread of frequencies . Also first published in this paper was the concept of what we would now call band @-@ limited white noise . For Zobel this meant that characteristics of the receiving filter completely determine the figure of merit in the presence of white noise and that the filter design was key to achieving the optimum noise performance .
Although this work by Carson and Zobel was very early , it was not universally accepted that noise could be analyzed in the frequency domain in this way . For this reason , the aforementioned exchange between Carson and Armstrong was still possible years later . The precise mathematical relationship between noise power and bandwidth for random noise was finally determined by Harry Nyquist in 1928 thus giving a theoretical limit to what could be achieved by filtering .
This work on noise produced the concept , and led Zobel to pursue the design , of matched filters . This is the concept that the noise performance of the equipment is optimal when the filter is perfectly matched to the signal one is attempting to transmit and is the culmination of theoretical research into the application of removing noise by means of linear filters . This became important in the development of radar during the Second World War in which Zobel played a part .
= = Use of work in genetic programming research = =
Zobel 's work has recently found an application in research into genetic programming . The purpose of this research is to attempt to demonstrate that the results obtained from genetic programming are comparable to human achievements . Two of the measures that are used to determine whether a genetic programming result is human @-@ competitive are :
The result is a patented invention .
The result is equal to or better than a result that was considered an achievement in its field at the time of discovery .
One such problem set as a task for a genetic program was to design a crossover filter for woofer and tweeter loudspeakers . The output design was identical in topology to a design found in a patent of Zobel 's for a filter to separate multiplexed low and high frequencies on a transmission line . This was judged to be human @-@ comparable , not only because of the patent , but also because the high @-@ pass and low @-@ pass sections were " decomposed " as in Zobel 's design , but not specifically required to be so in the programs parameters . Whether or not Zobel 's filter design would be good for a hi @-@ fi system is another question . The design does not actually cross over , but rather , there is a gap between the two pass @-@ bands where the signal is not transmitted to either output . Essential for multiplexing , but not so desirable for sound reproduction .
A later genetic programming experiment produced a filter design which consisted of a chain of constant k sections terminated in an m @-@ type half section . This was also determined to have been a design patented by Zobel .
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= The M + M 's Tour =
The M + M 's Tour was the sixth concert tour by American recording artist Britney Spears , consisting of six brief shows at clubs in the United States . Spears expressed interested to tour again as early as February 2006 . She started rehearsing for a show at House of Blues venues in secret , and pulled out of a surprise performance on April 25 , 2007 , at Los Angeles nightclub Forty Deuce . After a marquee reading " The M + M 's " at the House of Blues in San Diego , California , appeared in late April 2007 , media sources identified the act as Spears , and the show quickly sold out . The tour marked the first time Spears performed live since The Onyx Hotel Tour in June 2004 .
The show , which ran 12 – 16 minutes in length , featured Spears accompanied by four female back @-@ up dancers performing choreographed dance numbers to shortened versions of five songs , including hits such as " ... Baby One More Time " and " Toxic " . During the performance of one song , a male audience member participated onstage . Spears ' vocals during the performance were lip @-@ synched . The shows received mixed reviews from critics and fans . Some said that Spears looked happy and in great shape , while others deemed the show as subpar . Scalpers outside the San Diego venue sold tickets with a face value of $ 35 for prices between $ 200 and $ 500 .
= = Background and development = =
The shows took place against a backdrop of Spears ' life struggles the previous few years that had made her fodder for tabloid reports . These included a two @-@ day marriage , a stormy two @-@ year marriage and divorce and having two children , shaving her head , entering rehabilitation for substance abuse , and various run @-@ ins with the paparazzi .
In an interview with People in February 2006 , Spears explained that she was anxious to resume her career , saying , " This may sound weird , but I miss traveling . I miss the road , seeing different places and being with the dancers and having fun . That feeling of being on the stage , knowing it 's your best — I love that . I needed a break . I needed to be hungry again . " On April 26 , 2007 , Ivan Kane , the owner of Los Angeles nightclub Forty Deuce , told E ! News that Spears had pulled out of a surprise performance at the venue the previous night . Kane stated that during rehearsal , she was " looking very hot , with four backup dancers and [ she ] sang three songs . They ran through the set several times , the choreography was smokin ' , and she sounded great . " Marc Malkin of E ! News said that Spears thought she might need more time to prepare . He also reported that she was planning to tour House of Blues venues in the United States . Spears wanted to keep the rehearsals a secret , and did not even inform the owners of the different dance studios the reason for the preparation . In late April 2007 , a marquee reading " The M + M 's " appeared at the House of Blues in San Diego . Several gossip websites and local media sources identified the act as Spears , prompting the show to quickly sell out . On May 1 , 2007 , a front @-@ page story on The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune fueled the speculation . The same day , the doors opened at 19 : 00 PST ( 03 : 00 UTC ) , and Spears took the stage at 22 : 00 PST ( 06 : 00 UTC ) . It marked the first time Spears was on stage since her knee injury caused The Onyx Hotel Tour to be canceled in June 2004 .
= = Concert synopsis = =
The concert opened with Spears taking the stage accompanied by four blonde female dancers to perform a short version of " ... Baby One More Time " , wearing a silver beaded bra , a pleated white skirt and white boots . She wore a long brown wig to cover the head she had shaved two and a half months previously and appeared in physically good shape . ( By now her hair was about an inch long , and one of her dancers said of her hair without the wig , " It ' s getting longer and she looks beautiful . " ) The show then segued into a flashy shortened version of " I 'm a Slave 4 U " . Though while Spears performed the original choreography to " Slave " , the performance was compared to the style of the Pussycat Dolls . The dancers then left Spears alone onstage to perform a chair routine of " Breathe on Me " . They re @-@ entered with a male fan from the audience with them and Spears giving him a lap dance . Half way through the lap dance , Spears disappeared for a costume change leaving her dancers to continue the performance . She then reappeared in a hot pink bra , white fur coat and jean skirt to perform " Do Somethin ' " with Spears throwing air guitars to the crowd . The show then concluded with " Toxic " , which featured Spears and her dancers performing in a mix of Spears and Shakira dance styles . As the performance came to an end , Spears said " Thank you so much . These are my dancers " – her only words during the show – and left the stage . The show lasted around 12 – 16 minutes .
The first show in San Diego began two hours after the stated time . There was no live band for the shows ; Spears and the dancers performed to recorded tracks . Spears ' vocals during the show were also not live but rather were lip @-@ synched to the recording . At some points , she was chewing gum while performing . The lack of live singing became most prominent during the Orlando stop of the tour , when the CD to which Spears was miming began skipping during " Do Somethin ' " , reportedly caused some in the audience to start booing . By the Florida shows , Spears was up to four costume changes .
= = Reception = =
Teri VanHorn of MTV said that with " Her body newly toned and her smile beaming , she looked every bit like a woman who had emerged from her quarter @-@ life crisis stronger than yesterday . " She also said Spears performed with " a naughty , free @-@ spirited attitude " , as though she " had invited 900 friends to her dirty little dance party , and too bad for you if you couldn 't roll with the fun . " SuChin Pak , also from MTV stated the show was " no huge revelation " , explaining , " It was not the kind of show that says : ' She 's back . She 's going to come out with the biggest album of her career . ' Nor did it say that she 's lost forever and we 'll never see the old Britney back again . These are all really tiny baby steps . " Thomas K. Arnold of USA Today said the show " turned out to be more rehearsal than comeback " , although " all those post @-@ rehab workouts were worth the effort . " On May 2 , 2007 , scalpers outside the House of Blues in San Diego were selling tickets with a face value of $ 35 for prices between $ 200 and $ 500 . Chris Lee of the Los Angeles Times wrote that " her ' comeback ' – if you want to call it that – cemented Spears ' place as pop music 's reigning drama queen , capable of capturing worldwide tabloid headlines with a bare minimum of creative expenditure . "
Most of the shows sold out , although there were some empty seats for the Las Vegas one despite tickets being available cheaply on the secondary market . Fan reaction to the show was generally divided . Some fans attending the show were dissatisfied with its short length , with one quoted afterward as saying , " That was so disappointing . " Some fans were also disappointed by the performance quality , with one quoted as saying , " It looked like she lip @-@ synched her way through the whole thing . " Other fans were more accommodating , pleased to be seeing her in good health and appearance and with one quoted as saying , " Whatever , we love her . She 's amazing . " One group of female fans wore matching pink tops that said " Bald Ambition " on one side and " The Comeback 2007 " on the other . Jim Abbott of the Orlando Sentinel summed up some of the reaction by writing that fans at the tail end of the tour " knew that the show would be short . ... They also knew that she would be lip @-@ synching , but this wasn 't about music as much as it was about celebrity , loyalty and beating adversity . "
= = Setlist = =
" ... Baby One More Time "
" I 'm A Slave 4 U "
" Breathe on Me "
" Do Somethin ' "
" Toxic "
= = Shows = =
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= Gateway Protection Programme =
The Gateway Protection Programme is a scheme operated by the British government in partnership with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) and co @-@ funded by the European Union ( EU ) , offering a legal route for a quota of UNHCR @-@ identified refugees to be resettled in the United Kingdom . Following a proposal by the British Home Secretary , David Blunkett , in October 2001 , the legal basis was established by the Nationality , Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 and the programme itself launched in March 2004 . Since its inception , the programme has enjoyed broad support from the UK 's main political parties .
The Gateway Protection Programme initially had a quota of 500 refugees per year , which was later increased to 750 , but the actual number of refugees resettled in most years has been fewer than the quota permitted . Liberian , Congolese , Sudanese , Burmese , Ethiopian , Mauritanian , Iraqi , Bhutanese , Eritrean , Palestinian , Sierra Leonean and Somali refugees have been resettled under the programme . Refugees have been resettled to a number of locations in England and Scotland . Of the 18 local authorities participating as resettlement locations by 2012 , eight are in the North West region of England and three in Yorkshire and Humberside . Evaluations of the programme have praised it as having a positive impact on the reception of refugees by local communities , but have also noted the difficulties these refugees have faced in securing employment .
= = Programme details = =
The programme is the UK 's " quota refugee " resettlement scheme . Refugees designated as particularly vulnerable by the UNHCR are assessed by the Home Office for eligibility under the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees . If they meet the eligibility criteria they are then brought to the UK and granted indefinite leave to remain . The International Organization for Migration ( IOM ) helps facilitate pre @-@ departure medical screening , counselling , dossier preparation , transport and immediate arrival assistance . Once in the UK , refugees are entered into a 12 @-@ month support programme intended to aid their integration . The programme has involved local authorities and NGOs including the British Red Cross , the International Rescue Committee , Migrant Helpline , Refugee Action , the Refugee Arrivals Project , the Refugee Council , Scottish Refugee Council and Refugee Support . These organisations formed the Resettlement Inter @-@ Agency Partnership at the planning stage of the programme , in order to pool their resources and form a partnership for the delivery of services to the resettled refugees .
The programme is distinct from and in addition to ordinary provisions for claiming asylum in the United Kingdom . Since 2008 , it has been co @-@ funded by the European Union , first through the European Refugee Fund and then through its successor , the Asylum , Migration and Integration Fund ( AMIF ) . Over the period 2009 – 14 , the Home Office provided £ 29 @.@ 97 million in funding and the EU £ 18 @.@ 67 million . Anna Musgrave of the Refugee Council argues that the programme " is rarely talked about and the Home Office , in the main , stay fairly quiet about it . "
= = History = =
The Gateway Protection Programme is not the first British refugee resettlement programme . Other , informal resettlement programmes include the Mandate Refugee Scheme , and the UK has also participated in the Ten or More Plan . The former is for so @-@ called " mandate " refugees who have been granted refugee status by UNHCR in third countries . To qualify for the scheme , refugees must have close ties to the UK and it must also be demonstrated that the UK is the most appropriate country for their resettlement . The Ten or More Plan , established by UNHCR in 1973 and administered in the UK by the British Red Cross , is for refugees requiring medical attention not available in their current location . During the 1990s , 2 @,@ 620 refugees were settled in the UK through these two programmes . In 2003 , the UK 's Ten or More Plan had a resettlement goal of 10 people and the Mandate Refugee Scheme 300 . Refugees have also been resettled through specific programmes following emergencies . For example , 42 @,@ 000 Ugandan Asians expelled from Uganda during 1972 – 74 , 22 @,@ 500 Vietnamese during 1979 – 92 , over 2 @,@ 500 Bosnians in the 1990s , and over 4 @,@ 000 Kosovars in 1999 .
A new resettlement programme was proposed by the British Home Secretary , David Blunkett in October 2001 , having been hinted at by the previous Home Secretary , Jack Straw , in a speech to the European Conference on Asylum in Lisbon in June 2000 . The legal basis for the programme 's funding was established by Section 59 of the Nationality , Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 . This act was passed by the House of Commons by 362 votes to 74 in June 2002 and by the House of Lords – at the ninth attempt , following concern about the introduction of measures allowing for the detention of asylum seekers in rural areas ) – in November 2002 .
The Gateway Protection Programme was subsequently established in March 2004 , with the first refugees arriving in the UK on 19 March . Initially , the programme quota was set at 500 per year . The British government has faced criticism from academics and practitioners over the small number of refugees it has resettled in comparison with other developed states . For example , in 2001 the countries with the largest quota schemes were the United States ( 80 @,@ 000 refugees ) , Canada ( 11 @,@ 000 ) and Australia ( 10 @,@ 000 ) . Initially , David Blunkett had intended to raise the quota to 1 @,@ 000 in the second year of the programme 's operation , but local councils ' reluctance to participate in the scheme meant that it was slow to take off . It has been argued that their reluctance showed that hostile attitudes towards asylum seekers had carried over to affect the most genuinely needy refugees . The quota remained at 500 per year until the 2008 / 09 financial year , when it was increased to 750 refugees per year . The number of refugees resettled under the scheme is small in comparison to the number of asylum seekers offered protection in the UK . For example , in 2013 , 17 @,@ 647 initial decisions on asylum claims were made by the Home Office , of which 5 @,@ 734 ( 32 @.@ 5 per cent ) determined the applicant to be a refugee and granted them asylum , 53 ( 0 @.@ 3 per cent ) granted humanitarian protection and 540 ( 3 @.@ 1 per cent ) granted discretionary leave . 11 @,@ 105 applications ( 62 @.@ 9 per cent ) were refused . Worldwide , there were 51 @.@ 2 million forcibly displaced people at the end of 2013 , 16 @.@ 7 million of whom were refugees .
The programme has been supported by the main British political parties at the national level since its inception , and there has also been support from councillors from each of the main parties at the local authority level . On the occasion of the tenth anniversary of the scheme in 2014 , refugee groups and others praised it as a successful programme and called for it to be expanded , particularly in light of the Syrian refugee crisis . In early 2014 , Amnesty International and the Refugee Council campaigned for the government to offer resettlement or humanitarian protection to Syrian refugees above and beyond the Gateway quota of 750 per year , " to ensure that resettlement opportunities continue to be available to refugees from the rest of the world " . The anniversary of the programme was also the occasion of further criticism of the 750 quota , with some commentators arguing that this is mean @-@ spirited and continues to compare unfavourably with the refugee resettlement programmes of states including the United States , Canada and Australia . Others , such as academic Jonathan Darling , have been more skeptical about expanding the scheme , for fear that any such move will be accompanied by greater restrictions on the ability of people to claim asylum in the UK . He argues that " we must be critical of any attempts to expand such a quota @-@ based scheme at the expense of a more progressive asylum system " . Furthermore , he argues that the " hospitality " of the scheme is highly conditional and can be viewed as a form of " compassionate repression " , with the UNHCR , the Home Office and local authorities all involved in " sorting , decision , and consideration over which individuals are the ' exceptional cases ' " , to the exclusion of others .
In September 2015 , in the context of the European migrant crisis , Labour Party leadership candidate Yvette Cooper called for an increase in the number of refugees resettled in the UK to 10 @,@ 000 . The prime minister , David Cameron , subsequently announced that the UK would resettle 20 @,@ 000 refugees from camps in countries bordering Syria over the period to 2020 under the Vulnerable Persons Relocation Scheme , which was established in early 2014 and is distinct from , but modelled on , the Gateway Protection Programme .
= = Refugees resettled = =
The number of refugees resettled under the programme has been below the quota in every year except for 2009 , 2012 and 2013 . Refugees resettled have included Liberians from Guinea and Sierra Leone , Congolese ( DRC ) from Uganda and Zambia , Sudanese from Uganda , Burmese ( including Karen , Mon , Pa 'O and Rohingya people ) from Thailand , Ethiopians from Kenya , and Mauritanians from Senegal . Provision was made for 1 @,@ 000 Iraqi refugees to be resettled in the UK between 1 April 2008 and the end of March 2010 . In 2008 , 236 Iraqis were resettled and as of 18 May , a further 212 had been resettled in 2009 . However , in May 2009 the programme was shut down for those Iraqis resettling due to having worked in support of British occupying forces and therefore at risk for reprisals . This decision was criticised as premature and " mean @-@ spirited " by some members of Parliament . Nonetheless , other Iraqis continue to be resettled under the Gateway Protection Programme and between 2004 and 2014 , a total of 1 @,@ 344 Iraqis were resettled as part of the programme . Other nationalities of refugees resettled under the scheme include Bhutanese , Eritreans , Palestinians , Sierra Leoneans and Somalis .
= = Resettlement locations = =
In March 2009 , out of the 434 local authorities in the UK , 15 were participating in the programme . By 2012 , a total of 18 local authorities had participated . In a review of the scheme , academics Duncan Sim and Kait Laughlin note that " it is clear that , as with asylum seekers dispersed by the UK Borders Agency under Home Office dispersal policy , most refugees have been resettled away from London and south east England , a policy which may lead to separation of extended families " . Of the 18 local authorities , eight are in North West England and three in Yorkshire and Humberside .
The first refugees resettled under the programme were housed in Sheffield , which was the first city to join the scheme and which had branded itself the UK 's first ' City of Sanctuary ' . Others have been housed in cities and towns including Bradford , Brighton and Hove , Bromley , Colchester , Hull , Middlesbrough , Motherwell , Norwich , and the Manchester area including Bolton , Bury , Oldham , Rochdale , Salford , Stockport and Tameside . Sheffield , Bolton and Hull have received the largest numbers , accounting for just under half of all refugees resettled under the programme between 2004 and 2012 . The large proportion of refugees who have been resettled in North West England has been attributed partly to strong leadership on migration issues in Greater Manchester .
In 2007 , North Lanarkshire Council won the " Creating Integrated Communities " category in the UK Housing Awards for its involvement in the Gateway Protection Programme . Research with Congolese refugees settled with North Lanarkshire Council in Motherwell has found that the majority want to stay in the town and that they view it positively both as a location in its own right , and in comparison with other resettlement locations .
In April 2007 , Bolton Museum held an exhibition of photos of Sudanese refugees resettled in the town under the programme . A film , titled Moving to Mars was made about two ethnic Karen families resettled from Burma to Sheffield under the Gateway Protection Programme . The film opened the Sheffield International Documentary Festival in November 2009 and was aired on the television channel More4 on 2 February 2010 . One ethnic Karen refugee resettled with his family in Sheffield in 2006 , Kler Heh , signed a professional contract to play football for Sheffield United F.C. in March 2015 .
On 17 July 2009 , three Congolese men resettled in Norwich under the programme were killed in a car crash on the A1 road . The Home Office released a promotional video in October 2009 that highlighted the success of the programme in resettling the first 15 Congolese families in Norwich in 2006 . In 2011 , the Home Office stopped using Norwich as a resettlement location in favour of locations in Yorkshire and Lancashire , reportedly to the disappointment of the local council .
= = Evaluations = =
Resettlement has been presented as a means of the UK fulfilling its obligations towards displaced people in the context of hostile public attitudes towards asylum seekers . Research has shown that members of the British public are generally well disposed to providing protection to genuine refugees , but are sceptical about the validity of asylum seekers ' claims . A report published in 2005 states that " some participating agencies have been reluctant to pursue a proactive media strategy due to local political considerations and issues relating to the dispersal of asylum seekers " . However , in February 2006 , the Parliamentary Under @-@ Secretary of State for the Home Department Andy Burnham , when asked about how the programme fitted in with community cohesion strategies , stated in the House of Commons that :
" The early evidence from areas in which authorities have participated in the programme shows that it has been successful in challenging some of the attacks on the notion of political asylum that we have heard in recent years . In Bolton and Sheffield in particular , the towns have rallied around the individuals who have come to them . The programme has been a positive experience for the receiving community and , of course , for the vulnerable individuals who have benefited from the protection that those towns have offered " .
A report into the experience of refugees resettled in Brighton and Hove under the scheme between October 2006 and October 2007 was published by the Sussex Centre for Migration Research at the University of Sussex in December 2007 . The report found that the refugees had struggled to gain employment and English language skills . Another evaluation report undertaken for the Home Office and published in 2011 also found that only small numbers of resettled refugees were in paid employment , noting that many were still more concerned about meeting their basic needs .
In February 2009 , the Home Office published a report evaluating the effectiveness of the Gateway Protection Programme . The research it was based upon focused on refugees ' integration into British society in the 18 months following their resettlement . The research found that refugees showed signs of integration , including the formation of social bonds through community groups and places of worship . The report noted that low employment rates and slow progress with acquiring English language skills were particular concerns . Younger refugees and children had made the most progress . No specific language lessons are provided under the Gateway Protection Programme . Instead , Gateway refugees who require help with their English language skills are provided with access to mainstream English for Speakers of Other Languages ( ESOL ) courses , which are run by a range of state , voluntary and community @-@ based organisations . However , the International Catholic Migration Commission ( ICMC ) Europe reports that in Sheffield , it can be difficult for resettled refugees to gain access to ESOL classes because demand has generally exceeded supply – a situation also noted by an evaluation of the scheme 's operation in Motherwell undertaken in 2013 . The Motherwell evaluation found that most of the male refugees were in employment , but that many of them were not in jobs that allowed them to use their skills . The majority of women were not in work , reflecting a lack of job opportunities but also a lack of childcare provision .
A number of programme evaluations have found that many resettled refugees have been the victims of verbal or physical attacks in the UK . The Home Office 's 2009 evaluation notes that between one @-@ quarter and half of each of four groups of Liberian and Congolese refugees resettled under the programme had suffered verbal or physical harassment . An evaluation undertaken by academics at Sheffield Hallam University for the Home Office in 2011 found that one @-@ fifth of the refugees surveyed for the evaluation ( who had been in the UK for a year ) had been the victims of verbal or physical attacks in their first six months in the UK , and just over a fifth had been attacked in the second six months of their resettlement . Many of the victims of this abuse had not reported it to the authorities , and the authors of the evaluation suggest that this is a reason why there was a gap between the perceptions of refugee and service providers , who generally suggested that community relations were good . Verbal and physical attacks against refugees were also noted in the 2013 Motherwell evaluation .
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= Dreamcast =
The Dreamcast ( Japanese : ドリームキャスト , Hepburn : Dorīmukyasuto ) is a home video game console released by Sega on November 27 , 1998 in Japan , September 9 , 1999 in North America , and October 14 , 1999 in Europe . It was the first in the sixth generation of video game consoles , preceding Sony 's PlayStation 2 , Nintendo 's GameCube and Microsoft 's Xbox . The Dreamcast is Sega 's final home console , marking the end of the company 's 18 years in the console market .
In contrast to the expensive hardware of the unsuccessful Sega Saturn , the Dreamcast was designed to reduce costs with " off @-@ the @-@ shelf " components , including a Hitachi SH @-@ 4 CPU and an NEC PowerVR2 GPU . Released in Japan to a subdued reception , the Dreamcast enjoyed a successful U.S. launch backed by a large marketing campaign , but interest in the system steadily declined as Sony built hype for the upcoming PlayStation 2 . Sales did not meet Sega 's expectations despite several price cuts , and the company continued to incur significant financial losses . After a change in leadership , Sega discontinued the Dreamcast on March 31 , 2001 , withdrawing from the console business and restructuring itself as a third @-@ party publisher . 9 @.@ 13 million Dreamcast units were sold worldwide .
Although the Dreamcast had a short lifespan and limited third @-@ party support , reviewers have considered the console ahead of its time . Its library contains many games considered creative and innovative , including Crazy Taxi , Jet Set Radio and Shenmue , as well as high @-@ quality ports from Sega 's NAOMI arcade system board . The Dreamcast was also the first console to include a built @-@ in modem for Internet support and online play .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Released in 1988 , the Sega Genesis ( known as the Sega Mega Drive in Europe and Japan ) was Sega 's entry into the fourth generation of video game consoles . Selling 30 @.@ 75 million units worldwide , the Genesis was the most successful console Sega ever released . The successor to the Genesis , the Sega Saturn , was released in Japan in 1994 . The Saturn was a CD @-@ ROM @-@ based console that displayed both 2D and 3D computer graphics , but its complex dual @-@ CPU architecture made it more difficult to program for than its chief competitor , the Sony PlayStation . Although the Saturn debuted before the PlayStation in both Japan and the United States , its surprise U.S. launch — which came four months earlier than originally scheduled — was marred by a lack of distribution , which remained a continuing problem for the system . Moreover , Sega 's early release was undermined by Sony 's simultaneous announcement that the PlayStation would retail for US $ 299 — compared to the Saturn 's initial price of $ 399 . Nintendo 's long delay in releasing a competing 3D console and the damage done to Sega 's reputation by poorly supported add @-@ ons for the Genesis ( particularly the Sega 32X ) allowed Sony to establish a foothold in the market . The PlayStation was immediately successful in the U.S. , in part due to a massive advertising campaign and strong third @-@ party support engendered by Sony 's excellent development tools and liberal $ 10 licensing fee . Sony 's success was further aided by a price war in which Sega lowered the price of the Saturn from $ 399 to $ 299 and then from $ 299 to $ 199 in order to match the price of the PlayStation – even though Saturn hardware was more expensive to manufacture and the PlayStation enjoyed a larger software library . Losses on the Saturn hardware contributed to Sega 's financial problems , which saw the company 's revenue decline between 1992 and 1995 as part of an industry @-@ wide slowdown . Furthermore , Sega 's focus on the Saturn over the Genesis prevented it from fully capitalizing on the continued strength of the 16 @-@ bit market .
Due to long @-@ standing disagreements with Sega of Japan , Sega of America CEO Tom Kalinske became less interested in his position . On July 16 , 1996 Sega announced that Shoichiro Irimajiri had been appointed chairman and CEO of Sega of America , while Kalinske would be leaving Sega after September 30 of that year . Sega also announced that Sega Enterprises cofounder David Rosen and Sega of Japan CEO Hayao Nakayama had resigned from their positions as chairman and co @-@ chairman of Sega of America , though both men remained with the company . Bernie Stolar , a former executive at Sony Computer Entertainment of America , was named Sega of America 's executive vice president in charge of product development and third @-@ party relations . Stolar did not support the Saturn due to his belief that the hardware was poorly designed and publicly announced at E3 1997 that " The Saturn is not our future . " After the launch of the Nintendo 64 , sales of the Saturn and Sega 's 32 @-@ bit software were sharply reduced . As of August 1997 , Sony controlled 47 percent of the console market , Nintendo controlled 40 percent , and Sega controlled only 12 percent . Neither price cuts nor high @-@ profile games were proving helpful to the Saturn 's success . Due to the Saturn 's poor performance in North America , Sega of America laid off 60 of its 200 employees in the fall of 1997 .
As a result of the company 's deteriorating financial situation , Nakayama resigned as president of Sega in January 1998 in favor of Irimajiri . Stolar would subsequently accede to president of Sega of America . Following five years of generally declining profits , in the fiscal year ending March 31 , 1998 Sega suffered its first parent and consolidated financial losses since its 1988 listing on the Tokyo Stock Exchange . Due to a 54 @.@ 8 % decline in consumer product sales ( including a 75 @.@ 4 % decline overseas ) , the company reported a consolidated net loss of ¥ 35 @.@ 6 billion ( US $ 269 @.@ 8 million ) . Shortly before announcing its financial losses , Sega revealed that it was discontinuing the Saturn in North America , with the goal of preparing for the launch of its successor . This decision effectively left the Western market without Sega games for over one year . Rumors about the upcoming Dreamcast — spread mainly by Sega itself — leaked to the public before the last Saturn games were released .
= = = Development = = =
As early as 1995 , reports surfaced that Sega would collaborate with Lockheed Martin , The 3DO Company , Matsushita , or Alliance Semiconductor to create a new graphics processing unit , which conflicting accounts said would be used for a 64 @-@ bit " Saturn 2 " or an add @-@ on peripheral . Development of the Dreamcast was wholly unrelated to this rumored project . In light of the Saturn 's poor market performance , Irimajiri decided to start looking outside of the company 's internal hardware development division to create a new console . In 1997 , Irimajiri enlisted the services of Tatsuo Yamamoto from International Business Machines to lead an 11 @-@ man team to work on a secret hardware project in the United States , which was referred to as " Blackbelt " . Accounts vary on how an internal team led by Hideki Sato also began development on Dreamcast hardware ; one account specifies that Sega of Japan tasked both teams , while another suggests that Sato was bothered by Irimajiri 's choice to begin development externally and chose to have his hardware team begin development . Sato and his group chose the Hitachi SH @-@ 4 processor architecture and the VideoLogic PowerVR2 graphics processor , manufactured by NEC , in the production of their mainboard . Initially known as " Whitebelt " , this project was later codenamed " Dural " , after the metallic female fighter from Sega 's Virtua Fighter series .
Yamamoto 's group opted to use 3dfx Voodoo 2 and Voodoo Banshee graphics processors alongside a Motorola PowerPC 603e central processing unit ( CPU ) , but Sega management later asked them to also use the SH @-@ 4 chip . Both processors have been described as " off the shelf " components . In 1997 , 3dfx began its IPO , and as a result of legal obligations unveiled its contracts with Sega , including the development of the new console . This angered Sega of Japan executives , who eventually decided to use the Dural chipset and cut ties with 3dfx . According to former Sega of America vice president of communications and former NEC brand manager Charles Bellfield , presentations of games using the NEC solution showcased the performance and low cost delivered by the SH @-@ 4 and PowerVR architecture . He further stated that " Sega 's relationship with NEC , a Japanese company , probably made a difference [ in Sega 's decision to adopt the Japanese team 's design ] too . " Stolar , on the other hand , " felt the US version , the 3Dfx version , should have been used . Japan wanted the Japanese version , and Japan won . " As a result , 3dfx filed a lawsuit against both Sega and NEC claiming breach of contract , which would eventually be settled out of court . The choice to use the PowerVR architecture concerned Electronic Arts ( EA ) , a longtime developer for Sega 's consoles . EA had invested in 3dfx but was unfamiliar with the selected architecture , which was reportedly less powerful . As recounted by Shiro Hagiwara ( a general manager at Sega 's hardware division ) and Ian Oliver ( the managing director of Sega subsidiary Cross Products ) , the SH @-@ 4 was chosen while it was still in development and following a lengthy deliberation process because it was the only available processor that " could adapt to deliver the 3D geometry calculation performance necessary . " By February 1998 , Sega had renamed the Dural " Katana " ( after the Japanese sword ) , although certain hardware specifications such as random access memory ( RAM ) were not yet finalized .
Knowing that the Sega Saturn had been set back by its high production costs and complex hardware , Sega took a different approach with the Dreamcast . Like previous Sega consoles , the Dreamcast was designed around intelligent subsystems working in parallel with one another , but the selections of hardware were more in line with what was common in personal computers than video game consoles , reducing the system 's cost . According to Damien McFerran , " the motherboard was a masterpiece of clean , uncluttered design and compatibility . " Chinese economist and future Sega.com CEO Brad Huang convinced Sega chairman Isao Okawa to include a modem with every Dreamcast despite significant opposition from Okawa 's staff over the additional $ 15 cost per unit . To account for rapid changes in home data delivery , Sega designed the Dreamcast 's modem to be modular . Sega selected the GD @-@ ROM media format for the system . The GD @-@ ROM , which was jointly developed by Sega and Yamaha Corporation , could be mass @-@ produced at a similar price to a normal CD @-@ ROM , thus avoiding the greater expense of DVD @-@ ROM technology . As the GD @-@ ROM format can hold about 1 GB of data , illegally copying Dreamcast games onto a 650 MB CD @-@ ROM sometimes required the removal of certain game features , although this did not prevent copying of Dreamcast software . Microsoft developed a custom Dreamcast version of Windows CE with DirectX API and dynamic @-@ link libraries , making it easy to port PC games to the platform , although programmers would ultimately favor Sega 's development tools over those from Microsoft .
Sega held a public competition to name its new system and considered over 5 @,@ 000 different entries before choosing " Dreamcast " — a combination of " dream " and " broadcast " . According to Katsutoshi Eguchi , Japanese game developer Kenji Eno submitted the name and created the Dreamcast 's spiral logo , but this claim has not been verified by Sega . The Dreamcast 's start @-@ up sound was composed by the Japanese musician Ryuichi Sakamoto . Because the Saturn had tarnished Sega 's reputation , the company planned to remove its name from the console entirely and establish a new gaming brand similar to Sony 's PlayStation , but Irimajiri 's management team ultimately decided to retain Sega 's logo on the Dreamcast 's exterior . Sega spent US $ 50 – 80 million on hardware development , $ 150 – 200 million on software development , and $ 300 million on worldwide promotion — a sum which Irimajiri , a former Honda executive , humorously compared to the investments required to design new automobiles .
= = = Launch = = =
Despite taking massive losses on the Saturn , including a 75 percent drop in half @-@ year profits just before the Japanese launch of the Dreamcast , Sega felt confident about its new system . The Dreamcast attracted significant interest and drew many pre @-@ orders . Sega announced that Sonic Adventure , the next game starring company mascot Sonic the Hedgehog , would arrive in time for the Dreamcast 's launch and promoted the game with a large @-@ scale public demonstration at the Tokyo Kokusai Forum Hall . However , Sega could not achieve its shipping goals for the Dreamcast 's Japanese launch due to a shortage of PowerVR chipsets caused by a high failure rate in the manufacturing process . As more than half of its limited stock had been pre @-@ ordered , Sega stopped pre @-@ orders in Japan . On November 27 , 1998 , the Dreamcast launched in Japan at a price of JP ¥ 29 @,@ 000 , and the entire stock sold out by the end of the day . However , of the four games available at launch , only one — a port of Virtua Fighter 3 , the most successful arcade game Sega ever released in Japan — sold well . Sega estimated that an additional 200 @,@ 000 @-@ 300 @,@ 000 Dreamcast units could have been sold with sufficient supply . Key Dreamcast software titles Sonic Adventure and Sega Rally Championship 2 , which had been delayed , arrived within the following weeks , but sales continued to be slower than expected . Irimajiri hoped to sell over 1 million Dreamcast units in Japan by February 1999 , but less than 900 @,@ 000 were sold , undermining Sega 's attempts to build up a sufficient installed base to ensure the Dreamcast 's survival after the arrival of competition from other manufacturers . There were reports of disappointed Japanese consumers returning their Dreamcasts and using the refund to purchase additional PlayStation software . Seaman , released in July 1999 , was considered the Dreamcast 's first major hit in Japan . Prior to the Western launch , Sega reduced the price of the Dreamcast to JP ¥ 19 @,@ 900 , effectively making the hardware unprofitable but increasing sales . The price reduction and release of Namco 's Soul Calibur helped Sega to gain 17 percent on its shares .
Working closely with Midway Games ( which developed four launch titles for the system ) and taking advantage of the ten months following the Dreamcast 's release in Japan , Sega of America worked to ensure a more successful U.S. launch with a minimum of 15 launch games . Despite lingering bitterness over the Saturn 's early release , Stolar successfully managed to repair relations with major US retailers , with whom Sega presold 300 @,@ 000 Dreamcast units . In addition , a pre @-@ launch promotion enabled consumers to rent the system from Hollywood Video in the months preceding its September launch . Sega of America 's senior vice president of marketing Peter Moore , a fan of the attitude previously associated with Sega 's brand , worked with Foote , Cone & Belding and Access Communications to develop the " It 's Thinking " campaign of 15 @-@ second television commercials , which emphasized the Dreamcast 's hardware power . According to Moore , " We needed to create something that would really intrigue consumers , somewhat apologize for the past , but invoke all the things we loved about Sega , primarily from the Genesis days . " On August 11 , Sega of America confirmed that Stolar had been fired , leaving Moore to direct the launch .
Prior to the Dreamcast 's release , Sega was dealt a blow when EA — the largest third @-@ party video game publisher — announced it would not develop games for the system . EA executive Bing Gordon claimed " [ Sega ] couldn 't afford to give us [ EA ] the same kind of license that EA has had over the last five years " , but Stolar recounted that EA president Larry Probst wanted " exclusive rights to be the only sports brand on Dreamcast " , which Stolar could not accept due to Sega 's recent $ 10 million purchase of sports game developer Visual Concepts . While the Dreamcast would have none of EA 's popular sports games , " Sega Sports " titles developed mainly by Visual Concepts helped to fill that void .
The Dreamcast launched in North America on September 9 , 1999 at a price of $ 199 — which Sega 's marketing dubbed " 9 / 9 / 99 for $ 199 " . Eighteen launch titles were available for the Dreamcast in the U.S. Sega set a new sales record by selling more than 225 @,@ 132 Dreamcast units in 24 hours , earning the company $ 98 @.@ 4 million in what Moore called " the biggest 24 hours in entertainment retail history " . Within two weeks , U.S. Dreamcast sales exceeded 500 @,@ 000 . By Christmas , Sega held 31 percent of the North American video game marketshare . Significant launch titles included Soul Calibur , an arcade fighting game that was graphically enhanced for the system and went on to sell one million units , and Visual Concepts ' high @-@ quality football simulation NFL 2K . On November 4 , Sega announced it had sold over one million Dreamcast units . Nevertheless , the launch was marred by a glitch at one of Sega 's manufacturing plants , which produced defective GD @-@ ROMs .
Sega released the Dreamcast in Europe on October 14 , 1999 , at a price of GB ₤ 200 . By November 24 , 400 @,@ 000 consoles had been sold in Europe . By Christmas of 1999 , Sega of Europe reported selling 500 @,@ 000 units , placing it six months ahead of schedule . Sales did not continue at this pace , and by October 2000 , Sega had sold only about 1 million units in Europe . As part of Sega 's promotions of the Dreamcast in Europe , the company sponsored four European football clubs : Arsenal F.C. ( England ) , AS Saint @-@ Étienne ( France ) , U.C. Sampdoria ( Italy ) , and Deportivo de La Coruña ( Spain ) .
= = = Competition = = =
Though the Dreamcast launch had been successful , Sony still held 60 percent of the overall video game market share in North America with the PlayStation at the end of 1999 . On March 2 , 1999 , in what one report called a " highly publicized , vaporware @-@ like announcement " Sony revealed the first details of its " next generation PlayStation " , which Ken Kutaragi claimed would allow video games to convey unprecedented emotions . The center of Sony 's marketing plan and the upcoming PlayStation 2 itself was a new CPU ( clocked at 294 MHz ) jointly developed by Sony and Toshiba — the " Emotion Engine " — which Kutaragi announced would feature a graphics processor with 1 @,@ 000 times more bandwidth than contemporary PC graphics processors and a floating @-@ point calculation performance of 6 @.@ 2 gigaflops per second , rivaling most supercomputers . Sony , which invested $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in two large @-@ scale integration semiconductor fabrication plants to manufacture the PlayStation 2 's " Emotion Engine " and " Graphics Synthesizer " , designed the machine to push more raw polygons than any video game console in history . Sony claimed the PlayStation 2 could render 75 million raw polygons per second with absolutely no effects , and 38 million without accounting for features such as textures , artificial intelligence , or physics . Even with such effects , Sony estimated the PlayStation 2 could render 16 million polygons per second , whereas independent estimates ranged from 3 million to 20 million , compared to the Dreamcast 's roughly 3 million . The system would also utilize the DVD @-@ ROM format , which could hold substantially more data than the Dreamcast 's GD @-@ ROM format . Because it could connect to the Internet while playing movies , music , and video games , Sony hyped PlayStation 2 as the future of home entertainment . Rumors spread that the PlayStation 2 was a supercomputer capable of guiding missiles and displaying Toy Story @-@ quality graphics , while Kutaragi boasted its online capabilities would give consumers the ability to " jack into ' The Matrix ' ! " In addition , Sony emphasized that the PlayStation 2 would be backwards compatible with hundreds of popular PlayStation games . Sony 's specifications appeared to render the Dreamcast obsolete months before its U.S. launch , although reports later emerged that the PlayStation 2 was not as powerful as expected and distinctly difficult to program games for . The same year , Nintendo announced that its next generation console would meet or exceed anything on the market , and Microsoft began development of its own console .
Sega 's initial momentum proved fleeting as U.S. Dreamcast sales — which exceeded 1 @.@ 5 million by the end of 1999 — began to decline as early as January 2000 . Poor Japanese sales contributed to Sega 's ¥ 42 @.@ 88 billion ( $ 404 million ) consolidated net loss in the fiscal year ending March 2000 , which followed a similar loss of ¥ 42 @.@ 881 billion the previous year and marked Sega 's third consecutive annual loss . Although Sega 's overall sales for the term increased 27 @.@ 4 % , and Dreamcast sales in North America and Europe greatly exceeded the company 's expectations , this increase in sales coincided with a decrease in profitability due to the investments required to launch the Dreamcast in Western markets and poor software sales in Japan . At the same time , increasingly poor market conditions reduced the profitability of Sega 's Japanese arcade business , prompting the company to close 246 locations . Knowing that " they have to fish where the fish are biting " , Sega of America president Peter Moore ( who assumed his position after Stolar had been fired ) and Sega of Japan 's developers focused on the U.S. market to prepare for the upcoming launch of the PS2 . To that end , Sega of America launched its own Internet service provider , Sega.com , led by CEO Brad Huang . On September 7 , 2000 Sega.com launched SegaNet , the Dreamcast 's Internet gaming service , at a subscription price of $ 21 @.@ 95 per month . Although Sega had previously released only one Dreamcast title in the U.S. that featured online multiplayer ( ChuChu Rocket ! , a puzzle game developed by Sonic Team ) , the launch of SegaNet ( which allowed users to chat , send email , and surf the web ) combined with NFL 2K1 ( a football game including a robust online component ) was intended to increase demand for the Dreamcast in the U.S. market . The service would later support games including Bomberman Online , Phantasy Star Online , Quake III Arena , and Unreal Tournament . The September 7 launch coincided with a new advertising campaign to promote SegaNet , including via the MTV Video Music Awards of the same day , which Sega sponsored for the second consecutive year . Sega employed aggressive pricing strategies with relation to online gaming . In Japan , every Dreamcast sold included a free year of Internet access , which Okawa personally paid for . Prior to the launch of SegaNet , Sega had already offered a $ 200 rebate to any Dreamcast owner who purchased two years of Internet access from Sega.com. To increase SegaNet 's appeal in the U.S. , Sega dropped the price of the Dreamcast to $ 149 ( compared to the PS2 's U.S. launch price of $ 299 ) and offered a rebate for the full $ 149 price of a Dreamcast ( and a free Dreamcast keyboard ) with every 18 @-@ month SegaNet subscription .
Moore stated that the Dreamcast would need to sell 5 million units in the U.S. by the end of 2000 in order to remain a viable platform , but Sega ultimately fell short of this goal with some 3 million units sold . Moreover , Sega 's attempts to spur increased Dreamcast sales through lower prices and cash rebates caused escalating financial losses . Instead of an expected profit , for the six months ending September 2000 Sega posted a ¥ 17 @.@ 98 billion ( $ 163 @.@ 11 million ) loss , with the company projecting a year @-@ end loss of ¥ 23 @.@ 6 billion . This estimate was more than doubled to ¥ 58 @.@ 3 billion , and in March 2001 Sega posted a consolidated net loss of ¥ 51 @.@ 7 billion ( $ 417 @.@ 5 million ) . While the PS2 's October 26 U.S. launch was marred by shortages — with only 500 @,@ 000 of a planned 1 million units shipped due to a manufacturing glitch — this did not benefit the Dreamcast as much as expected , as many disappointed consumers continued to wait for a PS2 — while the PSone , a remodeled version of the original PlayStation , was the best @-@ selling console in the U.S. at the start of the 2000 holiday season . According to Moore , " the PlayStation 2 effect that we were relying upon did not work for us ... people will hang on for as long as possible ... What effectively happened is the PlayStation 2 lack of availability froze the marketplace " . Eventually , Sony and Nintendo held 50 and 35 percent of the US video game market , respectively , while Sega held only 15 percent . According to Bellfield , Dreamcast software sold at an 8 @-@ to @-@ 1 ratio with the hardware , but this ratio " on a small install base didn 't give us the revenue ... to keep this platform viable in the medium to long term . "
= = = Decline = = =
On May 22 , 2000 Okawa replaced Iramajiri as president of Sega . Okawa had long openly advocated that Sega abandon the console business . His sentiments were not unique ; Sega co @-@ founder David Rosen had " always felt it was a bit of a folly for them to be limiting their potential to Sega hardware " , and Stolar had previously suggested that Sega should have sold their company to Microsoft . In September 2000 , in a meeting with Sega 's Japanese executives and the heads of the company 's major Japanese game development studios , Moore and Bellfield recommended that Sega abandon its console business and focus solely on software — prompting the studio heads to walk out . Nevertheless , on January 31 , 2001 Sega announced the discontinuation of the Dreamcast after March 31 and the restructuring of the company as a " platform @-@ agnostic " third @-@ party developer . The decision was Moore 's . Sega also announced a Dreamcast price reduction to $ 99 to eliminate its unsold inventory , which was estimated at 930 @,@ 000 units as of April 2001 . After a further reduction to $ 79 , the Dreamcast was cleared out of stores at $ 49 @.@ 95 . The final Dreamcast unit to be manufactured was autographed by the heads of all nine of Sega 's internal game development studios as well as the heads of Visual Concepts and Wave Master and given away with 55 first @-@ party Dreamcast games through a competition organized by GamePro magazine . Okawa , who had previously loaned Sega $ 500 million in the summer of 1999 , died on March 16 , 2001 ; shortly before his death , he forgave Sega 's debts to him and returned his $ 695 million worth of Sega and CSK stock , helping the company survive the third @-@ party transition . As part of this restructuring , nearly one @-@ third of Sega 's Tokyo workforce was laid off in 2001 .
9 @.@ 13 million Dreamcast units were sold worldwide . After the Dreamcast 's discontinuation , commercial games were still developed and released for the system , particularly in Japan . In the United States , game sales continued until the end of the first half of 2002 . Sega of Japan continued to repair Dreamcast units until 2007 . As of 2014 , the console is still supported through various MIL @-@ CD independent releases . After five consecutive years of financial losses , Sega finally posted a profit for the fiscal year ending March 2003 .
Reasons cited for the failure of the Dreamcast include hype for the PS2 ; a lack of support from EA and Squaresoft , considered the most popular third @-@ parties in the U.S. and Japan respectively ; disagreement among Sega executives over the company 's future , and Okawa 's lack of commitment to the product ; Sega 's lack of advertising money , with Bellfield doubting that Sega spent even " half " the $ 100 million it had pledged to promote the Dreamcast in the U.S. ; that the market was not yet ready for online gaming ; Sega 's focus on " hardcore " gamers over the mainstream consumer ; and poor timing . Perhaps the most frequently cited reason is the damage to Sega 's reputation caused by several previous poorly supported Sega platforms . Writing for GamePro , Blake Snow stated that " The much beloved console launched years ahead of the competition but ultimately struggled to shed the negative reputation [ Sega ] had gained during the Saturn , Sega 32X , and Sega CD days . As a result , casual gamers and jaded third @-@ party developers doubted Sega 's ability to deliver . " Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead noted that the " wait and see " approach of consumers and the lack of support from EA were symptoms rather the cause of Sega 's decline , concluding " Sega 's misadventures during the 1990s had left both gamers and publishers wary of any new platform bearing its name . " According to 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish , " While it would be easy to point an accusatory finger at Sony and blame them for killing the Dreamcast by overselling the PS2 ... there 's a certain level of intellectual dishonesty in such a stance ... [ Sega ] ' s poor U.S. support for hardware like the Sega CD , the 32X , and the Saturn made gamers gun shy . Many consumers felt burned after investing in expensive Sega machines and finding the resulting libraries comparatively lacking " .
The announcement of Sega 's third @-@ party transition was met with widespread enthusiasm . According to IGN 's Travis Fahs , " Sega was a creatively fertile company with a rapidly expanding stable of properties to draw from . It seemed like they were in a perfect position to start a new life as a developer / publisher . " Former Working Designs president Victor Ireland wrote that " It 's actually a good thing ... because now Sega will survive , doing what they do best : software . " The staff of Newsweek remarked " From Sonic to Shenmue , Sega 's programmers have produced some of the most engaging experiences in the history of interactive media ... Unshackled by a struggling console platform , this platoon of world @-@ class software developers can do what they do best for any machine on the market " . Rosen predicted " they have the potential to catch Electronic Arts " . Game Informer , commenting on Sega 's tendency to produce under @-@ appreciated cult classics , stated : " Let us rejoice in the fact that Sega is making games equally among the current console crop , so that history will not repeat itself . "
= = Technical specifications = =
= = = Hardware = = =
Physically , the Dreamcast measures 190 mm × 195 @.@ 8 mm × 75 @.@ 5 mm ( 7 @.@ 48 in × 7 @.@ 71 in × 2 @.@ 97 in ) and weighs 1 @.@ 5 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) . The Dreamcast 's main CPU is a two @-@ way 360 MIPS superscalar Hitachi SH @-@ 4 32 @-@ bit RISC clocked at 200 MHz with an 8 Kbyte instruction cache and 16 Kbyte data cache and a 128 @-@ bit graphics @-@ oriented floating @-@ point unit delivering 1 @.@ 4 GFLOPS . Its 100 MHz NEC PowerVR2 rendering engine , integrated with the system 's ASIC , is capable of drawing more than 3 million polygons per second and of deferred shading . Sega estimated that the Dreamcast was theoretically capable of rendering 6 – 7 million raw polygons per second , with the higher figure excluding textures and lighting , but the company conceded " game logic and physics reduce peak graphic performance . " Graphics hardware effects include trilinear filtering , gouraud shading , z @-@ buffering , spatial anti @-@ aliasing , per @-@ pixel translucency sorting and bump mapping . The system can output approximately 16 @.@ 77 million colors simultaneously and displays interlaced or progressive scan video at 640 × 480 video resolution . Its 67 MHz Yamaha AICA sound processor , with a 32 @-@ bit ARM7 RISC CPU core , can generate 64 voices with PCM or ADPCM , providing ten times the performance of the Saturn 's sound system . The Dreamcast has 16 MB main RAM , along with an additional 8 MB of RAM for graphic textures and 2 MB of RAM for sound . The system reads media using a 12x speed Yamaha GD @-@ ROM Drive . In addition to Windows CE , the Dreamcast supports several Sega and middleware application programming interfaces . In most regions , the Dreamcast included a removable modem for online connectivity , which was modular for future upgrades . The original Japanese model and all PAL models had a transfer rate of 33 @.@ 6 kbit / s , while consoles sold in the US and in Japan after September 9 , 1999 featured a 56 kbit / s dial @-@ up modem .
= = = Models = = =
Sega constructed numerous Dreamcast models , most of which were exclusive to Japan . A refurbished Dreamcast known as the R7 was originally used as a network console in Japanese pachinko parlors . Another model , the Divers 2000 CX @-@ 1 , possesses a shape similar to Sonic 's head and includes a television and software for teleconferencing . A Hello Kitty version , limited to 2000 units produced , was targeted at Japanese female gamers . Special editions were created for Seaman and Resident Evil Code : Veronica . Color variations were sold through a service called " Dreamcast Direct " in Japan . Toyota also offered special edition Dreamcast units at 160 of its dealers in Japan . In North America , a limited edition black Dreamcast was released with a Sega Sports logo on the lid , which included matching Sega Sports @-@ branded black controllers and two games .
= = = Accessories = = =
The Dreamcast controller includes both an analog stick and a digital pad , four action buttons , and two analog triggers . The system has four ports for controller inputs , although it was bundled with only one controller . The design of the Dreamcast 's controller , described by the staff of Edge as " an ugly evolution of Saturn 's 3D controller , " was called " [ not ] that great " by 1UP.com 's Sam Kennedy and " lame " by Game Informer 's Andy McNamara . The staff of IGN wrote that " unlike most controllers , Sega 's pad forces the user 's hands into an uncomfortable parallel position . " In contrast to the Sega CD and Sega Saturn , which included internal backup memory , the Dreamcast uses a 128 kbyte memory card called the VMU ( or " Visual Memory Unit " ) for data storage . The VMU features a small LCD screen , audio output from a one @-@ channel PWM sound source , non @-@ volatile memory , a directional pad , and four buttons . The VMU can present game information , be used as a minimal handheld gaming device , and connect to certain Sega arcade machines . For example , players use the VMU to call plays in NFL 2K or raise virtual pets in Sonic Adventure . Sega officials noted that the VMU could be used " as a private viewing area , the absence of which has prevented effective implementation of many types of games in the past . " After a VMU slot was incorporated into the controller 's design , Sega 's engineers found many additional uses for it , so a second slot was added . This slot was generally used for vibration packs providing force feedback like Sega 's " Jump Pack " and Performance 's " Tremor Pack " , although it could also be used for other peripherals including a microphone enabling voice control and player communication . Various third @-@ party cards provide storage , and some contain the LCD screen addition . Iomega announced a Dreamcast @-@ compatible zip drive that could store up to 100 MB of data on removable discs , but it was never released .
Various third @-@ party controllers from companies like Mad Catz include additional buttons and other extra features ; third @-@ parties also manufactured arcade @-@ style joysticks for fighting games , such as Agetech 's Arcade Stick and Interact 's Alloy Arcade Stick . Mad Catz and Agetec created racing wheels for racing games . Sega decided against releasing its official light gun in the U.S. , but some third party light guns were available . The Dreamcast supports a Sega fishing " reel and rod " motion controller and a keyboard for text entry . Although it was designed for fishing games such as Sega Bass Fishing , Soul Calibur was playable with the fishing controller , which translated vertical and horizontal movements into on @-@ screen swordplay in a manner that was retroactively cited as a predecessor to the Wii Remote . The Japanese Dreamcast port of Sega 's Cyber Troopers Virtual @-@ On Oratorio Tangram supported a " Twin Sticks " peripheral , but the game 's American publisher , Activision , opted not to release it in the U.S. The Dreamcast could connect to SNK 's Neo Geo Pocket Color , predating Nintendo 's GameCube – Game Boy Advance link cable . Sega also produced the Dreameye , a digital camera that could be connected to the Dreamcast and used to exchange pictures and participate in video chat over the system 's Internet connection . Sega hoped developers would use the Dreameye for future software , as they later did with Sony 's similar EyeToy peripheral . In addition , Sega investigated systems that would have allowed users to make telephone calls with the Dreamcast , and discussed with Motorola the development of an Internet @-@ enabled cell phone that would have used technology from the console to enable quick downloads of games and other data .
The console can supply video through several different accessories . The console came with A / V cables , considered at the time to be the standard for video and audio connectivity . Sega and various third parties also manufactured RF modulator connectors and S @-@ Video cables . A VGA adapter allows Dreamcast games to be played on computer displays or Enhanced @-@ definition television sets in 480p .
= = Game library = =
Before the launch of the Dreamcast in Japan , Sega announced the release of its New Arcade Operation Machine Idea ( NAOMI ) arcade board , which served as a cheaper alternative to the Sega Model 3 . NAOMI shared the same technology as the Dreamcast — albeit with twice as much system , video , and audio memory and an 160 Mbyte flash ROM board in place of a GD @-@ ROM drive — allowing nearly identical home conversions of arcade games . Games were ported from NAOMI to the Dreamcast by several leading Japanese arcade companies , including Capcom ( Marvel vs. Capcom 2 and Project Justice ) , Tecmo ( Dead or Alive 2 ) , Treasure ( Ikaruga ) , and Sega itself ( F355 Challenge and Crazy Taxi ) .
In what has been called " a brief moment of remarkable creativity " , in 2000 Sega restructured its arcade and console development teams into nine semi @-@ autonomous studios headed by the company 's top designers . Studios included United Game Artists ( UGA ) ( headed by former Sega Rally Championship producer Tetsuya Mizuguchi ) , Hitmaker ( headed by Crazy Taxi creator and future Sega president Hisao Oguchi ) , Smilebit ( headed by Shun Arai and including many former Panzer Dragoon and future Yakuza developers from Team Andromeda ) , Overworks ( headed by Noriyoshi Oba and composed of developers from Sega franchises including Sakura Wars , Shinobi and Streets of Rage ) , Sega AM2 ( Sega 's most famous arcade studio and the developer of Sega 's Virtua Fighter fighting game series , headed by the company 's top developer , Yu Suzuki ) , and Sonic Team ( the developer of Sega 's flagship series , Sonic the Hedgehog , headed by Yuji Naka ) . Sega 's design houses were encouraged to experiment and benefited from a relatively lax approval process , resulting in titles such as Rez ( an attempt to simulate synaesthesia in the form of a rail shooter ) , The Typing of the Dead ( a version of The House of the Dead 2 remade into a touch typing trainer ) , Seaman ( a pet simulator in which players use a microphone to interact with a grotesque humanoid fish whose growth is narrated by Leonard Nimoy ) , and Segagaga ( a Japan @-@ exclusive role @-@ playing @-@ game employing commentary on the perceived over @-@ abundance of sequels produced by the video game industry , in which players are tasked with preventing Sega from going out of business ) . Sega also revived franchises from the Genesis era , such as Ecco the Dolphin . Sega 's internal studios were consolidated starting in 2003 , with Mizuguchi leaving the company following the merger of UGA with Sonic Team .
UGA created the music game Space Channel 5 , in which players help a female outer space news reporter named Ulala fight aliens with " groove energy " by dancing . Intended for a " female casual " audience , Space Channel 5 is considered one of Sega 's " most daring and beloved " original properties , combining a " defiantly retro " and " uplifting " soundtrack with " dazzling " and " colorful " visual presentation — despite " a lack of real gameplay substance . " Neither Space Channel 5 nor UGA 's Rez were commercially successful , and the latter title was only available in the U.S. market through a PS2 port released in limited quantities . Hitmaker 's arcade ports included Crazy Taxi — an open world arcade racing game known for its addictive gameplay , which sold over one million copies and has been frequently cited as one of the best Dreamcast games — and Virtua Tennis — which revitalized the tennis game genre with a simple two @-@ button control scheme and use of minigames to test the player 's technique . Smilebit 's Jet Set Radio — in which players control a Tokyo @-@ based gang of youthful , rebellious inline skaters called the " GGs " , who use graffiti to claim territory from rival gangs while evading an oppressive police force — has been cited as a major example of Sega 's commitment to original game concepts during the Dreamcast 's lifespan . Lauded for composer Hideki Naganuma 's " punchy , psychedelic " soundtrack incorporating elements of " J @-@ pop and electro @-@ funk " as well as its message of " self @-@ expression and non @-@ violent dissent " , the game also popularized cel shaded graphics . Despite wide praise for its style , some criticized Jet Set Radio 's gameplay as mediocre , and it failed to meet Sega 's sales expectations . Produced by Rieko Kodama , the Overworks @-@ developed traditional role @-@ playing game Skies of Arcadia was acclaimed for its surreal Jules Verne @-@ inspired fantasy world of floating islands and sky pirates , charming protagonists , unique emphasis on the environmental properties of weapons , exciting airship battles , and memorable plot ( including a sequence viewed from multiple perspectives ) .
AM2 developed what Sega hoped would be the Dreamcast 's killer app , Shenmue , a " revenge epic in the tradition of Chinese cinema . " The action @-@ adventure title involved the quest of protagonist Ryo Hazuki to avenge his father 's murder , but its main selling point was its rendition of the Japanese city of Yokosuka , which included a level of detail considered unprecedented for a video game . Incorporating a simulated day / night cycle with variable weather , non @-@ player characters with regular schedules , and the ability to pick up and examine detailed objects ( also introducing the Quick @-@ time event in its modern form ) , Shenmue went over budget and was rumored to have cost Sega over $ 50 million . Originally planned as the first installment in an 11 @-@ part saga , Shenmue was eventually downsized to a trilogy — and only one sequel was ever released . While Shenmue was lauded for its innovation , visuals and music , its critical reception was mixed ; points of criticism included " invisible walls " which limited the player 's sense of freedom , boredom caused by the inability to progress without waiting for events scheduled to occur at specific times , excessive in @-@ game cutscenes and a lack of challenge . According to Moore , Shenmue sold " extremely well " , but the game had no chance of making a profit due to the Dreamcast 's limited installed base . Shenmue II " was completed for a much more reasonable sum " , while Sato defended Shenmue as an " investment [ which ] will someday be recouped " because " the development advances we learned ... can be applied to other games " . In addition to the mixed reception for Shenmue , IGN 's Travis Fahs stated that " the [ Dreamcast ] era wasn 't as kind to [ AM2 ] as earlier years " — citing ( among others ) F355 Challenge as an " acclaimed " arcade title that " didn 't do much at home " , and Genki 's port of Virtua Fighter 3 as inferior to the arcade version , " which was already a couple years old and never as popular as its predecessors . " The Virtua Fighter series would experience a " tremendous comeback " with the universally acclaimed Virtua Fighter 4 — which saw a console release exclusively on PS2 .
As the first fully 3D platforming game starring Sega 's mascot , Sonic the Hedgehog , Sonic Team 's Sonic Adventure was considered " the centerpiece of the [ Dreamcast ] launch " . Adventure garnered criticism for technical problems including erratic camera angles and glitches , but was praised for its " luscious " visuals , " vast , twisting environments " and iconic set pieces — including a segment in which Sonic runs down the side of a skyscraper — and has been described as the Sonic series ' creative apex . However , it failed " to catch on with players in nearly the way that [ Nintendo 's ] Mario 64 had done " , perhaps due to a perceived lack of gameplay depth . Distinguished by its innovative use of multiple storylines with varied forms of play , Adventure sold 2 @.@ 5 million copies , making it the Dreamcast 's best @-@ selling title . Sonic Team also developed the Dreamcast 's first online game — ChuChu Rocket ! — which was widely complimented for its addictive puzzle gameplay and " frantic " multiplayer matches , and the critically successful music game Samba de Amigo , which was noted for its expensive maracas peripheral and colorful aesthetic . Perhaps the most influential of Sonic Team 's Dreamcast releases was Phantasy Star Online , the first online console RPG . Developed after Okawa requested an online game from Sonic Team , PSO was heavily influenced by the PC action RPG Diablo , but refined and simplified its style of gameplay to appeal to console audiences .
In sports , Visual Concepts ' NFL 2K football series and its NBA 2K basketball series were critically acclaimed . NFL 2K was considered an outstanding launch game for its high @-@ quality visuals and " insightful , context @-@ friendly , and , yes , even funny commentary " , while NFL 2K1 featured groundbreaking online multiplayer earlier than its chief competitor , EA 's Madden NFL series . Madden and 2K continued to compete on other platforms through 2004 — with the 2K series introducing innovations such as a first person perspective new to the genre , and eventually launching ESPN NFL 2K5 at the aggressively low price point of $ 19 @.@ 95 — until EA signed an exclusive agreement with the National Football League , " effectively putting every other pro @-@ football game out of business . " After Sega sold Visual Concepts for $ 24 million in 2005 , the NBA 2K series continued with publisher Take @-@ Two Interactive . During the Dreamcast 's lifespan , Visual Concepts also collaborated with Sonic the Hedgehog level designer Hirokazu Yasuhara on the action @-@ adventure game Floigan Bros. and developed the critically successful action game Ooga Booga .
To appeal to the European market , Sega formed a French affiliate called No Cliché , which developed titles such as Toy Commander . Sega Europe also approached Bizarre Creations to develop the critically successful racing game Metropolis Street Racer , which featured detailed recreations of London , Tokyo , and San Francisco — complete with consistent time zones and fictional radio stations — and 262 individual race tracks .
Although Acclaim , SNK , Ubisoft , Midway , Activision , Infogrames , and Capcom supported the system during its first year , third @-@ party developer support proved difficult to obtain due to the failure of the Sega Saturn and the profitability of publishing for the PlayStation . Namco 's Soul Calibur , for example , was released for the Dreamcast because of the relative unpopularity of the Soul series at the time ; Namco 's more successful Tekken franchise was associated with the PlayStation console and PlayStation @-@ based arcade boards . Nevertheless , Soul Calibur received overwhelming critical acclaim and has been frequently described as one of the best games for the system . Capcom produced a number of fighting games for the system , including the Power Stone series , in addition to a temporary exclusive in the popular Resident Evil series called Resident Evil Code : Veronica . The Dreamcast is also known for several shoot ' em ups , most notably Treasure 's Bangai @-@ O and Ikaruga .
In January 2000 , three months after the system 's North American launch , Electronic Gaming Monthly offered praise for the game library , stating , " ... with triple @-@ A stuff like Soul Calibur , NBA 2K , and soon Crazy Taxi to kick around , we figure you 're happy you took the 128 @-@ bit plunge . " In a retrospective , PC Magazine 's Jeffrey L. Wilson referred to Dreamcast 's " killer library " and emphasized Sega 's creative influence and visual innovation as being at its peak during the lifetime of the system . The staff of Edge agreed with this assessment on Dreamcast 's original titles , as well as Sega 's arcade conversions , stating that the system " delivered the first games that could meaningfully be described as arcade perfect . " GamePro writer Blake Snow referred to the library as being " much celebrated " . Damien McFerran of Retro Gamer praised Dreamcast 's NAOMI arcade ports , opining " The thrill of playing Crazy Taxi in the arcade knowing full well that a pixel @-@ perfect conversion ( and not some cut @-@ down port ) was set to arrive on the Dreamcast is an experience gamers are unlikely to witness again . " Nick Montfort and Mia Consalvo , writing in Loading ... The Journal of the Canadian Game Studies Association , argued that " the Dreamcast hosted a remarkable amount of videogame development that went beyond the odd and unusual and is interesting when considered as avant @-@ garde ... it is hard to imagine a commercial console game expressing strong resistance to the commodity perspective and to the view that game production is commerce . But even when it comes to resisting commercialization , it is arguable that Dreamcast games came closer to expressing this attitude than any other console games have . " 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish favorably compared Sega 's Dreamcast output , which included some of " the most varied , creative , and fun [ games ] the company had ever produced " , with its " enervated " status as a third @-@ party . Fahs noted " The Dreamcast 's life was fleeting , but it was saturated with memorable titles , most of which were completely new properties . " According to author Steven L. Kent , " From Sonic Adventure and Shenmue to Space Channel 5 and Seaman , Dreamcast delivered and delivered and delivered . "
= = Reception and legacy = =
In December 1999 , Next Generation rated the Dreamcast 4 out of 5 stars and stated , " If you want the most powerful system available now , showcasing the best graphics at a reasonable price , this system is for you . " However , Next Generation rated the Dreamcast 's future prognosis as 3 stars out of 5 in the same article , noting that Sony would ship a superior hardware product in the PlayStation 2 in the next year , and that Nintendo had said it would do the same with the GameCube . At the beginning of 2000 , Electronic Gaming Monthly had five reviewers score the Dreamcast 8 @.@ 5 , 8 @.@ 5 , 8 @.@ 5 , 8 @.@ 0 , and 9 @.@ 0 out of 10 points . By 2001 , the reviewers for Electronic Gaming Monthly gave the Dreamcast scores of 9 @.@ 0 , 9 @.@ 0 , 9 @.@ 0 , 9 @.@ 0 , and 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 . BusinessWeek recognized the Sega Dreamcast as one of the best products of 1999 .
In 2009 , IGN named the Dreamcast the 8th greatest video game console of all time , giving credit to the innovations and software for the system . According to IGN , " The Dreamcast was the first console to incorporate a built @-@ in modem for online play , and while the networking lacked the polish and refinement of its successors , it was the first time users could seamlessly power on and play with users around the globe . " In 2010 , PC Magazine 's Jeffrey L. Wilson named the Dreamcast the greatest video game console , emphasizing that the system was " gone too soon " . In 2013 , Edge named the Dreamcast the 10th best console of the last 20 years , highlighting innovations that it added to console video gaming , including in @-@ game voice chat , downloadable content , and second screen technology through the use of VMUs . Edge explained the system 's poor performance by stating , " Sega 's console was undoubtedly ahead of its time , and it suffered at retail for that reason ... [ b ] ut its influence can still be felt today . " Writing in 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die , Duncan Harris noted " One of the reasons that older gamers mourned the loss of the Dreamcast was that it signaled the demise of arcade gaming culture ... Sega 's console gave hope that things were not about to change for the worse and that the tenets of fast fun and bright , attractive graphics were not about to sink into a brown and green bog of realistic war games . " Parish , writing for USgamer , contrasted the Dreamcast 's diverse library with the " suffocating sense of conservatism " that pervaded the gaming industry in the following decade . Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer , discussing the Dreamcast 's portrayal " as a small , square , white plastic JFK " , commented that the system 's short lifespan " may have sealed its reputation as one of the greatest consoles ever " : " Nothing builds a cult like a tragic demise " . According to IGN 's Travis Fahs , " Many hardware manufacturers have come and gone , but it 's unlikely any will go out with half as much class as Sega . "
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= St Caian 's Church , Tregaian =
St Caian 's Church , Tregaian , also known as St Caean 's Church , Tregaean , is a small medieval church dating from the 14th century in Anglesey , north Wales . It is dedicated to St Caian , a Christian from the 5th or 6th century about whom little is known . The building contains a late 14th @-@ century east window and a late 15th @-@ century doorway . The churchyard contains the grave of William ap Howel , who died in 1581 at the age of 105 , leaving over forty children between the ages of 8 and 89 and over three hundred living descendants .
The church is still used for worship by the Church in Wales , and is one of three churches in a combined parish . It is a Grade II * listed building , a national designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , in particular because it is regarded as " an excellent late Medieval rural church " .
= = History and location = =
The date of construction of the first Christian building on this site is unknown . The church is dedicated to St Caian , a Christian from the 5th or 6th century , about whom little is known . One manuscript says that his father was St Caw , a king in northern Britain who lost his lands and sought safety in Anglesey , where the ruler Maelgwn Gwynedd gave him land in the north @-@ east of the island , the district known as Twrcelyn . If Caian was a son of St Caw , then his sisters included St Cwyllog , who established the nearby church of St Cwyllog , Llangwyllog , in the 6th century . Other manuscripts say that he was active in the 5th century and was a son or grandson of Brychan , a king from south Wales .
Caian gives his name to the hamlet of Tregaian in which the church is situated : the Welsh word tref ( shortened here to tre ) means " settlement " , and " ‑ gaian " is a modified form of the saint 's name – i.e. " Caian 's settlement " . Tregaian is about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) north of Llangefni , the county town of Anglesey , and the church is in the countryside by a small road .
The present church is medieval , dating from the latter part of the 14th century , which is the period given to the east window . The doorway is from the late 15th century , the roof from the end of the 16th or beginning of the 17th century , and the nave windows and the panelling of the pulpit are from the 17th century . It is still used for worship by the Church in Wales , as one of three churches in the combined benefice of Llangefni with Tregaean with Llanddyfnan ( Talwrn ) . It is within the deanery of Malltraeth , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2013 , the priest in charge of the parish is the Reverend J Ashley @-@ Roberts .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
The church is built from rubble masonry . The roof , which is made from slate , has a stone bellcote at the west end . Entrance is through the doorway on the south side , from the late 15th century ; it has decorated surrounds and a square frame . There is no structural division between the nave ( where the congregation sit ) and the chancel ( where the altar is located ) apart from a single step up into the chancel . The church is about 40 feet 6 inches ( 12 @.@ 3 m ) long by 14 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 4 m ) wide . The east window , from the late 14th century , is set in a pointed arch with decorative edging . It has stained glass from 1916 depicting Christ crowning a knight with the words " Well done thou good and faithful servant / Take unto you the whole armour of God . " There are two pairs of square @-@ headed windows in the south wall , dating from the 17th century . On the north side of the church , a second entrance was blocked up in the late 19th century , and there is one pair of square @-@ headed windows , also from the 17th century ; there is also a small window at the west end of the church , from the 17th or 18th century . The beams of the roof can be seen from inside the church . Behind the altar is a panelled reredos from the 19th century .
The church has a 12th @-@ century circular font , decorated with an irregular pattern of chevrons on the side . The bell is dated 1717 , whilst the pews are from the 19th century . There are memorials tablets from the 18th , 19th and 20th centuries on the walls , some of which commemorate the Lloyd family from a nearby house , Plas Tregaian . A 1937 survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire noted a plain silver cup dated 1714 – 15 . The churchyard contains the grave of William ap Howel , who died at the age of 105 in 1581 . Married three times , he fathered 42 or 43 children in and out of wedlock , and more than 300 of his descendants attended his funeral . His children at his death ranged in age from 8 to 89 .
= = Assessment = =
The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest of the three grades of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 12 May 1970 , and has been listed because it is " an excellent late Medieval rural church " . Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also states that it " retains a strong simple character in the retention of many early features and its original plan , with structurally undivided nave and chancel . "
The 19th @-@ century antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described the church as " a small but neat edifice " , and noted the " handsome " east window . The 19th @-@ century writer Samuel Lewis said that the church was " simple and primitive in its construction " . Writing in 1847 , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones said that the font was " remarkable " for having no drain , and was " hardly large enough for immersion . " He added that the east window was of " rather singular " design .
A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey notes the " unusually wide " east window . A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region says that the church " gives an impression of what the Anglesey parish churches were like before so many were reassembled in the 19th century " – partly because the walls lean , it adds . The east window has also been compared to that of St Ceidio 's Church , Rhodogeidio , also on Anglesey .
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= Mirabito Outdoor Classic =
The Mirabito Outdoor Classic , also known as the 2010 AHL Outdoor Classic , was an outdoor ice hockey game played in 2010 between the Syracuse Crunch and Binghamton Senators of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . It was the first outdoor game in the history of the AHL as well as the first outdoor minor league hockey game . Syracuse won the game 2 – 1 with the help of goaltender Kevin Lalande , who stopped 36 of the 37 Binghamton shots , and Alexandre Picard , who scored the first outdoor goal in AHL history . The game was played in front of a then AHL record crowd of 21 @,@ 508 , on a rink constructed at the New York State Fairgrounds on a dirt auto racing track .
Crunch owner , Howard Dolgon , pursued the ideal of having his team in an outdoor game , but unlike the National Hockey League 's ( NHL ) Winter Classic the Crunch were responsible for funding the entire event . In order to afford the cost of hosting an outdoor game sponsorship deals with several independent organizations were made including Mirabito Energy Products , which lent its name to the title of the event . In part because of his success in putting on the event , Dolgon was awarded the James C. Hendy Memorial Award as the AHL 's outstanding executive . Following the success of the Mirabito Outdoor Classic other AHL Outdoor Classics were held by other AHL teams .
= = Background = =
= = = Planning = = =
In late November 2009 Syracuse Crunch owner , Howard Dolgon began attempts to have an American Hockey League ( AHL ) outdoor game for his franchise . Cost estimates for hosting the game were close to $ 1 million . Unlike the National Hockey League 's ( NHL ) Winter Classic , the league did not run the event , meaning the Crunch had to finance the entire project . The high cost of hosting was a reason for other franchises not pursuing outdoor games prior .
Dolgon originally wanted the game to be played at Alliance Bank Stadium in Syracuse and asked the Onondaga County Legislature to help fund the game . A proposal for the county to put in $ 350 @,@ 000 was voted down by a 16 – 2 margin . After the proposal was denied , Dolgon thought the project was dead , then he received a phone call from United States Senator Charles Schumer encouraging him to go forward with the game . Schumer later stated his encouragement stemmed from the opportunity for the event to be " a national event focused on Upstate and Central New York " .
With the game plans moving forward , Dolgon managed to recruit corporate sponsors to help alleviate the cost . The Crunch received $ 350 @,@ 000 from several sponsors , including Mirabito Energy Products which lent its name to the events title . Mirabito decided to sponsor the event because they were opening stores in the Central New York area and wanted to establish their brand name . New York Governor David Paterson secured a $ 75 @,@ 000 grant from the Empire State Development Corporation and helped the Crunch gain use of the New York State Fairgrounds free of charge . Even with the additional funding the Crunch still needed to pay upwards of $ 550 @,@ 000 .
= = = Rink = = =
The rink was built on the fairgrounds in front of a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ seat permanent grandstand on a dirt auto racing track and leveled with what was described as " tons of granite " . With demands for over the 15 @,@ 000 seats occupancy of the grandstands , the Crunch rented additional temporary bleachers . Since there was no scoreboards on or near the track Syracuse rented two large video screens to show the score , time remaining , penalty times , and other information . The installation of the temporary rink cost an estimated $ 400 @,@ 000 and took a month and a half to complete .
= = = Associated events = = =
As plans moved forward the decision was made not just to play the game but make it an event celebrating New York hockey history . For the game the Crunch played their intrastate rivals the Binghamton Senators . The days before the game local youth hockey teams played on the ice , and then the day after there was a pond hockey tournament played on the rink featuring 16 local teams . The fairgrounds also featured VIP tents , fan zones , bands , and ice sculpting for the celebration , as well as appearances by former players for New York 's various professional teams .
= = Game = =
The game was the first outdoor game in the 74 @-@ year history of the AHL and the first minor league hockey outdoor game . The attendance of 21 @,@ 508 set a new AHL record surpassing the old mark of 20 @,@ 672 set in 1997 at the Greensboro Coliseum . The record was later broken by subsequent Outdoor Classics . Prior to the game the 174th Fighter Wing of the New York Air National Guard performed a flyover , and recording artist Jessie James sang The Star @-@ Spangled Banner . For the ceremonial puck drop , a skydiver delivered a puck from the National Hockey League 's first foray into outdoor games from the 1991 Las Vegas exhibition game .
There was a slight delay in the start of the game as some of the glass needed to be fixed . Once the game was under way it took just 1 : 50 before the Crunch 's Jon Mirasty and the Senators ' Jeremy Yablonski engaged in the first fight in Outdoor Classic history . Mirasty had previously stated that he was going to be involved in the first outdoor fight . The physical play continued and minutes later at the 3 : 29 mark Paul Baier and Mike Radja were given matching roughing minor penalties . Not long after the matching minors Mike Blunden made a pass to Alexandre Picard to send him on a breakaway . Picard became the first player to score in an Outdoor Classic when he beat Senators ' goaltender Mike Brodeur putting the Crunch up 1 – 0 . The score remained the same at the end of a penalty @-@ filled first period . Eight total penalties were called on the two clubs through the first 20 minutes of the game .
Early in the second period the Crunch got another power play opportunity when Senators ' captain Drew Bannister took a hooking penalty . The man advantage did not benefit Syracuse as the Senators tied the game 1 – 1 when Martin St. Pierre found an open Josh Hennessy , who put the puck past Kevin Lalande for the shorthanded goal . Binghamton seemed to be gaining the advantage in the second period outshooting the Crunch 16 – 9 . But , with just 11 @.@ 7 seconds remaining in the period , Crunch defenseman David Liffiton scored the go @-@ ahead goal from the high slot . During the third period the score remained the same , when with just 1 : 30 left in the game Syracuse 's Kevin Harvey took an interference penalty giving the Senators a chance to tie the game on the power play . Binghamton was unable to score in the first minute of the power play and pulled Brodeur to give them the six on four advantage . Even with the two man advantage the Senators failed to post a second goal on Lalande , who stopped 36 of the 37 shots he faced during the game helping the Crunch to the 2 – 1 victory . His performance earned him the first Star of the Game . The game was a penalty @-@ filled affair with 26 infractions called on the two teams and a total of 18 power plays awarded . Neither team was able to capitalize on the opportunities , with Binghamton going 0 – 10 and Syracuse 0 – 8 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The event was considered a success not only did it set a new attendance record it also generated considerable exposure for both the Crunch and the AHL . The game was originally going to be aired just in New York by Time Warner Cable , but was picked up by the NHL Network for broadcast across Canada and the United States . The players and coaches appeared to enjoy the game as well . Crunch head coach Ross Yates stated , " it was unbelievable . It 's hard to describe " . Liffiton described the game as " a little taste of what it feels like to play college football " while Picard added , " I ’ ll do that every game for the rest of my life . " AHL President Dave Andrews further noted that it made him proud to be a part of the league .
Due in part to his success of putting on the event , Dolgon was awarded the James C. Hendy Memorial Award as the AHL 's outstanding executive . With the success of the Mirabito Outdoor Classic , multiple outdoor games have subsequently been held by AHL teams .
= = Team rosters = =
^ ‡ : Holt and LaCostat dressed as the back @-@ up goaltenders and did not enter the game .
= = = Coaches = = =
Binghamton :
Head coach : Don Nachbaur
Assistant coach : Mike BusniukSyracuse :
Head coach : Ross Yates
Assistant coach : Trent Cull
Assistant coach : Karl Goehring
= = = Officials = = =
Referee — Terry Koharski
Linesmen — Dan Murphy , Tim Kotyra
Source : AHL Box Score
= = Game summary = =
Scoring summary
Penalty summary
Three star selections
Source : AHL Box Score
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= Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines =
Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines is a 2004 action role @-@ playing video game developed by Troika Games and released by Activision for Microsoft Windows . Set in White Wolf Publishing 's World of Darkness , the game is based on White Wolf 's role @-@ playing game Vampire : The Masquerade and follows either a male or female character who is killed and subsequently revived as a fledgling vampire . The game depicts the fledgling 's journey through 21st @-@ century Los Angeles to uncover the truth behind a recently discovered relic that heralds the end of all vampires .
Bloodlines is presented from first- and third @-@ person perspectives . The player assigns their character to one of several vampire clans — each with unique powers , customize their combat and dialog abilities and progress through Bloodlines with violent and nonviolent methods . The selection of clan affects how the player is perceived in the game world , and which powers and abilities they possess ; this opens up different avenues of exploration and methods of interacting with or manipulating other characters . The player is able to complete side missions away from the primary storyline by moving freely between the available hubs : Santa Monica , Hollywood , downtown Los Angeles , and Chinatown .
Troika 's 32 @-@ member team began development of Bloodlines in November 2001 , as an indirect sequel to the previous year 's Vampire : The Masquerade – Redemption . Troika used Valve Corporation 's Source game engine , then @-@ in @-@ development , which was being used for Valve 's own Half @-@ Life 2 . The game 's production was turbulent , as the design 's scope exceeded the available resources , and the team were left without a producer for nearly a year until Activision appointed David Mullich to the role , where he found designs and levels unfinished or abandoned . After three years in development with no end in sight and running over budget , Activision set a strict deadline for completion , and Bloodlines was released incomplete in November 2004 .
Released in competition with Half @-@ Life 2 and several other titles , Bloodlines sold fewer than 80 @,@ 000 copies during its initial release , which was considered a poor performance . It divided critics at the time ; although they praised the game 's writing and scale of choice , they criticized its technical flaws . It was Troika Games ' last production before its failure in early 2005 , when it was unable to secure additional projects . The game has a cult following as a rarely replicated example of gameplay and narrative , and contemporary criticism has recognised it as a flawed masterpiece . As of 2014 , Bloodlines had received ten years of post @-@ release support from its fans , who have supplied fixes and restored lost and deleted content .
= = Gameplay = =
Bloodlines is an action role @-@ playing video game optionally presented from the first- or third @-@ person perspective . Before the game begins , players create a male or female vampire character by selecting a vampire clan and configuring available points in three areas — Attributes , Abilities and Disciplines ( vampiric powers ) — or by answering questions , which create a character for the player . The player can select one of seven vampire clans : the powerful Brujah , the decadent Toreador , the insane Malkavian , the aristocratic Ventrue , the monstrously @-@ deformed Nosferatu , the blood @-@ magic wielding Tremere , or the animalistic Gangrel .
The player builds their character by spending acquired points to increase their ratings in the three areas . The points spent on Attributes and Abilities combine to determine a player 's success or effectiveness in performing tasks such as using firearms , brawling , and lock @-@ picking ; for example , determining how accurate or how far the player can shoot , or if they can hack a computer . Attributes are represent by physical ( strength , dexterity , and stamina ) , social ( charisma , manipulation , and appearance ) , and mental ( perception , intelligence , and wit ) . Abilities are talents ( such as brawling and dodging ) , skills ( such as firearms and melee ) and knowledge ( such as computers and investigation ) . The player is initially assigned points to spend in the three areas , with the amount they can spend determined by clan ; for example , the Brujah can spend the most points on physical and skill attributes . During character creation , each upgrade costs one point . The upgrade cost increases as the game progresses . Each ability can be raised from zero to five , and it is impossible to accrue enough experience points to complete every skill ( allowing the player to specialize or balance their character ) . Experience points are gained by completing quests , finding items or unlocking secret paths , rather than killing enemies , and are used to increase or unlock the character 's statistics and abilities . The game features a main story , and optional side quests that can be completed at any time ; the player is able to move between the available areas at will to revisit locations , characters , or merchants .
The player 's clan affects their skills and powers . Although the attractive Toreadors receive bonuses for seduction and persuasion , opening additional dialog options , they are physically weak ; the Nosferatu are forced to travel in the shadows or through sewers to avoid alerting humans , but receive bonuses to their intelligence and computer skills , which enables access to more information . The Malkavians have separate dialog options , reflecting their inherent insanity . Upgrading some skills provides additional dialog options ; attractive and charismatic characters seduce to get their way , aggressive characters threaten , and others persuade their targets to cooperate .
Firearms combat is first @-@ person , with character points assigned to the firearms skill determining the shot 's accuracy and how long it takes to target an opponent . Melee combat is third @-@ person , with access to weapons such as katanas and sledgehammers for melee combat , or pistols , crossbows and flamethrowers for firearm combat . If a player sneaks up on an opponent , they can perform an instant kill ; weapons provide unique instant kill animations . The player can block attacks manually or automatically , by leaving their character idle . They can use stealth in missions by sneaking past guards and security cameras , picking locks , and hacking computers to locate alternative routes .
Each clan has specific Disciplines , which can be used in combat and to create approaches to quests . Although some powers overlap clans , no two clans share the same three Disciplines . More physical vampires can enhance themselves to become fast and lethal killers or summon spirit allies to attack their foes ; others can mentally dominate their targets to force their cooperation or render themselves invisible to hide from detection ; and others can boil their opponent 's blood from afar . Some Disciplines , such as Auspex ( which boosts perception , highlighting other characters ' auras through obstacles ) and Blood Buff ( which temporarily upgrades strength , dexterity , stamina and lockpicking ) are common to all vampires . Several abilities can be active at the same time . Blood is a primary currency in Bloodlines , used to activate Disciplines and abilities . It is drained with each use , and can be replenished by drinking from rats , visiting blood banks or drinking from humans by attacking or seducing them ; the player can feed on enemies during combat . Drinking from innocents for too long can kill them , costing a character humanity points .
Players are penalized for using certain vampiric abilities in front of witnesses ; exposing their existence loses masquerade points . Violating the masquerade five times draws the ire of vampire hunters and loses the game , although additional masquerade points can be earned with quests and other actions . The player has humanity points , representing the vampire 's humanity . Some actions cost humanity points ; a low humanity score alters available dialog options to become more aggressive , and increases the chance of entering a frenzied state and embarking on a killing spree , when the vampire 's blood is low . This frenzy can also be triggered by a large amount of damage . Like masquerade points , losing all humanity points ends the game , with the vampire becoming a mindless beast . Some areas , known as Elysium , prevent the use of Disciplines or weapons . Players can recruit a female ghoul , Heather , as a customizable servant who gives them blood , gifts , and money .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines takes place in four areas of 21st @-@ century Los Angeles : Santa Monica , Hollywood , downtown Los Angeles , and Chinatown . Set in the World of Darkness , the game depicts a world in which vampires , werewolves , demons , and other creatures shape human history . The vampires are bound by a code to maintain their secrecy ( forbidding the use of vampiric abilities in front of humans ) and avoid unnecessary killing ( to preserve the vampire 's last shreds of humanity ) . The vampires are divided into seven clans of the Camarilla , the vampire government , with distinctive traits and abilities . The Toreadors are the closest to humanity , with a passion for culture ; the Ventrue are noble , powerful leaders ; the Brujah are idealists who excel at fighting ; the Malkavians are cursed with insanity , or blessed with insight ; the Gangrel are loners , in sync with their animalistic nature ; the secretive , untrustworthy Tremere wield blood magic ; and the monstrous Nosferatu are condemned to a life in the shadows to avoid humanity . The clans are loosely united by their belief in the Camarilla 's goals and opposition to the Sabbat : vampires who revel in their nature , embracing the beast within . The Anarchs are a faction of idealistic vampires opposed to the Camarilla 's political structure , believing that power should be shared by all vampires .
The main character of Bloodlines , whom the player controls , is an unnamed fledgling vampire , transformed at the start of a game and belonging to one of the clans . The fledgling is employed by Sebastian LaCroix ( voiced by Andy Milder ) , prince of Los Angeles ' vampires . The fledgling 's travels through the vampire world bring them into contact with other undead creatures such as the deformed information broker Bertram Tung , the Anarch Smiling Jack , and the mentally @-@ unstable Voerman sisters , Jeanette and Therese . Chinatown is controlled by the Kuei @-@ Jin , Asian vampires led by Ming @-@ Xiao , who do not require blood and consider themselves superior to the other vampires .
= = = Plot = = =
The game begins with the player character , an unnamed human , being killed and resurrected as a fledgling vampire . For this unauthorized act , the fledgling and their Sire are brought before the Camarilla . The Sire is executed by order of LaCroix ; the fledgling is spared the same fate by the intervention of the Anarch , Nines Rodriguez , and employed by the prince .
LaCroix sends the fledgling to Santa Monica to help his ghoul , Mercurio , destroy a Sabbat warehouse . Following his success the fledgling travels to downtown Los Angeles , meeting separately with Nines , LaCroix , and Jack . LaCroix tasks the player with investigating a docked ship , the Elizabeth Dane , for information about an Ankaran sarcophagus rumored to contain the body of an Antediluvian , one of the oldest and most powerful vampires , whose arrival would herald the vampire apocalypse , Gehenna . The fledgling discovers that the sarcophagus seems to have been opened from within .
Increased Sabbat activity coincides with the disappearance of the Malkavian chief , Alistair Grout . At Grout 's mansion , the fledgling sees Nines leaving and discovers Grout 's remains in the mansion with vampire hunter Grunfeld Bach , who denies involvement in Grout 's death . Learning about Nines ' presence at the mansion , LaCroix tells the other chiefs to approve Nines ' execution . The fledgling is sent to the Museum of Natural History to recover the sarcophagus , but finds that it has been stolen . Jack later suggests to the fledgling that LaCroix wants the sarcophagus to drink the blood of the ancient within , gaining its power .
Believing that Gary , the Nosferatu chief , has stolen the sarcophagus , the fledgling is sent to Hollywood to find him ; after locating a captured Nosferatu for Gary , he reveals that the sarcophagus was stolen by the Giovanni vampire clan . The fledgling infiltrates the Giovanni mansion and finds the sarcophagus guarded by the Kuei @-@ Jin , who claim their leader , Ming @-@ Xiao , has formed an alliance with LaCroix . The locked sarcophagus is returned to LaCroix 's tower and Beckett , a vampire historian , tells the fledgling that the only person who can open it has been abducted by Grunfeld to lure LaCroix . The fledgling kills Grunfeld and learns that the sarcophagus ' key has been stolen .
They return to LaCroix , learning that the Sabbat tried to steal the sarcophagus to destroy it and prevent Gehenna , and kill the Sabbat leader to disperse his followers . The fledgling is met by Ming @-@ Xiao , who offers to form an alliance . Ming @-@ Xiao reveals that she has the key , and LaCroix killed Grout to prevent his powerful insight from unveiling LaCroix 's plans ; Ming @-@ Xiao changed into Nines at the mansion to frame him . Denying Ming @-@ Xiao 's claims , LaCroix rescinds the blood hunt on Nines and entrusts the fledgling with recruiting the Anarchs to punish the Kuei @-@ Jin for murdering Grout . The fledgling finds Nines hiding in the forest , and they are then attacked by a werewolf and Nines is badly injured . The fledgling escapes with Jack , who reveals that LaCroix has issued an execution order on the fledgling for framing Nines on orders from Ming @-@ Xiao .
The end varies , depending on whom , if anyone , the fledgling allies with . If the fledgling supports LaCroix or Ming @-@ Xiao , each sends the fledgling to kill the other . LaCroix opens the sarcophagus , to be killed with the fledgling by hidden explosives ; Ming @-@ Xiao betrays the fledgling , chaining them to the sarcophagus and sinking it in the ocean . Supporting the Anarchs or no one makes the fledgling kill Ming @-@ Xiao and maim LaCroix , who is killed after he opens the sarcophagus . If the fledgling opens the sarcophagus , they die in the explosion . If the fledgling is a Tremere , they kill Ming @-@ Xiao ; LaCroix is replaced by Tremere leader Maximillian Strauss , and the sarcophagus is stored . Each ending has Jack watching from afar with the mummy taken from the coffin and the enigmatic taxi driver who transports the fledgling between locations , who says " The blood of Caine controls our fate ... Farewell , vampire . "
= = Development = =
= = = Conception = = =
The development of Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines began at Troika Games in November 2001 . The developers wanted to put a role @-@ playing game in a first @-@ person setting , believing that the genre had become stale . Troika approached publisher Activision with its idea ; Activision suggested using the Vampire : The Masquerade license used a year earlier in Nihilistic Software 's Vampire : The Masquerade – Redemption , which had experienced sufficient success to merit a sequel . Instead of developing a sequel to Redemption , the development team researched the White Wolf property , including the game 's rules and its storylines . Troika was a small game studio , with five developers and a total staff of thirty @-@ two ( including lead writer Brian Mitsoda , who joined the team less than a year after development began ) . Although some preliminary design and levels were completed , much of the work was abandoned or redeveloped .
Troika wanted to make a 3D game , but was uncertain whether to build a new game engine or license an existing one and whether to use first- or third @-@ person . At that time , the Source game engine was being built by Valve Corporation . Valve employee Scott Lynch approached Troika about using the engine , and it was the first external team to use it . Troika chose Source for its facial animation and lip @-@ synching system , since it wanted players to speak to the characters face @-@ to @-@ face . Since the engine was in development with Bloodlines and Valve 's own Half @-@ Life 2 , Troika was working with unfamiliar code and tools , forcing it to write its own code to compensate for the unfinished engine , and with only a single source for technical support . Troika developed a lighting system to create distinctive , moody illumination for the nighttime setting , a particle system for the special effects accompanying the vampire Disciplines , and a cloth system for clothing flow . Source lacked its later artificial intelligence ( AI ) coding , and Troika 's code worked poorly with the Source engine .
= = = Writing = = =
Many of the central plot elements existed before designer Brian Mitsoda 's involvement : the prince , the anarchs being upset , aspects of the Gehenna storyline , and Jack and the sarcophagus as a major subplot . The designers broadly tied the overarching story into each hub and level . Each designer controlled their assigned section of the game , and working with a small team enabled quick decision making and ease in keeping plot elements consistent . Mitsoda became the primary writer for many of the characters and their quests , dialog , and side content in the game , such as emails , which helped retain a consistent narrative . He was given freedom with respect to the script , with no restrictions on language or content , and could rewrite characters when he thought his initial draft weak . Although the story was developed by Troika , it is inspired by White Wolf 's Time of Judgment novels about a vampire apocalypse . Bloodlines ' story was accepted as canonical by White Wolf , with the game serving as a prequel to Time of Judgment and including characters from the White Wolf game , such as Jack . Discussing character design , Mitsoda said he tried to disguise the need for characters who simply point a player in an appropriate direction :
" You need a character to pose a problem or give out a quest or be a barrier of some kind . I don 't like to make the [ character ] outright say ' I need you to do X , then I 'll give you Y ' ... – it makes the character into an automated quest kiosk . I like the characters to come off like people actually do – they don 't say ' hi ' when strangers come knocking , they say ' who the hell are you ? ' or they 're expecting you and know more than they let on , or they don 't care . I don 't like my [ characters ] to be standing around as if their lives begin when the character starts talking to them and end when the player leaves .
Single purpose characters needed a distinctive personality trait to quickly establish them with the player , rather than serving as a disposable item , while major characters had to reflect the player 's progression and actions through the game . Mitsoda wrote the characters by thinking about who each character was , assigning them motivations determining why they were where they were , what they thought about the player and what they wanted from them . In accordance with a suggestion by fellow writer Chad Moore the Malkavian player character has a dialog script distinct from that of the other eight clans ; Mitsoda said it was one of the simpler aspects of the development cycle . He wrote the Malkavian script last , with time running out on development , and the overwork and lack of sleep contributed to what Mitsoda considered an unhealthy state of mind , ideal for writing insane dialog . He wanted to highlight their madness , without making it comical . Since the story is set during the Camarilla 's takeover of Los Angeles , the team simplified the plot by only allowing the player to belong to one of the LA @-@ based clans .
= = = Design = = =
Troika co @-@ founder Jason Anderson 's research on Vampire : The Masquerade source material and fansites found that character interaction and involvement in the vampire societies , not statistics and powers , was the game 's main attraction . Troika tried to remain true to the pen @-@ and @-@ paper role @-@ playing game , hoping not to alienate the game 's fans , but rules designed for multiple players did not translate well to single player computer game design . The team attempted to discover which elements could work equally well in pen @-@ and @-@ paper and computer games . Although much of the character system and attributes translated , not all the attributes ( such as " knowledge of law " ) made sense in the computer game . Of 30 pen @-@ and @-@ paper abilities , 15 reached the final design .
Another difficult area was feats . Although common feats worked well , with a random chance of success or failure , uncommon ones would appear to fail more often . To avoid this , randomization was replaced by a degree of difficulty in accomplishing the feat . Although pen @-@ and @-@ paper falling damage is random , the computer game bases damage on the distance of the fall . The team 's biggest challenge was adapting disciplines . The pen @-@ and @-@ paper version may require a little blood that requires a long time to use , or have no blood cost and can be used at will ; upgraded disciplines had additional requirements considered too confusing for a computer game . Troika attempted to equalize the disciplines , keeping the effect intact and normalizing the cost , so a first level power requires one blood point , a second level two points and so on . To balance the clans the aristocratic Ventrue were only allowed to feed on noble blood , though this was changed to allow them to feed on lower @-@ class humans , receiving less blood . During character creation , the game had an optional character biography with unique positive and negative characteristics ( increasing one ability while limiting another ) . This was removed from the released game ; Activision felt that there was insufficient test time , and removing it was a more stable option .
The team 's previous experience was with turn @-@ based combat games , and it struggled to develop a real @-@ time combat system affected by customizable attributes and abilities that provided feedback to the player on how those statistics were affecting the battle . It initially found that by adhering too closely to the White Wolf source material rules for guns , where the effectiveness of a shot is determined in a contest between the player 's skill and the opponent 's defense , the firearms seemed broken ; the player would not hit where they aimed . Troika found it difficult to mesh the available factors in a real @-@ time setting . Melee combat had to deal with a variety of melee weapons and animations and adjust for melee @-@ on @-@ melee and melee @-@ on @-@ ranged combat .
Troika used first @-@ person perspective to immerse the player in the setting , interacting face @-@ to @-@ face with the characters and seeing their facial reactions to the player . It chose to follow a single @-@ character to aid the immersion , creating the isolation of a vampire unable to trust any other character . This aided the story and compensated for the technical issues of allowing multiple player characters .
Choice is a significant aspect of the game , requiring a non @-@ linear design to accommodate the customized characters . Level design began with a list of factors such as Disciplines , stealth and feats . Each area had to be viable for a shooting character ( sufficient ammunition ) , a discipline @-@ focused character ( sufficient blood sources to keep the powers fueled ) and a melee specialist ( to reach enemies without being killed ) , with stealth options and option combinations . Level design began with a focus on stealth , taking into consideration the positioning of guards and the character 's potential stealth capability at that point in the game . Then direct , combat @-@ heavy and dialog paths were added . The amusement arcade area was to feature playable versions of Activision arcade games such as Pitfall ! , though the idea was abandoned due to time constraints .
Director Leonard Boyarsky considered the animation system important in the team 's choice of the Source engine . The integrated " faceposer " tool allowed Troika to customize facial animations , expressions , gestures and lip @-@ synching , eliminating the need to explain what a character was doing . Every non @-@ player character required a voiceover , which helped Troika define its characters more quickly . The engine had a physics system permitting new features , such as monsters hurling corpses at the player or dying characters realistically crumbling into pieces , instead of requiring pre @-@ built animations . Although Troika had ignored first @-@ person engines due to technical limitations , such as a low polygon count and limited texture memory , as the technology improved , it thought it could create a real @-@ time action game without sacrificing the immersion and story of a role @-@ playing game .
Describing the choice of developing a game based on the existing White Wolf property over creating their own , Boyarsky said that although an original property lacked the constraints of an existing one the downside was that it had not been tested and could be rejected by its potential audience ; an existing property was proven . Troika tried to stay as close as possible to the White Wolf rules , while reducing the number of abilities and disciplines to those relevant to Bloodlines gameplay .
= = = Later development = = =
Activision introduced the game in May 2003 , but , that October , Valve experienced a security breach in which hackers stole the source code for Half @-@ Life 2 . The breach required new security implementations for the engine , delaying both games ; the release of Bloodlines was postponed until early 2005 . Until May 2004 , Troika and Activision said that the game would feature a multiplayer component and modes including a team of vampires against a team of vampire hunters , with the ability to upgrade characters between each round . The team was left without a producer by Activision for over a year before David Mullich was assigned to the project . With no producer oversight , Mullich found the game 's design incomplete , game levels created and abandoned , and several technical issues , including problems with code for the proposed multiplayer option . The Source multiplayer code was in its infancy , increasing its development time , and the idea was abandoned .
In addition to problems with the Source engine , the designers found that the game 's scope exceeded their resources . Bloodlines has several styles of gameplay , requiring different interfaces , animations and artificial intelligence for stealth and melee combat , and first- or third @-@ person capability . Compared to contemporary first @-@ person shooters , with 10 to 20 animated character models , Bloodlines had over 150 characters with 3 @,@ 000 unique animations , in addition to boss characters , with their own styles of movement . The designers underestimated the length of time required to develop and improve these systems . The game 's scope suffered from content not being removed when necessary ; other components would be endlessly refined without being finalized , preventing the developers from focusing on other parts of the game system . All content additionally required approval by White Wolf and Activision .
After three years in development , the game was progressing slowly and it was unknown when it would be finished . Activision set a series of deadlines for the project 's development to ensure Troika would have sufficient time to effectively test the game , though these milestones were repeatedly extended , and Bloodlines eventually ran over budget . In 2003 , Activision intervened , ordering that the game be ready for release in the next few months , and even advancing more money to Troika to complete its work on The Temple of Elemental Evil for Atari , freeing the Troika team to work on Bloodlines exclusively . Activision eventually issued an ultimatum that the project be finished within months , on September 15 , 2004 . Troika delivered a version of Bloodlines on the required date ; due to its scale , the game underwent three weeks of testing . Activision decided that the game was suitable for release , but was contractually @-@ bound to withhold Bloodlines until after the debut of Half @-@ Life 2 in November 2004 . Troika convinced Activision to use the delay to fund further development ; the additional budget was not enough to pay all of Troika 's staff , and some employees worked unpaid to complete the project . This version underwent another three weeks of testing to become the final release code ; the game was still unfinished when Activision forced its release . Bloodlines ' creative director Jason Anderson blamed Activision , saying that the publisher took the game from Troika without providing enough time to test and polish it . During the nearly four years of development , he estimated that the team worked overtime for all but two months .
= = = Music = = =
The game 's original score was composed and produced by Rik Schaffer . Troika licensed many songs for the game , and posters for real bands are featured on the walls of the game 's clubs . The soundtrack was released as a limited edition CD to customers who pre @-@ ordered the game through Best Buy . It features nine tracks by artists including Daniel Ash , Chiasm , Tiamat , Darling Violetta , Genitorturers , and Lacuna Coil . " Bloodlines " , performed by Al Jourgensen and Ministry , was composed and performed specifically for the game . The licensed tracks were chosen by Activision without input from Troika .
= = Release = =
Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines was released on November 16 , 2004 in competition with Half @-@ Life 2 , Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater , Halo 2 , and several other titles . Valve 's contract for Troika 's use of the Source engine guaranteed that Bloodlines could not be released before Half @-@ Life 2 , and could not be introduced to the public until after the announcement of Half @-@ Life 2 , over eighteen months after development began . In February 2004 , the game was scheduled for release in spring 2005 , partially to avoid competing with Half @-@ Life 2 and the competitive Christmas period , before Activision moved the date to November 2004 .
In a 2013 interview , Mitsoda said that it was released at " the worst possible time - most people didn 't even know we were out ... fans and the Troika [ developers ] are always going to wonder what the game could have been like with another six months . " Activision obtained model Erin Layne to play Jeanette in promotional material for the game . Layne worked with Bloodlines artist Tim Bradstreet for a day to provide the poses chosen by Activision to represent Jeanette in the game 's posters , clothing , and other items .
Despite generally favorable reviews , Bloodlines ' initial release sold 72 @,@ 000 copies and earned approximately $ 3 @.@ 4 million in sales , below Troika 's other games , Arcanum : Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura ( 234 @,@ 000 units , $ 8 @.@ 8 million ) and The Temple of Elemental Evil ( 128 @,@ 000 units , $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) . In comparison , Bloodlines ' release competitor Half @-@ Life 2 had sold 6 @.@ 5 million copies by 2008 . Bloodlines ' relative failure contributed to the demise of Troika Games .
Shortly after its debut , most of the development staff were laid off ; the remaining staff tried to patch Bloodlines and develop game concepts to secure funding to keep Troika in business . Troika , unable to obtain further funding from Activision or other publishers , released its employees in two waves : the first in November 2004 , followed by the remaining staff in December , except for its three founders , Anderson , Boyarsky , and Tim Cain . Some employees worked without pay to fix the game . When the company closed in February 2005 , it had secured no other game development deals . That month , Boyarsky confirmed that Troika had not been working on a patch for the game since most of its staff were gone since December 2004 . In a November 2004 interview Boyarsky said that although the team would like to pursue a Bloodlines sequel , the decision was Activision 's . In a 2006 interview , Anderson said that although Troika Games ' library had been critically well received , consistent technical issues had marred the perception of the company 's games , contributing to Troika 's difficulty in obtaining new projects .
Unofficial patches have been created by the game 's fans to address Bloodlines ' technical problems , and restore missing and incomplete content . After experiencing problems with the first versions of an unofficial patch created by Dan Upright , analytical chemist Werner Spahl continued patching the game from version 1 @.@ 2 with permission and instructions . The game community tested Spahl 's patches , providing reports on bugs and spelling errors . Although the game 's complexity meant that repairing one aspect often broke another , as work on the patches progressed Spahl began restoring removed and incomplete content in the game files , adding quests , items , weapons , and characters , with fan help to provide voice acting , models , and reinstating whole levels . The changes altered the original game so much that Spahl was criticized by some of the game 's fans . This resulted in two patch versions : a basic version , fixing the game 's technical issues , and a " plus " version with the additional content . As of April 2014 , the game has had almost 10 years of post @-@ release support with the release of version 9 of the patch . The game fared better following its release on Valve 's Steam digital distribution service in March 2007 , where , as of 2015 , it has sold 492 @,@ 000 units .
= = Reception = =
Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines received a mixed response , with reviewers praising its writing and presentation and criticizing its technical problems . The aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic give it a score of 81 % ( based on 68 reviews ) and 80 out of 100 ( based on 61 reviews ) , respectively .
The game has been called a flawed masterpiece . The scale and variety of choice and effect was highlighted by reviewers as Bloodlines ' greatest success , including the variety of clans , with specific dialog options , and the specific reactions from other characters , each with their own clan loyalty and bias . GameSpy called it a nearly flawless classic role @-@ playing game ; the The New York Times described it as brilliant but unfinished . Eurogamer praised its " effortlessly intelligent " script , saying that " no other game has come close . Nothing 's even tried " . VideoGamer.com opined that at its best , Bloodlines stands among the greatest RPGs of the preceding five years , although its technical problems should be remembered . According to HonestGamers , the game " may not be polished and may end with a sigh instead of a shout , but for its ambition alone it deserves stream after stream of compliments . " Reviewers compared it to other successful role @-@ playing games , including Fallout , Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic , The Elder Scrolls III : Morrowind , Planescape : Torment , Baldur 's Gate II , and Deus Ex ; Eurogamer described Bloodlines as Deus Ex with vampires .
IGN appreciated Bloodlines ' rewarding exploration outside the main story , and the New York Times and GameSpy praised its " wonderfully imaginative " missions . Reviewers noted that later parts of the game were disappointing , delivering repetitive combat @-@ focused missions with regenerating enemies , abandoning dialog and stealth and punishing players who build characters with more social skills than combat abilities . GameSpy said that it had never seen a role @-@ playing game so affected by player actions with everything , from clan choice and character build to actions in missions , influencing future options and dialog .
Its writing was consistently praised by reviewers . The narrative was considered deep , successfully using White Wolf 's Vampire : The Masquerade content . Eurogamer said it had the best script the website had ever seen in a video game , and others described it as a superbly crafted tale of conspiracies , underworld subterfuge , fun and intrigue . Reviewers appreciated the use of adult themes , such as sex and death , in the storyline of a contemporary video game which no other games had tackled with similar effectiveness . The mature themes succeeded without being gratuitous or exploitative , and were explored honestly and intelligently by a knowledgeable writer . The game 's characters were praised for their memorable , developed personalities , with most major characters possessing their own backstory and presented as living people instead of ciphers . Its ending had a mixed response , with some reviewers appreciating their ability to choose one of the game 's four endings ( adding an incentive to replay the game ) and others considering the ending anti @-@ climatic .
GameSpot and GameSpy called the dialog was sharply written , with many memorable lines . Eurogamer noted that the characters ' frequent use of vulgar language worked ; written as real people , such language fit their character rather than giving the game an adult veneer . The website appreciated the breadth of dialog options , allowing the player greater control of how to play their character . PC Zone opined that the quantity of well written dialog did not guarantee quality ; many player choices seemed to have little effect on a conversation 's outcome , and the best response was often the most obvious . The voice acting was repeatedly praised for the actors ' quality and the amount of voice work , due to the many dialog options .
Much of Bloodlines ' criticism focused on technical problems when it was released , undermining the game experience or making it unplayable . Several reviewers noted errors which closed the game and typographical errors in on @-@ screen text . Others cited frequent , sometimes @-@ lengthy load times encounted while moving between hubs and entering or exiting buildings and areas . GameSpot called the game 's artificial intelligence poor , often causing enemies to rush at an armed player , fire at them from too great a distance to be effective or become immobilized while waiting for the player 's next attack . IGN noted that stealth broke the AI , allowing traps to be triggered and leaving the assailants standing still , unable to locate a hidden player . GameSpy said that the Source engine was Bloodlines ' greatest weakness ; although the RPG aspects were the game 's strong suit , features of the Source engine , such as first @-@ person shooting , were where it stumbled .
Combat was also criticized . Reviewers called it poor , clumsy , and unsatisfactory , complaining that Bloodlines favors melee combat ; firearms were weak , unwieldy and slow , even for characters specializing in guns . PC Zone , however , called the first @-@ person shooting entertaining and challenging . Although melee combat was criticized as sluggish and difficult due to enemy attacks interrupting the player 's , reviewers considered it overpowered ; according to GameSpot , a boss character was killed with melee weapons on a first attempt after the repeated failure to do so with a gun . The New York Times found the unavoidable combat in the last part of the game to be so difficult that they had to cheat to succeed . Stealth was criticized , with IGN noting that even with low stealth skill it was possible to sneak around many enemies and feed from a guard without alerting another guard next to them . GameSpot opined that some of the best missions were stealth @-@ based , as combat was more straightforward .
= = = Accolades = = =
In 2004 , IGN named Bloodlines the Best PC RPG of that year and GameSpy called the " Ocean House Hotel " quest the Level of the Year . In 2005 , Computer Gaming World called it the Role Playing Game of 2004 , saying that it offered " a deep , balanced character creation system , a truckload of interesting quests , a good story and great NPCs to interact with . " In 2006 , PC Zone listed Bloodlines the seventh @-@ best PC game which people were unlikely to have played , calling it the " best buggy game ever released " . In 2007 , the game was 80th on Computer & Video Games ' list of its top 100 games , and 86th on PC Gamer 's 2014 list of the same , moving to 63rd in PC Gamer 's 2015 edition . In 2011 , Rock , Paper , Shotgun called Bloodlines one of the most important PC games of all time ( " it signposts a direction to a future of games that we were denied " ) , listing it as one of the 122 Best PC Games Ever . Cinema Blend called it one of the most underappreciated games of the decade . In 2011 , Official Xbox Magazine called it one of the ten PC franchises it wanted on the Xbox 360 console . In 2013 , PC Gamer named it one of the 100 Best Horror Games on PC , and PCGamesN called it the seventh @-@ best PC role @-@ playing game . In 2014 , Bloodlines was 90th in Empire 's readers ' poll of the 100 Greatest Video Games of All Time , and Maximum PC chose it as one of the games they wanted to be remastered for contemporary game systems . In 2015 , Rock , Paper , Shotgun listed Bloodlines as the PC 's 19th Best RPG and 15th Best Horror Game .
Retrospective critiques continue to praise the game 's narrative and degree of choice . In 2009 , an article in Rock , Paper , Shotgun declared : " The sense of sorrow comes from the realisation that there 's nothing like [ Bloodlines ] on the horizon ... why should there be so few games like this ? Oh right , because it 's so very hard to do ... the lack of games comparable to Bloodlines is one of the great tragedies of our time . " Eurogamer called the game inspirational , with an unmatched level of narrative detail . In 2010 , The Escapist called Bloodlines a flawed masterpiece which could have been a genuine masterpiece with more time , money and staff ; although great games may inspire awe , it instead created a devoted fan base which continued to develop the game . Bloodlines is considered a cult classic .
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= Won 't Get Fooled Again =
" Won 't Get Fooled Again " is a song by the English rock band The Who , written by Pete Townshend . It was released as a single in June 1971 , reaching the top 10 in the UK , while the full eight @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute version appears as the final track on the band 's 1971 album Who 's Next , released that August .
Townshend wrote the song as a closing number of the Lifehouse project , and the lyrics criticise revolution and power . To symbolise the spiritual connection he had found in music via the works of Meher Baba and Inayat Khan , he programmed a mixture of human traits into a synthesizer and used it as the main backing instrument throughout the song . The Who tried recording the song in New York in March 1971 , but re @-@ recorded a superior take at Stargroves the next month using the synthesizer from Townshend 's original demo . Ultimately , Lifehouse as a project was abandoned in favour of Who 's Next , a straightforward album , where it also became the closing track . The song has been performed as a staple of the band 's setlist since 1971 , often as the set closer , and was the last track drummer Keith Moon played live with the band .
As well as a hit , the song has achieved critical praise , appearing as one of Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . It has been covered by several artists , such as Van Halen who took their version to No. 1 on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart . It has been used for several TV shows and films , and in some political campaigns .
= = Background = =
The song was originally intended for a rock opera Townshend had been working on , Lifehouse , which was a multi @-@ media exercise based on his followings of the Indian religious avatar Meher Baba , showing how spiritual enlightenment could be obtained via a combination of band and audience . The song was written for the end of the opera , after the main character , Bobby , is killed and the " universal chord " is sounded . The main characters disappear , leaving behind the government and army , who are left to bully each other . Townshend described the song as one " that screams defiance at those who feel any cause is better than no cause " . He later said that the song was not strictly anti @-@ revolution despite the lyric " We 'll be fighting in the streets " , but stressed that revolution could be unpredictable , adding , " Don 't expect to see what you expect to see . Expect nothing and you might gain everything . " Bassist John Entwistle later said that the song showed Townshend " saying things that really mattered to him , and saying them for the first time . "
Townshend had been reading Universal Sufism founder Inayat Khan 's The Mysticism of Sound and Music , which referred to spiritual harmony and the universal chord , which would restore harmony to humanity when sounded . Townshend realised that the newly emerging synthesizers would allow him to communicate these ideas to a mass audience . He had met the BBC Radiophonic Workshop which gave him ideas for capturing human personality within music . Townshend interviewed several people with general practitioner @-@ style questions , and captured their heartbeat , brainwaves and astrological charts , converting the result into a series of audio pulses . For the demo of " Won 't Get Fooled Again " , he linked a Lowrey organ into a EMS VCS 3 filter that played back the pulse @-@ coded modulations from his experiments . He subsequently upgraded to an ARP 2500 . The synthesizer did not play any sounds directly as it was monophonic ; instead it modified the block chords on the organ as an input signal . The demo was completed by Townshend overdubbing drums , bass , electric guitar , vocals and handclaps . Overall , the song ran at a slower pace to the version later recorded by the Who .
= = Recording = =
The Who 's first attempt to record the song was at the Record Plant on W 44 Street , New York City , on 16 March 1971 . Manager Kit Lambert had recommended the studio to the group , which led to his producer credit , though the de facto work was done by Felix Pappalardi . This take featured Pappalardi 's Mountain band mate , Leslie West , on lead guitar .
Lambert proved to be unable to mix the track , and a fresh attempt at recording was made at the start of April at Mick Jagger 's house , Stargroves , using the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio . Glyn Johns was invited to help with production , and he decided to re @-@ use the synthesized organ track from Townshend 's original demo , as the re @-@ recording of the part in New York was felt to be inferior to the original . Keith Moon had to carefully synchronise his drum playing with the synthesizer , while Townshend and Entwistle played electric guitar and bass . Townshend played a 1959 Gretsch 6120 Chet Atkins hollow body guitar fed through an Edwards volume pedal to a Fender Bandmaster amp , all of which he had been given by Joe Walsh while in New York . This combination became his main electric guitar recording setup for subsequent albums . Although intended as a demo recording , the end result sounded so good to the band and Johns , they decided to use it as the final take . Overdubs , including an acoustic guitar part played by Townshend , were recorded at Olympic Studios at the end of April . The track was mixed at Island Studios by Johns on 28 May . After Lifehouse was abandoned as a project , Johns felt " Won 't Get Fooled Again " , along with other songs , were so good that they could simply be released as a standalone single album , which became Who 's Next .
= = Release = =
" Won 't Get Fooled Again " was first released as a single A @-@ side on 25 June 1971 , edited down to 3 : 35 . It replaced " Behind Blue Eyes " as the choice of single as the group felt it didn 't fit the Who 's established musical style . It was released on 17 July in the US . The B @-@ side , " I Don 't Even Know Myself " was recorded at Eel Pie Studios in 1970 for a planned EP that was never released . The single reached No. 9 in the UK charts and No. 15 in the US . Initial publicity material showed an abandoned cover of Who 's Next featuring Moon dressed in drag and brandishing a whip .
The full @-@ length version of the song appeared as the closing track of Who 's Next , released on 14 August in the US and 27 August in the UK , where it topped the album charts . " Won 't Get Fooled Again " drew strong praise from critics , who were impressed that a synthesizer had managed to be integrated so successfully within a rock song . Who author Dave Marsh described singer Roger Daltrey 's scream near the end of the track as " the greatest scream of a career filled with screams " . In 2011 , the song was ranked number 134 on Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time .
= = Live performances = =
The Who first performed the song live at the opening date of a series of Lifehouse related concerts in the Young Vic theatre , London on 14 February 1971 . It has subsequently been part of every Who concert since , often as the set closer and sometimes extended slightly to allow Townshend to smash his guitar or Moon to kick over his drumkit . The group performed live over the synthesizer part being played on a backing tape , which required Moon to wear headphones to play in sync with it . It was the last track Moon played live in front of a paying audience on 21 October 1976 and the last song he ever played with the Who at Shepperton Studios on 25 May 1978 , which was captured on the documentary film The Kids Are Alright . The song was part of the Who 's set at Live Aid in 1985 , Live 8 in 2005 , T4 on the Beach in 2008 and Capital FM 's Summertime Ball concert in 2009 , 2010 and 2015 and the radio station 's Jingle Bell Ball concerts in 2009 and 2015 .
In October 2001 , The Who performed the song at The Concert for New York City to help raise funds for the families of firemen and police officers killed during the 9 / 11 attacks . They finished their set with ' Won 't Get Fooled Again ' to a responsive and emotional audience , with close @-@ up aerial video footage of the World Trade Center buildings playing behind them on a huge digital screen . In February 2010 , the group closed their set during the halftime show of Super Bowl XLIV with this song . While the Who have continued to play the song live , Townshend has expressed mixed feelings for it , alternating between pride and embarrassment in interviews . Who biographer John Atkins described the track as " the quintessential Who 's Next track but not necessarily the best . "
Several live and alternative versions of the song have been released on CD or DVD . In 2003 , a deluxe version of Who 's Next was reissued to include the Record Plant recording of the track from March 1971 and a live version recorded at the Young Vic on 26 April 1971 . The song is also included on the album Live at the Royal Albert Hall , from a 2000 show with Noel Gallagher guesting .
Daltrey , Entwistle and Townshend have each performed the song at solo concerts . Townshend has re @-@ arranged the song for solo performance on acoustic guitar . On 30 June 1979 , he performed a duet of the song with classical guitarist John Williams for the 1979 Amnesty International benefit The Secret Policeman 's Ball .
= = Cover versions = =
The song was first covered in a distinctive soul style by Labelle on their 1972 album Moon Shadow . Van Halen began covering the song in concert in 1993 . Eddie Van Halen re @-@ arranged the track so that the synthesizer part was played on the guitar . A live recording was released on Live : Right Here , Right Now , and made it to number one on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart .
Both Axel Rudi Pell ( on Diamonds Unlocked ) and Hayseed Dixie ( on Killer Grass ) covered the song in their established styles of metal and bluegrass respectively . Richie Havens covered the track on his 2008 album , " Nobody Left to Crown " , playing the song at a slower tempo to the original .
= = Other uses = =
The original Who recording has been used in politics on several occasions . In an April 2006 editorial for Time magazine , retired United States Marine Corps Lieutenant General Greg Newbold referenced the song , labeling it an " antiwar anthem " that " conveyed a sense of betrayal by the nation 's leaders , who had led our country into a costly and unnecessary war in Vietnam . " In 2014 , the British Government ran an advertisement for superfast broadband using the song as its theme music .
Townshend has taken an interest in licensing the Who 's work to media and advertising , and " Won 't Get Fooled Again " has made several appearances on TV and film . A portion of the song has been used as the opening theme for the CBS series CSI : Miami , while a cover version of the track was played on The Simpsons ' " A Tale of Two Springfields " which featured the Who as special guests . However , Townshend refused permission for director Michael Moore to play the song over the closing credits of Fahrenheit 9 / 11 , as he was suspicious of Moore 's journalistic credentials and did not want his work to be associated with a possibly inaccurate film . Townshend later said " [ o ] nce I had an idea what the film was about , I was 90 % certain my song was not right for them . " In response Moore accused Townshend of supporting the Iraq War , which Townshend denied .
The Tampa Bay Lightning use the song as their entrance music .
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
Roger Daltrey : vocals
Pete Townshend : acoustic and electric guitars , synthesized organ ( ARP 2500 , EMS VCS 3 ) and backing vocals
John Entwistle : bass guitar
Keith Moon : drums
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= Homer at the Bat =
" Homer at the Bat " is the seventeenth episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 20 , 1992 . The episode follows the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant softball team , led by Homer , having a winning season and making the championship game . Mr. Burns makes a large bet that the team will win and brings in nine ringers from the " big leagues " to ensure his success . It was written by John Swartzwelder , who is a big baseball fan , and directed by Jim Reardon .
Roger Clemens , Wade Boggs , Ken Griffey , Jr . , Steve Sax , Ozzie Smith , José Canseco , Don Mattingly , Darryl Strawberry and Mike Scioscia all guest starred as themselves , playing the ringers hired by Mr. Burns . Terry Cashman sang a song over the end credits . The guest stars were recorded over several months , with differing degrees of cooperation . The episode is often named among the show 's best , and was the first to beat The Cosby Show in the ratings on its original airing . In 2014 , showrunner Al Jean selected it as one of five essential episodes in the show 's history .
= = Plot = =
It is softball season in Springfield and many of the workers at Springfield Nuclear Power Plant are reluctant to sign up for the Power Plant team due to their previous unsuccessful year . Homer reveals that he has a secret weapon , a homemade bat named " Wonder Bat " and his co @-@ workers eagerly join the team . Thanks in large part to Homer , the team goes through its season undefeated and earns the right to play in the championship game against the Shelbyville Nuclear Power Plant .
Mr. Burns makes a million dollar bet with Aristotle Amadopoulos , owner of the Shelbyville plant , that his team will win . To secure victory in the game , Mr. Burns decides to hire major league stars and assembles a team that includes Shoeless Joe Jackson , Pie Traynor , Harry Hooper , Honus Wagner , Cap Anson , Nap Lajoie , Gabby Street , Mordecai " Three Finger " Brown , and Jim Creighton ( the last of whom had been dead for 130 years ) . Waylon Smithers informs Mr. Burns that the players he picked have all retired and died , and so Mr. Burns changes tactics and orders Smithers to find some current superstar players . He hires nine Major League Baseball players — Roger Clemens , Wade Boggs , Ken Griffey , Jr . , Steve Sax , Ozzie Smith , Jose Canseco , Don Mattingly , Darryl Strawberry and Mike Scioscia — and gives them token jobs at the plant so that they can play on the team , much to the dismay of the plant workers who got the team to the championship game in the first place .
Mr Burns hires a hypnotist to train the team , and they all mouth back his words ( such as ' You will beat Shelbyville ' ) in unison ( ' We will beat Shelbyville ' ) until the hypnotist says ' You will give 110 % ' , at which point the team mouth back , still in perfect unison , ' That 's impossible . No one can give more than 100 % . By definition , that is the most anyone can give ' .
However , before the game , eight of the nine all @-@ star players suffer unrelated misfortunes that prevent them from playing : Clemens suddenly behaves like a chicken due to the hypnotist 's incompetence , Boggs is knocked unconscious by Barney after a bizarre argument at Moe 's Tavern ( over who was England 's greatest Prime Minister , Lord Palmerston or Pitt the Elder ) , Griffey , Jr. takes an overdose of nerve tonic , resulting in an extreme case of gigantism , Sax is arrested and put in jail for every unsolved murder in New York City , Smith disappears in the " Springfield mystery spot " , Canseco is too busy rescuing a woman and her possessions from a fire , Mattingly is kicked off the team by Mr. Burns due to sideburns only he can see , and Scioscia is hospitalized due to radiation poisoning from the plant , having taken his token job all too seriously . Mr. Burns is forced to use his original employees , along with Strawberry , the only star who can play . He made a speech that he knows that his team hated him for what he did to them and he tells them to win . Homer remains on the bench as Strawberry plays his position .
With the score tied and bases loaded with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning , Mr. Burns elects to field a right @-@ handed hitter against a left @-@ handed pitcher and pinch hits Homer for Strawberry . The very first pitch hits Homer in the head , rendering him unconscious , but forcing in the winning run . The team wins the title and Homer , still unconscious , is paraded as a hero . Smithers holds the trophy . Mr. Burns thinks about it . Homer lying on the ground .
= = Production = =
" Homer at the Bat " took a long time to produce . It was written by John Swartzwelder , who is a big baseball fan , but was suggested by Sam Simon , who wanted an episode filled with real Major League Baseball players . Executive producers Al Jean and Mike Reiss doubted that they would be able to get nine players , thinking that they would be able to get three at best . However , they succeeded , and the nine players who agreed to guest star were recorded over a period of six months , whenever they were playing the Los Angeles Dodgers or California Angels . Each player recorded their part in roughly five minutes and spent the next hour writing autographs for the staff . In several cases , the writers were unable to get the player who was their first choice . Two of the players who turned down the chance to guest star were Ryne Sandberg and Carlton Fisk .
All of the players were cooperative except for Jose Canseco , who was intimidating . He disliked his original part and insisted it be rewritten , and the writers grudgingly made him as heroic as possible . He was originally slated to wake up in bed with Edna Krabappel and miss the game , but Canseco 's then @-@ wife , Esther Haddad , objected . He disliked his caricature , stating that " the animation looked nothing like [ him ] , " but that he found the acting was very easy . When asked in 2007 about his part by the San Jose Mercury News , he responded , " that was 100 years ago , " hung up the phone and did not answer any of the paper 's subsequent calls for an interview about his guest spot .
Ken Griffey , Jr. did not understand his line " there 's a party in my mouth and everyone 's invited " and got quite frustrated when he was recording it . He was directed by Mike Reiss , and his father Ken Griffey , Sr. was also present , trying to coach his son . Roger Clemens , who made his own chicken noises , was directed by Jeff Martin , as was Wade Boggs . Mike Reiss directed most of the other players . Mike Scioscia accepted his guest spot in " half a second , " while Ozzie Smith has stated that he would like to guest star again " so [ he ] can get out [ of the Springfield Mystery spot ] . " Don Mattingly , who was forced to shave off his " sideburns " by Mr. Burns during the episode , would later have an actual " haircut controversy " , while he was playing for the New York Yankees . The coaching staff forced him to cut his long hair , and was briefly dropped from the team line @-@ up for not doing so . Many people believed the joke in the episode to be a reference to the incident , but " Homer at the Bat " was recorded a year before it happened . Many of the guest stars , including Terry Cashman , Wade Boggs and Darryl Strawberry all admit that they are more well known because of their appearance in the episode , Cashman having " Talkin ' Softball " requested more often than " Talkin ' Baseball " .
One of the hardest pieces of editing was the hypnotist segment , which featured several of the guest stars speaking in unison . It was difficult because the parts were recorded over a period of several months and thus it was hard to sync their voices . Rich Moore was originally intended to direct the episode , but as he did not know anything about baseball he was switched with Jim Reardon , who was a baseball fan . Moore was given the episode " Lisa the Greek " instead . Many of the player designs were difficult , because the animators had a hard time designing real world people during the early years .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode makes several allusions to the film The Natural . Homer 's secret weapon , his self @-@ created " Wonderbat " , is akin to Roy Hobbs 's " Wonderboy " , and both bats are eventually destroyed . The scene featuring the explosion of stadium lights as Homer circles the basepaths is also taken directly from the film . The end song " Talkin ' Softball " is a parody of " Talkin ' Baseball " by Terry Cashman . Jeff Martin wrote the new version of the song , but Cashman was brought in to sing it . The scenes of the Power Plant team traveling from city to city by train , overlaid with the pennant of the city they are going to , is a reference to the 1942 film The Pride of the Yankees . Carl batting with a piano leg is a reference to Norm Cash of the Detroit Tigers , who once tried to bat with a table leg in a game where Nolan Ryan was extremely overpowering and threw a no @-@ hitter . The episode 's title references " Casey at the Bat " .
= = Reception = =
During the previous season , Fox had put The Simpsons in a timeslot that meant it was in direct competition with The Cosby Show , which won the timeslot every time . " Homer at the Bat " had a 15 @.@ 9 rating and 23 % share to win its timeslot while The Cosby Show had a 13 @.@ 2 rating and 20 % share . This was the first time that a new Simpsons episode beat a new Cosby Show episode . Former executive producer Sam Simon and current showrunner Al Jean named it as their favorite episode . Regular cast members Harry Shearer and Julie Kavner disliked the episode because of its focus on the guest stars and its surreal tone . They were particularly annoyed by the Mattingly sideburns joke .
Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , praised the episode , calling it " a great episode because the accidents that befall the pro players are so funny . " Chris Turner , the author of the book Planet Simpson , said that the episode was the indication that " the Golden Age [ of the show ] had arrived . " Nate Meyers gave the episode four and a half out of five , stating " the script makes great use of the baseball superstars , giving each of them a strong personality and plenty of pep ( the highlight has to be Mattingly 's clash with Mr. Burns ) . " Colin Jacobson disliked the episode : " when [ " Homer at the Bat " ] originally aired , I didn 't like it . While I 've warmed up to the show slightly over the last decade , I still think it 's generally weak , and I 'd definitely pick it as Season Three 's worst . "
Entertainment Weekly placed the episode fifteenth on their top 25 The Simpsons episodes list , noting it was " early proof that The Simpsons could juggle a squad of guest stars without giving the family short shrift . " It was placed third on AskMen.com 's " Top 10 : Simpsons Episodes " list , Rich Weir called it " one of the show 's more memorable moments " and " effective as it combines a slew of guest stars with some hilarious material for Homer . " The entire episode was placed first on ESPN.com 's list of the " Top 100 Simpsons sport moments " , released in 2004 . Greg Collins , the author of the list , gave great praise of the episode . He stated that this is the " king of all sports episodes , and perhaps the greatest Simpsons episode ever . " A friend of Collins later met guest star Mike Scioscia and told him that he thought his guest spot was the best thing Scioscia had ever done , he responded " Thanks , I think " . Eric Reinagel , Brian Moritz and John Hill of Press & Sun @-@ Bulletin named the episode the fourth best in the show 's history , and a journalist for The Toronto Star named Homer 's conversation with Darryl Strawberry as the " greatest conversation of all time , involving the word yes " .
IGN.com ranked the baseballers ' performances as the seventeenth best guest appearance in the show 's history , calling " each of these appearances was hilarious , making this a classic episode . " The Phoenix.com praised the performances of each of the guest stars , but Darryl Strawberry , whom they put in the fifth position , was the only one to make their " Top 20 guest stars " list .
= = Impact = =
The episode has been credited with helping to save several lives . During the scene in which Homer chokes on a donut , a poster explaining how the Heimlich maneuver works is on the wall behind him . In May 1992 , Chris Bencze was able to save his brother 's life by performing the Heimlich Maneuver on him , having seen it in the episode , and in December 2007 Aiden Bateman was able to save his friend Alex Hardy 's life by recalling the same .
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= Ottoman cruiser Berk @-@ i Satvet =
Berk @-@ i Satvet was a torpedo cruiser of the Ottoman Navy , the second and final member of the Peyk @-@ i Şevket class . She was built by the Germaniawerft shipyard in Germany in 1906 – 07 , and was delivered to the Ottoman Navy in November 1907 . The ship 's primary armament consisted of three 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes and a pair of 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns , and she was capable of a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . The ship 's early career was uneventful ; the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 passed without any action of the Ottoman fleet . Berk @-@ i Satvet saw action during the Balkan Wars of 1912 – 13 in the Aegean and Black Seas , against Greek and Bulgarian opponents , respectively .
After the Ottoman Empire entered World War I , Berk @-@ i Satvet was employed in patrols in the Black Sea . These included attacks on Russian ports with the ex @-@ German warships Yavuz Sultan Selim and Midilli . In January 1915 , Berk @-@ i Satvet struck a naval mine while escorting a convoy to Zonguldak ; the explosion severely damaged the ship and kept her out of service until April 1918 . For the remainder of the war , she patrolled the Black Sea . The ship was renamed Berk in 1923 and modernized twice , in the mid @-@ 1920s and in the late @-@ 1930s . She remained in service until 1944 , when she was stricken from the naval register . Berk was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1953 – 55 .
= = Design = =
Berk @-@ i Satvet , classified as a torpedo cruiser by the Ottoman Navy , was also sometimes referred to as a torpedo gunboat . She was 80 m ( 260 ft ) long , with a beam of 8 @.@ 4 m ( 28 ft ) and a draft of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft 2 in ) . She displaced 775 t ( 763 long tons ; 854 short tons ) while on sea trials . The ship was powered by a pair of vertical triple @-@ expansion engines each driving a screw propeller . The engines were rated at 5 @,@ 100 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 800 kW ) for a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) ; Berk @-@ i Satvet had a cruising radius of 3 @,@ 240 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 000 km ; 3 @,@ 730 mi ) . Her crew numbered 105 officers and enlisted men .
Berk @-@ i Satvet 's primary offensive armament was her three 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . One was mounted in the bow , above water , and the other two were in deck @-@ mounted swivel launchers amidships . She was armed with a pair of 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns that were placed in shielded single mounts on the forecastle and quarterdeck . She also carried six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns , four of which were mounted in sponsons , and a pair of 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . She had no armor protection .
= = Service history = =
Berk @-@ i Satvet was ordered on 18 January 1903 and laid down down in February 1906 at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel , Germany . She was launched on 1 December of that year , and completed in 1907 . After completing sea trials , she was transferred to the Ottoman Navy , arriving in Constantinople on 13 November , where she was formally commissioned into the Ottoman fleet . In 1909 , she and her sister participated in the first fleet maneuver conducted by the Ottoman Navy in twenty years . During the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , Berk @-@ i Satvet was assigned to the Reserve Division , which was centered on the elderly ironclads Mesudiye and Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik . She did not see action during the conflict , since the Ottoman fleet spent the war in port .
= = = Balkan Wars = = =
Berk @-@ i Satvet was transferred to the Black Sea on 9 December 1912 , to reinforce the squadron there during the First Balkan War . On 4 February 1913 , Berk @-@ i Satvet bombarded Bulgarian positions at Şarköy on the northern coast of the Sea of Marmara in preparation for an amphibious assault . Four days later , the Ottoman navy returned to support the landing at Şarköy . Turgut Reis and Barbaros Hayreddin , along with two small cruisers provided artillery support to the right flank of the invading force once it went ashore . The ships were positioned about one kilometer off shore , with Berk @-@ i Satvet leading the line , which also included the cruiser Mecidiye and the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis . The Bulgarian army resisted fiercely , which ultimately forced the Ottoman army to retreat , though the withdrawal was successful in large part due to the gunfire support from the fleet . Berk @-@ i Satvet and Mecidiye covered the left flank while the two battleships supported the left during the evacuation . In the course of the operation , Berk @-@ i Satvet had fired eighty @-@ four 105 mm shells .
On 9 March , Berk @-@ i Satvet joined a sweep toward Imbros , an island in the Aegean Sea at the entrance to the Gulf of Saros ; she briefly engaged a pair of Greek destroyers and stopped a steamer flying under the French flag . The vessel , which appeared to be supplying Bulgarian forces , was taken as a prize by the destroyer Yahisar . Later in March , she again escorted Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis in the Black Sea , while the two battleships bombarded Bulgarian troops that were attempting to breach the line of defenses at Çatalca . On 13 April , Berk @-@ i Satvet joined a fleet consisting of Barbaros Hayreddin , Turgut Reis , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik , and several smaller warships . The ships sortied out of the Dardanelles and encountered a Greek fleet . After a brief engagement at extreme range , the Ottomans and Greeks withdrew to the Dardanelles and Imbros , respectively .
= = = World War I = = =
In late July 1914 , World War I broke out in Europe , though the Ottomans initially remained neutral . On 14 August , Berk @-@ i Satvet joined patrols of the Dardanelles , the defenses of which were strengthened with several new minefields . Tensions between the Ottomans and a British fleet patrolling the entrance to the Dardanelles increased until 5 November , when Britain and France declared war on the Ottoman Empire . In the meantime , Berk @-@ i Satvet had been transferred to the Black Sea . She joined the cruiser Midilli , formerly the German Breslau , for an attack on the Russian port of Novorossiysk on 29 October . Berk @-@ i Satvet embarked on another attack , this time with the battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim , formerly the German Goeben . The battlecruiser shelled Sevastopol while Berk @-@ i Satvet observed ; she had been sent with Yavuz Sultan Selim primarily to train her crew .
Berk @-@ i Satvet sortied with her sister and Yavuz Sultan Selim on 5 December to provide distant support to a troop convoy headed to Rize . On 2 January 1915 at 15 : 00 , she , Midilli , and the cruiser Hamidiye steamed out of the Bosporus to escort a transport to Zonguldak , after which the three cruisers are to conduct a patrol off the port . At 18 : 00 into the voyage , a Russian mine exploded , which led Berk @-@ i Satvet 's commander to take evasive action . The ship struck a mine in the darkness , which caused significant damage . The mine destroyed both of her propellers and caused serious flooding at her stern . Two tugs arrived and towed Berk @-@ i Satvet to İstinye with Hamidiye as an escort . The damage was so severe that the ship was disabled for most of the war . After lengthy repairs , the ship was recommissioned on 1 April 1918 and patrols between Constantinople and Batumi . She remained in the Black Sea through the end of the war . On 30 November , the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros with the Entente powers , which concluded the conflict .
= = = Later career = = =
The ship was renamed Berk in 1923 following the end of the Turkish War of Independence , which saw the Republic of Turkey replace the old Ottoman Empire . At the time , the ship had been placed out of service . From 1924 to 1925 , she was modernized at the Gölcük Naval Shipyard and was recommissioned in 1925 . In 1927 , the ship visited İzmir . She was rebuilt in 1937 – 39 and incorporated substantial improvements . Her stem was replaced and her superstructure was rebuilt . The old gun armament was replaced with a pair of 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns and four 37 mm 40 @-@ caliber guns , and equipment to handle 25 mines was installed . The ship continued in service until 1944 , when she was stricken from the naval register . She was hulked at the Gölcük shipyard in 1950 , and broken up for scrap between 1953 and 1955 .
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= Ohio State Route 607 =
State Route 607 ( SR 607 ) is a north – south highway near McConnelsville , Ohio . The route starts at SR 60 and travels north to its terminus at SR 78 , all located inside Morgan County . SR 607 was designated in 2011 , after Monastery Road was transferred from township @-@ maintenance to state @-@ maintenance . The road was then repaved and realigned in 2012 , and became signed on July 25 , 2013 . The route opened to the public on the next day .
= = Route description = =
All of SR 607 is located in central Morgan County , Ohio . The state route starts at the intersection of SR 60 near McConnelsville . SR 607 travels north for the majority of the length . SR 607 passes near an Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) county garage near the beginning of the road . Halfway through the route , SR 607 meets Township Road 696 in a T @-@ intersection , where the route moves slightly westward . After that , there is an Ohio Army National Guard training site at Hawk Drive . The route keeps moving north until it ends at SR 78 at another T @-@ intersection . The route goes through mostly forests and small hills . In 2012 , ODOT calculated 1 @,@ 975 vehicles traveling south of McGovern Lane . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . No part of SR 607 is included within the National Highway System , a system of routes deemed most important for the economy , defense and mobility of the country .
= = History = =
Planning of Monastery Road ( Township Road 209 ) improvements began in 2003 . At that time , $ 3 @.@ 8 million in state funding was set aside for the project , but the Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) did not receive the money until 2005 . By 2007 , most of the earmarked money was spent on preliminary engineering and planning . Without the money , Morgan Township officials could not afford to upgrade the road , and ODOT was barred from spending money on local roads . In 2011 , deputy director Steve Williams devised a new plan that made the township road a state route , and Morgan Township officials transferred the road to ODOT .
Monastery Road was closed 0 @.@ 7 mi ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) north of SR 60 , and 0 @.@ 4 mi ( 0 @.@ 64 km ) south of SR 78 in April 2012 , for nine months . The road was realigned and resurfaced , and it cost around $ 1 @.@ 5 million . The road was also widened at the northern terminus with SR 78 , and the southern terminus with SR 60 . On July 25 , 2013 , ODOT erected state route signs on the road . The next day , Williams announced the upgrade of Monastery Road to State Route 607 and reopened the road .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Morgan Township , Morgan County .
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= SK Ull =
Skiklubben Ull was a Norwegian Nordic skiing club based in Oslo . Founded in 1883 , Skiklubben Ull attracted several skilled sportsmen who between 1883 and 1891 won six Ladies ' Cups and one King 's Cup in national skiing events . The sporting facilities belonging the club were located in Vestre Aker , with the ski jumping hill Ullbakken near Frognerseteren being opened in 1884 . The prestigious Husebyrennet was staged there once . Members of SK Ull were later instrumental in moving this prestigious contest to the hill Holmenkollbakken .
Club members also held important positions in the general administration of skiing in Norway . The first Ull chairman Johan Bechholm was also the first secretary of the Association for the Promotion of Skiing ; Karl Roll became the first chairman of the Norwegian Ski Federation , Hjalmar Krag became chairman in the Confederation of Sports and Fritz R. Huitfeldt was a pioneer in several respects .
The club was founded by students and its membership later drew from the upper social strata . During the first ten years of club history , forty @-@ four of the sixty members admitted into the club belonged to one of four prestigious professions ; physician , military officer , jurist or engineer . The club was furthermore exclusive , in that it only had 119 members during its first 100 years of existence . In 1893 the club raised its own cabin , thus grouping it together with other so @-@ called " cabin ski clubs " such as Christiania SK . SK Ull eventually evolved from a skiing club to a social club in a skiing setting , using the old cabin for member meetings , which were also visited by the King of Norway .
= = The most active sporting period , 1883 – 1898 = =
Skiklubben Ull was founded on 29 January 1883 , and named after the Norse deity Ullr . In Norse mythology , Ullr was a god for hunting and competition , superior with his skis and his bow . SK Ull has been credited as being the second @-@ oldest skiing club in the world , after Christiania SK . The club founders were a group of university students who socialized in apartments in Wessels gate . The young men usually conversed about their studies or played card games , but they were also hobby cross @-@ country skiers , and decided to take up skiing in a more organized form by starting a club . The term describing a club member was ullaner .
The founding members were Thoralf Fabritius , Paul Lorck , Petter Dahl Thams , Andreas Bechholm , Johan Bechholm , Otto Dahl , Sigurd Gotaas and Michael Strøm Lie . New members were allowed every year until 1887 , after which new members were usually admitted biannually , in 1889 , 1891 , 1893 , 1895 , 1896 and 1897 . Notable members who joined the club shortly after the foundation include Fritz R. Huitfeldt , Henrik Florentz , Hans Grüner , Marius Grüner and Stefan Meidell . The first chairman was Johan Bechholm , followed by Sigurd Gotaas from 1885 and Fritz R. Huitfeldt from 1887 to 1891 . The three honorary memberships proclaimed in the early period were Fritz R. Huitfeldt ( 1883 ) , Hans Grüner ( 1884 ) and Axel Huitfeldt ( 1889 ) .
The club saw sporting success on the national level ( international competitions were few or none ) in its first years . Johan Bechholm finished eleventh and won the Ladies ' Cup in Husebyrennet of 1883 . In 1884 Ingvald M. Smith @-@ Kielland , Sr. won the Ladies ' Cup and Richard Blichfeldt won the King 's Cup . Vilhelm Nicolaysen finished fourth and won the Ladies ' Cup in 1886 , Karl Roll won the Ladies ' Cup in 1889 , Vilhelm Heiberg in 1890 and Otto Orre in 1891 .
Ull maintained its own ski jumping hill , Ullbakken , near Frognerseteren in Vestre Aker . It was opened in 1884 with a festive ski jumping contest , attended by Prince Eugen of Norway and Sweden . Ullbakken was the site of Husebyrennet in 1890 , when Kastellbakken was unusable . The dinner after this race was attended by Crown Prince Gustaf of Norway and Sweden . Karl Roll had an especially close relationship with the Swedish royal family , being a ski tutor for the princes while stationed in Stockholm between 1898 and 1904 . After Norway abolished the personal union in 1905 and elected its own king , Roll immediately became an aide @-@ de @-@ camp for the new monarch .
The club also staged the members @-@ only contest Ullrennet . In the invitation for Ullrennet and the subsequent banquet in 1897 , the members were asked to take their place at the table " according to rank , estate , age , dignity and skiing profess " . SK Ull also became the second in Norway to raise its own skiing cabin , " Ydale " at Voksenkollen in 1893 . This was named after Ýdalir , the mythological dwelling of the deity Ullr . Some of Ull 's rival clubs were Christiania SK , Skuld , Fram and Ondur . Christiania , Skuld and Fram owned skiing cabins similar to that of Ull — they were collectively referred to as " cabin skiing clubs " .
Reportedly , it was SK Ull 's forays into the district around Holmenkollen for sporting purposes that spurred the establishment of the new hill Holmenkollbakken in 1891 . The knowledge of the area spurred Fritz R. Huitfeldt to pinpoint the location of the new hill , together with Hans Krag . This hill lay at a higher altitude than Kastellbakken , and thus had more favourable snow conditions . Holmenkollbakken quickly replaced Kastellbakken as the main hill in the district , and eventually became world @-@ famous .
SK Ull also saw some sporting success in the 1890s , although the last Ladies ' Cup was taken in 1891 . The club was joined by top skiers like Tobias Bernhoft and Jørgen Berg . In the late 1890s , however , as many members reached higher ages , SK Ull became more of a gentlemen 's social club than an active skiing club . This social club was exclusive by nature , with a clause in the by @-@ laws that the membership could not surpass forty . Actually the club never had more than thirty members , which was the case in 1890 , and rarely more than twenty . The members were drawn from the higher social strata of Norway 's capital region . Forty @-@ four of the sixty members admitted into the club up to the opening of Ydale belonged to one of four prestigious professions : physician , military officer , jurist or engineer .
= = 1900 – 1945 = =
After 1898 , there was a pause in admitting new members . Four were admitted between 1906 and 1908 , followed by only one in the 1915 , three in 1924 , and two in 1935 . In 1940 the average member age was 69 .
After finishing their active careers , some of Ull 's members entered the ranks of sports officials and administrators . Most notable was Karl Roll , who became the first chairman of the Norwegian Ski Federation in 1908 . Several members had already held positions in the older organization Association for the Promotion of Skiing , founded three weeks before Ull , in 1883 . Johan Bechholm was its first secretary , from 1883 to 1886 , and many others followed . Johan Sverre ( member since 1896 ) was a notable Olympic administrator after the Norwegian independence in 1905 , and Hjalmar Krag ( member since 1887 ) became chairman in the Confederation of Sports . Fritz R. Huitfeldt also became a known figure in his field ; for his ski bindings , and for pioneering Telemark skiing . Huitfeldt 's ski factory , which he started together with Richard Blichfeldt , was named Ull .
During the first years of the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany , Ull continued to host private parties . Later , however , the club 's cabin Ydale was occupied by the Germans from December 1942 to March 1945 . Ull instead used the Grand Hotel for its sixtieth anniversary in 1943 and the annual convention of 1944 . Two new members were admitted during the war ; Sverre Martens and Einar Poulsson .
= = After 1945 = =
At the war 's end in 1945 , Ull only had fourteen members . Its average member age was lowered to 65 years after the admission of five new members in 1946 and 1947 . The post @-@ war period also saw the admission to SK Ull of men from more professional groups . One of the new members , Erik Plahte , would serve as chairman from 1951 to 1973 , when he backed down at the age of 84 . Another of the new post @-@ war members , Jakob Vaage , took over . He was then aged 68 . By 1953 , all the club 's elected positions were held by post @-@ war members . Three of the older members , some with experience dating to the 1880s , were admitted as honorary members , the first honorary members in SK Ull since 1889 .
After professor Johs . Andenæs was admitted as a member in 1949 , the club admitted thirteen members in the 1950s ; seven in the 1960s as well as a corresponding member , Norwegian @-@ Canadian Herman Smith @-@ Johannsen ; and only three in the 1970s . One member was elected i 1980 , and three in 1983 ; Arvid Fossum , Odd Harsheim and Birger Ruud . Three honorary members were proclaimed after 1960 : Erik Plahte in 1969 , Herman Smith @-@ Johanssen in 1975 and Jakob Vaage in 1983 .
The cabin Ydale was still used for festivities , and became a small " museum " with skiing antiquities left behind by former members . The cabin was also used during the 1952 Winter Olympics as the residence of the Danish skiing team . A road leading to the cabin was named Ullveien in 1964 . In 1983 the 100 @-@ year anniversary of Ull was hosted at Ydale with attendance from King Olav V of Norway .
= = List of position @-@ holders = =
This is a list of chairmen , deputy chairmen and managers / secretaries of SK Ull .
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= Can 't Hold Us Down =
" Can 't Hold Us Down " is a song recorded by American singer Christina Aguilera and rapper Lil ' Kim for the former 's fourth studio album Stripped ( 2002 ) . It was released by RCA Records on July 8 , 2003 , as the fourth single from the album . The track was written and produced by Scott Storch , with additional songwriting by Aguilera and Matt Morris . An R & B and hip hop song with dancehall elements , " Can 't Hold Us Down " criticizes gender @-@ related double standards .
" Can 't Hold Us Down " received mixed reviews from music critics . It was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 2004 ceremony , but lost to " Whenever I Say Your Name " by Sting and Mary J. Blige . The single peaked at number 12 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and charted within the top ten of record charts of several countries including Australia , Denmark , Ireland , and the United Kingdom . The song was included on the setlists of Aguilera 's three major concert tours : Justified and Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) , The Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) and Back to Basics Tour ( 2006 – 08 ) .
A music video for " Can 't Hold Us Down " was directed by David LaChapelle , inspired by the Lower East Side of New York City in the 1980s . The single has been widely recognized as a feminist anthem , and its music video has been noted for being an example of cultural appropriation for how Aguilera depicted herself as an African @-@ American woman .
= = Background and release = =
American singer Christina Aguilera rose to prominence with the successes of her first three studio albums Christina Aguilera ( 1999 ) , Mi Reflejo ( 2000 ) , and My Kind of Christmas ( 2000 ) . However , she was dissatisfied with being marketed as what her then @-@ manager Steve Kurtz desired rather than Aguilera 's own wish . In late 2000 , Aguilera hired Irving Azoff as her new manager and announced that her forthcoming album would have more musical and lyrical depth . She named the album Stripped , explaining that the term represented " a new beginning , a re @-@ introduction of [ herself ] as a new artist " . Hip hop producer Scott Storch wrote and produced several tracks for the album , including " Can 't Hold Us Down " . Additional writing credits for the song were provided by Aguilera and Matt Morris .
" Can 't Hold Us Down " was serviced to mainstream radio and rhythmic stations in the United States as the fourth single from Stripped by RCA Records on July 8 , 2003 . The song was distributed as a CD single from September to October 2003 in the United Kingdom , Germany , and Italy by RCA Records and Sony Music Entertainment . A 12 @-@ inch edition of the song was released in the United States on September 9 , 2003 .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Can 't Hold Us Down " is written in the key of E ♭ major . Chuck Taylor from Billboard described it as a R & B track , while The New York Times 's Kelefa Sanneh characterized it as a hip hop song . Todd Burns writing for Stylus Magazine also noted elements of dancehall towards the end of the track . Aguilera and Kim 's vocals on the track , which Taylor described as " faux @-@ R & B " , span two octaves , from F3 to F5 .
" Can 't Hold Us Down " lyrically discusses feminism ; the song criticizes the " common " gender @-@ related double standards , in which men are applauded for their sexual behaviors , while women who behave in a similar fashion are disdained . In the book Therapeutic Uses of Rap and Hip @-@ Hop , Susan Hadley and George Yancy discuss that " Can 't Hold Us Down " is a hip hop song that " encourages young women to be proud , strong , and empowered to be all that they can be " . At the song 's first verse , Aguilera sings " Call me a bitch ' cause I speak what 's on my mind / Guess it 's easier for you to swallow if I sat and smiled " ; she later rejects that all women " should be seen , not heard " and encourages them to " shout louder " during the chorus . Aguilera comments on the double standard with the lyrics " The guy gets all the glory the more he can score / While the girl can do the same and yet you call her a whore " . Lil ' Kim shares a similar sentiment during her verse in the bridge , questioning why a man is able to give a woman " some sex or sex her raw " while " if the girl do the same and then she 's a whore " .
Media outlets speculated that the lyrics of " Can 't Hold Us Down " were directed towards rapper Eminem , who referred to Aguilera in his songs " Off the Wall " and " The Real Slim Shady " . Spin magazine 's Josh Kun wrote that Aguilera suggested Eminem " Must talk so big / To make up for smaller things " . According to Kelefa Sanneh writing for The New York Times , Aguilera referred to Eminem in the lyrics " It 's sad you only get your fame through controversy " .
= = Reception = =
Chuck Taylor from Billboard criticized the song as a " real waste of time and talent " , while Rolling Stone 's Jancee Dunn called the track " curiously lifeless " . Stylus Magazine 's Todd Burns was critical of the song 's " bland " lyrics yet appreciated the dancehall elements that emerged at the end of the track . Josh Kun of Spin praised the lyrics for being more confrontational than the works of her contemporary Britney Spears . Jacqueline Hodges writing for BBC Music appreciated Lil 's Kim 's inclusion on the track for adding " a bit of edge " . " Can 't Hold Us Down " was nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 2004 Grammy Awards , but lost to " Whenever I Say Your Name " by Sting and Mary J. Blige . On reviewing Aguilera 's greatest hits album , Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits in 2008 , Nick Levine from Digital Spy shared disappointment because the song could not make it to the compilation .
" Can 't Hold Us Down " peaked at number 12 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 3 on the Pop Songs chart . The song peaked at number 4 on the Canadian Singles Chart . In Australia , " Can 't Hold Us Down " reached a peak position of number 5 on the Australian Singles Chart , and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for shipments of 35 @,@ 000 copies in the country . Additionally , it reached number 2 on the New Zealand Singles Chart . It peaked at number 4 on the Hungarian Singles Chart , number 5 on the Irish Singles Chart , and number 6 on the UK Singles Chart . The single charted at numbers 7 and 15 on the Belgian Flanders and Walloon Singles Charts , respectively . On the Danish Singles Chart , " Can 't Hold Us Down " peaked at number 8 , while its highest position on the German Media Control Charts was number 9 .
The song has been recognized as a feminist anthem . Nicholas Ransbottom from The Charleston Gazette placed the song on his list of the top ten songs of female empowerment in 2013 , calling it a " great anthem about women sticking up for themselves in a misogynistic world " . Several writers for The AV Club included the track on their list of seventeen " well @-@ intended yet misguided feminist anthems " in 2010 ; they agreed that the song itself was " actually one of her better songs " , although they felt that its accompanying music video overshadowed its lyrical " [ confrontation of ] the double standard of female sexuality " since Aguilera conducted herself in a provocative fashion that conflicted its intended meaning . Yasamin Saeidi from Burton Mail listed " Can 't Hold Us Down " on her list of the " top ten empowering lady anthems " in 2013 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Can 't Hold Us Down " was directed by David LaChapelle , who previously directed the music video for Stripped 's lead single " Dirrty " in 2002 . It was filmed in a Los Angeles soundstage that depicted a 1980s Lower East Side neighborhood in Manhattan , New York City . LaChapelle described the concept of the video as his " ode to the ' 80s " . In the video , Aguilera wears a pink sleeveless shirt , a sleeveless sport jacket , a pair of shorts , a mauve baseball cap embroidered with the words " Lady C " , and white long socks . She is seen with dyed black hair and is wearing dark mascara and a gold nose ring . The residents of the neighborhood are mostly Latin and black people , resembling people living in a ghetto .
As the video begins , Aguilera is chatting with a group of women . When Aguilera leaves the conversation , a black man suddenly grabs her buttocks , making Aguilera stop and causing an argument between them . As she continues to sing , the nearby women in the neighborhood join her , while the male residents join the man and form their respective sides in the street . They perform their own hip hop dance skills against each other . At the bridge , Lil ' Kim appears in a bikini and a sheer black blouse , and dances in her high heels . The argument ends with Aguilera spraying the men with a water hose , which she holds between her legs and parodies the male penis .
= = = Reception = = =
Jason Heller from The AV Club criticized LaChappelle for " [ swallowing ] the message " of the track by following an unrelated concept in the clip . In the book Music Video and the Politics of Representation , Diane Railton and Paul Watson felt that the video exemplified cultural appropriation , specifically noting how Aguilera conducted herself as an African @-@ American woman , and elaborated that it emphasized " a range of issues concerning the representation of gender and race " . Andy Cohn from The Fader provided a more favorable review , and opined that Aguilera 's " sass " helped to highlight her Irish and Ecuadorian background .
The music video for " Can 't Hold Us Down " has received scholarly attention as an example of cultural appropriation . Murali Balaji , author of the article " Vixen Resistin ' : Redefining black womanhood in hip @-@ hop music videos " published in the Journal of Black Studies , noted that " blackness and sexuality " has become characteristics by which African @-@ American women are able to self @-@ define . Consequently , he opined that the inclusion of Lil ' Kim in the clip represented an element of " ' primitive ' sexuality " , which Aguilera intended to imitate through her own behavior in the video . In their article " Naughty girls and red @-@ blooded women : Representations of female heterosexuality in music video " , published in Feminist Media Studies , Diane Railton and Paul Watson made specific note of the conflicting message raised by the lyrics " all my girls around the world " , while " blackness and whiteness are clearly inscribed on and through the bodies of Aguilera and Kim . " They suggested that this example detracted the message of the track by emphasizing the problem that " female heterosexuality " is confined to " the very limited range of ways " in mainstream culture , in this instance " gender and race [ and ] sexual behaviour " .
= = Live performances = =
Though the pair never performed the song together , Aguilera performed " Can 't Hold Us Down " on her Justified and Stripped Tour , which was held in support of Aguilera 's Stripped and Justin Timberlake 's album Justified ( 2002 ) . In late 2003 , the track was included on the setlist of The Stripped Tour , which acted as the Justified and Stripped Tour 's extension and happened without Timberlake 's acts . The performance in London was included on the singer 's first full @-@ length DVD Stripped Live in the U.K. ( 2004 ) . On her Back to Basics Tour ( 2006 – 08 ) , Aguilera performed excerpts of " Can 't Hold Us Down " in a medley with " Still Dirrty " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits = =
Credits adapted from " Can 't Hold Us Down " CD liner notes
Studios
Mixed at The Record Plant , Los Angeles , CA
Recorded at The Enterprise Studios , Burbank , CA , and Conway Studios , Hollywood
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Station model =
A station model is a symbolic illustration showing the weather occurring at a given reporting station . Meteorologists created the station model to fit a number of weather elements into a small space on weather maps . This allows map users to analyze patterns in air pressure , temperature , wind , cloud cover , and precipitation .
Station model plots use an internationally accepted coding convention that has changed little since August 1 , 1941 . Elements in the plot show the key weather elements , including temperature , dew point , wind , cloud cover , air pressure , pressure tendency , and precipitation .
= = Measurement location and units = =
Weather maps primarily use the station model to show surface weather conditions , but the model can also show the weather aloft as reported by a weather balloon 's radiosonde or a pilot 's report .
Station model plots use a mixture of metric and Imperial units depending on the map 's location and what is being shown . Surface maps in the United States primarily use Imperial units , such as inches , degrees Fahrenheit , and knots . Most of the world , however , uses metric measurements for everything but wind speed , which is shown in knots .
= = Plotted winds = =
The station model uses a wind barb to show both wind direction and speed . The wind barb shows the speed using " flags " on the end .
Each half of a flag depicts five knots
Each full flag depicts 10 knots
Each pennant ( filled triangle ) depicts 50 knots
Winds are depicted as blowing from the direction the flags are facing . Therefore , a northeast wind will be depicted with a line extending from the cloud circle to the northeast , with flags indicating wind speed on the northeast end of this line . Once plotted on a map , an analysis of isotachs ( lines of equal wind speeds ) can be accomplished . Isotachs are particularly useful in diagnosing the location of the jet stream on upper level constant pressure charts , usually at or above the 300 hPa level .
The flags and pennants point to the low pressure , so it is possible to determine at which hemisphere the station is standing . The barbs in the figure at the right are located at the Northern Hemisphere , because the wind is circling counter clock @-@ wise around a low @-@ pressure area at the Northern Hemisphere ( the wind is blowing in the opposite direction at the Southern Hemisphere , see also Buys Ballot 's law ) .
More than a century ago , winds were initially plotted as arrows facing downwind , with feathers on both sides of the staff to indicate wind speed . In the United States , the change to the modern convention of flags shown on one side of the staff to indicate wind speed took effect on August 1 , 1941 .
= = Cloud cover = =
Along with wind direction , cloud cover is one of the oldest atmospheric conditions to be coded on a station model . The circle in the middle of the station model represents cloud cover . In the United Kingdom , when the observation is taken from an automated weather observation site , the shape is a triangle . If the shape is completely filled in , it is overcast . If conditions are completely clear , the circle or triangle is empty . If conditions are partly cloudy , the circle or triangle is partially filled in . The cloud cover shape has different looks depending upon how many oktas ( eighths of the sky ) are covered by cloud . A sky half full of clouds would have a circle that was half white and half black . Below the shape indicating sky cover , the station model can indicate the coverage of low clouds , in oktas , and the ceiling height in hundreds of feet . The ceiling height is the height at which more than half the sky is covered by clouds .
For pilots , knowledge of the sky cover helps determine if visual flight rules are being met . Knowing the degree of cloud cover can help determine whether or not various weather fronts , such as cold fronts or warm fronts , have passed by a location . A nephanalysis , contouring areas that are cloudy with scalloped lines , can be performed to indicate a system 's cloud and precipitation pattern . This technique is rarely performed nowadays , due to the prevalence of satellite imagery worldwide .
= = Cloud types = =
Above or below the circle for manned stations ( automatic stations do not report cloud types ) that indicates sky cover can lie one or more symbols indicating cloud types in any of the low , middle and high @-@ étages for tropospheric clouds . One predominant cloud type may be depicted for each of three étages , if known . The middle and high @-@ étage types are depicted above the sky cover circle of the station model , while the main low @-@ étage cloud type is indicated below the circle . Since the station model has limited room , it makes no special provision for vertical or multi @-@ level clouds that can occupy more than one étage at a particular time . Consequently , cloud genera with significant vertical development may be coded and plotted as low or middle depending on the altitude at which they normally form . Cumulus and cumulonimbus usually form in the low étage of the troposphere and achieve vertical extent by growing upward into the middle or high étage . Conversely , nimbostratus usually forms in the middle étage of the troposphere and becomes vertically developed by growing downward into the low étage . Although the SYNOP code has no separate formal group classification for vertical or multi @-@ level clouds , the observer procedure for selecting numerical codes is designed to give high reporting priority to those genera or species that show significant vertical development .
The symbols used for clouds emulate the cloud shape . Cirrus is indicated by a couple hooks , cumulus are indicated by a mound shape , with cumulonimbus indicated with an upside down trapezoid on top of the cumulus symbol to indicate its anvil . When there is more than one cloud type present per level , the cloud type with the highest priority is included . Knowing the cloud type at various locations can help determine whether or not a weather front has passed by a particular location . A low deck of stratus could indicate a station is still north of a warm front , while thunderstorms can indicate the approach of a squall line or cold front .
= = Present weather and visibility = =
To the left of the cloud shape in the center of the station model is the symbol depicting present weather . The present weather symbol depicts the current weather which normally is obstructing the visibility at the time of observation . The visibility itself is shown as a number , in statute miles in the United States and meters elsewhere , describing how far the observer can see at that time . This number is located to the left of the present weather symbol . For pilots , knowledge of the horizontal visibility helps determine if they are flying through instrument meteorological conditions , such as foggy or smokey conditions , as well as areas of intense precipitation . Present weather depicted with the station model can include :
Dust
Fog
Haze
Ocean spray
Precipitation
Sand
Smoke
Thunderstorms
Volcanic ash
= = Temperature and dew point = =
To left of center in the station model , the temperature and dew point are plotted . Within the United States on surface weather maps , they are still plotted in degrees Fahrenheit . Otherwise , they will be in units of degrees Celsius . This knowledge is important to meteorologists because when this data is plotted on a map , isotherms and isodrosotherms ( lines of equal dew point ) are easily analyzed , either by man or machine , which can help determine location of weather fronts .
= = Sea level pressure and height of pressure surface = =
On the top right corner of the model for a surface weather map is the pressure , showing the last two integer digits of the pressure in millibars , or hectopascals , along with the first decimal . For instance , if the pressure at a certain location is 999 @.@ 7 hPa , the pressure portion of the station model will read 997 . Although the first digit or two of the pressure is left off , other nearby stations give away whether the pressure starts with a 10 or a 9 . Most of the time , choosing first digits that would lead to a value nearest to 1000 works out best . The plotting of this value within the station model allows for the analysis of isobars on weather maps . Within maps which plot data on constant pressure surfaces , the pressure is replaced with the height of the pressure surface .
= = Pressure tendency = =
Below the pressure will lie the pressure tendency figure , which indicates the pressure change over the past three hours . The number depicting the pressure change will usually have two digits and indicate the pressure change in 0 @.@ 1 millibar increments . There are nine different figures which represent the pressure change . A slant angled up and right indicates a steady rise , while a downward slant to the lower right indicates a steady fall . Steady rises can indicate improving conditions and approaching high pressure , and normally occur in the wake of a cold front . Steady falls can indicate deteriorating conditions and an approaching low pressure area , with the largest falls occurring in advance of a surface cyclone and its attendant warm front .
The time of the day must be considered , as there are two natural rises per day ( locally around 10 am and 10 pm ) and two natural falls per day ( locally around 4 am and 4 pm ) . These daily changes in pressure can mask the movement of pressure systems and fronts past a location . The lowest natural dip in the pressure , in a stagnant weather pattern , occurs around 4 pm while the highest natural peak in pressure occurs around 10 am . Once plotted on a map , the analysis of isallobars ( lines of equal pressure change ) can be plotted on a map , which can indicate the direction of motion of high and low pressures systems across the map domain .
= = Past weather = =
Station models can have past weather plotted within them , which would be located just under the pressure tendency . They indicate the type of weather experienced during the past six hours . The weather types are limited to obstructions of visibility and precipitation .
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= Béla I of Hungary =
Béla I the Champion or the Wisent ( Hungarian : I. Bajnok or Bölény Béla , Slovak : Belo I. ; before 1020 – 11 September 1063 ) was King of Hungary from 1060 until his death . He descended from a younger branch of the Árpád dynasty . Béla 's baptismal name was Adalbert . He left Hungary in 1031 , together with his brothers , Levente and Andrew , after the execution of their father , Vazul . Béla settled in Poland and married Richeza ( or Adelaide ) , daughter of King Mieszko II of Poland .
He returned to his homeland upon the invitation of his brother Andrew , who had in the meantime been crowned King of Hungary . Andrew assigned the administration of the so @-@ called ducatus or " duchy " , which encompassed around one @-@ third of the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary , to Béla . The two brothers ' relationship became tense when Andrew had his own son , Solomon , crowned king , and forced Béla to publicly confirm Solomon 's right to the throne in 1057 or 1058 . Béla , assisted by his Polish relatives , rebelled against his brother and dethroned him in 1060 . He introduced monetary reform and subdued the last uprising aimed at the restoration of paganism in Hungary . Béla was fatally injured when his throne collapsed while he was sitting on it .
= = Life = =
= = = Childhood ( before 1031 ) = = =
Most Hungarian chronicles , including Simon of Kéza 's Gesta Hungarorum and the Illuminated Chronicle , record that Béla 's father was Ladislaus the Bald , a cousin of Stephen , the first King of Hungary . However , many of the same sources add that it " is sometimes claimed " that Béla and his two brothers — Levente and Andrew — were in fact the sons of Ladislaus the Bald 's brother , Vazul . The chronicles also refer to gossip claiming that the three brothers were their father 's illegitimate sons , born to " a girl from the Tátony clan " . Modern historians , who accept the latter reports ' reliability , unanimously write that the three brothers were the sons of Vazul and his concubine .
Béla was born between 1015 and 1020 . It is debated whether Béla was a second or a third son . The former view is represented , for example , by the Polish historian Wincenty Swoboda , and the latter by the Hungarian scholars Gyula Kristó and Ferenc Makk . Kristó and Makk write that Béla 's name " most probably " derived from the Turkish adjective bujla ( " noble " ) . However , the name may also be connected to the Slavic word for white ( bjelij ) or to the Biblical name Bela .
= = = In exile ( 1031 – c . 1048 ) = = =
King Stephen 's only son who survived infancy , Emeric , died on 2 September 1031 . Thereafter , Vazul had the strongest claim to succeed the King . However , the monarch , suspecting that Vazul inclined towards paganism , favored his own sister 's son , Peter Orseolo . In order to ensure his nephew 's succession , Stephen had Vazul blinded . Béla and his two brothers fled from the kingdom .
They first settled in Bohemia , but their " condition of life was poor and mean " there . They moved to Poland , where " they received a warm reception " from King Mieszko II . According to the Hungarian chronicles , Béla participated in a Polish expedition against the pagan Pomeranians and defeated their duke " in single combat " . The Illuminated Chronicle narrates that the Polish monarch " praised the boldness and strength of Duke Béla and bestowed on him all the Pomeranian tribute " . The King even gave his daughter — named either Richeza or Adelaide — in marriage to Béla and granted " a goodly quantity of land " to him . Makk says that Béla was not baptized until just before his marriage ; his baptismal name was the Germanic one of Adalbert .
At that time the Pomeranians refused to pay their yearly tribute to the Duke of Poland , to whom they were subject . The Duke set out to exact by force of arms the tribute due to him from the Pomeranians . Then the Pomeranians , who were pagans , and the Poles , who were Christians , agreed together that their leaders should meet each other in a duel , and if the Pomeranian fell defeated , he would render the customary tribute ; and if the Pole , then he might bewail its loss . Since [ the ] Duke [ Mieszko ] and his sons shrank in fear from the duel to be fought , [ Béla ] presented himself before them and through an interpreter spoke thus : ' If it is pleasing to you , Poles , and to the lord Duke , although I am of nobler birth than that pagan , yet I will fight for the advantage of your kingdom and for the honour of the Duke . ' This was pleasing both to the Pomeranians and to the Poles . When they met in combat , armed with lances , [ Béla ] is said to have struck the Pomeranian so manfully that he unseated him from his horse ; and the Pomeranian could not move from the spot where he had fallen , and [ Béla ] smote him with his sword . Then the Duke of the Pomeranians confessed himself at fault ; and the Pomeranians , seeing this , humbly submitted to the Duke of Poland and paid the accustomed tribute without murmuring .
King Mieszko II died in 1034 ; his son and heir , Casimir was forced to leave Poland . A period of anarchy followed , which lasted at least until 1039 when Casimir returned . According to Kristó and Makk , Béla was staying in Poland during this period ; he even may have administered the kingdom in the name of his absent brother @-@ in @-@ law . On the other hand , the Polish historian , Manteuffel writes that Béla and his two brothers , in contrast with the unanimous report of the Hungarian chronicles , arrived in Poland only with Casimir , after 1039 . It is beyond a doubt that Levente and Andrew departed from Poland in about 1038 , because — according to the Illuminated Chronicle — they did not want to " live the life of hangers @-@ on in the Duke of Poland 's court , regarded only as Béla 's brothers " .
= = = Duke in Hungary ( c . 1048 – 1060 ) = = =
Upon leaving Poland , Andrew and Levente settled in Kiev . They returned to Hungary after a rebellion which was dominated by pagans broke out against King Peter Orseolo in 1046 . The King was dethroned , and Andrew was proclaimed king . Levente died in the same year and Andrew , still childless , decided to invite Béla back to Hungary .
Having lost one brother , King Andreas sent to Poland to his other brother Bela , calling him with great love and saying : " Once we shared poverty and labour together , and now I ask you , most beloved brother , that you come to me without tarrying , so that we may be companions in joy and share in the good things of the kingdom , rejoicing in each other 's presence . For I have neither heir nor brother except you . You shall be my heir , and you shall succeed me in the kingdom . " Won by these words , Béla came to the King with all his family . When the King saw him , he rejoiced with a great joy , because he was fortified by his brother 's strength . Then the King and his brother Bela held a council and divided the kingdom into three parts , of which two remained under the proprietorship of the royal majesty or power and the third was put under the proprietorship of the Duke . This first division of the kingdom became the seed of discord and wars between the dukes and the kings of Hungary .
Urged by his brother , Béla returned in 1048 and received one @-@ third of the kingdom , with the title of duke . Béla 's ducatus or " duchy " encompassed large territories along the eastern and northern borders , including the regions of Nyitra ( Nitra , Slovakia ) and Bihar ( Biharia , Romania ) . He possessed a wide range of royal prerogatives , including coinage . The half @-@ denars minted for him bore the inscription BELA DUX ( " Duke Béla " ) . According to Steinhübel , the mid @-@ 11th @-@ century timber and earth walls of the fortress of Nyitra were erected in Béla 's reign .
The two brothers closely collaborated in the subsequent years . According to the Illuminated Chronicle , they together worked out a military strategy against the Germans , who were frequently invading the kingdom in the early 1050s . Ferenc Makk writes that Béla 's epithets — the Champion or the Wisent — are connected to his fighting against the Germans . The chronicler emphasizes that Andrew and Béla " lived in a great tranquillity of peace " even after Andrew fathered a son , Solomon , in 1053 . Béla was one of the lords witnessing the deed of the foundation of the Tihany Abbey , a Benedictine monastery that his brother established in 1055 .
The two brothers ' good relationship deteriorated after King Andrew had the child Solomon crowned king in 1057 or 1058 . The coronation was the consequence of the peace negotiations with the Holy Roman Empire , because the Germans did not acquiesce in a marriage between Solomon and Judith — the sister of the young German monarch , Henry IV — until Solomon 's right to succeed his father was declared and publicly confirmed . Thereafter Andrew was determined to secure the throne for his son . He invited Béla to his manor in Tiszavárkony , where the King offered his brother a seemingly free choice between a crown and a sword ( which were the symbols of the royal and ducal power , respectively ) . However , he had ordered that Béla be murdered if he chose the crown . Having been informed of his brother 's secret plan by one of his own partisans in the royal court , Béla opted for the sword , but he departed for Poland after the meeting .
He returned to Hungary , in the autumn of 1060 , with Polish troops that Duke Boleslaus the Bold of Poland had provided . Around the same time , German reinforcements arrived in Hungary to assist Andrew against Béla . The ensuing civil war ended with the victory of Béla , who defeated his brother in two successive battles fought at the river Tisza and at Moson . The King was seriously injured and died soon afterward . His partisans took his son , the child Solomon , to Germany .
= = = Reign ( 1060 – 1063 ) = = =
Béla was crowned king in Székesfehérvár on 6 December 1060 . He ordered that " the wives and sons and all the property of all those who had followed " his nephew to Germany " should be protected and kept safe and sound " , which induced many of Solomon 's partisans to reconcile themselves to Béla 's rule and return to Hungary . He reformed the coinage and introduced " large coins of purest silver " into circulation . In order to stabilize the new currency , Béla maximized the prices and eliminated the black market . He also ordered that weekly markets should be held on Saturdays , instead of Sundays , in the kingdom . The historian Nora Berend says that the latter measure " may have adversely affected Jewish activities " , because Jews , who observed the Sabbath , could not work on Saturdays .
Béla decided to discuss his innovations with the representatives of the freemen , and " sent heralds throughout all Hungary to summon two elders with gift of speech from each village to a royal council " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle . A great crowd of commoners gathered in Székesfehérvár in 1061 . They demanded the restoration of paganism and the murder of clergymen , but Béla collected his army and suppressed their uprising within three days .
Béla attempted to conclude a peace treaty with the Holy Roman Empire . For this purpose , shortly after his coronation , he released all German commanders who had assisted his brother during the civil war . However , the young German monarch 's advisors refused Béla 's proposals . In the summer of 1063 , an assembly of the German princes decided to launch a military expedition against Hungary to restore young Solomon to the throne . Béla was planning to abdicate in favor of his nephew if the latter restored his former ducatus , but he was seriously injured when " his throne broke beneath him " in his manor at Dömös . The King — who was " half @-@ dead " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle — was taken to the western borders of his kingdom , where he died at the creek Kinizsa on 11 September 1063 . Béla was buried in the Benedictine Szekszárd Abbey , which he had set up in 1061 . Following Béla 's death , his three sons — Géza , Ladislaus and Lampert — sought refuge in Poland , and Solomon ascended the throne .
= = Family = =
Béla married , in about 1033 , a daughter of King Mieszko II of Poland . According to Makk , her name was either Richesa or Adelheid . Their eldest children , Géza and Ladislaus — who became kings of Hungary in 1074 and 1077 , respectively — were born in Poland in the 1040s . Béla 's third son , Lampert , was born after Béla 's return to Hungary .
Lampert was followed by a daughter named Sophia , who was first married to Margrave Ulric I of Carniola , and later to Duke Magnus of Saxony . Her younger sister , Euphemia , became the wife of Duke Otto I of Olomouc . Béla 's third daughter , Helena , was the queen of King Demetrius Zvonimir of Croatia . An unnamed daughter of Béla became the first wife of a Hungarian nobleman , Lampert of the Clan Hont @-@ Pázmány . According to the historian Martin Dimnik , Béla also fathered a fifth daughter , Lanka , who was the wife of Prince Rostislav Vladimirovich of Tmutarakan .
The following family tree presents Béla 's ancestry , his offspring , and some of his relatives mentioned in the article .
* A Khazar , Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian lady . * * Györffy writes that she may have been a member of the Bulgarian Cometopuli dynasty . * * * Lanka is not mentioned as Béla I 's daughter by all specialists .
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= Su Song =
Su Song ( simplified Chinese : 苏颂 ; traditional Chinese : 蘇頌 ; pinyin : Sū Sòng ; courtesy name : Zirong 子容 ) ( 1020 – 1101 AD ) was a renowned Han Chinese polymath who was described as a scientist , mathematician , statesman , astronomer , cartographer , horologist , medical doctor , pharmacologist , mineralogist , zoologist , botanist , mechanical and architectural engineer , poet , antiquarian , and ambassador of the Song Dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) .
Su Song was the engineer of a hydro @-@ mechanical astronomical clock tower in medieval Kaifeng , which employed the use of an early escapement mechanism . The escapement mechanism of Su 's clock tower had been invented by Buddhist monk Yi Xing and government official Liang Lingzan in 725 AD to operate a water @-@ powered armillary sphere , although Su 's armillary sphere was the first to be provided with a mechanical clock drive . Su 's clock tower also featured the oldest known endless power @-@ transmitting chain drive , called the tian ti ( 天梯 ) , or " celestial ladder " , as depicted in his horological treatise . The clock tower had 133 different clock jacks to indicate and sound the hours . Su Song 's treatise about the clock tower , Xinyi Xiangfayao ( 新儀象法要 ) , has survived since its written form in 1092 and official printed publication in 1094 . The book has been analyzed by many historians , such as Joseph Needham . The clock itself , however , was dismantled by the invading Jurchen army in AD 1127 , and although attempts were made to reassemble it , the tower was never successfully reinstated .
The Xinyi Xiangfayao was Su 's best @-@ known treatise , but the polymath compiled other works as well . He completed a large celestial atlas of several star maps , several terrestrial maps , as well as a treatise on pharmacology . The latter discussed related subjects on mineralogy , zoology , botany , and metallurgy .
European Jesuit visitors to China like Matteo Ricci and Nicolas Trigault briefly wrote about Chinese clocks with wheel drives , but others mistakenly believed that the Chinese had never advanced beyond the stage of the clepsydra , incense clock , and sundial . They thought that advanced mechanical clockworks were new to China and that these mechanisms were something valuable that Europeans could offer to the Chinese . Although not as prominent as in the Song period , contemporary Chinese texts of the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) described a relatively unbroken history of mechanical clocks in China , from the 13th century to the 16th .
= = Life and works = =
= = = Career as a scholar @-@ official = = =
Su Song was born in modern @-@ day Fujian , near medieval Quanzhou . Like a contemporary , Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 ) , Su Song was a polymath , a person whose expertise spans a significant number of different interests . It was written by his junior colleague and Hanlin scholar Ye Mengde ( 1077 – 1148 ) that in Su 's youth , he mastered the provincial exams and rose to the top of the examination list for writing the best essay on general principles and structure of the Chinese calendar . From an early age , his interests in astronomy and calendrical science led him onto a distinguished path as a state bureaucrat . In his spare time he was fond of writing poetry , which he used to praise the works of artists such as the painter Li Gonglin ( 1049 – 1106 ) . He also was an antiquarian and collector of old artworks from previous dynasties .
In matters of administrative government , he had attained the rank of Ambassador and President of the Ministry of Personnel at the capital of Kaifeng , and was known also as an expert in administration and finance . After serving in the Ministry of Personnel , he became a Minister of Justice in 1086 . He was appointed as a distinguished editor for the Academy of Scholarly Worthies , where in 1063 he edited , redacted , commented on , and added a preface for the classic work Huainanzi of the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) . Eventually , Su rose to the post of Vice President of the Chancellery Secretariat . Among many honorable positions and titles conferred upon him , Su Song was also one of the ' Deputy Tutors of the Heir Apparent ' . At court , he chose to distance himself from the political rivalries of the Conservatives , led by Prime Minister Sima Guang ( 1019 – 1086 ) , and the Reformists , led by Prime Minister Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) ; although many of his associates were of the Conservative faction . In 1077 he was dispatched on a diplomatic mission to the Liao Dynasty of the Khitan people to the north , sharing ideas about calendrical science , as the Liao state had created its own calendar in 994 AD . In a finding that reportedly embarrassed the court , Su Song acknowledged to the emperor that the calendar of the Khitan people was in fact a bit more accurate than their own , resulting in the fining and punishment of officials in the Bureau of Astronomy and Calendar . Su was supposed to travel north to Liao and arrive promptly for a birthday celebration and feast on a day which coincided with the winter solstice of the Song calendar , but was actually a day behind the Liao calendar . Historian Liu Heping states that Emperor Zhezong of Song sponsored Su Song 's clocktower in 1086 in order to compete with the Liao for " scientific and national superiority . " In 1081 , the court instructed Su Song to compile into a book the diplomatic history of Song @-@ Liao relations , an elaborate task that , once complete , filled 200 volumes . With his extensive knowledge of cartography , Su Song was able to settle a heated border dispute between the Song and Liao dynasties .
= = = Astronomy = = =
Su Song also created a celestial atlas ( in five separate maps ) , which had the hour circles between the xiu ( lunar mansions ) forming the astronomical meridians , with stars marked in an equidistant cylindrical projection on each side of the equator , and thus , was in accordance to their north polar distances . Furthermore , Su Song must have taken advantage of the astronomical findings of his political rival and contemporary astronomer Shen Kuo . This is so because Su Song 's fourth star map places the position of the pole star halfway between Tian shu ( − 350 degrees ) and the current Polaris ; this was the more accurate calculation ( by 3 degrees ) that Shen Kuo had made when he observed the pole star over a period of three months with his width @-@ improved sighting tube . There were many star maps written before Song 's book , but the greatest significance of these star maps by Su Song is , that they represent the oldest extant star maps in printed form .
= = = Pharmacology , botany , zoology , and mineralogy = = =
In 1070 , Su Song and a team of scholars compiled and edited the Bencao Tujing ( ' Illustrated Pharmacopoeia ' , original source material from 1058 – 1061 ) , which was a groundbreaking treatise on pharmaceutical botany , zoology , and mineralogy . In compiling information for pharmaceutical knowledge , Su Song worked with such notable scholars as Zhang Yuxi , Lin Yi , Zhang Dong , and many others .
This treatise documented a wide range of pharmaceutical practices , including the use of ephedrine as a drug . It includes valuable information on metallurgy and the steel and iron industries during 11th century China . He created a systematic approach to listing various different minerals and their use in medicinal concoctions , such as all the variously known forms of mica that could be used to cure ills through digestion . He wrote of the subconchoidal fracture of native cinnabar , signs of ore beds , and provided description on crystal form . Similar to the ore channels formed by circulation of ground water written of by the later German scientist Georgius Agricola , Su Song made similar statements concerning copper carbonate , as did the earlier Rihua Bencao of 970 with copper sulphate . Su 's book was also the first pharmaceutical treatise written in China to describe the flax , Urtica thunbergiana , and Corchoropsis tomentosa ( crenata ) plants . According to Edward H. Schafer , Su accurately described the translucent quality of fine realgar , its origin from pods found in rocky river gorges , its matrix being pitted with holes and having a deep red , almost purple color , and that the mineral varied in sizes ranging from the size of a pea to a walnut .
Citing evidence from an ancient work by Zheng Xuan ( 127 – 200 ) , Su believed that physicians of the ancient Zhou Dynasty ( 1046 – 256 BC ) used realgar as a remedy for ulcers . As believed in Su 's day , the " five poisons " used by Zhou era physicians for this purpose were thought to be cinnabar , realgar , chalcanthite , alum , and magnetite . Su made systematic descriptions of animals and the environmental regions they could be found , such as different species of freshwater , marine , and shore crabs . For example , he noted that the freshwater crab species Eriocher sinensis could be found in the Huai River running through Anhui , in waterways near the capital city , as well as reservoirs and marshes of Hebei . Su 's book was preserved and copied into the Bencao Gangmu of the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) physician and pharmacologist Li Shizhen ( 1518 – 1593 ) .
= = = Horology and mechanical engineering = = =
Su Song compiled one of the greatest Chinese horological treatises of the Middle Ages , surrounding himself with an entourage of notable engineers and astronomers to assist in various projects . Xinyi Xiangfayao ( lit . " Essentials of a New Method for Mechanizing the Rotation of an Armillary Sphere and a Celestial Globe " ) , written in 1092 , was the final product of his life 's achievements in horology and clockwork . Fortunately , this book of Su 's that was handed down included 47 different illustrations of great detail of the mechanical workings for his astronomical clocktower .
Su Song 's greatest project was the 40 @-@ foot @-@ tall water @-@ powered astronomical clocktower constructed in Kaifeng , the wooden pilot model completed in 1088 , the bronze components cast by 1090 , while the wholly finished work was completed by 1094 during the reign of Emperor Zhezong of Song . The emperor had previously commissioned Han Gonglian , Acting Secretary of the Ministry of Personnel , to head the project , but the leadership position was instead handed down to Su Song . The emperor ordered in 1086 for Su to reconstruct the hun yi , or " armillary clock " , for a new clock @-@ tower in the capital city . Su worked with the aid of Han Gong @-@ lian , who applied his extensive knowledge of mathematics to the construction of the clock @-@ tower . A small @-@ scale wooden model was first crafted by Su Song , testing its intricate parts before applying it to an actual full @-@ scale clock tower . In the end , the clock @-@ tower had many impressive features , such as the hydro @-@ mechanical , rotating armillary sphere crowning the top level and weighing some 10 to 20 tons , a bronze celestial globe located in the middle that was 4 @.@ 5 feet in diameter , mechanically @-@ timed and rotating mannequins dressed in miniature Chinese clothes that exited miniature opening doors to announce the time of day by presenting designated reading plaques , ringing bells and gongs , or beating drums , a sophisticated use of oblique gears and an escapement mechanism , as well as an exterior facade of a fanciful Chinese pagoda . Upon its completion , the tower was called the Shui Yun Yi Xiang Tai , or " Tower for the Water @-@ Powered Sphere and Globe " . Joseph Needham writes :
After the invention of the escapement in ~ AD 725 ( Tang Dynasty ) , there was a great flourishing of gear @-@ wheels in clockwork and jackwork , culminating in the bronze and iron of Su Song 's elaborate masterpiece in ~ AD 1088 .
Years after Su 's death , the capital city of Kaifeng was besieged and captured in 1127 by the Jurchens of the Manchuria @-@ based Jin Dynasty during the Jin – Song wars . The clock @-@ tower was dismantled piece by piece by the Jurchens , who carted its components back to their own capital in modern @-@ day Beijing . However , due to the complexity of the tower , they were unable to successfully piece it back together . The new Emperor Gaozong of Song instructed Su 's son , Su Xie , to construct a new astronomical clock @-@ tower in its place , and Su Xie set to work studying his father 's texts with a team of other experts . However , they were also unsuccessful in creating another clock tower , and Su Xie was convinced that Su Song had purposefully left out essential components in his written work and diagrams so that others would not steal his ideas .
As the sinologist historian Derk Bodde points out , Su Song 's astronomical clock did not lead to a new generation of mass @-@ produced clockworks throughout China since his work was largely a government @-@ sponsored endeavor for the use of astronomers and astrologers in the imperial court . Yet the mechanical legacy of Su Song did not end with his work . In about 1150 , the writer Xue Jixuan noted that there were four types of clocks in his day , the basic waterclock , the incense clock , the sundial , and the clock with ' revolving and snapping springs ' ( ' gun tan ' ) . The rulers of the continuing Yuan Dynasty ( 1279 – 1368 AD ) had a vested interest in the advancement of mechanical clockworks . The astronomer Guo Shoujing helped restore the Beijing Ancient Observatory beginning in 1276 , where he crafted a water @-@ powered armillary sphere and clock with clock jacks being fully implemented and sounding the hours . Complex gearing for uniquely Chinese clockworks were continued in the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) , with new designs driven by the power of falling sand instead of water to provide motive power to the wheel drive , and some Ming clocks perhaps featured reduction gearing rather than the earlier escapement of Su Song . The earliest such design of a sand @-@ clock was made by Zhan Xiyuan around 1370 , which featured not only the scoop wheel of Su Song ' device , but also a new addition of a stationary dial face over which a pointer circulated , much like new European clocks of the same period .
= = Su Song 's escapement mechanism = =
In Su Song 's waterwheel linkwork device the action of the escapement 's arrest and release was achieved by gravity exerted periodically as the continuous flow of liquid filled containers of a limited size . In a single line of evolution , Su Song 's clock therefore united the concept of the clepsydra and the mechanical clock into one device run by mechanics and hydraulics . In his memorial , Su Song wrote about this concept :
According to your servant 's opinion there have been many systems and designs for astronomical instruments during past dynasties all differing from one another in minor respects . But the principle of the use of water @-@ power for the driving mechanism has always been the same . The heavens move without ceasing but so also does water flow ( and fall ) . Thus if the water is made to pour with perfect evenness , then the comparison of the rotary movements ( of the heavens and the machine ) will show no discrepancy or contradiction ; for the unresting follows the unceasing .
In his writing , Su Song credited , as the predecessor of his working clock , the hydraulic @-@ powered armillary sphere of Zhang Heng ( 78 – 139 AD ) , an earlier Chinese scientist . Su Song was also strongly influenced by the earlier armillary sphere created by Zhang Sixun ( 976 AD ) , who also employed the escapement mechanism and used liquid mercury instead of water in the waterwheel of his astronomical clock tower ( since liquid mercury would not freeze during winter and would not corrode and rust metal components over time ) . However , Su Song stated in his writing that after Zhang 's death , no one was able to replicate his device , much like his own .
The mechanical clockworks for Su Song 's astronomical tower featured a great driving @-@ wheel that was 11 feet in diameter , carrying 36 scoops , into each of which water poured at a uniform rate from the " constant @-@ level tank " ( Needham , Fig . 653 ) . The main driving shaft of iron , with its cylindrical necks supported on iron crescent @-@ shaped bearings , ended in a pinion which engaged a gear wheel at the lower end of the main vertical transmission shaft .
Joseph Needham gives a general description of the clock @-@ tower itself :
( Su Song 's ) clockwork , driven by a water @-@ wheel , and fully enclosed within the tower , rotated an observational armillary sphere on the top platform and a celestial globe in the upper story . Its time @-@ announcing function was further fulfilled visually and audibly by the performances of numerous jacks mounted on the eight superimposed wheels of a time @-@ keeping shaft and appearing at windows in the pagoda @-@ like structure at the front of the tower . Within the building , some 40 ft. high , the driving @-@ wheel was provided with a special form of escapement , and the water was pumped back into the tanks periodically by manual means . The time @-@ annunciator must have included conversion gearing , since it gave ' unequal ' as well as equal time signals , and the sphere probably had this . Su Song 's treatise on the clock , the Hsin I Hsiang Fa Yao , constitutes a classic of horological engineering .
That was figure Fig . 650 , while Fig . 656 displays the upper and lower norias with their tanks and the manual wheel for operating them .
Fig . 657 displays a rather miniature and scaled @-@ down pic for the basics of the escapement mechanism in an illustration ( from Su 's book ) , with Needham 's caption here in this quote : " The ' celestial balance ' or escapement mechanism of Su Song 's clockwork ( Xinyi Xiangfayao , ch . 3 , p . 18b ) " . The latter figure carefully labels :
a right upper lock
upper link
left upper lock
axle or pivot
long chain
upper counterweight
sump
checking fork of the lower balancing lever
coupling tongue
main ( i.e. lower ) counterweight .
Figure 658 @.@ displays a more intricate and most @-@ telling half @-@ page scale drawing of Su Song 's large escapement mechanism , labeling these individual parts as they interact with one another :
arrested spoke
left upper lock
scoop being filled by
water jet from constant @-@ level tank
small counterweight
checking fork tripped by a projection pin on the scoop , and forming the near end of
the lower balancing lever with
its lower counterweight
coupling tongue , connected by
the long chain with
the upper balancing lever , which has at its far end
the upper counterweight , and at its near end
a short length chain connecting it with the upper lock beneath it ;
right upper lock
= = The endless chain drive = =
The world 's oldest illustrated depiction of an endless power @-@ transmitting chain drive is from Su Song 's horological treatise . It was used in the clockworks for coupling the main drive shaft to the armillary sphere gearbox ( rotating three small pinions ) , as seen in Needham 's Fig . 410 and Fig . 652 . This belonged to the uppermost end of the main vertical transmission shaft , incorporating right angle gears and oblique gears connected by a short idling shaft . The toothed ring gear called the diurnal motion gear ring was fit around the shell of the armillary sphere along the declination parallel near the southern pole . Although the ancient Greek Philo of Byzantium ( 3rd century BC ) featured a sort of endless belt for his magazine arcuballista , which did not transmit continuous power , the influential source for Su Song 's chain drive is most likely the continuously @-@ driven chain pump known in China since the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) . From his horological treatise , Su Song states :
The chain drive ( lit. celestial ladder ) is 19 @.@ 5 ft long ( 5 @.@ 9 m ) . The system is as follows : an iron chain with its links joined together to form an endless circuit hangs down from the upper chain @-@ wheel which is concealed by the tortoise @-@ and @-@ cloud ( column supporting the armillary sphere centrally ) , and passes also round the lower chain @-@ wheel which is mounted on the main driving @-@ shaft . Whenever one link moves , it moves forward one tooth of the diurnal motion gear @-@ ring and rotates the Component of the Three Arrangers of Time , thus following the motion of the heavens .
In addition , the motion gear rings and the upper drive wheel both had 600 teeth , which by Su 's mathematical precision carefully calculated measured units of the day in a division of 1 / 600 . These gears , having 600 teeth , thus ensured the division of the day into measurements of 2 minutes and 24 seconds each .
= = Su Song 's armillary sphere = =
In Joseph Needham 's third volume of Science and Civilization in China , the drawing for Fig . 159 displays a drawing of Su Song 's armillary sphere ( as depicted in his 11th century treatise ) , complete with three ' nests ' or layers of mechanically @-@ rotated rings . It was the earlier Chinese astronomer Li Chun @-@ feng of the Tang Dynasty who in 633 AD created the first armillary sphere with three layers to calibrate multiple aspects of astronomical observation . Zhang 's armillary sphere has often been compared to that of the 13th century monarch Alfonso X of Castile in Islamic @-@ era Spain . The chief difference was that Alfonso 's instrument featured an arrangement for making measurements of the azimuth and altitude , which was present in the Arabic tradition , while Su Song 's armillary sphere was duly graduated . For the drawing of Su 's armillary sphere , the listing of components are :
The Outer Nestmeridian circle
horizon circle
outer equator circle
The Middle Nestsolstitial colure circle
ecliptic circle
diurnal motion gear @-@ ring , connecting with the power @-@ drive
The Inner Nestpolar @-@ mounted declination ring or hour @-@ angle circle , with
sighting tube attached to it and strengthened by a
diametral brace
Other Partsvertical column concealing the transmission shaft
supporting columns in the form of dragons
cross @-@ piece of the base , incorporating water @-@ levels
south polar pivot
north polar pivit
= = Transmission of Su 's text and his legacy = =
When Su Song 's Xinyi Xiangfayao was written in 1092 and the horological monograph finalized and presented in 1094 , his work was published and widely printed in the north ( see woodblock printing and movable type of Bi Sheng ) . In the south , printing and circulation of his work was not widely distributed until Shi Yuanzhi of Jiangsu had it printed there in 1172 .
When presenting his clocktower design to the Emperor Zhezong , Su Song equated the constant flow of water with the continuous movements of the heavens , the latter of which symbolized the unceasing power of the emperor . This appealed to emperor , who featured artwork representing the clocktower on vehicles of major imperial processions , as illustrated in the Illustration of the Imperial Grand Carriage Procession of 1053 .
The later Ming Dynasty / Qing Dynasty scholar Qian Zeng ( 1629 – 1699 ) held an old volume of Su 's work , which he faithfully reproduced in a newly printed edition . He took special care in avoiding any rewording or inconsistencies with the original text as well . Again , it was later reprinted by Zhang Xizu ( 1799 – 1844 ) .
Interestingly enough , Su Song 's treatise on astronomical clockwork was not the only one made in China during his day , as the Song Shi ( compiled in 1345 ) records the written treatise of the Shuiyunhun Tianjiyao ( Wade – Giles : Shui Yun Hun Thien Chi Yao ; lit . Essentials of the [ Technique of ] making Astronomical Apparatus revolve by Water @-@ Power ) , written by Juan Taifa . However , this treatise no longer survives .
In the realm of modern research , the late British biochemist and historian of Chinese science Joseph Needham ( 1900 – 1995 ) ( known as Li Yuese in China ) did extensive research and analysis of Su Song 's texts and various achievements in his Science and Civilization in China book series . Joseph Needham also related many detailed passages from Su 's contemporary medieval Chinese sources on the life of Su and his achievements known in his day . In 1956 , John Christiansen reconstructed a model of Su Song 's clocktower in a famous drawing , which garnered attention in the West towards 11th @-@ century Chinese engineering . A miniature model of Su Song 's clock was reconstructed by John Cambridge and is now on display at the National Science Museum at South Kensington , London . In China , the clocktower was reconstructed to one @-@ fifth its actual scale by Wang Zhenduo , who worked for the Chinese Historical Museum in Beijing in the 1950s .
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= Periyar E. V. Ramasamy =
Erode Venkata Ramasamy ( 17 September 1879 – 24 December 1973 ) , commonly known as Periyar also referred as E. V. R. or Thanthai Periyar , was an Indian social activist , freedom fighter and politician who started the Self @-@ Respect Movement and Dravidar Kazhagam .
E.V. Ramasamy was born in Erode , Madras Presidency to a wealthy family of Balijas . At a young age , he witnessed numerous incidents of caste and gender discrimination . E.V. Ramasamy married when he was 19 , and had a daughter who lived for only 5 months . His first wife , Nagammai , died in 1933 . E.V. Ramasamy married for a second time in July 1948 . His second wife , Maniammai , continued E.V. Ramasamy 's social work after his death in 1973 , but his thoughts and ideas then were advocated by Dravidar Kazhagam .
E.V. Ramasamy joined the Indian National Congress in 1919 , but resigned in 1925 when he felt that the party was only serving the interests of the Brahmins . In 1924 , E.V. Ramasamy participated in a non @-@ violent agitation ( satyagraha ) in Vaikam , Kerala . From 1929 to 1932 Ramasamy toured British Malaya , Europe , and Russia , which had an influence on him . In 1939 , E.V. Ramasamy became the head of the Justice Party , and in 1944 , he changed its name to Dravidar Kazhagam . The party later split and one group led by C. N. Annadurai formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) in 1949 . While continuing the Self @-@ Respect Movement , he advocated for an independent Dravida Nadu ( Dravidistan ) .
E.V. Ramasamy propagated the principles of rationalism , self @-@ respect , women ’ s rights and eradication of caste . He opposed the exploitation and marginalisation of the non @-@ Brahmin Dravidian people of South India and the imposition of what he considered Indo @-@ Aryan India . His work has greatly revolutionised the Tamil society and has significantly removed caste @-@ based discrimination . He is also responsible for bringing new changes to the Tamil alphabet . The citation awarded by the UNESCO described E.V. Ramasamy as " the prophet of the new age , the Socrates of South East Asia , father of social reform movement and arch enemy of ignorance , superstitions , meaningless customs and base manners . "
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Erode Venkata Ramasami was born on 17 September 1879 , in Erode , then a part of the Coimbatore district of the Madras Presidency . E.V. Ramasamy 's father , a rich businessman , was Venkatappa Naicker ( or Venkata ) , and his mother was Chinna Thayammal , alias Muthammal . He had one elder brother named Krishnaswamy and two sisters named Kannamma and Ponnuthoy . He later came to be known as " Periyar " meaning ' respected one ' or ' elder ' in Tamil .
In 1929 , E.V. Ramasamy announced the deletion of his caste surname Naicker ( Balija Naicker ) from his name at the First Provincial Self @-@ Respect Conference of Chenggalpattu . He could speak three Dravidian languages : Mother tongue Kannada , Telugu and Tamil . His mother tongue was Kannada . Periyar attended school for five years after which he joined his father 's trade at the age of 12 . He used to listen to Tamil Vaishnavite gurus who gave discourses in his house enjoying his father 's hospitality . At a young age , he began questioning the apparent contradictions in the Hindu mythological stories . As Periyar grew , he felt that people used religion only as a mask to deceive innocent people and therefore took it as one of his duties in life to warn people against superstitions and priests .
E.V. Ramasamy 's father arranged for his wedding when he was nineteen . The bride , Nagammai , was only thirteen . Despite having an arranged marriage , Periyar and Nagammai were already in love with each other . Nagammai actively supported her husband in his later public activities and agitations . Two years after their marriage , a daughter was born to them . However , their daughter died when she was five months old . The couple had no more children .
= = = Kasi Pilgrimage Incident = = =
In 1904 , E.V. Ramasamy went on a pilgrimage to Kasi to visit the revered Siva temple of Kashi Vishwanath . Though regarded as one of the holiest sites of Hinduism , he witnessed immoral activities such as begging , and floating dead bodies . His frustrations extended to functional Hinduism in general when he experienced what he called Brahmanic exploitation .
However , one particular incident in Kasi had a profound impact on E.V. Ramasamy 's ideology and future work . At the worship site there were free meals offered to guests . To E.V. Ramasamy 's shock , he was refused meals at choultries , which exclusively fed Brahmins . Due to extreme hunger , E.V. Ramasamy felt compelled to enter one of the eateries disguised as a Brahmin with a sacred thread on his bare chest , but was betrayed by his moustache . The gatekeeper at the temple concluded that E.V. Ramasamy was not a Brahmin , as Brahmins were not permitted by the Hindu shastras to have moustaches . He not only prevented Periyar 's entry but also pushed him rudely into the street .
As his hunger became intolerable , Periyar was forced to feed on leftovers from the streets . Around this time , he realised that the eatery which had refused him entry was built by a wealthy non @-@ Brahmin from South India . This discriminatory attitude dealt a blow to Periyar 's regard for Hinduism , for the events he had witnessed at Kasi were completely different from the picture of Kasi he had in mind , as a holy place which welcomed all . Ramasami was a theist until his visit to Kasi , after which his views changed and he became an atheist .
= = = Member of Congress Party ( 1919 – 1925 ) = = =
E.V. Ramasamy joined the Indian National Congress in 1919 after quitting his business and resigning from public posts . He held the chairmanship of Erode Municipality and wholeheartedly undertook constructive programs spreading the use of Khadi , picketing toddy shops , boycotting shops selling foreign cloth , and eradicating untouchability . In 1921 , Periyar courted imprisonment for picketing toddy shops in Erode . When his wife as well as his sister joined the agitation , it gained momentum , and the administration was forced to come to a compromise . He was again arrested during the Non @-@ Cooperation movement and the Temperance movement . In 1922 , periyar was elected the President of the Madras Presidency Congress Committee during the Tirupur session , where he advocated strongly for reservation in government jobs and education . His attempts were defeated in the Congress party due to a strong presence of discrimination and indifference , which led to his leaving the party in 1925 .
= = = Vaikom Satyagraha ( 1924 – 1925 ) = = =
In Vaikom , a small town in Kerala state , then Travancore , there were strict laws of untouchability in and around the temple area . Dalits , also known as Harijans were not allowed into the close streets around and leading to the temple , let alone inside it . Anti @-@ caste feelings were growing and in 1924 Vaikom was chosen as a suitable place for an organised Satyagraha . Under his guidance a movement had already begun with the aim of giving all castes the right to enter the temples . Thus , agitations and demonstrations took place . On the fourteenth of April , Periyar and his wife Nagamma arrived in Vaikom . They were immediately arrested and imprisoned for participation . In spite of Gandhi 's objection to non @-@ Keralites and non @-@ Hindus taking part , Periyar and his followers continued to give support to the movement until it was withdrawn . He received the title Vaikom Veeran , given by his followers who participated in the Satyagraha .
The way in which the Vaikom Satyagraha events have been recorded provides a clue to the image of the respective organisers . In an article entitle Gandhi and Ambedkar , A Study in Leadership , Eleanor Zelliot relates the ' Vaikom Satyagraha ' , including Gandhi 's negotiations with the temple authorities in relation to the event . Furthermore , the editor of E.V. Ramasamy 's Thoughts states that Brahmins purposely suppressed news about E.V. Ramasamy 's participation . A leading Congress magazine , Young India , in its extensive reports on Vaikom never mentions E.V. Ramasamy .
= = = Self @-@ Respect Movement = = =
Periyar and his followers campaigned constantly to influence and pressure the government to take measures to remove social inequality , even while other nationalist forerunners focused on the struggle for political independence . The Self @-@ Respect Movement was described from the beginning as " dedicated to the goal of giving non @-@ Brahmins a sense of pride based on their Dravidian past " .
In 1952 , the Periyar Self @-@ Respect Movement Institution was registered with a list of objectives of the institution from which may be quoted as
for the diffusion of useful knowledge of political education ; to allow people to live a life of freedom from slavery to anything against reason and self respect ; to do away with needless customs , meaningless ceremonies , and blind superstitious beliefs in society ; to put an end to the present social system in which caste , religion , community and traditional occupations based on the accident of birth , have chained the mass of the people and created " superior " and " inferior " classes ... and to give people equal rights ; to completely eradicate untouchability and to establish a united society based on brother / sisterhood ; to give equal rights to women ; to prevent child marriages and marriages based on law favourable to one sect , to conduct and encourage love marriages , widow marriages , inter caste and inter @-@ religious marriages and to have the marriages registered under the Civil Law ; and to establish and maintain homes for orphans and widows and to run educational institutions .
Propagation of the philosophy of self respect became the full @-@ time activity of Periyar since 1925 . A Tamil weekly Kudi Arasu started in 1925 , while the English journal Revolt started in 1928 carried on the propaganda among the English educated people . The Self @-@ Respect Movement began to grow fast and received the sympathy of the heads of the Justice Party from the beginning . In May 1929 , a conference of Self @-@ Respect Volunteers was held at Pattukkotai under the presidency of S. Guruswami . K.V. Alagiriswami took charge as the head of the volunteer band . Conferences followed in succession throughout the Tamil districts of the former Madras Presidency . A training school in Self @-@ Respect was opened at Erode , the home town of Periyar . The object was not just to introduce social reform but to bring about a social revolution to foster a new spirit and build a new society .
= = = International travel ( 1929 – 1932 ) = = =
Between 1929 and 1935 , under the strain of World Depression , political thinking worldwide received a jolt from the spread of international communism . Indian political parties , movements and considerable sections of leadership were also affected by inter @-@ continental ideologies . The Self @-@ Respect Movement also came under the influence of the leftist philosophies and institutions . E.V. Ramasamy , after establishing the Self @-@ Respect Movement as an independent institution , began to look for ways to strengthen it politically and socially . To accomplish this , he studied the history and politics of different countries , and personally observed these systems at work .
E.V. Ramasamy toured Malaya for a month , from December 1929 to January 1930 , to propagate the self @-@ respect philosophy . Embarking on his journey from Nagapattinam with his wife Nagammal and his followers , E.V. Ramasamy was received by 50 @,@ 000 Tamil Malaysians in Penang . During the same month , he inaugurated the Tamils Conference , convened by the Tamils Reformatory Sangam in Ipoh , and then went to Singapore . In December 1931 he undertook a tour of Europe , accompanied by S. Ramanathan and Erode Ramu , to personally acquaint himself with their political systems , social movements , way of life , economic and social progress and administration of public bodies . He visited Egypt , Greece , Turkey , Russia , Germany , England , Spain , France and Portugal , staying in Russia for three months . On his return journey he halted at Ceylon and returned to India in November 1932 .
The tour shaped the political ideology of E.V. Ramasamy to achieve the social concept of Self @-@ Respect . The communist system obtained in Russia appealed to him as appropriately suited to deal with the social ills of the country . Thus , on socio @-@ economic issues Periyar was Marxist , but he did not advocate for abolishing private ownership . Immediately after his return , samy , E.V. Rama in alliance with the enthusiastic communist , M. Singaravelu Chettiar , began to work out a socio @-@ political scheme incorporating socialist and self @-@ respect ideals . This marked a crucial stage of development in the Self @-@ Respect Movement which got politicised and found its compatibility in Tamil Nadu .
= = = Opposition to Hindi = = =
In 1937 , when Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari became the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency , he introduced Hindi as a compulsory language of study in schools , thereby igniting a series of anti @-@ Hindi agitations . Tamil nationalists , the Justice Party under Sir A. T. Panneerselvam , and E.V. Ramasamy organised anti @-@ Hindi protests in 1938 which ended with numerous arrests by the Rajaji government .
During the same year , the slogan " Tamil Nadu for Tamilians " was first raised by E.V. Ramasamy in protest against the introduction of Hindi in schools . He explained that the introduction of Hindi was a dangerous mechanism used by the Aryans to infiltrate Dravidian culture . He reasoned that the adoption of Hindi would make Tamils subordinate to the Hindi speaking North Indians . E.V. Ramasamy explained that Hindi would not only halt the progress of Tamil people , but would also completely destroy their culture and nullify the progressive ideas that had been successfully inculcated through Tamil in the recent decades .
Cutting across party lines , South Indian politicians rallied together in their opposition to Hindi . There were recurrent anti @-@ Hindi agitations in 1948 , 1952 and 1965 .
= = = As President of the Justice Party ( 1938 – 1944 ) = = =
A political party known as the South Indian Libertarian Federation ( commonly referred to as Justice Party ) was founded in 1916 , principally to oppose the economic and political power of the Brahmin groups . The party 's goal was to render social justice to the non @-@ Brahmin groups . To gain the support of the masses , non @-@ Brahmin politicians began propagating an ideology of equality among non @-@ Brahmin castes . Brahmanical priesthood and Sanskritic social class @-@ value hierarchy were blamed for the existence of inequalities among non @-@ Brahmin caste groups .
In 1937 , when the government required that Hindi be taught in the school system , E.V. Ramasamy organised opposition to this policy through the Justice Party . After 1937 , the Dravidian movement derived considerable support from the student community . In later years , opposition to Hindi played a big role in the politics of Tamil Nadu . The fear of the Hindi language had its origin in the conflict between Brahmins and non @-@ Brahmins . To the Tamils , acceptance of Hindi in the school system was a form of bondage . When the Justice Party weakened in the absence of mass support , E.V. Ramasamy took over the leadership of the party after being jailed for opposing Hindi in 1939 . Under his tutelage the party prospered , but the party 's conservative members , most of whom were rich and educated , withdrew from active participation .
= = = Dravidar Kazhagam ( 1944 – onwards ) = = =
= = = = Formation of the Dravidar Kazhagam = = = =
At a rally in 1944 , Periyar , in his capacity as the leader of the Justice Party , declared that the party would henceforth be known as the Dravidar Kazhagam , or " Dravidian Association " . However , a few who disagreed with Periyar started a splinter group , claiming to be the original Justice Party . This party was led by veteran Justice Party leader P. T. Rajan and survived until 1957 .
The Dravidar Kazhagam came to be well known among the urban communities and students . Villages were influenced by its message . Hindi , and ceremonies that had become associated with Brahmanical priesthood , were identified as alien symbols that should be eliminated from Tamil culture . Brahmins , who were regarded as the guardians of such symbols , came under verbal attack . From 1949 onwards , the Dravidar Kazhagam intensified social reformist work and put forward the fact that superstitions were the cause for the degeneration of Dravidians . The Dravidar Kazhagam vehemently fought for the abolition of untouchability amongst the Dalits . It also focused its attention on the liberation of women , women 's education , willing marriage , widow marriage , orphanages and mercy homes .
= = = = Split with Annadurai = = = =
In 1949 , E.V. Ramasamy 's chief lieutenant , Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai , established a separate association called the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) , or Dravidian Advancement Association . This was due to differences between the two , while Periyar advocated a separate independent Dravidian or Tamil state , Annadurai compromised with the Delhi government , at the same time claiming increased state independence . E.V. Ramasamy was convinced that individuals and movements that undertake the task of eradicating the social evils in the Indian sub @-@ continent have to pursue the goal with devotion and dedication without deviating from the path and with uncompromising zeal . Thus , if they contest elections aiming to assume political power , they would lose vigour and sense of purpose . But among his followers , there were those who had a different view , wanting to enter into politics and have a share in running the government . They were looking for an opportunity to part with E.V. Ramasamy . Thus , when E.V. Ramasamy married Maniammai on 9 July 1948 , they quit the Dravidar Kazhagam , stating that E.V. Ramasamy set a bad example by marrying a young woman that took his foster child in his old age – he was 70 and she 30 . Those who parted company with E.V. Ramasamy joined the DMK . Though the DMK split from the Dravidar Kazhagam , the organisation made efforts to carry on E.V. Ramasamy 's Self @-@ Respect Movement to villagers and urban students . The DMK advocated the thesis that the Tamil language was much richer than Sanskrit and Hindi in content , and thus was a key which opened the door to subjects to be learned . The Dravidar Kazhagam continued to counter Brahminism , Indo @-@ Aryan propaganda , and uphold the Dravidians ' right of self @-@ determination .
= = = = Later years = = = =
In 1956 , despite warnings from P. Kakkan , the President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee , Periyar organised a procession to the Marina to burn pictures of the Hindu God Rama . Periyar was subsequently arrested and confined to prison .
The activities of Periyar continued when he went to Bangalore in 1958 to participate in the All India Official Language Conference . There he stressed the need to retain English as the Union Official Language instead of Hindi . Five years later , Periyar travelled to North India to advocate the eradication of the caste system . Nearing Periyar 's last years , an award was given to him by the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) , and it was presented to him by the Union Education Minister , Triguna Sen in Madras ( Chennai ) , on 27 June 1970 . In his last meeting at Thiagaraya Nagar , Chennai on 19 December 1973 , Periyar declared a call for action to gain social equality and a dignified way of life . On 24 December 1973 , Periyar died at the age of 94 .
= = Principles and legacy = =
Periyar spent over fifty years giving speeches , propagating the realisation that everyone is an equal citizen and the differences on basis of caste and creeds were man @-@ made to keep the innocent and ignorant as underdogs in the society . Although Periyar 's speeches were targeted towards the illiterate and more mundane mass , scores of educated people were also swayed . Periyar viewed reasoning as a special tool . According to him , all were blessed with this tool , but very few used it . Thus Periyar used reasoning , with respect to subjects of social interest , in his presentations to his audiences . Communal differences in Tamil society were considered by many to be deep @-@ rooted features until Periyar came to the scene . Cho Ramaswamy remarked in India Today : + −
" Periyar was accepted and acclaimed as the leader by a significant section of the Tamil population in spite of all his contempt for Tamil and disdain for Tamils only because he was perceived to be a genuine individual , a rarity among those in public life . There was no shade of hypocrisy in him and he never attempted sophistry while propounding his social philosophy . "
= = = Rationalism = = =
The bedrock of E.V. Ramasamy ’ s principles and the movements that he started was rationalism . He thought that an insignificant minority in society was exploiting the majority and trying to keep it in a subordinate position forever . He wanted the exploited to sit up and think about their position , and use their reason to realise that they were being exploited by a handful of people . If they started thinking , they would realise that they were human beings like the rest , that birth did not and should not endow superiority over others and that they must awaken themselves and do everything possible to improve their own lot .
Likewise , E.V. Ramasamy explained that wisdom lies in thinking and that the spear @-@ head of thinking is rationalism . On caste , he stated that no other living being harms or degrades its own class . But man , said to be a rational living being , does these evils . The differences , hatred , enmity , degradation , poverty , and wickedness , now prevalent in the society are due to lack of wisdom and rationalism and not due to God or the cruelty of time . E.V. Ramasamy had written in his books and magazines dozens of times of various occasions that the British rule is better than self @-@ rule
E.V. Ramasamy also blamed the capitalists for their control of machineries , creating difficulties for the workers . According to his philosophy , rationalism , which has to lead the way for peaceful life to all , had resulted in causing poverty and worries to the people because of dominating forces . He stated that there is no use of simply acquiring titles or amassing wealth if one has no self @-@ respect or scientific knowledge . An example he gave was the West sending messages to the planets , while the Tamil society in India were sending rice and cereals to their dead forefathers through the Brahmins .
In a message to the Brahmin community , Periyar stated , " in the name of god , religion , and sastras you have duped us . We were the ruling people . Stop this life of cheating us from this year . Give room for rationalism and humanism " . He added that " any opposition not based on rationalism , science , or experience will one day or another , reveal the fraud , selfishness , lies and conspiracies " .
= = = Self @-@ respect = = =
Periyar 's philosophy of self @-@ respect was based on his image of an ideal world and a universally accepted one . His philosophy preaches that human actions should be based on rational thinking . Further , the outcome of the natural instinct of human beings is to examine every object and every action and even nature with a spirit of inquiry , and to refuse to submit to anything irrational as equivalent to slavery . Thus , the philosophy of self @-@ respect taught that human actions should be guided by reason , right and wrong should follow from rational thinking and conclusions drawn from reason should be respected under circumstances . Freedom means respect to thoughts and actions considered ' right ' by human beings on the basis of ' reason ' . There is not much difference between ' freedom ' and ' self @-@ respect ' .
Periyar 's foremost appeal to people was to develop self @-@ respect . He preached that the Brahmins had monopolised and cheated other communities for decades and deprived them of self @-@ respect . He stated that most Brahmins claimed to belong to a " superior " community with the reserved privilege of being in charge of temples and performing archanas . He felt that they were trying to reassert their control over religion by using their superior caste status to claim the exclusive privilege to touch idols or enter the sanctum sanctorum .
= = = Women ’ s rights = = =
As a rationalist and ardent social reformer , Periyar advocated forcefully throughout his life that women should be given their legitimate position in society as the equals of men and that they should be given good education and have the right to property . He thought age and social customs was not a bar in marrying women . He was keen that women should realise their rights and be worthy citizens of their country .
Periyar fought against the orthodox traditions of marriage as suppression of women in Tamil Nadu and throughout the Indian sub @-@ continent . Though arranged marriages were meant to enable a couple to live together throughout life , it was manipulated to enslave women . Much worse was the practice of child marriages practised throughout India at the time . Periyar married Maniammai who is 40 years younger than him though . It was believed that it would be a sin to marry after puberty . Another practice , which is prevalent today , is the dowry system where the bride 's family is supposed to give the husband a huge payment for the bride . The purpose of this was to assist the newly wedded couple financially , but in many instances dowries were misused by bridegrooms . The outcome of this abuse turned to the exploitation of the bride 's parents wealth , and in certain circumstances , lead to dowry deaths . There have been hundreds of thousands of cases where wives have been murdered , mutilated , and burned alive because the father of the bride was unable to make the dowry payment to the husband . Periyar fiercely stood up against this abuse meted out against women .
Women in India also did not have rights to their families ' or husbands ' property . Periyar fought fiercely for this and also advocated for the women to have the right to separate or divorce their husbands under reasonable circumstances . While birth control remained taboo in society of Periyar 's time , he advocated for it not only for the health of women and population control , but for the liberation of women .
He criticised the hypocrisy of chastity for women and argued that it should also either belong to men , or not at all for both individuals . While fighting against this , Periyar advocated to get rid of the Devadasi system . In his view it was an example of a list of degradations of women attaching them to temples for the entertainment of others , and as temple prostitutes . As a further liberation of women , Periyar pushed for the right of women to have an education and to join the armed services and the police force .
According to biographer M.D. Gopalakrishnan , Periyar and his movement achieved a better status for women in Tamil society . Periyar held that in matters of education and employment there should be no difference between men and women . Gopalakrishnan states that Periyar 's influence in the State departments and even the Center made it possible for women to join police departments and the army . Periyar also spoke out against child marriage .
= = = Social reform and eradication of caste = = =
Periyar wanted thinking people to see their society as far from perfect and in urgent need of reform . He wanted the government , the political parties and social workers to identify the evils in society and boldly adopt measures to remove them . Periyar 's philosophy did not differentiate social and political service . According to him , the first duty of a government is to run the social organisation efficiently , and the philosophy of religion was to organise the social system . Periyar stated that while Christian and Islamic religions were fulfilling this role , the Hindu religion remained totally unsuitable for social progress . He argued that the government was not for the people , but , in a " topsy @-@ turvy " manner , the people were for the government . He attributed this situation to the state of the social system contrived for the advantage of a small group of people .
One of the areas of Periyar 's focus was on the upliftment of rural communities . In a booklet called Village Uplift , Periyar pleaded for rural reform . At that time rural India still formed the largest part of the Indian subcontinent , in spite of the ongoing process of urbanisation . Thus , the distinction between rural and urban had meant an economic and social degradation for rural inhabitants . Periyar wanted to eradicate the concept of " village " as a discrimination word among places , just as the concept of " outcast " among social groups . Periyar advocated for a location where neither the name nor the situation or its conditions imply differences among people . He further advocated for the modernisation of villages by providing public facilities such as schools , libraries , radio stations , roads , bus transport , and police stations .
Periyar felt that a small number of cunning people created caste distinctions to dominate over society , so he emphasised that individuals must first develop self @-@ respect and learn to analyse propositions rationally . According to Periyar , a self @-@ respecting rationalist would readily realise that caste system had been stifling self @-@ respect and therefore he or she would strive to get rid of this menace .
Periyar stated that the caste system in south India is , due to Indo @-@ Aryan influence , linked with the arrival of Brahmins from the north . Ancient Tamil Nadu ( part of Tamilakkam ) had a different stratification of society in four or five regions ( Tinai ) , determined by natural surroundings and adequate means of living . Periyar also argued that birds , animals , and worms , which are considered to be devoid of rationalism do not create castes , or differences of high and low in their own species . But man , considered to be a rational being , was suffering from these because of religion and discrimination .
= = = Tamil language and writing = = =
Periyar claimed that Tamil , Telugu , Malayalam , and Kannada came from the same mother language of Old Tamil . He explained that the Tamil language is called by four different names since it is spoken in four different Dravidian states . Nevertheless , current understanding of Dravidian languages contains statements contradicting such claims . For example , the currently known classification of Dravidian languages provides the following distinct classes : Southern ( including Tamil – Kannada ( Malayalam ) and Tulu ) ; Central ( including Telugu – Kui and Kolami – Parji ) ; and , Northern ( including Kurukh – Malto and Brahui ) . Additionally , statements on the presence of evidence for linking Dravidian languages and Indo @-@ European languages are available .
With relation to writing , Periyar stated that using the Tamil script about the arts , which are useful to the people in their life and foster knowledge , talent and courage , and propagating them among the masses , will enlighten the people . Further , he explained that it will enrich the language , and thus it can be regarded as a zeal for Tamil . Periyar also stated that if words of North Indian origin ( Sanskrit ) are removed from Telugu , Kannada , and Malayalam , only Tamil will be left . On the Brahmin usage of Tamil , he stated how the Tamil spoken by the Andhras and the Malayalee peoples was far better than the Tamil spoken by the Brahmins . Periyar believed that Tamil language will make the Dravidian people unite under the banner of Tamil culture , and that it will make the Kannadigas , Andhras and the Malayalees be vigilant . With regards to a Dravidian alliance under a common umbrella language , Periyar stated that " a time will come for unity . This will go on until there is an end to the North Indian domination . We shall reclaim an independent sovereign state for us " .
At the same time , Periyar was also known to have made controversial remarks on the Tamil language and people from time to time . On one occasion , he referred to the Tamil people as " barbarians " and the Tamil language as the " language of barbarians " . However , Anita Diehl explains that Periyar made these remarks on Tamil because it had no respective feminine verbal forms .
Periyar 's ideas on Tamil alphabet reforms and his reasons were for the following such as the vowel ' ஈ ' ( i ) , having a cursive and looped representation of the short form , ' இ ' ( I ) . In stone inscriptions from 400 or 500 years ago , many Tamil letters are found in other shapes . As a matter of necessity and advantage to cope with printing technology , Periyar thought that it was sensible to change a few letters , reduce the number of letters , and alter a few signs . He further explained that the older and the more divine a language and its letters were said to be , the more they needed reform . Because of changes brought about by means of modern transport and international contact , and happenings that have attracted words and products from many countries , foreign words and their pronunciations have been assimilated into Tamil quite easily . Just as a few compound characters have separate signs to indicate their length as in ' கா ' , ' கே ' ( kA : , kE : ) , Periyar argued why should not other compound characters like ' கி ' , ' கீ ' , ' கு ' , ' கூ ' ( kI , ki : , kU , ku : ) ( indicated integrally as of now ) , also have separate signs . Further , changing the shape of letters , creating new symbols and adding new letters and similarly , dropping those that are redundant , were quite essential according to Periyar . Thus , the glory and excellence of a language and its script depend on how easily they can be understood or learned and on nothing else "
= = = Thoughts on Thirukkural = = =
Periyar hailed the Thirukkural as a valuable scripture which contained many scientific and philosophical truths . He also praised the secular nature of the work . Periyar praised Thiruvalluvar for his description of God as a formless entity with only positive attributes . He also suggested that one who reads the Thirukkural will become a Self @-@ respecter , absorbing knowledge in politics , society , and economics . According to him , though certain items in this ancient book of ethics may not relate to today , it permitted such changes for modern society .
On caste , he believed that the Kural illustrates how Vedic laws of Manu were against the Sudras and other communities of the Dravidian race . On the other hand , Periyar opined that the ethics from the Kural was comparable to the Christian Bible . The Dravidar Kazhagam adopted the Thirukkural and advocated that Thiruvalluvar 's Kural alone was enough to educate the people of the country . One of Periyar 's quotes on the Thirukkural from Veeramani 's Collected Works of Periyar was " when Dravida Nadu ( Dravidistan ) was a victim to Indo @-@ Aryan deceit , Thirukkural was written by a great Dravidian Thiruvalluvar to free the Dravidians " .
= = = Self @-@ determination of Dravida Nadu = = =
The Dravidian @-@ Aryan conflict was believed to be a continuous historical phenomenon that started when the Aryans first set their foot in the Dravidian lands . Even a decade before the idea of separation appeared , Periyar stated that , " as long as Aryan religion , Indo @-@ Aryan domination , propagation of Aryan Vedas and Aryan " Varnashrama " existed , there was need for a " Dravidian Progressive Movement " and a " Self @-@ Respect Movement " . Periyar became very concerned about the growing north Indian domination over the south which appeared to him no different from foreign domination . He wanted to secure the fruits of labour of the Dravidians to the Dravidians , and lamented that fields such as political , economic , industrial , social , art , and spiritual were dominated by the north for the benefit of the north Indians . Thus , with the approach of independence from Britain , this fear that North India would take the place of Britain to dominate south India became more and more intense .
Periyar was clear about the concept of a separate nation , comprising Tamil areas , that is part of the then existing Madras Presidency with adjoining areas into a federation guaranteeing protection of minorities , including religious , linguistic , and cultural freedom of the people . A separatist conference was held in June 1940 at Kanchipuram when Periyar released the map of the proposed Dravida Nadu , but failed to get British approval . On the contrary , Periyar received sympathy and support from people such as Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar and Muhammad Ali Jinnah for his views on the Congress , and for his opposition to Hindi . They then decided to convene a movement to resist the Congress .
The concept of Dravida Nadu was later modified down to Tamil Nadu This led to a proposal of a union of the Tamil people of not only South India but including those of Ceylon as well . In 1953 , Periyar helped to preserve Madras as the capital of Tamil Nadu , which later was the name he substituted for the more general Dravida Nadu . In 1955 Periyar threatened to burn the national flag , but on Chief Minister Kamaraj 's pledge that Hindi should not be compulsory he postponed the action . In his speech of 1957 called Suthantara Tamil Nadu En ? ( Why an independent Tamil Nadu ? ) , he criticised the Central Government of India inducing thousands of Tamilians to burn the constitution of India . The reason for this action was that Periyar held the Government responsible for maintaining the caste system . After stating reasons for separation and turning down opinions against it he closed his speech with a " war cry " to join and burn the map of India on 5 June . Periyar was sentenced to six months imprisonment for burning the Indian constitution .
Advocacy of such a nation became illegal when separatist demands were banned by law in 1957 . Regardless of these measures , a Dravida Nadu Separation Day was observed on 17 September 1960 resulting in numerous arrests . However , Periyar resumed his campaign in 1968 . He wrote an editorial on ' Tamil Nadu for Tamilians ' in which he stated , that by nationalism only Brahmins had prospered and nationalism had been developed to abolish the rights of Tamils . He advocated that there was need to establish a Tamil Nadu Freedom Organization and that it was necessary to work towards it .
= = = Anti @-@ Brahmanism vs. Anti @-@ Brahmin = = =
Periyar was a radical advocate of anti @-@ Brahmanism . Periyar 's ideology of anti @-@ Brahmanism is quite often confused as being anti @-@ Brahmin . Brahmanism is accepting social inequality based on birth . Even a non @-@ Brahmin who supports inequality based on caste was seen as a supporter of brahmanism . Periyar called on both Brahmins and non @-@ Brahmins to shun brahmanism .
In 1920 , when the Justice Party came to power , Brahmins occupied about 70 percent of the high level posts in government . After reservation was introduced by the Justice Party , it reversed this trend , allowing non @-@ Brahmins to rise in the government of the Madras Presidency . Periyar , through the Justice Party , advocated against the imbalance of the domination of Brahmins who constituted only 3 percent of the Population over Government jobs , judiciary and the Madras University . His Self @-@ Respect Movement espoused rationalism and atheism and the movement had currents of anti @-@ Brahminism . Furthermore , Periyar stated that :
" Our Dravidian movement does not exist against the Brahmins or the Banias ( a North Indian merchant caste ) . If anyone thinks so , I would only pity him . But we will not tolerate the ways in which Brahminism and the Bandiaism is degrading Dravidanadu . Whatever support they may have from the government , neither myself nor my movement will be of cowardice " .
Periyar also criticised Subramanya Bharathi in the journal Ticutar for portraying Mother Tamil as a sister of Sanskrit in his poems :
" They say Bharati is an immortal poet . … Even if a rat dies in an akrakāram , they would declare it to be immortal . … of Tamilnadu praises him . Why should this be so ? Supposedly because he sang fulsome praises of Tamil and Tamilnadu . What else could he sing ? His own mother tongue , Sanskrit , has been dead for years . What other language did he know ? He cannot sing in Sanskrit . … He says Tamilnadu is the land of Aryas . "
= = = Comparisons with Gandhi = = =
In the Vaikom Satyagraha of 1924 , Periyar and Gandhi both cooperated and confronted each other in socio @-@ political action . Periyar and his followers emphasised the difference in point of view between Gandhi and himself on the social issues , such as fighting the Untouchability Laws and eradication of the caste system .
According to the booklet Gandhi and Periyar Periyar wrote in his paper Kudi Arasu , in 1925 , reporting on the fact that Gandhi was ousted from the Mahasabha , because he opposed resolutions for the maintaining of caste and Untouchability Laws which would spoil his efforts to bring about Hindu @-@ Muslim unity . From this Gandhi learned the need of pleasing the Brahmins if anything was to be achieved .
Peiryar in his references to Gandhi used opportunities to present Gandhi as on principle serving the interests of the Brahmins. in 1927 , Periyar and Gandhi met at Bangalore to discuss this matter . The main difference between them came out when Periyar stood for the total eradication of Hinduism to which Gandhi objected saying that Hinduism is not fixed in doctrines but can be changed . In the Kudi Arasu , Periyar explained that :
" With all his good qualities , Gandhi did not bring the people forward from foolish and evil ways . His murderer was an educated man . Therefore nobody can say this is a time of high culture . If you eat poison you will die . If electricity hits the body you will die . If you oppose the Brahmin you will die . Gandhi did not advocate the eradication of Varnasrama Dharma structure but sees in it a task for the humanisation of society and social change possible within its structure . The consequence of this would be continued high @-@ caste leadership . Gandhi adapted Brahmins to social change without depriving them of their leadership " .
Thus , Gandhi did not advocate the eradication of the Varnasrama Dharma structure but saw in it a task for the humanisation of society and social change possible within its structure . The consequence of this would be continued high @-@ caste leadership . Gandhi accepted karma in the sense that " the Untouchables reap the reward of their karma , but was against discrimination against them using the revaluing term Harijans . As shown in the negotiations at Vaikom his methods of abolishing discrimination were : to stress on the orthodox inhumane treatment of Untouchables ; to secure voluntary lifting of the ban by changing the hearts of caste Hindus ; and to work within a Hindu framework of ideas .
On the Temple Entry issue Gandhi never advocated the opening of Garbha Griha to Harijans in consequence of his Hindu belief . These sources which can be labelled " pro @-@ Periyar " with the exception of M. Mahar and D.S. Sharma , clearly show that Periyar and his followers emphasised that Periyar was the real fighter for the removal of Untouchability and the true uplift of Hairjans , whereas Gandhi was not . This did not prevent Periyar from having faith in Gandhi on certain matters .
= = = Religion and atheism = = =
Periyar was generally regarded as a pragmatic propagandist who attacked the evils of religious influence on society , mainly what he regarded as Brahmin domination . At a young age , he felt that some people used religion only as a mask to deceive innocent people and considered it as his life 's mission to warn people against superstitions and priests . Anita Diehl explains that Periyar cannot be called an atheist philosopher . Periyar , however , qualified for the definition of what the term ' atheist ' implies in his address on philosophy . He repudiated the term as without real sense : " … the talk of the atheist should be considered thoughtless and erroneous . The thing I call god ... that makes all people equal and free , the god that does not stop free thinking and research , the god that does not ask for money , flattery and temples can certainly be an object of worship . For saying this much I have been called an atheist , a term that has no meaning " . EVR Periyar a born Hindu was vehemently opposed to Hinduism and Christianity . He did not criticize Islam .
Anita Diehl explains that Periyar was against incompatibility of faith with social equality and not religion itself . In a book on revolution published in 1961 , Periyar stated , " be of help to people . Do not use treachery or deceit . Speak the truth and do not cheat . That indeed is service to God " .
On Hinduism , Periyar believed that it was a religion with no distinctive sacred book ( bhagawad gita ) , or origins , but to be an imaginary faith preaching the " superiority " of the Brahmins , the inferiority of the Shudras , and the untouchability of the Dalits ( Panchamas ) . Maria Misra , a lecturer at Oxford University , compares him to the philosophes , by stating , " his contemptuous attitude to the baleful influence of Hinduism in Indian public life is strikingly akin to the anti @-@ Catholic diatribes of the enlightenment philosophes " . In 1955 , Periyar was arrested for his public agitation of burning the pictures of Rama at public places , as a symbolic protest against the Indo @-@ Aryan domination and degradation of the Dravidian leadership according to the Ramayana epic . Periyar also shoed the images of Krishna and Rama , stating that they were Aryan gods that considered the Dravidian Shudras to be " sons of prostitutes " .
Periyar openly suggested to those who were marginalised within the Hindu communities to consider converting to other faiths such as Islam , Christianity , or Buddhism . On Islam , he stated how it was good for abolishing the disgrace in human relationship , based on one of his speeches to railway employees at Tiruchirapalli in 1947 . Periyar also commended Islam for its belief in one invisible and formless God ; proclamation of equal rights for men and women ; and advocating of social unity .
At the rally in Tiruchi , Periyar said :
" Muslims are following the ancient philosophies of the Dravidians . The Arabic word for Dravidian religion is Islam . When Brahmanism was imposed in this country , it was Mohammad Nabi who opposed it , by instilling the Dravidian religion 's policies as Islam in the minds of the people "
Periyar viewed Christianity similar to the monotheistic faith of Islam . He explained that their faith says that there can be only one God which has no name or shape . Periyar took an interest in Rev. Martin Luther , where both he and his followers wanted to liken him and his role to that of the European reformer . Thus , Christian views such as that of Ram Mohan Roy 's The Precepts of Jesus has had at least an indirect influence on Periyar .
Apart from Islam and Christianity , Periyar also found in Buddhism a basis for his philosophy though he did not accept that religion . It was again an alternative in the search for self @-@ respect and the object was to get liberation from the discrimination of Hinduism . Through Periyar 's movement Temple Entry Acts of 1924 , 1931 , and up to 1950 were created for the non @-@ Brahmins . Another accomplishment took place during the 1970s when Tamil replaced Sanskrit as the Temple language in Tamil Nadu , while Dalits were finally eligible for priesthood .
= = = Controversies = = =
= = = = Factionism in the Justice Party = = = =
When B. Munuswamy Naidu became the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency in 1930 , he endorsed the inclusion of Brahmins in the Justice Party , saying :
So long as we exclude one community , we cannot as a political speak on behalf of or claim to represent all the people of our presidency . If , as we hope , provincial autonomy is given to the provinces as a result of the reforms that may be granted , it should be essential that our Federation should be in a position to claim to be a truly representative body of all communities . What objection can there be to admit such Brahmins as are willing to subscribe to the aims and objects of our Federation ? It may be that the Brahmins may not join even if the ban is removed . But surely our Federation will not thereafter be open to objection on the ground that it is an exclusive organisation .
Though certain members supported the resolution , a faction in the Justice Party known as the " Ginger Group " opposed the resolution and eventually voted it down . Periyar , who was then an observer in the Justice Party , criticised Munuswamy Naidu , saying :
At a time when non @-@ Brahmins in other parties were gradually coming over to the Justice Party , being fed up with the Brahmin 's methods and ways of dealing with political questions , it was nothing short of folly to think of admitting him into the ranks of the Justice Party .
This factionism continued until 1932 when Munuswamy Naidu stepped down as the Chief Minister of Madras and the Raja of Bobbili became the chief minister .
= = Followers and influence = =
After the death of Periyar in 1973 , conferences were held throughout Tamil Nadu for a week in January 1974 . The same year Periyar 's wife , Maniyammai , the new head of the Dravidar Kazhagam , set fire to the effigies of ' Rama ' , ' Sita ' and ' Lakshmana ' at Periyar Thidal , Madras . This was in retaliation to the Ramaleela celebrations where effigies of ' Ravana ' , ' Kumbakarna ' and ' Indrajit ' were burnt in New Delhi . For this act she was imprisoned . During the 1974 May Day meetings held at different places in Tamil Nadu , a resolution urging the Government to preserve 80 percent of jobs for Tamils was passed . Soon after this , a camp was held at Periyar Mansion in Tiruchirapalli to train young men and women to spread the ideals of the Dravidar Kazhagam in rural areas .
On Periyar 's birthday on 17 September 1974 , Periyar 's Rationalist Library and Research Library and Research Institute was opened by Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi . This library contained Periyar 's rationalist works , the manuscripts of Periyar and his recorded speeches . Also during the same year Periyar 's ancestral home in Erode , was dedicated as a commemoration building . On 20 February 1977 , the opening function of Periyar Building in Madras was held . At the meeting which the Managing Committee of the Dravidar Kazhagam held , there on that day , it was decided to support the candidates belonging to the Janata Party , the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) , and the Marxist Party during the General Elections .
On 16 March 1978 , Maniyammai died . The Managing Committee of the Dravidar Kazhagam elected K. Veeramani as General Secretary of the Dravidar Kazhagam on 17 March 1978 . From then on , the Periyar @-@ Maniyammai Educational and Charitable Society started the Periyar Centenary Women 's Polytechnic at Thanjavur on 21 September 1980 . On 8 May 1982 , the College for Correspondence Education was started under the auspices of the Periyar Rationalist Propaganda Organization .
Over the years , Periyar 's influence had an impact on Tamil Nadus political party heads such as C.N. Annadurai and M. Karunanidhi of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ' ( DMK ) , V. Gopalswamy founder of the Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( MDMK ) , S. Ramadoss founder of the Pattali Makkal Katchi ( PMK ) , Thol . Thirumavalavan , founder of the Dalit Panthers of India ( DPI ) , and Dravidar Kazhagam 's K. Veeramani . Other political figures influenced by Periyar were former Congress minister K. Kamaraj , former Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh Mayawati . Periyar 's life and teachings have also influenced writers and poets such as Kavignar Inkulab , and Bharathidasan including actors such as Kamal Hassan and Sathyaraj . Noted Tamil Comedian N. S. Krishnan was a close friend and follower of Periyar.W. P. A. Soundarapandian Nadar was a close confidant of Periyar and encouraged Nadars to be a part of the Self @-@ Respect Movement .
= = In popular culture = =
Sathyaraj and Khushboo Sundar starred in a government @-@ sponsored film Periyar released in 2007 . Directed by Gnana Rajasekaran , the film was screened in Malaysia on 1 May 2007 and was screened at the Goa International Film Festival in November that year . Sathyaraj reprised his role as Periyar in the film Kalavadiya Pozhudugal directed by Thangar Bachan which released in late 2010 .
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= Moonraker ( novel ) =
Moonraker is the third novel by the British author Ian Fleming to feature his fictional British Secret Service agent James Bond . It was published by Jonathan Cape on 5 April 1955 and featured a cover design conceived by Fleming . The plot is derived from a Fleming screenplay that was too short for a full novel so he added the bridge passage between Bond and the industrialist Hugo Drax . In the latter half of the novel , the premise of Bond seconded to Drax 's staff as the businessman builds the Moonraker , a prototype missile designed to defend England . Unknown to Bond , Drax is German , an ex @-@ Nazi now working for the Soviets ; his plan is to build the rocket , arm it with a nuclear warhead , and fire it at London . Uniquely for a Bond novel , Moonraker is set entirely in Britain , which raised comments from some readers , complaining about the lack of exotic locations .
Moonraker , like Fleming 's previous novels , was well received by critics . Moonraker plays on a number of 1950s fears , including attack by rockets ( following the V @-@ 2 strikes of the Second World War ) , Soviet communism , the re @-@ emergence of Nazism and the " threat from within " posed by both ideologies . Fleming examines Englishness , and the novel shows the virtues and strength of England . Adaptations include a broadcast on South African radio in 1956 starring Bob Holness and a 1958 Daily Express comic strip . The novel 's name was used in 1979 for the eleventh official film in the Eon Productions Bond series and the fourth to star Roger Moore as Bond ; the plot was significantly changed from the novel to include excursions into space .
= = Plot = =
The British Secret Service agent James Bond is asked by his superior , M , to join him at M 's club , Blades . A club member , the multi @-@ millionaire businessman Sir Hugo Drax , is winning considerable money playing bridge , seemingly against the odds . M suspects Drax is cheating , and while claiming indifference , is concerned as to why a multi @-@ millionaire and national hero would cheat . Bond confirms Drax 's deception and manages to turn the tables — aided by a pack of stacked cards — and wins £ 15 @,@ 000 .
Drax is the product of a mysterious background , purportedly unknown even to himself . Presumed to have been a British Army soldier during the Second World War , he was badly injured and stricken with amnesia in the explosion of a bomb planted by a German saboteur at a British field headquarters . After extensive rehabilitation in an army hospital , he returned home to become a wealthy industrialist . After building his fortune and establishing himself in business and society , Drax started building the " Moonraker " , Britain 's first nuclear missile project , intended to defend Britain against its Cold War enemies . The Moonraker rocket was to be an upgraded V @-@ 2 rocket using liquid hydrogen and fluorine as propellants ; to withstand the ultra @-@ high combustion temperatures of its engine , it used columbite , in which Drax had a monopoly . Because the rocket 's engine could withstand high heat , the Moonraker was able to use these powerful fuels , greatly expanding its effective range .
After a Ministry of Supply security officer working at the project is shot dead , M assigns Bond to replace him and also to investigate what has been going on at the missile @-@ building base , located between Dover and Deal on the south coast of England . All the rocket scientists working on the project are German . At his post on the complex , Bond meets Gala Brand , a beautiful police Special Branch officer working undercover as Drax 's personal assistant . Bond also uncovers clues concerning his predecessor 's death , concluding that the man may have been killed for witnessing a submarine off the coast .
Drax 's henchman Krebs is caught by Bond snooping through his room . Later , an attempted assassination by triggering a landslide nearly kills Bond and Brand , as they swim beneath the Dover cliffs . Drax takes Brand to London , where she discovers the truth about the Moonraker by comparing her own launch trajectory figures with those in a notebook picked from Drax 's pocket . She is captured by Krebs , and finds herself captive in a secret radio homing station — intended to serve as a beacon for the missile 's guidance system — in the heart of London . While she is being taken back to the Moonraker facility by Drax , Bond gives chase , but is also captured by Drax and Krebs .
Drax tells Bond that he was never a British soldier and has never suffered from amnesia : he was Graf Hugo von der Drache , the German commander of a Skorzeny commando unit . He was the saboteur whose team had placed the car bomb at the army field headquarters , only to be injured himself in the detonation . The amnesia story was simply a cover he used while recovering in hospital , in order to avoid Allied retribution , although it would lead to a whole new British identity . Drax remains a dedicated Nazi , bent on revenge against England for the wartime defeat of his Fatherland and his prior history of social slights suffered as a youth growing up in an English boarding school before the war . He explains that he now means to destroy London with the missile he had constructed , by means of a Soviet @-@ supplied nuclear warhead that has been secretly fitted to the Moonraker . He also plans to play the stock market the day before to make a huge profit from the imminent disaster .
Brand and Bond are imprisoned where the blast from the Moonraker 's engines will incinerate them , to leave no trace of them once the Moonraker is launched . Before the firing , the couple escape . Brand gives Bond the proper coordinates to redirect the gyros and send the Moonraker into the sea . Having been in collaboration with Soviet Intelligence all along , Drax and his henchman attempt to escape by Russian submarine — only to be killed as the vessel flees through the waters onto which the Moonraker has been retargeted . After their debriefing at headquarters , Bond meets up with Brand , expecting her company — but they part ways after she reveals that she is engaged to a fellow Special Branch officer .
= = Background and writing history = =
In early 1953 the film producer Alexander Korda read a proof copy of Live and Let Die , and informed its author , Ian Fleming , that he was excited by the book , but that it would not make a good basis for a film . Fleming told the producer that his next book was to be an expansion of an idea for a screenplay , set in London and Kent , adding that the location would allow " for some wonderful film settings in the old metropolis idiom " .
Fleming undertook a significant amount of background research in preparation for writing Moonraker ; he asked his fellow correspondent on The Sunday Times , Anthony Terry , for information on the Second World War German resistance force — the Werewolves — and German V @-@ 2 rockets . The latter was a subject on which he wrote to the science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke and the British Interplanetary Society . Fleming also visited the Wimpole Street psychiatrist Eric Strauss to discuss the traits of megalomaniacs ; Strauss lent him the book Men of Genius , which provided the link between megalomania and childhood thumb @-@ sucking . Fleming used this information to give Drax diastema , a common result of thumb @-@ sucking . According to his biographer Andrew Lycett , Fleming " wanted to make Moonraker his most ambitious and personal novel yet . " Fleming , a keen card player , was fascinated by the background to the 1890 royal baccarat scandal , and when in 1953 he met a woman who had been present at the game , he questioned her so intently that she burst into tears .
In January 1954 Fleming and his wife , Ann , travelled to their Goldeneye estate in Jamaica for their annual two @-@ month holiday . He had already written two Bond novels , Casino Royale , which had been published in April 1953 , and Live and Let Die , whose publication was imminent . He began writing Moonraker on his arrival in the Caribbean . He later wrote an article for Books and Bookmen magazine describing his approach to writing , in which he said : " I write for about three hours in the morning ... and I do another hour 's work between six and seven in the evening . I never correct anything and I never go back to see what I have written ... By following my formula , you write 2 @,@ 000 words a day . " By 24 February he had written over 30 @,@ 000 words , although he wrote to a friend that he felt like he was already parodying the two earlier Bond novels . Fleming 's own copy bears the following inscription , " This was written in January and February 1954 and published a year later . It is based on a film script I have had in my mind for many years . " He later said that the idea for the film had been too short for a full novel , and that he " had to more or less graft the first half of the book onto my film idea in order to bring it up to the necessary length " .
Fleming considered a number of titles for the story ; his first choice had been The Moonraker , until Noël Coward reminded him of a novel of the same name by F. Tennyson Jesse . Fleming then considered The Moonraker Secret , The Moonraker Plot , The Inhuman Element , Wide of the Mark , The Infernal Machine , Mondays are Hell and Out of the Clear Sky . George Wren Howard of Jonathan Cape suggested Bond & the Moonraker , The Moonraker Scare and The Moonraker Plan , while his friend , the writer William Plomer , suggested Hell is Here ; the final choice of Moonraker was a suggestion by Wren Howard .
Although Fleming provided no dates within his novels , two writers have identified different timelines based on events and situations within the novel series as a whole . John Griswold and Henry Chancellor — both of whom have written books on behalf of Ian Fleming Publications — put the events of Moonraker in 1953 ; Griswold is more precise , and considers the story to have taken place in May of that year .
= = Development = =
= = = Plot inspirations = = =
The locations draw from Fleming 's personal experiences . Moonraker is the only Bond novel that takes place solely in Britain , which gave Fleming the chance to write about the England he cherished , such as the Kent countryside , including the White Cliffs of Dover , and London clubland . Fleming owned a cottage in St Margaret 's at Cliffe , near Dover , and he went to great lengths to get the details of the area right , including lending his car to his stepson to time the journey from London to Deal for the car chase passage . Fleming used his experiences of London clubs for the background of the Blades scenes . As a clubman , he enjoyed membership of Boodle 's , White 's and the Portland Club , and a combination of Boodles and the Portland Club is thought to be the model for Blades ; the author Michael Dibdin found the scene in the club to be " surely one of the finest things that Ian Fleming ever did . "
The early chapters of the novel centre on Bond 's private life , with Fleming using his own lifestyle as a basis for Bond 's . Fleming used further aspects of his private life , such as his friends , as he had done in his previous novels : Hugo Drax was named after his brother @-@ in @-@ law Hugo Charteris and a navy acquaintance Admiral Sir Reginald Aylmer Ranfurly Plunkett @-@ Ernle @-@ Erle @-@ Drax , while Fleming 's friend Duff Sutherland ( described as " a scruffy looking chap " ) was one of the bridge players at Blades . The name of the Scotland Yard superintendent , Ronnie Vallance , was made up from those of Ronald Howe , the actual assistant commissioner at the Yard , and of Vallance Lodge & Co . , Fleming 's accountants . Other elements of the plot came from Fleming 's knowledge of wartime operations carried out by T @-@ Force , a secret British Army unit formed to continue the work of the Fleming @-@ established 30 Assault Unit .
= = = Characters = = =
According to the author Raymond Benson , Moonraker is a deeper and more introspective book than Fleming 's previous work , which allows the author to develop the characters further . As such , Bond " becomes something more than ... [ the ] cardboard figure " that he had been in the previous two novels . The start of the book concentrates on Bond at home and his daily routines , which Fleming describes as " Elastic office hours from around ten until six , ... evenings spent playing cards in the company of a few close friends , ... or making love , with rather cold passion , to one of three similarly disposed married women . " This lifestyle was largely modelled on Fleming 's own , which the journalist and writer Matthew Parker sees as showing " a sourness " in the author 's character . According to Chancellor , two of Bond 's other vices were also displayed in the book : his fondness for gambling — illegal except in private members clubs in 1955 — and excessive drink and drug taking , neither of which were frowned upon in post @-@ war upper class circles . In preparation for beating Drax at cards , Bond consumes a vodka martini , a carafe of vodka shared with M , two bottles of champagne and a brandy ; he also mixes a quantity of Benzedrine , an amphetamine , into a glass of the champagne . According to The Times journalist and historian Ben Macintyre , to Fleming the alcohol consumption " meant relaxation , ritual and reliability " . Benzedrine was regularly taken by troops during the war to remain awake and alert , and Fleming was an occasional consumer .
Drax is physically abnormal , as are many of Bond 's later adversaries . He has very broad shoulders , a large head and protruding teeth with diastema ; his face is badly scarred from a wartime explosion . According to the writers Kingsley Amis and Benson — both of whom subsequently wrote Bond novels — Drax is the most successful villain in the Bond canon . Amis considers this to be " because the most imagination and energy has gone into his portrayal . He lives in the real world ... [ and ] his physical presence fills Moonraker . The view is shared by Chancellor , who considers Drax " perhaps the most believable " of all Fleming 's villains . The cultural historian Jeremy Black writes that as with Le Chiffre and Mr Big — the villains of the first two Bond novels — Drax 's origins and war history are vital to an understanding of the character . Like several other antagonists in the Bond canon , Drax was German , reminding readers of a familiar threat in 1950s Britain . Because Drax is without a girlfriend or wife he is , according to the norms of Fleming and his works , abnormal in Bond 's world .
Benson considers Brand to be one of the weakest female roles in the Bond canon and " a throwback to the rather stiff characterization of Vesper Lynd " from Casino Royale . Brand 's lack of interest in Bond removes sexual tension from the novel ; she is unique in the canon for being the one woman that Bond does not seduce . The cultural historians Janet Woollacott and Tony Bennett write that the perceived reserve shown by Brand to Bond was not due to frigidity , but to her engagement to a fellow police officer .
M is another character who is more fully realised than in the previous novels , and for the first time in the series he is shown outside a work setting at the Blades club . It is never explained how he received or could afford his membership of the club , which had a restricted membership of only 200 gentlemen , all of whom had to show £ 100 @,@ 000 in cash or gilt @-@ edged securities . Amis , in his study The James Bond Dossier , considers that on M 's salary his membership of the club would have been puzzling ; Amis points out that in the 1963 book On Her Majesty 's Secret Service it is revealed that M 's pay as head of the Secret Service is £ 6 @,@ 500 a year .
= = Style = =
Benson analysed Fleming 's writing style and identified what he described as the " Fleming Sweep " : a stylistic technique that sweeps the reader from one chapter to another using ' hooks ' at the end of each chapter to heighten tension and pull the reader into the next : Benson feels that the sweep in Moonraker was not as pronounced as Fleming 's previous works , largely due to the lack of action sequences in the novel .
According to the literary analyst LeRoy L. Panek , in his examination of 20th @-@ century British spy novels , in Moonraker Fleming uses a technique closer to the detective story than to the thriller genre . This manifests itself in Fleming placing clues to the plot line throughout the story , and leaving Drax 's unveiling of his plan until the later chapters . Black sees that the pace of the novel is set by the launch of the rocket ( there are four days between Bond 's briefing by M and the launch ) while Amis considers that the story to have a " rather hurried " ending .
Moonraker uses a literary device Fleming employs elsewhere , that of having a seemingly trivial incident between the main characters — the card game — that leads to the uncovering of a greater incident — the main plot involving the rocket . Dibdin sees gambling as the common link , thus the card game acts as an " introduction to the ensuing encounter ... for even higher stakes " . Savoye sees this concept of competition between Bond and villain as a " notion of game and the eternal fight between Order and Disorder " , common throughout the Bond stories .
= = Themes = =
Parker describes the novel as " a hymn to England " , and highlights Fleming 's description of the white cliffs of Dover and the heart of London as evidence . Even the German Krebs is moved by the sight of the Kent countryside in a country he hates . The novel places England — and particularly London and Kent — in the front line of the cold war , and the threat to the location further emphasises its importance . Bennett and Woollacott consider that Moonraker defines the strengths and virtues of England and Englishness as being the " quiet and orderly background of English institutions " , which are threatened by the disturbance Drax brings .
The literary critic Meir Sternberg considers the theme of English identity can be seen in the confrontation between Drax and Bond . Drax — whose real name Drache is German for dragon — is in opposition to Bond , who takes the role of Saint George in the conflict .
As with Casino Royale and Live and Let Die , Moonraker involves the idea of the " traitor within " . Drax , real name Graf Hugo von der Drache , is a " megalomaniac German Nazi who masquerades as an English gentleman " , while Krebs bears the same name as Hitler 's last Chief of Staff . Black sees that , in using a German as the novel 's main enemy , " Fleming ... exploits another British cultural antipathy of the 1950s . Germans , in the wake of the Second World War , made another easy and obvious target for bad press . " Moonraker uses two of the foes feared by Fleming , the Nazis and the Soviets , with Drax being German and working for the Soviets ; in Moonraker the Soviets were hostile and provided not just the atomic bomb , but support and logistics to Drax . Moonraker played on fears of the audiences of the 1950s of rocket attacks from overseas , fears grounded in the use of the V @-@ 2 rocket by the Nazis during the Second World War . The story takes the threat one stage further , with a rocket based on English soil , aimed at London and " the end of British invulnerability " .
= = Publication and reception = =
= = = Publication history = = =
Moonraker was published in the UK by Jonathan Cape in hardback format on 5 April 1955 with a cover designed by Kenneth Lewis , following Fleming 's suggestions of using a stylised flame motif ; the first impression was of 9 @,@ 900 copies . The US publication was by Macmillan on 20 September that year . In October 1956 Pan Books published a paperback version of the novel in the UK , which sold 43 @,@ 000 copies before the end of the year . In December that year the US paperback was published under the title Too Hot to Handle by Permabooks . This edition was rewritten to Americanise the British idioms used , and Fleming provided a number of explanatory footnotes such as the value of English currency against the dollar . Since its initial publication the book has been issued in numerous hardback and paperback editions , translated into several languages and has never been out of print .
= = = Reception = = =
Fleming 's friend — and neighbour in Jamaica — Noël Coward considered Moonraker to be the best thing Fleming had written to that point : " although as usual too far @-@ fetched , not quite so much so as the last two ... His observation is extraordinary and his talent for description vivid . " Fleming received numerous letters from readers complaining about the lack of exotic locations ; one of which protested " We want taking out of ourselves , not sitting on the beach in Dover . "
Julian Symons , writing in The Times Literary Supplement , found Moonraker " a disappointment " , and considered that " Fleming 's tendency ... to parody the form of the thriller , has taken charge in the second half of this story . " Maurice Richardson , in his review for The Observer , was more welcoming : " Do not miss this " , he urged , saying that " Mr. Fleming continues to be irresistibly readable , however incredible " . Hilary Corke , writing in The Listener , thought that " Fleming is one of the most accomplished of thriller @-@ writers " , and considered that Moonraker " is as mercilessly readable as all the rest " . Corke warned Fleming away from being over @-@ dramatic , declaring that " Mr Fleming is evidently far too accomplished to need to lean upon these blood @-@ and @-@ thunder devices : he could keep our hair on end for three hundred pages without spilling more blood than was allowed to Shylock . " The reviewer in The Scotsman considered that Fleming " administers stimuli with no mean hand ... ' Astonish me ! ' the addict may challenge : Mr Fleming can knock him sideways . "
John Metcalf for The Spectator thought the book " utterly disgraceful — and highly enjoyable ... without [ Moonraker ] no forthcoming railway journey should be undertaken " , although he also considered that it was " not one of Mr. Fleming 's best " . Anthony Boucher , writing in The New York Times , was equivocal , saying " I don 't know anyone who writes about gambling more vividly than Fleming and I only wish the other parts of his books lived up to their gambling sequences " . Richard Lister in the New Statesman thought that " Mr. Fleming is splendid ; he stops at nothing . " Writing for The Washington Post , Al Manola believed that the " British tradition of rich mystery writing , copious description and sturdy heroism all blend nicely " in Moonraker , providing what he considered was " probably the best action novel of the month " .
= = Adaptations = =
The actor John Payne attempted to take up the option on the film rights to the book in 1955 , but nothing came of the attempt . The Rank Organisation also came to an agreement to make a film , but this likewise fell through . The novel was not one of Fleming 's stories acquired by Eon Productions in 1961 ; in 1969 the company acquired the rights and commissioned Gerry Anderson to produce and co @-@ write a screenplay . Anderson and Tony Barwick prepared a 70 @-@ page treatment that was never filmed , but some elements were similar to the final screenplay of The Spy Who Loved Me .
The first adaptation of Moonraker was for South African radio in 1956 , with Bob Holness providing the voice of Bond . According to The Independent , " listeners across the Union thrilled to Bob 's cultured tones as he defeated evil master criminals in search of world domination " . The novel was adapted as a comic strip that was published in the Daily Express newspaper and syndicated worldwide . The adaptation was written by Henry Gammidge and illustrated by John McLusky , and ran daily from 30 March to 8 August 1959 . Titan Books reprinted the strip in 2005 along with Casino Royale and Live and Let Die as a part of the Casino Royale anthology .
" Moonraker " was used as the title for the eleventh James Bond film , produced by Eon Productions and released in 1979 . Directed by Lewis Gilbert and produced by Albert R. Broccoli , the film features Roger Moore in his fourth appearance as Bond . The Nazi @-@ inspired element of Drax 's motivation in the novel was indirectly preserved with the " master race " theme of the film 's plot . Since the screenplay was original , Eon Productions and Glidrose Publications authorised the film 's writer , Christopher Wood , to produce his second novelization based on a film ; this was entitled James Bond and Moonraker . Elements of Moonraker were also used in the 2002 film Die Another Day , with a scene set in the Blades club . The actress Rosamund Pike , who plays Miranda Frost in the film , later said that her character was originally to have been named Gala Brand .
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= Spooked ( The Office ) =
" Spooked " is the fifth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 157th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 27 , 2011 . It was written by Carrie Kemper , sister of cast member Ellie Kemper , and directed by Randall Einhorn . The episode guest starred David Mazouz .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Erin Hannon ( Kemper ) works to make a spooky , non @-@ childish Halloween party with help from Gabe Lewis ( Zach Woods ) . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) becomes friends with Robert California 's ( James Spader ) son ( David Mazouz ) , and Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) debate the existence of ghosts . Meanwhile , Robert figures out everyone 's deepest fears and tries to culminate a ghost story .
" Spooked " received mixed reviews , although many critics complimented Ellie Kemper 's performance . According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Spooked " drew 5 @.@ 53 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode ranked as one of the lowest @-@ rated episodes of the series to air on Thursday and ranked third in its timeslot .
= = Plot = =
Erin Hannon has been assigned to set up the Halloween party by Andy Bernard , who wants to live up to the expectations set by Robert ( James Spader ) . Robert arrives with his son Bert and remarks that the party is more tailored to kids than adults . In response , Andy asks Angela Martin and Phyllis Vance to take over and re @-@ tailor the party , much to Erin 's chagrin . Andy also tells her that he wishes to speak with her at the end of the day . Worried that he intends to fire her , she asks Gabe ( Zach Woods ) to help her make the party more " scary " and " sexy " , and he gives her a tape to show everyone . Gabe explains to the camera crew that the video is a Cinema of the Unsettling movie , an avant garde film genre defined by its disturbing images and absence of plot . Disgusted by the video , the office staff demand an explanation from Erin . In desperation , she shows them her idea for making the party more " sexy " : a card game with photos of genitalia . This only makes them more outraged , and Andy and Robert talk with Erin in his office regarding the incident . Erin admits her fears about their planned talk at the end of the day . Andy tells her what he wanted to talk to her about : he has reached a point in his romantic relationship where his girlfriend should be able to call him at the office , and that he wanted to clear this with Erin first since she handles all calls . Erin had not even known that he was dating someone , and is shocked to hear they have been out on 31 dates so far . Erin feels dejected and leaves .
Jim and Pam Halpert argue whether ghosts are real after she claims to have seen one at a pub where she used to work . Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute dresses up as Sarah Kerrigan from StarCraft , but Toby Flenderson takes off his wings as they had knives on them and Dwight is not allowed to bring in weapons . Bert recognizes what his costume is supposed to be and the two bond over playing StarCraft all day , ignoring everyone else . Dwight also makes Bert pretend to fire Toby , for taking away his weapons , on the grounds that he is the CEO 's son .
Throughout the party , Robert coaxes each of the employees into revealing their deepest fears . Before leaving , he tells a horror story implementing all their fears as a way to convince them not to let fear control their lives . This inspires Jim and Pam to stop their argument and Erin to talk to Andy about her feelings .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by story editor Carrie Kemper , sister of cast member Ellie Kemper , her second written story for the series . It was directed by one of the The Office 's cinematographers , Randall Einhorn , his 15th directing credit for the series . The episode is the third Halloween themed episode of the series after season two 's " Halloween " and season seven 's " Costume Contest " . The episode also featured James Spader as Sabre CEO Robert California , who is currently set to appear in 15 episodes for the season . The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include the rest of the office getting in the debate over whether ghosts exist , and Robert 's son Bert and Dwight talking about zombies , specifically characters from The Walking Dead .
= = Cultural references = =
In the episode , Dwight dresses up as Sarah Kerrigan , a character from the video game series StarCraft . Later , Toby narrates a montage of previous costumes worn by Dwight including dressed as Freddy Krueger , Jigsaw , and Pinhead , the primary antagonists from the A Nightmare on Elm Street , Saw , and Hellraiser franchises , respectively . Angela is seen dressed in the same cat that she wore in the season two episode , " Halloween " . Jim , Kevin and Darryl are dressed up as professional basketball players Chris Bosh , Dwyane Wade and LeBron James , respectively . Ryan is dressed as Jesse Pinkman from the TV series Breaking Bad , wearing the character 's signature yellow hoodie and beanie .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Spooked " was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 53 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the United States , and 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a 15 % drop in the ratings from the previous episode , " Garden Party " making it the lowest @-@ rated episode of the series that aired on Thursday . The episode ranked third in its timeslot beating Person of Interest , which received a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 % share in the 18 — 49 demographic , and The Secret Circle , which received a 0 @.@ 9 rating / 2 % share . The episode , however , was beaten to number two by Grey 's Anatomy , which received a 3 @.@ 7 rating / 9 % share , and beaten to number one by the 2011 World Series , which received a 6 @.@ 5 rating / 18 % share .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mostly mixed reviews from critics . National Post writer Barry Hertz wrote that while " it wasn ’ t as patience @-@ testing as last year ’ s outing [ ' Costume Contest ' ] , but it also wasn ’ t as gut @-@ busting and on @-@ the @-@ nose as its earlier incarnation [ " Halloween " ] . " He complimented the Erin and Andy plot , but called the Jim and Pam plot " boring " . Ellie Kemper 's performance received commendations from Hertz . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt criticized the episode for " just creating situations and seeing how the characters react to them , which is likely why the writers were willing to lazily rehash the stock ' office Halloween party ' setup that drives the narrative of ' Spooked ' . " Despite this , he wrote positively of Erin 's plot , Kemper 's performance , and James Spader 's scary speech at the end . However , McNutt was critical of the Dwight plot and the Jim and Pam plot writing that " I don ’ t care that Pam believes in ghosts and Jim doesn ’ t , I don ’ t care that Dwight gets a few scenes in which the cynical adult is softened by the presence of a precocious child . " He ultimately gave the episode a C + . New York writer Chris Blanche criticized the episode for its lack of heart . Television Without Pity gave the episode a C rating . Several critics considered the episode an improvement over the previous halloween episode , " Costume Contest " .
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= Primer ( film ) =
Primer is a 2004 American indie science fiction drama film about the accidental discovery of a means of time travel . The film was written , directed , produced , edited and scored by Shane Carruth , who also stars in the main role .
Primer is of note for its extremely low budget ( completed for $ 7 @,@ 000 ) , experimental plot structure , philosophical implications , and complex technical dialogue , which Carruth , a college graduate with a degree in mathematics and a former engineer , chose not to simplify for the sake of the audience . The film collected the Grand Jury Prize at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival , before securing a limited release in the United States , and has since gained a cult following .
= = Plot = =
Two engineers – Aaron and Abe – supplement their day @-@ jobs with entrepreneurial tech projects , working out of Aaron 's garage . During one such research effort , involving electromagnetic reduction of objects ' weight , the two men accidentally discover an ' A @-@ to @-@ B ' time loop side @-@ effect ; objects left in the weight @-@ reducing field exhibit temporal anomalies , proceeding normally ( from time ' A , ' when the field was activated , to time ' B , ' when the field is powered off ) , then backwards ( from ' B ' back to ' A ' ) , in continuous A @-@ then @-@ B @-@ then @-@ A @-@ then @-@ B sequence , such that objects can leave the field in the present , or at some previous point .
Abe refines this proof @-@ of @-@ concept and builds a stable time @-@ apparatus ( " the box " ) , sized to accommodate a human subject . Abe uses this " box " to travel six hours into his own past — as part of this process , Original @-@ Abe sits incommunicado in a hotel room , so as not to interact or interfere with the outside world , after which Original @-@ Abe enters the " box , " waits inside the " box " for six hours ( thus going back in time six hours ) , and becomes Future @-@ Overlap @-@ Double @-@ Abe , who travels across town , explains the proceedings to Aaron , and brings Aaron back to the secure self @-@ storage facility housing the " box . " At the end of the overlap @-@ timespan , Original @-@ Abe no longer exists , having entered the " box , " rewound six hours , and become Future @-@ Overlap @-@ Double @-@ Abe for the remainder of time .
Abe and Aaron repeat Abe 's six @-@ hour experiment multiple times over multiple days , making profitable same @-@ day stock trades armed with foreknowledge of the market 's performance . The duo 's divergent personalities – Abe cautious and controlling , Aaron impulsive and meddlesome – put subtle strain on their collaboration and friendship . These tensions come to a head after a late @-@ night encounter with Thomas Granger ( father to Abe 's girlfriend Rachel ) , who appears inexplicably unshaven and exists in overlap with his original suburban self . Granger falls into a comatose state after being pursued by Aaron ; Aaron theorizes that , at some point in the future , Granger entered the " box " ( at an unknown time , for unknown reasons ) , with timeline @-@ altering consequences . Abe concludes that time travel is simply too dangerous , and uses a second apparatus ( his " failsafe box , " built before the experiment 's beginning and kept continuously running in a secret location ) , traveling back four days to prevent the experiment 's launch .
Cumulative competing interference wreaks havoc upon the timeline . Future @-@ Abe sedates Original @-@ Abe ( so he will never conduct the initial time travel experiment ) , and meets Original @-@ Aaron at a park bench ( so as to dissuade him ) , but finds that Future @-@ Aaron has gotten there first ( armed with pre @-@ recordings of the past conversations , and an unobtrusive earpiece ) , having brought a disassembled " third failsafe box " four days back with his own body . Future @-@ Abe faints at this revelation , overcome by shock and fatigue .
The two men briefly and tentatively reconcile . They jointly travel back in time , experiencing and reshaping an event where Abe 's girlfriend Rachel was nearly killed by a gun @-@ wielding party crasher . After many repetitions , Aaron , forearmed with knowledge of the party 's events , stops the gunman , becoming a local hero . Abe and Aaron ultimately part ways ; Aaron considers a new life in foreign countries where he can tamper more broadly for personal gain , while Abe states his intent to remain in town and dissuade / sabotage the original " box " experiment . Abe warns Aaron to leave and never return .
An epilogue sequence reveals that multiple " box @-@ aware " versions of Aaron are still alive and circulating – at least one Future @-@ Aaron has intermingled knowledge with Original @-@ Aaron ( thanks to discussions , voice @-@ recordings , and an unsuccessful physical altercation ) . As a result , two or more Aarons now inhabit the same timeline , sharing information of future events , in stark contrast to Abe , who goes to painstaking extremes to keep his Original @-@ Abe " pure " and unaware of the future . The film 's final scene depicts a fully aware Aaron , directing French @-@ speaking workers in the construction of what appears to be a warehouse @-@ sized " box . "
= = Cast = =
Shane Carruth as Aaron
David Sullivan as Abe
Casey Gooden as Robert
Anand Upadhyaya as Phillip
Carrie Crawford as Kara
Samantha Thomson as Rachel Granger
Brandon Blagg as Will
Carruth cast himself as Aaron after having trouble finding actors who could " break ... the habit of filling each line with so much drama " . Most of the other actors are either friends or family members .
= = Themes = =
Although one of the more fantastic elements of science fiction is central to the film , Carruth 's goal was to portray scientific discovery in a down @-@ to @-@ earth and realistic manner . He notes that many of the greatest breakthrough scientific discoveries in history have occurred by accident , in locations no more glamorous than Aaron 's garage .
Whether it involved the history of the number zero or the invention of the transistor , two things stood out to me . First is that the discovery that turns out to be the most valuable is usually dismissed as a side @-@ effect . Second is that prototypes almost never include neon lights and chrome . I wanted to see a story play out that was more in line with the way real innovation takes place than I had seen on film before .
Carruth has said he intended the central theme of the film to be the breakdown of Abe and Aaron 's relationship , as a result of their inability to cope with the power afforded them by this technological advancement :
First thing , I saw these guys as scientifically accomplished but ethically , morons . They never had any reasons before to have ethical questions . So when they 're hit with this device they 're blindsided by it . The first thing they do is make money with it . They 're not talking about the ethics of altering your former self .
= = Physics and science = =
Aaron and Abe start the film by attempting to create a device to somehow counter the effects of gravity . They have plans for such a device from another development team , but wish to improve on the viability of the design . Their main approach to achieve this is to discard the coolant bath for the required superconductors . They instead increase the transition temperature of the superconductor to " something more usable " . The time machine makes use of the property of superconductors called the Meissner effect , which " knock [ s ] out the interior magnetic field " .
Aaron and Abe require palladium to build their machine . This is the reason they take the catalytic converter containing a small amount of palladium from a car .
The principles of time travel in the film are inspired by Feynman diagrams . Carruth explained : " Richard Feynman has some interesting ideas about time . When you look at Feynman diagrams [ which map the interaction of elementary particles ] , there 's really no difference between watching an interaction happen forward and backward in time . "
= = Production = =
While writing the script , Carruth studied physics to help him make Abe and Aaron 's technical dialogue sound authentic . He took the unusual step of eschewing contrived exposition , and tried instead to portray the shorthand phrases and jargon used by working scientists . This philosophy carried over into production design . The time machine itself is a plain gray box , with a distinctive electronic " hum " created by overlaying the sounds of a mechanical grinder and a car engine , rather than by using a processed digital effect . Carruth also set the story in unglamorous industrial parks and suburban tract homes .
Carruth chose to deliberately obfuscate the film 's plot to mirror the complexity and confusion created by time travel . As he said in a 2004 interview : " This machine and Abe and Aaron 's experience are inherently complicated so it needed to be that way in order for the audience to be where Abe and Aaron are , which was always my hope . "
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography took place over five weeks , on the outskirts of Dallas , Texas . The film was produced on a budget of only USD $ 7 @,@ 000 , and a skeleton crew of five . Carruth acted as writer , director , producer , cinematographer , editor , and music composer . He also stars in the film as Aaron , and many of the other characters are played by his friends and family . The small budget required conservative use of the Super 16mm filmstock : the carefully limited number of takes resulted in an extremely low shooting ratio of 2 : 1 . Every shot in the film was meticulously storyboarded on 35mm stills . Carruth created a distinctive flat , overexposed look for the film by using fluorescent lighting , non @-@ neutral color temperatures , high @-@ speed film stock , and filters .
After shooting , Carruth took two years to fully post @-@ produce Primer . He has since said that this experience was so arduous that he almost abandoned the film on several occasions .
= = = Music = = =
The entire film score was created by Carruth . On October 8 , 2004 , the Primer score was released on Amazon and iTunes .
= = Release = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Carruth secured a North American distribution deal with THINKFilm after the company 's head of theatrical distribution , Mark Urman , saw the film at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival . Although he and Carruth made a " handshake agreement " during the festival , Urman reported that the actual negotiation of the deal was the longest he had ever been involved with , in part due to Carruth 's specific demands over how much control over the film he would retain . The film went on to take $ 424 @,@ 760 at the box office .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Primer received broadly positive reviews in the mainstream press . The website Metacritic rated Primer at 68 out of 100 , while the similar site Rotten Tomatoes reported that 73 % of the critics that saw the film gave it positive reviews , and the site listed it as one of the best science fiction films " for the thinking man ( ... or woman ) " .
Many reviewers were impressed by the film 's originality . Dennis Lim of The Village Voice said that it was " the freshest thing the genre has seen since 2001 " , while in The New York Times , A. O. Scott wrote that Carruth had " the skill , the guile and the seriousness to turn a creaky philosophical gimmick into a dense and troubling moral puzzle " . Scott also enjoyed the film 's realistic depiction of scientists at work , saying that Carruth had an " impressive feel for the odd , quiet rhythms of small @-@ scale research and development " .
There was also praise for Carruth 's ability to maintain high production values on a minuscule budget , with Roger Ebert declaring : " The movie never looks cheap , because every shot looks as it must look . " Ty Burr of The Boston Globe commented that " aspects of Primer are so low @-@ rent as to evoke guffaws " , but added that " the homemade feel is part of the point " .
The film 's unusually complex plot and dense dialogue proved controversial . Esquire critic Mike D 'Angelo claimed that " anybody who claims he fully understands what 's going on in Primer after seeing it just once is either a savant or a liar " . Scott Tobias writes for The A.V. Club : " The banter is heavy on technical jargon and almost perversely short on exposition ; were it not for the presence of voiceover narration , the film would be close to incomprehensible . " For the Los Angeles Times , Carina Chocano writes : " sticklers for linear storytelling are bound to be frustrated by narrative threads that start promisingly , then just sort of fall off the spool " . Some reviewers were entirely put off by the film 's obfuscated narrative . Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter complained that Primer " nearly gets lost in a miasma of technical jargon and scientific conjecture " .
" Primer is hopelessly confusing and grows more and more byzantine as it unravels , " Chuck Klosterman writes in an essay on time travel films five years later . " I 've watched it seven or eight times and I still don 't know what happened . " He nonetheless says it is " the finest movie about time travel I 've ever seen " because of its realism :
It 's not that the time machine ... seems more realistic ; it 's that the time travelers themselves seem more believable . They talk and act ( and think ) like the kind of people who might accidentally figure out how to move through time , which is why it 's the best depiction we have of the ethical quandaries that might result from such a discovery .
Ultimately , Klosterman says , the lesson of Primer regarding time travel is that " it 's too important to use only for money , but too dangerous to use for anything else " .
The film has been selected to be part of The A.V. Club 's New Cult Canon .
Donald Clarke , film critic with The Irish Times , included Primer at No. 20 on his list of the top twenty films of the decade ( 2000 – 2010 ) .
Science fiction author Greg Egan described it as " an ingenious , tautly constructed time @-@ travel story " .
= = Awards = =
Grand Jury Prize , Sundance Film Festival in 2004 .
Alfred P. Sloan Prize for films dealing with science and technology , the 2004 Sundance Film Festival .
Best Writer / Director ( Shane Carruth ) at the Nantucket Film Festival in 2004 .
Best Feature at the London International Festival of Science Fiction in 2005 .
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= Schiehallion experiment =
The Schiehallion experiment was an 18th @-@ century experiment to determine the mean density of the Earth . Funded by a grant from the Royal Society , it was conducted in the summer of 1774 around the Scottish mountain of Schiehallion , Perthshire . The experiment involved measuring the tiny deflection of a pendulum due to the gravitational attraction of a nearby mountain . Schiehallion was considered the ideal location after a search for candidate mountains , thanks to its isolation and almost symmetrical shape . One of the triggers for the experiment were anomalies noted during the survey of the Mason – Dixon Line .
The experiment had previously been considered , but rejected , by Isaac Newton as a practical demonstration of his theory of gravitation . However , a team of scientists , notably Nevil Maskelyne , the Astronomer Royal , was convinced that the effect would be detectable and undertook to conduct the experiment . The deflection angle depended on the relative densities and volumes of the Earth and the mountain : if the density and volume of Schiehallion could be ascertained , then so could the density of the Earth . Once this was known , then this would in turn yield approximate values for those of the other planets , their moons , and the Sun , previously known only in terms of their relative ratios . As an additional benefit , the concept of contour lines , devised to simplify the process of surveying the mountain , later became a standard technique in cartography .
= = Background = =
A pendulum hangs straight downwards in a symmetrical gravitational field . However , if a sufficiently large mass such as a mountain is nearby , its gravitational attraction should pull the pendulum 's plumb @-@ bob slightly out of true . The change in plumb @-@ line angle against a known object — such as a star — could be carefully measured on opposite sides of the mountain . If the mass of the mountain could be independently established from a determination of its volume and an estimate of the mean density of its rocks , then these values could be extrapolated to provide the mean density of the Earth , and by extension , its mass .
Isaac Newton had considered the effect in the Principia , but pessimistically thought that any real mountain would produce too small a deflection to measure . Gravitational effects , he wrote , were only discernible on the planetary scale . Newton 's pessimism was unfounded : although his calculations had suggested a deviation of less than 2 minutes of arc ( for an idealised three @-@ mile high mountain ) , this angle , though very slight , was within the theoretical capability of instruments of his day .
An experiment to test Newton 's idea would both provide supporting evidence for his law of universal gravitation , and estimates of the mass and density of the Earth . Since the masses of astronomical objects were known only in terms of relative ratios , the mass of the Earth would provide reasonable values to the other planets , their moons , and the Sun . The data were also capable of determining the value of Newton 's gravitational constant G , though this was not a goal of the experimenters ; references to a value for G would not appear in the scientific literature until almost a hundred years later .
= = Finding the mountain = =
= = = Chimborazo , 1738 = = =
A pair of French astronomers named Pierre Bouguer and Charles Marie de La Condamine were the first to attempt the experiment , conducting their measurements on the 6 @,@ 268 @-@ metre ( 20 @,@ 564 ft ) volcano Chimborazo in Ecuador in 1738 . Their expedition had left France for South America in 1735 to try to measure the meridian arc length of one degree of latitude near the equator , but they took advantage of the opportunity to attempt the deflection experiment . In December 1738 , under very difficult conditions of terrain and climate , they conducted a pair of measurements at altitudes of 4 @,@ 680 and 4 @,@ 340 m . Bouguer wrote in a 1749 paper that they had been able to detect a deflection of 8 seconds of arc , but he downplayed the significance of their results , suggesting that the experiment would be better carried out under easier conditions in France or England . He added that the experiment had at least proved that the Earth could not be a hollow shell , as some thinkers of the day , including Edmond Halley , had suggested .
= = = Schiehallion , 1774 = = =
That a further attempt should be made on the experiment was proposed to the Royal Society in 1772 by Nevil Maskelyne , Astronomer Royal . He suggested that the experiment would " do honour to the nation where it was made " and proposed Whernside in Yorkshire , or the Blencathra @-@ Skiddaw massif in Cumberland as suitable targets . The Royal Society formed the Committee of Attraction to consider the matter , appointing Maskelyne , Joseph Banks and Benjamin Franklin amongst its members . The Committee despatched the astronomer and surveyor Charles Mason to find a suitable mountain .
After a lengthy search over the summer of 1773 , Mason reported that the best candidate was Schiehallion ( then spelled Schehallien ) , a 1 @,@ 083 @-@ metre ( 3 @,@ 553 ft ) peak lying between Loch Tay and Loch Rannoch in the central Scottish Highlands . The mountain stood in isolation from any nearby hills , which would reduce their gravitational influence , and its symmetrical east – west ridge would simplify the calculations . Its steep northern and southern slopes would allow the experiment to be sited close to its centre of mass , maximising the deflection effect .
Mason however declined to conduct the work himself for the offered commission of one guinea per day . The task therefore fell to Maskelyne , for which he was granted a temporary leave of his duties as Astronomer Royal . He was aided in the task by mathematician and surveyor Charles Hutton and Reuben Burrow , a mathematician of the Royal Greenwich Observatory . A workforce of labourers was engaged to construct observatories for the astronomers , and assist in the surveying . The science team was particularly well @-@ equipped : its astronomical instruments included a 12 @-@ inch ( 30 cm ) brass quadrant from Cook 's 1769 transit of Venus expedition , a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) zenith sector , and a regulator ( precision pendulum clock ) for timing the astronomical observations . They also acquired a theodolite and Gunter 's chain for surveying the mountain , and a pair of barometers for measuring altitude . Generous funding for the experiment was available due to underspend on the transit of Venus expedition , which had been turned over to the Society by the King .
= = Measurements = =
= = = Astronomical = = =
Observatories were constructed to the north and south of the mountain , plus a bothy to accommodate equipment and the scientists . Most of the workforce was however housed in rough canvas tents . Maskelyne 's astronomical measurements were the first to be conducted . It was necessary for him to determine the zenith distances with respect to the plumb line for a set of stars at the precise time that each passed due south . Weather conditions were frequently unfavourable due to mist and rain . However , from the south observatory , he was able to take 76 measurements on 34 stars in one direction , and then 93 observations on 39 stars in the other . From the north side , he then conducted a set of 68 observations on 32 stars and a set of 100 on 37 stars . By conducting sets of measurements with the plane of the zenith sector first facing east and then west , he successfully avoided any systematic errors arising from collimating the sector .
To determine the deflection due to the mountain , it was necessary to account for the curvature of the Earth : an observer moving north or south will see the local zenith shift by the same angle as any change in latitude . After accounting for observational effects such as precession , aberration of light and nutation , Maskelyne showed that the difference between the locally determined zenith for observers north and south of Schiehallion was 54 @.@ 6 arc seconds . Once the surveying team had provided a difference of 42 @.@ 94 ″ latitude between the two stations , he was able to subtract this , and after rounding to the accuracy of his observations , announce that the sum of the north and south deflections was 11 @.@ 6 ″ .
Maskelyne published his initial results in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1775 , using preliminary data on the mountain 's shape and hence the position of its center of gravity . This led him to expect a deflection of 20 @.@ 9 ″ if the mean densities of Schiehallion and the Earth were equal . Since the deflection was about half this , he was able to make a preliminary announcement that the mean density of the Earth was approximately double that of Schiehallion . A more accurate value would have to await completion of the surveying process .
Maskelyne took the opportunity to note that Schiehallion exhibited a gravitational attraction , and thus all mountains did ; and that Newton 's inverse square law of gravitation had been confirmed . An appreciative Royal Society presented Maskelyne with the 1775 Copley Medal ; the biographer Chalmers later noting that " If any doubts yet remained with respect to the truth of the Newtonian system , they were now totally removed " .
= = = Surveying = = =
The work of the surveying team was greatly hampered by the inclemency of the weather , and it took until 1776 to complete the task . To find the volume of the mountain , it was necessary to divide it into a set of vertical prisms and compute the volume of each . The triangulation task falling to Charles Hutton was considerable : the surveyors had obtained thousands of bearings to more than a thousand points around the mountain . Moreover , the vertices of his prisms did not always conveniently coincide with the surveyed heights . To make sense of all his data , he hit upon the idea of interpolating a series of lines at set intervals between his measure values , marking points of equal height . In doing so , not only could he easily determine the heights of his prisms , but from the swirl of the lines one could get an instant impression of the form of the terrain . Hutton had invented contour lines , in common use since for depicting cartographic relief .
Hutton had to compute the individual attractions due to each of the many prisms that formed his grid , a process which was as laborious as the survey itself . The task occupied his time for a further two years before he could present his results , which he did in a hundred @-@ page paper to the Royal Society in 1778 . He found that the attraction of the plumb @-@ bob to the Earth would be 9 @,@ 933 times that of the sum of its attractions to the mountain at the north and south stations , if the density of the Earth and Schiehallion had been the same . Since the actual deflection of 11 @.@ 6 ″ implied a ratio of 17 @,@ 804 : 1 after accounting for the effect of latitude on gravity , he was able to state that the Earth had a mean density of <formula> , or about <formula> that of the mountain . The lengthy process of surveying the mountain had not therefore greatly affected the outcome of Maskelyne 's calculations . Hutton took a density of 2 @,@ 500 kg · m − 3 for Schiehallion , and announced that the density of the Earth was <formula> of this , or 4 @,@ 500 kg · m − 3 . In comparison with the modern accepted figure of 5 @,@ 515 kg · m − 3 , the density of the Earth had been computed with an error of less than 20 % .
That the mean density of the Earth should so greatly exceed that of its surface rocks naturally meant that there must be more dense material lying deeper . Hutton correctly surmised that the core material was likely metallic , and might have a density of 10 @,@ 000 kg · m − 3 . He estimated this metallic portion to occupy some 65 % of the diameter of the Earth . With a value for the mean density of the Earth , Hutton was able to set some values to Jérôme Lalande 's planetary tables , which had previously only been able to express the densities of the major solar system objects in relative terms .
= = Repeat experiments = =
A more accurate measurement of the mean density of the Earth was made 24 years after Schiehallion , when in 1798 Henry Cavendish used an exquisitely sensitive torsion balance to measure the attraction between large masses of lead . Cavendish 's figure of 5 @,@ 448 ± 33 kg · m − 3 was only 1 @.@ 2 % from the currently accepted value of 5 @,@ 515 kg · m − 3 , and his result would not be significantly improved upon until 1895 by Charles Boys . The care with which Cavendish conducted the experiment and the accuracy of his result has led his name to since be associated with it .
John Playfair carried out a second survey of Schiehallion in 1811 ; on the basis of a rethink of its rock strata , he suggested a density of 4 @,@ 560 to 4 @,@ 870 kg · m − 3 , though the then elderly Hutton vigorously defended the original value in an 1821 paper to the Society . Playfair 's calculations had raised the density closer towards its modern value , but was still too low and significantly poorer than Cavendish 's computation of some years earlier .
The Schiehallion experiment was repeated in 1856 by Henry James , director @-@ general of the Ordnance Survey , who instead used the hill Arthur 's Seat in central Edinburgh . With the resources of the Ordnance Survey at his disposal , James extended his topographical survey to a 21 @-@ kilometre radius , taking him as far as the borders of Midlothian . He obtained a density of about 5 @,@ 300 kg · m − 3 .
An experiment in 2005 undertook a variation of the 1774 work : instead of computing local differences in the zenith , the experiment made a very accurate comparison of the period of a pendulum at the top and bottom of Schiehallion . The period of a pendulum is a function of g , the local gravitational acceleration . The pendulum is expected to run more slowly at altitude , but the mass of the mountain will act to reduce this difference . This experiment has the advantage of being considerably easier to conduct than the 1774 one , but to achieve the desired accuracy , it is necessary to measure the period of the pendulum to within one part in one million . This experiment yielded a value of the mass of the Earth of 8 @.@ 1 ± 2 @.@ 4 × 1024 kg , corresponding to a mean density of 7 @,@ 500 ± 1 @,@ 900 kg · m − 3 .
A modern re @-@ examination of the geophysical data was able to take account of factors the 1774 team could not . With the benefit of a 120 @-@ km radius digital elevation model , greatly improved knowledge of the geology of Schiehallion , and in particular a computer , a 2007 report produced a mean Earth density of 5 @,@ 480 ± 250 kg · m − 3 . When compared to the modern figure of 5 @,@ 515 kg · m − 3 , it stood as a testament to the accuracy of Maskelyne 's astronomical observations .
= = Mathematical procedure = =
Consider the force diagram to the right , in which the deflection has been greatly exaggerated . The analysis has been simplified by considering the attraction on only one side of the mountain . A plumb @-@ bob of mass m is situated a distance d from P , the centre of mass of a mountain of mass MM and density ρM . It is deflected through a small angle θ due to its attraction F towards P and its weight W directed towards the Earth . The vector sum of W and F results in a tension T in the pendulum string . The Earth has a mass ME , radius rE and a density ρE .
The two gravitational forces on the plumb @-@ bob are given by Newton 's law of gravitation :
<formula>
Where G is Newton 's gravitational constant . G and m can be eliminated by taking the ratio of F to W :
<formula>
Where VM and VE are the volumes of the mountain and the Earth . Under static equilibrium , the horizontal and vertical components of the string tension T can be related to the gravitational forces and the deflection angle θ :
<formula>
Substituting for T :
<formula>
Since VE , VM , d and rE are all known , and θ and d have been measured , then a value for the ratio ρE : ρM can be obtained :
<formula>
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= Battle of Ban Me Thuot =
The Battle of Ban Me Thuot was a decisive battle of the Vietnam War which led to the complete destruction of South Vietnam 's II Corps Tactical Zone . The battle was part of a larger North Vietnamese military operation known as Campaign 275 to capture the Tay Nguyen region , known in the West as the Vietnamese Central Highlands .
In March 1975 the Vietnam People 's Army ( VPA ) 4th Corps staged a large @-@ scale offensive , known as Campaign 275 , with the aim of capturing the Central Highlands from the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) in order to kick @-@ start the first stage of the 1975 Spring Offensive . Within ten days , the North Vietnamese destroyed most South Vietnamese military formations in II Corps Tactical Zone , exposing the severe weaknesses of the South Vietnamese Army . For South Vietnam , the defeat at Ban Me Thuot and the disastrous evacuation from the Central Highlands came about as a result of two major mistakes . Firstly , in the days leading up to the assault on Ban Me Thuot , ARVN Major General Pham Van Phu repeatedly ignored intelligence which showed the presence of several North Vietnamese combat divisions around the district . Secondly , President Nguyen Van Thieu 's strategy to withdraw from the Central Highlands was poorly planned and implemented .
In the end , it was the ordinary South Vietnamese soldiers and their families who paid the ultimate price , as North Vietnamese artillery decimated the South Vietnamese military convoy on Route 7 .
= = Background = =
At the beginning of 1975 , members of the North Vietnamese Political Bureau paid close attention to the military situation in South Vietnam to plan for their next major offensive . On January 8 , two days after the Vietnam People ’ s Army 4th Corps had captured Phuoc Long on the northern edges of South Vietnam ’ s III Corps Tactical Zone , North Vietnamese leaders agreed to launch an all @-@ out military offensive , in order to end the war . Originally the North Vietnamese leaders expected the campaign would last two years , be completed in 1976 , and pave the way for final victory . Their key objectives were to bring military pressure closer to Saigon , annihilate as many South Vietnamese military units as possible , and create favourable conditions on the battlefield so that combat forces could be deployed from their current localities .
Following extensive discussions on the fighting ability of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam , the Political Bureau approved the General Staff ’ s plan , which had selected the Central Highlands as the main battlefield for the upcoming offensive . The Central Highlands campaign was codenamed ‘ Campaign 275 ’ and the goal was to capture the city of Ban Me Thuot . To achieve that objective , North Vietnamese General Văn Tiến Dũng placed great emphasis on the principles of massed force , secrecy , and surprise to draw South Vietnamese forces away from the main objective . For the element of surprise to be successful , North Vietnamese forces needed to launch strong diversionary attacks on Pleiku and Kon Tum , thereby leaving Ban Me Thuot completely exposed . Once the element of surprise had been achieved , the North Vietnamese would mass their forces on Ban Me Thuot , and prevent South Vietnamese reinforcements from retaking the city .
= = = Order of battle = = =
= = = = North Vietnam = = = =
In March 1975 the Vietnam People 's Army Central Highlands Front , under the command of General Hoang Minh Thao , were given the responsibility of carrying out Campaign 275 to capture key objectives in the Central Highlands . Major General Vu Lang was the deputy commander , Colonel Dang Vu Hiep was appointed the Front ’ s political commissar , and Colonel Phi Trieu Ham was the deputy political commissar .
The Central Highlands Front fielded five infantry divisions ( 3rd ‘ Gold Star ’ , 10th , 316th , 320A and 968th Infantry Divisions ) and four independent regiments ( 25th , 271st , 95A , and 95B Infantry Regiments ) . To support the aforementioned units , North Vietnam deployed the 273rd Armoured Regiment , two artillery units ( 40th and 675th Artillery Regiments ) , three air @-@ defence units ( 232nd , 234th , and 593rd Air @-@ Defence Regiments ) , two combat engineer units ( 7th and 575th Combat Engineer Regiments ) , and the 29th Communications Regiment .
= = = = Offensive strategy = = = =
Between February 17 and February 19 , 1975 , North Vietnamese field commanders in the Central Highlands Front held a conference to plan for their upcoming offensive . In order to plan their combat strategy , North Vietnamese commanders assessed the potential obstacles faced by the Vietnam People ’ s Army and the strength of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) in the Central Highlands . Following extensive discussions , North Vietnamese commanders concluded that the South Vietnamese army in the Central Highlands could mobilise about 5 – 7 regiment @-@ sized units to counter the upcoming offensive . In the worst @-@ case scenario , if South Vietnamese units were not tied up elsewhere , North Vietnamese commanders thought that South Vietnam could probably mobilise between nine and twelve regiments . North Vietnamese commanders believed South Vietnam could deploy about one or two armoured brigades , three to five battalions of artillery , and 80 aircraft per day to support the army . The North Vietnamese commanders within the Central Highlands Front discussed the possibility of the United States re @-@ entering the conflict , which they believed would see the commitment of about 100 fighter @-@ bombers from the United States Seventh Fleet .
Aside from dealing with the army formations which South Vietnam might have deployed , the question of where and when to strike was the main problem that concerned the North Vietnamese . After the strength of both armies had been taken into account , the Central Highlands High Command came up with two offensive options .
In the first option , the North Vietnamese could avoid the outlying South Vietnamese installations and strike directly at their primary target of Ban Me Thuot . For the first option to be successful , the North Vietnamese had to secure Highways 14 , 19 , and 21 to isolate Ban Me Thuot , and stop potential South Vietnamese reinforcements . The North Vietnamese favoured the first option , because it would give the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division and other support units little or no time to respond . At the same time , the first option would have enabled a quick victory without inflicting large @-@ scale damage on the civilian population of Ban Me Thuot .
In the second option , the North Vietnamese had to destroy all the outlying South Vietnamese defences and then move on to Ban Me Thuot . The Central Highlands Front , under General Hoang Minh Thao 's command , ordered all combat units to follow the second option and destroy the defences around Ban Me Thuot , but to be ready to switch to the first option when the opportunity presented itself .
= = = = South Vietnam = = = =
The 23rd Division ( South Vietnam ) under the command of Brigadier General Tran Van Cam was the main unit defending Ban Me Thuot and the surrounding areas . Major General Pham Van Phu had at his disposal five artillery battalions equipped with 146 artillery guns , and one armoured brigade of about 117 tanks and armoured vehicles . The South Vietnamese military also stationed air force and naval units in Ban Me Thuot .
The Army of the Republic of Vietnam also had the 22nd Division ( South Vietnam ) , seven ranger battalions , 36 regional force battalions , eight artillery battalions equipped with 230 artillery guns , and four armoured brigades in the Central Highlands . To support those ground units , the South Vietnamese air force had 32 fighter @-@ bombers , 86 helicopters , and 32 transport and reconnaissance aircraft .
Across the Central Highlands of Vietnam , the South Vietnamese military enjoyed a numerical superiority of about 78 @,@ 300 soldiers against North Vietnam ’ s 65 @,@ 141 soldiers . However , within the vicinity of Ban Me Thuot , the South Vietnamese were actually outnumbered by a ratio of 5 : 1 . The North Vietnamese had more tanks , armoured vehicles , and heavy artillery , with a ratio of about 2 : 1 . North Vietnamese General Van Tien Dung believed his tank and artillery units in the Central Highlands were the key factors that guaranteed a quick victory , because South Vietnam simply lacked the capability to withstand such large numbers of heavy weaponry .
= = = = South Vietnamese preparations = = = =
On February 18 , 1975 , President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu gathered all his commanders at the Independence Palace to discuss the Ly Thuong Kiet Military Plan , which was approved by the National Security Council in December 1974 . During a briefing by ARVN Colonel Hoang Ngoc Lung , Head of the ARVN General Staff , several important issues were brought to the attention of President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu and the ARVN Corps commanders . Firstly , information gathered by the South Vietnamese army showed there were seven North Vietnamese divisions in the northern areas of South Vietnam ’ s I Corps Tactical Zone . Secondly , there were signs which suggested that the North Vietnamese might launch a large @-@ scale attack during the spring @-@ summer season of 1975 . And thirdly , the II Corps Tactical Zone under the command of Major General Pham Van Phu was most likely North Vietnam ’ s first target . On February 19 General Phu returned to Pleiku to draw up a defence plan .
During the next few days , reports from South Vietnamese intelligence showed that North Vietnam ’ s 968th Infantry Division had arrived in South Vietnam ’ s II Corps from Laos . Two divisions ( 10th and 320A Infantry Divisions ) had taken up positions around Pleiku and Kon Tum , while two regiments ( 271st and 202nd Regiments ) had set up their base in Quang Duc . On March 2 a CIA officer flew out from Nha Trang to inform ARVN Colonel Nguyen Trong Luat of North Vietnamese preparations to attack Ban Me Thuot , without offering information on the strength of North Vietnamese formations . In response to the CIA report , General Phu ordered the 53rd Regiment to move from Quang Duc to Ban Me Thuot , and the 45th Regiment from Thuan Man to Thanh An @-@ Don Tham . General Phu did not make any further changes to the South Vietnamese order of battle in or around Ban Me Thuot . Thus , by the time the North Vietnamese opened fire on Ban Me Thuot , General Phu had simply failed to implement an effective plan to save II Corps .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Diversions = = =
In February 1975 , during the midst of Tet New Year celebrations , a North Vietnamese deserter surrendered himself to the ARVN 2nd Brigade Headquarters . Through extensive interrogations , the North Vietnamese soldier revealed the whereabouts of North Vietnamese units ; the 10th Infantry Division had encircled Duc Lap , while the 320A Infantry Division had arrived in Ea H ’ leo and were gearing up for an assault on Thuan Man , and an unknown unit was heading towards Ban Me Thuot . In late February , North Vietnamese artillery shells began to rain down on Pleiku , which convinced General Phu that the North Vietnamese would attack Pleiku instead of Ban Me Thuot . South Vietnamese military intelligence and information received from the American Embassy in Saigon showed the presence of about two or three North Vietnamese combat divisions positioned about 20 kilometres away from Kontum and Pleiku . Indeed , the movements around Pleiku and Kontum during the month of February were designed by the North Vietnamese Tay Nguyen Front to fool South Vietnamese military commanders in the Central Highlands .
Since December 1974 , the North Vietnamese prepared for the offensive by conducting raids on various South Vietnamese outposts and broadcasting fake radio messages to keep South Vietnamese commanders guessing about the location of their next assault . While the South Vietnamese units were kept occupied by Communist diversions , North Vietnamese General Hoang Minh Thao began moving his troops into attacking positions . The VPA 7th Combat Engineer Regiment was tasked with connecting Route 14 at North Vo Dinh with Highway 19 near Mang Yang Pass , which surpassed the district of Kontum . The VPA 10th Infantry Division began withdrawing from Duc Lap , and only left a small force behind to continue the bombardment of Pleiku , as artillery and tanks units took positions north of Kontum . The 320A Infantry Division deployed a small unit west of Pleiku to apply additional pressure on South Vietnamese positions at La Son , Thanh An , and Don Tam . Elements of the 95th Regiment conducted blocking operations along Highway 19 to stop South Vietnamese reinforcements from reaching their destination . The 198th Special Forces Regiment raided South Vietnamese depots at Pleiku , while the main formation of the 10th and 320A Infantry Divisions marched on Ban Me Thuot .
Personnel from local Viet Cong units infiltrated Kontum and Pleiku to spread rumours of a ‘ big Communist offensive ’ on the aforementioned districts . In response to the rumours , the ARVN 45th Infantry Regiment was sent out to sweep the areas near Ban Me Thuot , Thuan Man , and Duc Lap . To maintain the secrecy of their operations , the North Vietnamese Tay Nguyen Front ordered the 320A Infantry Division , which had by then set up camp west of Ban Me Thuot , to avoid contact with the South Vietnamese . Upon their arrival from Laos , the 316th Infantry Division received similar orders , and was not allowed to open fire under any circumstances . As the events in South Vietnam ’ s II Corps Tactical Zone were beginning to unfold , intelligence reports from Saigon continued to warn General Phu of an imminent Communist onslaught on Ban Me Thuot . Despite the numerous warnings which he had received from the CIA and his own military intelligence , General Phu remained convinced that Pleiku would be North Vietnam ’ s next target . As a result , on February 18 , 1975 , he ordered the 23rd Infantry Division to remain at their positions in Kontum and Pleiku , thereby reversing his earlier decision to bolster South Vietnamese defences at Ban Me Thuot .
= = = Closing in = = =
On March 3 , 1975 , North Vietnam ’ s Campaign 275 against South Vietnamese military forces in the Central Highlands began . The 95A Regiment was the first unit to go into action when they destroyed one South Vietnamese regional force battalion and successfully secured a 20 @-@ kilometre stretch of road on Highway 19 connecting Ayun with Pleibon and Phu Yen . Later , elements of the North Vietnamese 3rd ‘ Gold Star ’ Division secured a section of Highway 19 at Thuong An that connected with Bridge no.13 at Dong An Khe , killing about 300 South Vietnamese soldiers . On the night of March 5 , the North Vietnamese 25th Regiment ambushed a South Vietnamese transportation convoy at Chi Cuc and cut off Highway 21 west of Ban Me Thuot . To keep all the main roads open , Phu sent reinforcements to defend a section of Highway 19 at the eastern side of Peiku and ordered the ARVN 45th Infantry Regiment to march back from Thuan Man to defend Route 14 at southern Pleiku . The ARVN 53rd Infantry Regiment , under the command of Colonel Vu The Quang , was redeployed from Quang Duc Province to defend Ban Me Thuot . By March 8 , the North Vietnamese army had completely isolated the South Vietnamese II Corps Tactical Zone from the rest of the country . Route 7 , which had not been used for a long time due to neglect , was the only road still open .
On March 5 Quang sent one of his battalions to Ban Me Thuot in a convoy of 14 vehicles . They were ambushed by the North Vietnamese 9th Regiment , 320A Infantry Division at Thuan Man . Eight vehicles were destroyed , while two 150mm artillery guns were captured by the North Vietnamese . The remaining seven vehicles had to turn back , and Quang returned to Ban Me Thuot on a helicopter . On March 7 the North Vietnamese 48th Regiment , 320A Infantry Division , captured Chu Se and Thuan Man , and took 121 soldiers prisoner . On March 9 Phu ordered the 21st Ranger Battalion to fly out from Pleiku to support the 53rd Infantry Regiment in their efforts to retake Thuan Man . During the early hours of March 9 , as the 21st Ranger Battalion and the 53rd Infantry Regiment were repeatedly beaten back in their attempts to retake Thuan Man , the under @-@ strength North Vietnamese 10th Regiment captured Duc Lap and the surrounding areas .
At 11 am on March 9 , Phu flew out to Ban Me Thuot to assess the military situation with Brigadier General Le Trung Tuong , Colonel Vu The Quang , and Colonel Nguyen Trong Luat . Phu admitted that the situation at Duc Lap was irreversible . The 21st Ranger Battalion was reassigned to the north of Ban Me Thuot , the 2nd Battalion of the 53rd Infantry Regiment was to defend Dac Sac , and when the opportunity arose they would be tasked with retaking Duc Lap . Subsequently , Quang was entrusted with the task of defending Ban Me Thuot . Despite the strong presence of two North Vietnamese divisions outside Ban Me Thuot , Phu believed the situation outside the district was only a mere diversion attempt , and the real target would be Pleiku . Thus , upon arrival at his Pleiku headquarters , he raised the level of alertness there to 100 % . While Phu was waiting for the enemy to assault Pleiku , the North Vietnamese 7th and 575th Combat Engineer Regiments cleared the main roads into Ban Me Thuot to ensure tanks and heavy artillery could be directed at the district without hindrance . By the early hours of March 10 , the North Vietnamese army was in a strong position to strike at Ban Me Thuot .
= = Battle = =
= = = Fall of Ban Me Thuot = = =
At 2 am on March 10 , 1975 , the North Vietnamese army began their assault on South Vietnamese forces at Ban Me Thuot . The North Vietnamese 198th Special Forces Regiment spearheaded the attack by hitting the Hoa Binh Airfield , the district of Mai Hac De , and the headquarters of the ARVN 53rd Infantry Regiment . The initial North Vietnamese attack , which was marked by heavy artillery bombardment and actions initiated by the 198th Special Forces Regiment , had shocked ARVN Colonels Nguyen Trong Luat and Vu The Quang , both subordinates of Major General Pham Van Phu . Despite the strength of the initial assault , Quang believed the North Vietnamese only wanted to cause disruption and would withdraw their forces by daybreak . By 3 : 30 am , the 4th Battalion , 198th Special Forces Regiment , had successfully secured Phan Chu Trinh Road and the southern part of Hoa Binh airport , and they waited there for the regular infantry and tank units to arrive .
The North Vietnamese 5th Battalion , 198th Special Forces Regiment continued their assault on South Vietnamese installations at Mai Hac De district and the headquarters of the ARVN 53rd Infantry Regiment . The 5th Battalion successfully overran the nearby South Vietnamese artillery position and the tactical operations centre , thereby establishing control over the battlefield . By 5 am all main roads leading into the city of Ban Me Thuot were completely under North Vietnamese control . As the sun rose , the North Vietnamese continued to pound South Vietnamese positions around Ban Me Thuot with heavy artillery to cover the next wave of infantry assaults . During the morning of March 10 , North Vietnamese infantry units attacked Ban Me Thuot from different directions along the main roads . The 174th Regiment , with one armoured battalion in support , marched through Chi Lang , Chu Di , and Mai Hac De from the northwest . As the 95B Regiment approached Ban Me Thuot from the northeast , the main formation of the 149th Regiment secured Chu Blom and marched towards Ban Me Thuot from the southeast . The 1st Battalion , 3rd Regiment and the 1st Battalion , 149th Regiment launched an assault on Hoa Binh airfield from the northeast and southwest respectively . At the same time , the 2nd Regiment captured the South Vietnamese installation at Phuoc An .
In an attempt to halt the North Vietnamese assault , Luat ordered two squadrons of M @-@ 113 armoured personnel carriers to confront the enemy at Nga Sau , but they were forced to turn back by tanks from the North Vietnamese 3rd Tank Battalion , 273rd Armoured Regiment . At around 5 : 30 pm , a South Vietnamese ranger battalion was forced to abandon the nearby installation at Dac Lac after continuous assaults from the 95B Regiment . In the northeast , the South Vietnamese 9th Ranger Battalion held off the North Vietnamese 95B Regiment until they abandoned their positions on the next day . In the western outskirts of Ban Me Thuot , eight A @-@ 37 Dragonfly bombers from the South Vietnamese 6th Air Force Division inflicted light casualties on the North Vietnamese 24th Regiment , but failed to stop their enemies ’ momentum . In the southwest , Quang tried to retake Mai Hac De by mobilising his reserve units with tactical air support . Meanwhile , in the south @-@ eastern end of Ban Me Thuot , the North Vietnamese 149th Regiment defeated the South Vietnamese 53rd Infantry Regiment , after they sustained heavy casualties from repeated air attacks from A @-@ 37 bombers .
Earlier in the day , at about 2 : 30 pm , South Vietnamese Colonel Trinh Tieu , Chief of the ARVN 2nd Brigade in II Corps , discovered that the North Vietnamese 316th Infantry Division had moved into positions south of Ban Me Thuot from their base in Laos . To stop them from advancing any further , Phu ordered his soldiers to destroy every bridge connected to Highway 14 . By the time Phu ’ s order was carried out , elements of the North Vietnamese 316th Infantry Division had engaged in clashes with the South Vietnamese for more than 10 hours . By 5 pm the North Vietnamese 8th Battalion , 149th Regiment , in combination with the 198th Special Forces Regiment , tried but failed to capture Hoa Binh airfield , which was defended by one South Vietnamese ranger battalion .
During the night of March 10 , there was a lull in the fighting around Ban Me Thuot . South Vietnamese soldiers began retreating to various points around the headquarters of the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division , the Hoa Binh airfield , and the radio station . Colonel Quang , in a desperate attempt to save Ban Me Thuot , called on Brigadier General Le Trung Tuong to send reinforcements ; none were sent . In the early hours of March 11 , the North Vietnamese army resumed their assault under continuous bombing runs from South Vietnamese air force A @-@ 37 Dragonfly bombers . At 7 : 55 am , the South Vietnamese air force , while trying to stop a dozen North Vietnamese tanks from advancing toward their objective , accidentally dropped two bombs on the headquarters of the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division . From that point on , the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division lost all contact with the ARVN 2nd Brigade Command Headquarters . At 11 am on March 11 , the North Vietnamese 316th Infantry Division established full control over Ban Me Thuot after South Vietnamese soldiers within the city realised that they had been defeated and that no reinforcements had been sent . Thus , only Hoa Binh airfield was still in South Vietnamese hands , with the under @-@ strength ARVN 21st Ranger Battalion and the 53rd Infantry Regiment defending the area .
= = = Counterattack = = =
On March 12 , all South Vietnamese soldiers who had survived the North Vietnamese assault gathered at the headquarters of the 23rd Infantry Division and Hoa Binh airfield . Unfortunately , those soldiers were without their leaders , because both Colonels Nguyen Trong Luat and Vu The Quang were captured by the North Vietnamese in the early hours of the day . From Saigon , President Nguyen Van Thieu ordered Phu to hold all South Vietnamese positions at the eastern end of Ban Me Thuot , where they could stage a counter @-@ attack . Phu drew up a plan to retake Ban Me Thuot that would involve the last two remaining regiments ( 44th and 45th Infantry Regiments ) of the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division and the soldiers who had gathered at the 23rd Infantry Division headquarters and Hoa Binh airfield . Thieu approved the plan at dawn , and authorised Phu to make full use of three South Vietnamese air force units ( 6th Air Force Division belonging to the ARVN 2nd Brigade , 1st Air Force Division at Da Nang Air Base , and the 4th Air Force Division at Cần Thơ ) .
On the afternoon of March 12 , elements of the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division were dropped off at designated landing zones around Phuoc An . Initially about 100 South Vietnamese helicopters participated in the operation , and 81 fighter @-@ bombers were deployed to strike at North Vietnamese positions to cover the landings . At 3 : 10 pm , Phu took off in his Cessna U @-@ 17 to direct the operation over the skies of Ban Me Thuot . As he approached the battlefield , Phu phoned the South Vietnamese units at Hoa Binh airfield to notify them that an operation was underway , and he encouraged the soldiers to hold on to their positions . On the morning of March 13 , another 145 helicopters were used to complete the first phase of the operation with the entire 44th Infantry Regiment , the last soldiers of the 45th Infantry Regiment , and the 232nd Artillery Battalion dropped off at various points in Nong Trai , Phuoc An and along Highway 21 . At the completion of the landing operation , Phu returned to Pleiku to have a meeting with Thieu , during which they discussed the sudden appearance of the North Vietnamese 316th Infantry Division .
While the South Vietnamese air force was transporting the 23rd Infantry Division to the battlefield , their airbase at Cu Hanh was subjected to artillery bombardment from the North Vietnamese 968th Infantry Division . The North Vietnamese Central Highlands Front had anticipated the South Vietnamese military 's movements , so they built up their forces in and around Ban Me Thuot to prepare for a South Vietnamese counter @-@ attack . On March 13 , the North Vietnamese 24th and 28th Regiments received two companies of armoured vehicles and one artillery battalion , which had begun raining artillery shells on Phuoc An . At 7 : 07 am on March 14 , even before the ARVN 44th and 45th Infantry Regiments began their combat operations , the North Vietnamese 24th Regiment opened fire and attacked the South Vietnamese , with support from the 273rd Armoured Regiment .
By midday on March 14 , the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the ARVN 45th Infantry Regiment slowly melted away , as they were squeezed from all sides by the North Vietnamese 24th Regiment . Rather than marching on to Ban Me Thuot to relieve the soldiers of the 45th Infantry Regiment , the ARVN 44th Infantry Regiment were pinned down to fight the enemies ’ 24th Regiment . On March 16 , South Vietnamese formations at Phuoc An and Nong Trai came under heavy attack . At 8 : 15 am the 3rd Battalion , the last unit from the ARVN 45th Infantry Regiment , was completely wiped out . Subsequently , all South Vietnamese soldiers at Nong Trai were captured along with one helicopter .
On March 17 General Hoang Minh Thao ordered the 28th Regiment and the rest of the 273rd Armoured Regiment to support the 24th Regiment in their efforts to capture Phuoc An . At the same time , the North Vietnamese 66th Regiment and the 198th Special Forces Regiment began their final push on Hoa Binh airfield . At 11 : 30 am , South Vietnamese soldiers at Hoa Binh airfield , mainly drawn from the 53rd Infantry Regiment and the 21st Ranger Battalion , were finally defeated . Simultaneously , the remnants of the ARVN 44th Infantry Regiment abandoned Phuoc An , leaving the North Vietnamese in complete control of Ban Me Thuot .
= = = Retreat = = =
While battles were raging in and around Ban Me Thuot , South Vietnamese military forces in I Corps Tactical Zone were under pressure by the North Vietnamese 324th and 325th Infantry Divisions . During the period from March 8 to March 13 , there were clashes in Truoi in southern Hue , Mai Linh , Mo Tau , Thien Phuoc , and Quang Ngai . As a result of the immense pressure placed upon I Corps , the ARVN General Staff could not deploy strong units from the region to defend Ban Me Thuot and the rest of II Corps . On March 11 Thieu convened a meeting with Prime Minister Trần Thiện Khiêm , Chief of the ARVN General Staff General Cao Văn Viên , and Lieutenant General Dang Van Quang to discuss the military situation in the northern provinces of South Vietnam . In this meeting , Thieu decided to withdraw what was left of his army from the northern provinces to defend the Mekong region , where most of the nation ’ s population and vital economic resources were located . Thieu justified his decision on the basis that the South Vietnamese military could not defend every inch of South Vietnam ’ s territory , so the military had to be ‘ lightened at the top and heavy at the bottom ’ .
Starting at 11 am on March 14 , Thieu flew out to Cam Ranh for a briefing with General Phu . The events which took place after this briefing would go down as one of the greatest failures in military history . After Phu had outlined the military situation in the Central Highlands , he asked Thieu to bolster the South Vietnamese 6th Air Force Division with more aircraft and additional brigades to defend Kontum and Pleiku . Thieu refused to send further reinforcements because the South Vietnamese military no longer had the resources . Phu was ordered to move all his units down to the Mekong region where they could continue fighting . General Vien cautioned against moving large military formations down Highway 19 ; he reminded Thieu of the destruction suffered by the French Mobile Group 100 in the region in 1954 . Thieu and his commanders made the decision to use Route 7 instead , in an attempt to surprise the North Vietnamese , who would not expect them to use that road due to its poor condition .
After the briefing Phu immediately returned to his headquarters in Pleiku , where he began planning for the withdrawal with Brigadier Generals Tran Van Cam , Pham Ngoc Sang , Pham Duy Tat , and Colonel Le Khac Ly . To maintain secrecy , Phu ordered his officers to issue orders using only word of mouth instead of written documents , and not to reveal the withdrawal plan to local regional forces . Furthermore , he stated that the abandonment of II Corps Tactical Zone had to be quick , with the army taking only enough military equipment and ammunition to fight one last battle . Generals Tat and Cam were assigned the task of supervising the movements of soldiers and their dependents on the ground . Sang was responsible for the movement of vital military equipment and supplies via air transport and to sweep Route 7 using air force fighter @-@ bombers . Ly was ordered to lead a group of combat engineers to repair the road and bridges on Route 7 , as well as maintain contact with the ARVN 2nd Brigade Headquarters in Nha Trang . The plan was destined to fail , as Phu was unaware that General Ngo Quang Truong , commander of I Corps Tactical Zone , had also received similar orders to evacuate .
= = = Disaster on Route 7 = = =
Although local commanders in II Corps Tactical Zone tried their best to maintain secrecy , the unusual movement of transport aircraft in Pleiku on March 14 stirred up concern and suspicion amongst soldiers and civilians in the area . On March 15 the concerns of civilians were further heightened when a convoy of transport vehicles belonging to the 6th and 23rd Ranger Battalions headed south from Kontum . On the afternoon of March 15 , the withdrawal of South Vietnamese forces began to pick up momentum . The ARVN 19th Armoured Cavalry Squadron and the 6th Ranger Battalion opened the main road which stretched from Pleiku to Phu Tuc . Behind them were various infantry , armoured vehicle , and support units . During the early phases of the operation , Phu was confident that his plan would succeed for two reasons . Firstly , he believed most North Vietnamese units were busy stopping the counter @-@ attack at Phuoc An waged by the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division and would not have the time to disrupt the withdrawal . Secondly , if the North Vietnamese 968th Infantry Division near Pleiku was deployed to stop the operation , it would have to overcome the formidable ARVN 25th Ranger Battalion which was tasked with stopping any North Vietnamese attacks .
For North Vietnamese field commanders of the Tay Nguyen Front , the withdrawal of South Vietnamese military forces from II Corps Tactical Zone came as a surprise , but it was not totally unexpected . What surprised the North Vietnamese the most was the speed of the withdrawal . Indeed , it was not until the evening of March 15 , when the ARVN 19th Armoured Cavalry Squadron reached Cheo Reo , that the North Vietnamese began to receive information of Saigon ’ s decision to abandon the Central Highlands . At 8 pm on March 16 , the Tay Nguyen Front Command issued the first orders to pursue the South Vietnamese . The North Vietnamese 9th Battalion , 64th Regiment , part of the 320A Infantry Division , was the first unit to be mobilised to intercept the South Vietnamese column south of Cheo Reo district . Subsequently , the entire North Vietnamese 320A Infantry Division was sent to destroy the South Vietnamese column along Route 7 , with the 2nd Tank Battalion of the 273rd Armoured Regiment , the 675th Regiment , and the 593rd Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment in support . By the early hours of March 17 , tanks from the ARVN 19th Armoured Cavalry Squadron and the 6th Ranger Battalion clashed with the North Vietnamese 9th Battalion , 64th Regiment at Tuna Pass , about 4 kilometres away from the district of Cheo Reo .
During the evening of March 17 , General Tat organised a counter @-@ attack against the enemy 's 9th Battalion with support from fighter @-@ bombers , tanks and artillery , but his troops were repeatedly beaten back in their attempt to keep the road open . By the early hours of March 18 , the entire North Vietnamese 64th Regiment had blocked all the routes around Tuna Pass , while the 48th Regiment and elements of the North Vietnamese 968th Infantry Division began closing in on Cheo Reo from three directions . In the afternoon , Phu sent the 25th Ranger Battalion and the 2nd Armoured Cavalry Brigade to reopen Route 7 . At the same time the North Vietnamese 675th Artillery Regiment began shelling the main South Vietnamese column in Cheo Reo as three infantry regiments attacked the convoy from all sides . Unfortunately for the South Vietnamese , all their attempts to organise strong resistance were stifled by the chaos created by North Vietnamese artillery bombardments . At 3 pm , General Tat was ordered to destroy all heavy weaponry so the North Vietnamese could not make use of it . About 30 minutes later , a UH @-@ 1 helicopter landed on the grounds of Phu Bon primary school to pick up Tat and flew off to Nha Trang . At 9 am on March 19 , all South Vietnamese soldiers in the district of Cheo Reo stopped fighting . The 6th Ranger Battalion and the 19th Armoured Cavalry Squadron became the only units to arrive at their destination at Cung Son with only light casualties .
= = Aftermath = =
The loss of Ban Me Thuot and the subsequent evacuation from the Central Highlands cost South Vietnam ’ s II Corps Tactical Zone more than 75 % of its combat units — the 23rd Infantry Division , the Ranger groups , tanks , armoured cavalry , artillery , and combat engineering units . Overall about 3 / 4 of all South Vietnamese army soldiers were killed , wounded , deserted , or missing . North Vietnamese casualties were light in comparison , with 600 soldiers killed and 2 @,@ 416 wounded . Official Vietnamese history informs that during the eight days of fighting , North Vietnam 's army put 28 @,@ 514 South Vietnamese officers and soldiers out of action ; 4 @,@ 502 were killed in action and 16 @,@ 822 were captured . The North Vietnamese army destroyed 17 @,@ 183 small arms of various kinds , 79 artillery pieces , and 207 tanks and armoured vehicles ; 44 aircraft were shot down and another 110 were damaged .
Civilians who took part in the evacuation suffered the consequences of the military action along Route 7 . Most of the civilians who followed the military convoy were either relatives of soldiers or officers in the army , or were government civil servants . Of the estimated 400 @,@ 000 civilians who initially took part in the march , only a handful actually reached their destinations in the Mekong region . In addition to the casualties inflicted upon them by North Vietnamese artillery , the civilians were also hit by air strikes from the South Vietnamese air force . As a result of those huge losses , Route 7 became known as the ‘ convoy of tears ’ .
= = = South Vietnamese mistakes = = =
The collapse of South Vietnamese forces in the Central Highlands came about as a result of three major factors . Firstly , during much of the war , President Nguyen Van Thieu ’ s confidence in the ARVN ’ s intelligence could not be shaken . However , following the capitulation of Ban Me Thuot , Thieu lost all faith in his own military intelligence agencies , when it became evidently clear that the strength of North Vietnamese forces was far greater than what South Vietnamese intelligence agencies had gathered . Consequently , Thieu completely ignored his own military intelligence and the CIA , and made all military decisions by himself without consulting the Joint General Staff . Thus , when Major @-@ General Pham Van Phu requested that Thieu send reinforcements to bolster the strength of South Vietnamese forces in the Central Highlands , Thieu gave him two options : either carry out the President ’ s orders , or be replaced by somebody who was willing to do so . General Phu chose to implement Thieu ’ s orders and evacuated his units from II Corps .
The second factor which contributed to the destruction of the ARVN 2nd Brigade , II Corps Tactical Zone , was the inability of South Vietnamese commanders to coordinate the withdrawal . In the process of pulling out from the Central Highlands , large numbers of South Vietnamese soldiers and heavy military equipment were stretched out along the narrow corridor of Route 7 . Behind the military formation were huge numbers of South Vietnamese civilians who were relatives of the military personnel , as well as government officials and their families . Unfortunately for the South Vietnamese soldiers on the ground , their army simply lacked the logistical system required to maintain the element of secrecy , which South Vietnamese commanders had hoped would enable them to pull out from the region without drawing too much attention from the North Vietnamese . It is hard to fathom how South Vietnamese commanders hoped to move 400 @,@ 000 civilians in utmost secrecy . So when North Vietnamese forces attacked the South Vietnamese column along Route 7 , there was little South Vietnamese commanders could do to prevent the destruction of their units .
The third factor which led to the quick disintegration of II Corps was the poor state of morale amongst the soldiers of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam . By 1975 , the morale of South Vietnamese soldiers and their commanding officers had reached its lowest point as the war continued to drag on with no end in sight . The determination of the ARVN officer corps had taken a serious blow when South Vietnamese Foreign Minister Tran Van Lam returned from the United States in February 1975 , and reported that no additional military or economic aid had been offered . When the order was given to abandon the Central Highlands , the primary concern of South Vietnamese military personnel was not battlefield victories , but the welfare of their families . Consequently , when the North Vietnamese attacked South Vietnamese forces on Route 7 , large numbers of South Vietnamese soldiers left the battlefield to search for their families amidst the chaos . During the final days of South Vietnam ’ s existence , the average South Vietnamese soldier showed more loyalty to his family than to his commanding officer , which had a significant impact on his willingness to fight on .
During the First Indochina War ( 1945 to 1954 ) , both Viet Minh and French forces considered the Central Highlands to be their ‘ home ’ , as it was considered the key to domination in Indochina . Both sides recognised that in order to occupy the Central Highlands , they had to possess a sufficient reserve of manpower with which to control the strategic areas within the region . By 1975 , the South Vietnamese military could no longer afford to maintain a large strategic reserve . South Vietnamese units in II Corps were overstretched in various locations across the Central Highlands , and could easily be overrun by enemy forces . Although Thieu ’ s decision to abandon the region was made with the aim of saving the military formations of II Corps , the decision nonetheless turned into a death warrant for General Phu ’ s men and their families . The lack of coordination and poor organisation during the withdrawal operation not only led to the destruction of II Corps , but marked the beginning of the end for South Vietnam .
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= Art Farmer =
Arthur Stewart " Art " Farmer ( August 21 , 1928 – October 4 , 1999 ) was an American jazz trumpeter and flugelhorn player . He also played flumpet , a trumpet – flugelhorn combination specially designed for him . He and his identical twin brother , double bassist Addison Farmer , started playing professionally while in high school . Art gained greater attention after the release of a recording of his composition " Farmer 's Market " in 1952 . He subsequently moved from Los Angeles to New York , where he performed and recorded with musicians such as Horace Silver , Sonny Rollins , and Gigi Gryce and became known principally as a bebop player .
As Farmer 's reputation grew , he expanded from bebop into more experimental forms through working with composers such as George Russell and Teddy Charles . He went on to join Gerry Mulligan 's quartet and , with Benny Golson , to co @-@ found the Jazztet . Continuing to develop his own sound , Farmer switched from trumpet to the warmer flugelhorn in the early 1960s , and he helped to establish the flugelhorn as a soloist 's instrument in jazz . He settled in Europe in 1968 and continued to tour internationally until his death . Farmer recorded more than 50 albums under his own name , a dozen with the Jazztet , and dozens more with other leaders . His playing is known for its individuality – most noticeably , its lyricism , warmth of tone and sensitivity .
= = Early life = =
Art Farmer was born an hour before his twin brother , on August 21 , 1928 , in Council Bluffs , Iowa , reportedly at 2201 Fourth Avenue . Their parents , James Arthur Farmer and Hazel Stewart Farmer , divorced when the boys were four , and their steelworker father was killed in a work accident not long after this . Art moved with his grandfather , grandmother , mother , brother and sister to Phoenix , Arizona when he was still four . He started to play the piano while in elementary school , then moved on to bass tuba and violin before settling on cornet and then trumpet at the age of thirteen . His family was musical : most of them played as a hobby , and one was a professional trombonist . Art 's grandfather was a minister in the African Methodist Episcopal Church . This influenced Farmer 's first choice of instrument , as his mother played piano for the church choir . The bass tuba was for use in a marching band and was Farmer 's instrument for a year , until a cornet became available . Phoenix schools were segregated , and no one at Farmer 's school could provide useful music lessons . He taught himself to read music and practiced his new main instrument , the trumpet .
Farmer and his brother moved to Los Angeles in 1945 , attending the music @-@ oriented Jefferson High School , where they got music instruction and met other developing musicians such as Sonny Criss , Ernie Andrews , Big Jay McNeely , and Ed Thigpen . The brothers earned money by working in a cold @-@ storage warehouse and by playing professionally . Art started playing trumpet professionally at the age of 16 , performing in the bands of Horace Henderson , Jimmy Mundy , and Floyd Ray , among others . These opportunities came about through a combination of his ability and the absence of numerous older musicians , who were still in the armed forces following World War II . Around this time in Los Angeles , there were abundant opportunities for musical development , according to Farmer : " During the day you would go to somebody 's house and play . At night there were after @-@ hours clubs [ ... and ] anybody who wanted to play was free to come up and play " . Farmer left high school early but persuaded the principal to give him a diploma , which he did not collect until a visit to the school in 1958 .
At this time , as an adolescent in Los Angeles , bebop and the swing era big bands both attracted Farmer 's attention . Decades later , he stated that , at that time , " I knew I had to be in jazz . Two things decided me – the sound of a trumpet section in a big band and hearing a jam session " . Farmer 's trumpet influences in the 1940s were Dizzy Gillespie , Miles Davis and Fats Navarro , but , in his own words , " then I heard Freddie Webster , and I loved his sound . I decided to work on sound because it seemed like most of the guys my age were just working on speed " .
= = Later life and career = =
= = = Early career in Los Angeles and New York = = =
Farmer left school to tour with a group led by Johnny Otis , but this job lasted for only four months , as Farmer 's lip gave out . Performing for long periods seven days a week for this job put great pressure on his technique , which was insufficiently developed to cope with such physical demands . His lip eventually became lacerated , and he could no longer play . He then received technique training in New York , where he worked for a time as a janitor and played as a freelance musician during 1947 and 1948 . An audition for Dizzy Gillespie 's big band was unsuccessful , and Farmer returned to the West Coast in 1948 as a member of Jay McShann 's band . Club and studio work was hard to get in Los Angeles from the late 1940s and into the 1950s , as it was dominated by white musicians . Farmer played and toured with Benny Carter , Roy Porter and Gerald Wilson , then played with Wardell Gray in 1951 – 52 . The hazards of the touring jazz musician 's lifestyle were also present : while travelling overnight by car between Phoenix and El Paso , to get to another Roy Porter @-@ led gig , the car that Farmer was in overturned at high speed , leaving him concussed and Porter with broken ribs .
Farmer 's first studio recording appears to have been on June 28 or July 2 , 1948 , in Los Angeles , under the leadership of vocalist Big Joe Turner and pianist Pete Johnson . They recorded " Radar Blues " , and at some point in the same or the following year they added a further seven sides ; the eight tracks were released as four singles by Swing Time Records . Farmer recorded further singles with Roy Porter and then , on January 21 , 1952 , as a member of Wardell Gray 's sextet . The latter session produced six tracks that were released as singles . These included " Farmer 's Market " , a piece that was written by Farmer and brought him greater attention .
= = = Career after second move to New York = = =
Farmer worked in Los Angeles for a time as a hotel janitor and a hospital file clerk , before joining Lionel Hampton 's orchestra in 1952 . He toured Europe with the orchestra , and shared the organization 's trumpet chairs with Clifford Brown , Quincy Jones and Benny Bailey . This aided his musical development considerably , as did his 1953 membership of Teddy Charles ' New Directions band – the compositions he encountered in this band allowed him to consider a broader range of expression during improvisation .
Farmer relocated to New York and , on July 2 , 1953 , had his first recording session as leader . This was combined with another recorded 11 months later to form the eight @-@ track Prestige LP , The Art Farmer Septet , featuring arrangements by Quincy Jones and Gigi Gryce . Farmer became " one of the most sought @-@ after trumpeters of the fifties " : he continued to work with Gryce ( 1954 – 56 ) , and also with Horace Silver ( 1956 – 58 ) and Gerry Mulligan ( 1958 – 59 ) , among others . One of the others was pianist Thelonious Monk , who led a sextet that included Farmer on its performances on a version of the Steve Allen Show , broadcast on television on June 10 , 1955 . The following month , Farmer played in the Charles Mingus sextet 's performance at the Newport Jazz Festival .
Farmer recorded only twice with Horace Silver 's group , as Silver recorded for Blue Note Records , while Farmer was signed to Prestige . Feuds between the label bosses ruled out extensive cross @-@ label collaboration . The transition from Silver 's piano @-@ led quintet to Mulligan 's piano @-@ less quartet was not straightforward : " to suddenly find yourself in a pianoless group was like walking down the street naked " , commented Farmer . As a member of Mulligan 's band , Farmer appeared on film twice – in I Want to Live ! ( 1958 ) and The Subterraneans ( 1960 ) – and again toured Europe , as part of a Jazz at the Philharmonic tour , helping him to develop an international reputation . In New York , Farmer worked with Lester Young , who told him to " tighten up and tell a ' story ' in each solo " . At this time , Farmer also rented his trumpet on a nightly basis to Miles Davis , who had pawned his own due to his drug dependency .
From the middle of the 1950s , Farmer featured in recordings by leading arrangers of the day , including George Russell , Quincy Jones and Oliver Nelson , being in demand because of his reputation for being able to play anything . The wide range of styles these arrangers represented was extended when Farmer took part in a series of experimental sessions with composer Edgard Varèse in 1957 . Varèse used approximate notation and wanted the musicians to improvise within its structure ; at least some of the seasoned jazz musicians present regarded this process of creation as similar to their own familiar creations of spontaneously produced head arrangements , but their efforts influenced Varèse 's composition , Poème électronique . Farmer 's playing around this time is summarized by critic Whitney Balliett , commenting on his performance on Hal McKusick 's 1957 album Hal McKusick Quintet : " Farmer has become one of the few genuinely individual modern trumpeters . ( Nine out of ten modern trumpeters are true copies of Dizzy Gillespie or Miles Davis . ) " Farmer was one of 57 jazz musicians to appear in the 1958 photograph " A Great Day in Harlem " and was later interviewed for the 1994 documentary of the same title .
Farmer formed the Jazztet in 1959 , with the composer and tenor saxophonist Benny Golson , after each man independently came to the conclusion that the other should be a member of his new sextet . The Jazztet lasted until 1962 , recorded several albums for Argo and Mercury Records , and assisted in the early careers of pianist McCoy Tyner and trombonist Grachan Moncur III . In the early 1960s Farmer established a trio with guitarist Jim Hall and bassist Steve Swallow ; his relationship with Hall lasted from 1962 to 1964 , and included two tours of Europe , one of which had concerts recorded for the BBC 's Jazz 625 programme , which were later released on DVD . Hall left the second tour while the quartet , which included Swallow and drummer Pete La Roca , was engaged in Berlin , and a pianist replaced him ; this was ultimately Steve Kuhn . In 1964 , this new quartet recorded the album Sing Me Softly of the Blues for the Atlantic label . These bands played laid back , melodious music during a period when avant @-@ garde jazz was becoming more common .
Farmer toured Europe in 1965 – 66 , then returned to the US and led a small group with Jimmy Heath . His stylistic development continued during this period of his career , in part because he " absorbed , understood , and had the technical and artistic gifts to put to personal use the [ John ] Coltrane innovations of the ' Giant Steps ' period of the early 1960s " . Work opportunities , however , were diminishing as rock became more popular in the mid @-@ 1960s , so Farmer joined the pit orchestra of Elliot Lawrence for the production of The Apple Tree on Broadway , for six months .
= = = Career after permanent move to Europe = = =
The visits to Europe continued . Farmer moved there in 1968 and ultimately settled in Vienna , where he performed with The Kenny Clarke / Francy Boland Big Band and joined the Austrian Radio Orchestra . The latter job initially required only ten days a month of his time , so he was able to play with other well @-@ known expatriates such as Don Byas , Dexter Gordon , and Ben Webster . As the orchestra 's music gradually changed in style from jazz to simpler forms and took up more of Farmer 's time , he found that it was getting in the way of his musical ambitions , so he left after three or four years . Pursuing these ambitions meant that Farmer traveled extensively worldwide . He said in 1976 that " I 'm traveling 90 percent of the time . I can live anywhere . It 's just a matter of getting to the airport " . A 1982 revival of the Jazztet , with Golson , led him to play more frequently in the United States than he had over the previous decade . In the 1980s Farmer also created a quintet , featuring saxophonist Clifford Jordan , that toured internationally . In the early 1980s , Farmer had also made some changes to his lifestyle . Interviewed for a 1985 article in The New Yorker , he reported losing 30 pounds in weight a couple of years earlier , and stopping smoking and drinking a couple of years before that ; Farmer " used to think he couldn 't play without drinking ; now he couldn 't play and drink " , was the interviewer 's summary of Farmer 's habits , which appear to have avoided the drug @-@ related problems of many of his contemporaries .
From the early 1990s , Farmer had a second house in New York and divided his time between Vienna and there . He had regular gigs with Clifford Jordan at the Sweet Basil Jazz Club and , later , with Ran Blake and Jerome Richardson at the Village Vanguard , both in New York . Farmer was awarded the Austrian Gold Medal of Merit in 1994 . In the same year , a concert in honor of his achievements was held at the Alice Tully Hall in New York . Farmer also recorded extensively as a leader throughout his later career , including some pieces of classical music with US and European orchestras . Farmer 's level of playing even towards the end of his career was noted in a review by Scott Yanow of one of his last recordings , Silk Road , from 1996 : " the warm @-@ toned and swinging Farmer is consistently the main star , and at age 68 he proves to still be in his prime " . In 1999 Farmer was selected as a National Endowment for the Arts Jazz Master . A few months later , on October 4 , Farmer died of a heart attack at home in Manhattan , aged 71 .
= = Personality and family life = =
Farmer first married in the mid @-@ 1950s , to a woman from South America ; the couple had one son , Arthur Jr , who died in 1994 , and they divorced after about a year . Farmer 's second wife was a distant cousin ; this also ended in divorce . He married again , to a Viennese banker named Mechtilde Lawgger , and their son , Georg , was born in the early 1970s . They lived together in a house that they had built in Vienna , and Farmer reported contentment with his lifestyle ; notably , in contrast with his homeland , he did not experience racism in Europe . Farmer described himself in 1985 as " an introvert , and kind of reclusive " ; a soundproof room in his Austrian house allowed him to practice alone for the four or five hours a day that he desired . His personality was often described by others as mirroring his playing : Leonard Feather , for instance , observed in 1990 that Farmer was " mellow , relaxed and [ ... ] gentle " .
Farmer was affected by the sudden death of his twin brother in 1963 : more than 20 years later , he said that he still dreamed of his sibling , and admitted that , " It seems there 's a part of him I haven 't fully gotten over " . Farmer 's third wife died from cancer in 1992 ; speaking three years later , he remarked that " I guess I never will really recover from that because we had been together for over 20 years when she died " . After his own death , he was described as being survived by his companion and manager , Lynne Mueller , and son .
= = Playing style = =
Descriptions of Farmer 's playing style typically stress his lyricism and the warmth of his sound . The Los Angeles Times obituary writers noted that his playing had " a sweetly lyrical tone and a melodic approach to phrasing , neither of which minimized his capacity to produce rhythmically swinging phrases " . The equivalent comments in The Guardian were that " Farmer avoided the bright , penetrating sound of orthodox trumpet playing and was influenced by the more reserved articulation of Miles Davis and Kenny Dorham " , and that , although he could seem more restrained than Davis or Lee Morgan , " Farmer was in his way a true original . His phrasing was always distinctive , letting the beat run ahead of him rather in the manner of Billie Holiday 's vocals " .
Farmer moved from trumpet to playing mostly flugelhorn from the early 1960s , utilising the latter instrument 's more mellow sound and Farmer 's ability to get what he wanted from it without having to use a mute . In 1989 , he played a major part in creating a trumpet – flugelhorn hybrid , the flumpet , which was constructed for him by instrument maker David Monette . This instrument allowed him to play with more expression in a range of settings , from small groups to big bands . In 1997 , Monette presented him with a personalized flumpet , with decorations symbolising important people and places in Farmer 's life .
Farmer 's determination to keep exploring forms of expression continued throughout his life . One comment on a concert given when Farmer was 67 was that " his style was continuing to evolve " ; he " delivered several solos in which his characteristically flowing lines were interrupted by sudden , wide melodic leaps and disjunct rhythmic accents " . A few months before his death , although faster numbers had become perhaps too challenging , The Guardian observed , Farmer 's playing on slower tunes achieved a new level of emotional expression .
= = Discography and filmography = =
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= Karim Benzema =
Karim Mostafa Benzema ( born 19 December 1987 ) is a French professional footballer of Algerian descent who plays for Spanish club Real Madrid and the France national team as a striker . He has been described as an " immensely talented striker " who is " strong and powerful " and " a potent finisher from inside the box " .
Benzema was born in the city of Lyon and began his football career with local club Bron Terraillon . In 1996 , he joined the biggest club in the city , Olympique Lyonnais , and subsequently came through the club 's youth academy . Benzema made his professional debut in the 2004 – 05 season and appeared sporadically in his first three seasons as Lyon won three titles in that span . In the 2007 – 08 season , Benzema became a starter and had a breakthrough year scoring over 30 goals as Lyon won its seventh straight league title . For his performances , he was named the National Union of Professional Footballers ( UNFP ) Ligue 1 Player of the Year and named to the organization 's Team of the Year . Benzema was also the league 's top scorer and given the Bravo Award by Italian magazine Guerin Sportivo . After another season at Lyon , in July 2009 , Benzema moved to Real Madrid in a transfer fee worth over € 35 million ( $ 50 million ) , and signed a six @-@ year contract . After struggling to establish himself in his debut season with the club , in the ensuing two seasons , Benzema reached prominence , scoring 32 goals en route to helping Real Madrid win the Copa del Rey in 2011 and the 2011 – 12 edition of La Liga . He has been named French Player of the Year thrice for his performances in 2011 , 2012 and 2014 .
Benzema is a former French youth international and has represented his nation from under @-@ 17 level onwards . Prior to playing for the senior team , he played on the under @-@ 17 team that won the 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Championship . Benzema made his senior international debut in March 2007 in a friendly match against Austria , scoring in a 1 – 0 win . Benzema has earned over 70 caps and represented France at three major international tournaments : the 2008 and 2012 editions of the UEFA European Football Championship and the 2014 FIFA World Cup . However , Benzema has twice been intentionally left off major tournament squads ( 2010 World Cup and 2016 Euros ) due to various scandals .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Benzema began his football career at his hometown club Bron Terraillon SC at the age of eight . While at the club , he was nicknamed Coco by friends and , after scoring two goals in an under @-@ 10 match against the Lyon youth academy , began attracting attention from the biggest club in the city . According to Serge Santa Cruz , who was president of Bron Terraillon in the 1990s , Lyon officials had visited him directly in an attempt to sign the youngster ; however , Santa Cruz refused . After talking with Benzema 's father , the club allowed the player to undergo a trial with Lyon . Following the trial , Benzema officially joined Lyon and was inserted into the club 's academy .
= = = Lyon = = =
Benzema quickly ascended up the youth categories in the academy . He served as a ballboy during Lyon senior team matches and performed well in school being described as a student who was " discreet and respectful " . At under @-@ 16 level , Benzema scored 38 goals in the Championnat National des 16 ans , the domestic league for under @-@ 16 youth players in France . Ahead of the 2004 – 05 season , Benzema was promoted to the club 's reserve team , which was playing in the Championnat de France amateur , the fourth division of French football . Despite only playing with the team during the autumn campaign , he scored a team @-@ high ten goals as the Lyon reserve team finished second in its group .
= = = = 2004 – 2007 = = = =
Benzema was called up to the senior team for the first time under manager Paul Le Guen during the break leading up to the second half of the season . As is customary with new players arriving at Lyon , the young striker had to stand up and speak to his new teammates , which at that time included the likes of Michael Essien , Sylvain Wiltord , Florent Malouda and Éric Abidal . While speaking , Benzema was subjected to jokes and laughter , which prompted the youngster to declare " Do not laugh , I 'm here to take your place " . He , subsequently , made his professional debut on 15 January 2005 against Metz , appearing as a substitute for Pierre @-@ Alain Frau . Lyon won the match 2 – 0 as Benzema provided the assist on the second goal scored by Bryan Bergougnoux . He would subsequently sign his first professional contract , agreeing to a three @-@ year deal . After making three more appearances as a substitute , on 2 April , Benzema made his first professional start in a 1 – 0 win over Lens . He finished the campaign with six appearances as Lyon won its fourth @-@ straight league title .
Benzema began the 2005 – 06 season under the tutelage of new manager Gérard Houllier . Under Houllier , he struggled for meaningful minutes due to the presence of newly signed Brazilian striker Fred , as well as Sylvain Wiltord . Benzema made his season debut on 2 October 2005 in a league win over Rennes , appearing as a substitute . On 6 December , he made his UEFA Champions League debut in Lyon 's final group stage match against Norwegian club Rosenborg . On his competition debut , he scored his first professional goal in a 2 – 1 win . A month later , Benzema scored his first professional double in a 4 – 0 win over Grenoble in the Coupe de France . On 4 March 2006 , Benzema scored his first professional league goal against Ajaccio in a 3 – 1 win .
Benzema began earning more playing time in the 2006 – 07 season and made his competitive season debut in the 2006 Trophée des Champions against Paris Saint @-@ Germain . In the French Supercup , Benzema converted a penalty which drew the match at 1 – 1 . Lyon later won the league curtain @-@ raiser 5 – 4 on penalties . Benzema opened the league campaign on a quick note scoring in the team 's first match of the season against Nantes . Three weeks later , on 26 August 2006 , Benzema appeared as a substitute and scored two goals in a 4 – 1 away win over Nice . He also converted two goals in the Champions League group stage against Romanian outfit Steaua București and Ukrainian club Dynamo Kyiv . After appearing regularly during the autumn campaign , on 10 November , Benzema suffered a severe thigh injury . The injury resulted in the striker missing three months of action before returning in February 2007 . Benzema failed to score a goal until the final league match of the season against Nantes as Lyon recorded its sixth consecutive league title .
= = = = 2007 – 08 season = = = =
For the 2007 – 08 season , with the likes of Florent Malouda , John Carew and Sylvain Wiltord all departing from the club , Benzema switched to the number 10 shirt and was inserted into the lead striker role . After forming a special relationship with new manager Alain Perrin , he responded with 31 goals in 51 games . He topped the league with 20 goals , scored four goals in the Champions League , one in the Coupe de la Ligue and totaled six goals in six Coupe de France matches , helping Lyon win their first ever double . Some of his more dazzling performances that season included a hat @-@ trick against Metz on 15 September , an equalizing goal in the 90th minute from a free kick against Derby du Rhône rivals Saint @-@ Étienne , and a goal against Lens that was nominated for goal of the season by fans .
In the Champions League , Benzema scored an important double against Rangers at Ibrox Stadium on the last match day of the group stage . The 3 – 0 victory assured Lyon progression to the knockout rounds . In the knockout rounds , Lyon faced Manchester United and Benzema continued to score , this time it was from outside the penalty box in the first leg match which ended in a 1 – 1 draw and United eventually won the tie 1 – 2 on aggregate . Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson and players praised Benzema for his performance . Lyon President Jean @-@ Michel Aulas later accused Ferguson of tapping @-@ up Benzema .
On 13 March 2008 , Benzema extended his contract with Lyon until 2013 with a one @-@ year extension option . After signing his new contract , Benzema became one of the highest paid footballers in France . For his efforts that season , he was named the Ligue 1 Player of the Year , selected to the Team of the Year and awarded the Trophée du Meilleur Buteur for being the league 's top scorer . He was also shortlisted by French magazine France Football for the 2008 Ballon d 'Or award , eventually won by Cristiano Ronaldo .
= = = = 2008 – 09 season = = = =
Benzema got off to a good start for the 2008 – 09 season , scoring twice in Lyon 's opening league match against Toulouse . The following three weeks , he scored goals against Rhône @-@ Alpes rivals Grenoble and Saint @-@ Étienne and scored a goal against Nice , converting a penalty in the dying seconds . Lyon won all three matches . As a result of his early goals , Olympique Lyonnais President Jean @-@ Michel Aulas quelled the many transfer rumors surrounding Benzema by placing a € 100 million price tag on the striker . He was also nominated alongside Franck Ribéry to be featured on the French cover of the video game FIFA 09 .
He scored his seventh goal of the league on 29 October , scoring in the 2 – 0 win over Sochaux . Benzema scored again the following weekend in a 2 – 0 win over Le Mans . He was among the top scorers in the Champions League group stage , scoring five goals , a double against Steaua București , two goals in two matches against Fiorentina , and a goal against the eventual group winners Bayern Munich on the final match day .
Following the winter break , Benzema endured a rough patch going scoreless the first three games before recording his 11th goal of the season against Nice in a 3 – 1 victory . Two weeks later , he scored his 12th goal against Nancy in a 2 – 0 victory . The next nine matches , both Benzema and Lyon 's form dwindled losing four matches , drawing three , and winning only two with Benzema scoring only two goals in that stretch , both of them against Le Mans in a 3 – 1 victory . The bad form resulted in Lyon losing their grip on first @-@ place position and eventually falling out of the title race , thus ending their streak of seven consecutive Ligue 1 titles . Benzema was a part of four of those title runs .
Despite losing the title , Benzema got back on track scoring his 15th and 16th goals of the season on 17 May in a 3 – 1 away victory over rivals Marseille , the first goal being a penalty . He scored his 17th goal the following weekend against Caen in a 3 – 1 victory moving him into third place among Ligue 1 top scorers .
= = = Real Madrid = = =
= = = = 2009 – 10 season = = = =
On 1 July 2009 , it was announced that Lyon had reached an agreement with Spanish club Real Madrid for the transfer of Benzema . The transfer fee was priced at € 35 million with the fee rising to as much as € 41 million based on incentives . On 9 July , Benzema successfully passed his medical and signed his contract , a six @-@ year deal , later that afternoon . He was presented officially as a Real Madrid player later that night at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium , similarly to the previous signings of Kaká and Cristiano Ronaldo . Benzema made his Real Madrid debut on 20 July in the club 's opening pre @-@ season friendly against Irish club Shamrock Rovers in Dublin , appearing as a half @-@ time substitute . He scored the lone goal in the club 's 1 – 0 win , scoring in the 87th minute . On 24 August , Benzema netted two goals in Real Madrid 's 4 – 0 victory over Norwegian club Rosenborg in an annual friendly tournament organized for the Santiago Bernabeu Trophy . The goals brought his total tally in the pre @-@ season with Real Madrid to five , making him the joint top scorer alongside fellow striker Raúl .
Benzema made his league debut for Madrid on 29 August 2009 against Deportivo La Coruña . He started the match , but was substituted out in the second half as Madrid won 3 – 2 . A month later , he scored his first goal for the club in a 5 – 0 victory against newly promoted Xerez . After missing the mid @-@ week match against Villarreal , against Tenerife at the weekend , Benzema scored his first double for Madrid in a 3 – 0 home victory . He made his Champions League debut for the club on 30 September in a group stage tie against Marseille . In the match , Benzema assisted on a Cristiano Ronaldo goal . After failing to score a goal in the month of October , in the team 's first match in November against Italian club Milan in the Champions League , Benzema scored the opener to give Madrid a 1 – 0 lead . His goal was later cancelled out by a Ronaldinho penalty . On 7 November , in the El Derbi madrileño against Atlético Madrid , Benzema assisted on Madrid 's second goal , scored by Marcelo . Madrid won the match 3 – 2 .
In late November , Benzema began appearing mainly as a substitute as manager Manuel Pellegrini preferred Gonzalo Higuaín in the lead striker role . To coincide with his benching , the striker was also being criticized by the Spanish media for his under @-@ performance and difficulties settling in the country as he had not yet begun learning the Spanish language . He was even declared the " new Anelka " by a Spanish newspaper Marca blogger , referring to former Real Madrid striker Nicolas Anelka who had a tumultuous year at the club before being sold . Benzema was defended by his compatriot Zinedine Zidane , who admitted " after two months , I was also criticized " and that Benzema was " a talented player and talented players in Madrid must win " .
On 5 December , Benzema appeared as a substitute for Rafael van der Vaart and scored the third goal in a 6 – 0 romp of Almería . The day after the match against Almería , Benzema responded to the criticism by stating , " I am totally integrated and very happy at Real Madrid , " and , " Yes , I have improved my adaptation . I have a new home and I 'm learning Spanish to understand myself better with my teammates . " After nearly a month coming off of the bench , he started alongside Higuaín away to Valencia on 12 December and responded by assisting on one of Higuaín 's two goals . A week later , Benzema returned to the bench . On his 22nd birthday , he scored in a 6 – 0 home win against Real Zaragoza . Following an injury to Higuaín in early January 2010 , Pellegrini inserted Benzema back into the starting lineup . After failing to score in his first two starts in the absence of Higuaín , against Deportivo La Coruña on 30 January , he scored a double in an important 3 – 1 away win . Following the return of Higuaín , Benzema was relegated back to a substitute 's role and finished the campaign by making eight consecutive appearances off the bench . Included in one of the those appearances was his final goal of the season against Athletic Bilbao in a 5 – 1 win .
= = = = 2010 – 11 season = = = =
Ahead of the 2010 – 11 season , Benzema switched to the number nine shirt as Real Madrid were under the tutelage of new incoming manager José Mourinho . The striker immediately drew the ire of Mourinho who declared to reporters during a pre @-@ season media session that " Benzema must understand that he is extremely talented , but that in itself is not enough " , while also stating that " [ Madrid ] need a striker who is sparky , not one that is listless " . Mourinho sentiments were later echoed by incoming France national team coach Laurent Blanc who acknowledged that Benzema was " not used to working " . Blanc also stated that the striker needed to shed weight in order to fulfill his potential .
Due to Mourinho preferring Ronaldo and Higuaín as his forwards , Benzema began the campaign as a substitute coming off the bench in the team 's opening league match of the season against Mallorca . Following the September international break , he made his first start in a 1 – 0 win over Osasuna . On 21 September , Benzema made a substitute appearance and scored his first goal of the season in a 3 – 0 home win against Espanyol . Afterwards , the striker failed to score a domestic goal for nearly two months . The striker did assist on goals in back @-@ to @-@ back weeks against Hércules in the league and Milan in the Champions League .
On 10 November , Benzema scored his second goal of the campaign against Real Murcia in the 2010 – 11 edition of the Copa del Rey . In late November , Benzema was inserted into the starting eleven following a severe back injury to Higuaín , along with the team 's lack of senior strikers . In his first match since being inserted into the starting lineup permanently , he scored his first Champions League goal of the season in a group stage fixture against Dutch club Ajax . In Madrid 's final group stage tie against French outfit Auxerre , Benzema scored his first hat trick for the club in a 4 – 0 win . The first goal he scored was Real Madrid 's 300th goal in the Champions League era . Two weeks later , Benzema converted another hat trick , this time in an 8 – 0 thrashing of Levante in the Copa del Rey . In the team 's first fixture of the 2011 calendar year , he assisted on the game @-@ winning goal scored by Ronaldo in a 3 – 2 win over Getafe . In late January , for the first time in his Real Madrid career , Benzema scored goals in back @-@ to @-@ back matches . On 23 January , he scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 win at home against Mallorca . Three days later , Benzema repeated his efforts scoring the only goal in a win over Sevilla in the first leg of the team 's Copa del Rey semi @-@ final tie . Real Madrid later advanced to its 37th Copa del Rey final in club history after beating Sevilla 2 – 0 in the second leg .
Following the arrival of Emmanuel Adebayor on loan , Benzema went unused in two consecutive league matches in February 2011 . He returned to the starting lineup on 19 February and embarked on a run in which he scored ten goals in eight matches . Included in those ten goals were doubles in three straight matches against Málaga , Racing Santander and Hércules , as well as a goal in the first leg of Madrid 's Round of 16 tie against former club Lyon . The strike against his hometown club was the 100th goal of his professional career , and also the first goal for Real Madrid at the Stade de Gerland in six years , though despite the honours associated with netting the goal , Benzema did not celebrate out of respect for his former club .
On 19 March , he scored the opener in the El Derbi madrileño as Real Madrid went on to win the match 2 – 1 . Despite his form , Benzema appeared in only one of the four highly anticipated matches against El Clásico rivals Barcelona , in which the two clubs met in the league , the 2011 Copa del Rey Final and the Champions League knockout stage . In between those clashes , on 23 April 2011 , Benzema scored a goal and assisted on another in a 6 – 3 win over Valencia . On 30 April , he scored a goal in the team 's 3 – 2 loss to Real Zaragoza . It was the only match of the campaign that Real Madrid loss , in which Benzema scored . To close out the campaign , Benzema scored another double in an 8 – 1 win over Almería . He finished the campaign second on the team behind Ronaldo with 26 goals as Real Madrid captured the Copa del Rey giving Benzema his first honour with the club . For his performances during the campaign , particularly during the second half , Benzema was praised by Mourinho , club officials Florentino Pérez and Emilio Butragueño , as well as national team manager Laurent Blanc .
= = = = 2011 – 12 season = = = =
Prior to the start of the 2011 – 12 season , Benzema , taking the advice of compatriots Blanc and Zidane , ventured to Merano , Italy , to attend a high performance clinic where he underwent treatment to reduce his weight . The spell at the clinic was ultimately a success after the striker arrived at pre @-@ season 8 kilograms ( 18 lb ) lighter . While at the clinic , Benzema also underwent physical training to build up his muscle mass . The striker was impressive in the pre @-@ season scoring eight goals in seven matches . His performances during the pre @-@ season resulted in Mourinho naming him the starting lead striker for the new campaign . Mourinho was later credited with Benzema 's transformation , but denied full responsibility and , instead , gave credit to the striker himself .
Benzema made his 2011 – 12 competitive debut for Madrid in the first leg of the 2011 Supercopa de España against Barcelona . In the match , he started and assisted on the opening goal of the match , scored by Mesut Özil . In the second leg , with Madrid trailing 4 – 3 on aggregate late in the match , Benzema scored the equalizing goal to even the tie at 4 – 4 . However , six minutes later , a Lionel Messi strike gave Barcelona the supercup . Benzema made his league debut for Madrid in the team 's 6 – 0 away win over Real Zaragoza . In the team 's next league match two weeks later against Getafe , Benzema scored a double in a 4 – 2 victory . After going scoreless in three consecutive league matches , he scored his third league goal of the campaign against Rayo Vallecano in a 4 – 2 win . In the team 's ensuing match against Ajax in the Champions League , Benzema scored Madrid 's third goal in a 3 – 0 home win . He also assisted on the opener , which was scored by Ronaldo . In the club 's next Champions League match against Lyon , Benzema scored again netting the opener . He also turned provider for the second consecutive match assisting on a goal by Sami Khedira . Madrid won the match 4 – 0 .
In November 2011 , Benzema scored five goals ; three in the league and two in Europe . In the league , he converted his three goals in wins over Osasuna and Valencia , while he scored his two Champions League goals in a 6 – 2 group stage win over Croatian club Dinamo Zagreb . On 10 December 2011 , Benzema scored the opener in Madrid 's 3 – 1 defeat to Barcelona in the El Clásico . The goal , scored just 21 seconds into the match , was the fastest goal ever scored in a match between the two rivals . Three days after his record @-@ breaking goal , for his performances during the 2011 calendar year , Benzema was named the France Football French Player of the Year , beating out Barcelona defender Éric Abidal and Lyon goalkeeper Hugo Lloris . He became only the second French player based in Spain to win the award , and also the second Real Madrid player to capture it . Zidane was the first to achieve both honorable mentions . Benzema expressed gratitude at winning the award , stating , " It is a pleasure to win an individual trophy . When I see the previous winners — Zidane , Henry and other major players — it makes me proud to join them on the list . " In the team 's next match after winning the award , against Sevilla , Benzema assisted on two goals in a 6 – 2 triumph .
Benzema opened the 2012 portion of the campaign in positive form . He scored goals against Granada and Málaga . Benzema scored against the latter club in the Copa del Rey in each leg of the Round of 16 . The 4 – 2 aggregate win advanced Real Madrid to the quarter @-@ finals where the club faced Barcelona . After failing to score in the first leg , which ended 2 – 1 in favor of Barça , in the second leg on 25 January 2012 , Benzema scored his third goal of the season against the Blaugrana , but Madrid failed to win the tie losing 4 – 3 on aggregate . On 12 February , Benzema scored his first league goal in over a month against Levante . A week later , he scored a double in a 4 – 0 shutout of Racing Santander . On 24 March , Benzema scored two goals in a league win over Real Sociedad . The two goals made him the top French scorer in La Liga history surpassing Zidane . Three days later , Benzema scored another double in a 3 – 0 first leg away win over Cypriot club APOEL in the Champions League quarter @-@ finals . On 29 April , Benzema put in a masterpiece performance scoring two goals and assisting on another in a 3 – 0 win over Sevilla . The double was his seventh of the season and allowed Madrid to close in on its first Primera Division title in four years . Los Blancos captured their 32nd league title the following week cruising to a 3 – 0 win over Athletic Bilbao . Benzema appeared as a second @-@ half substitute in the match .
= = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = =
On the first matchday of the UEFA Champions League , Benzema scored an equalizer against Manchester City in 3 – 2 win at Santiago Bernabéu . On 4 October 2012 , Benzema scored a bicycle kick goal off a cross by Kaká in a 4 – 1 win against Ajax in Amsterdam . On 18 December 2012 , one day before his 25th birthday , his fine form saw him earn the award for best French footballer of 2012 , for the second year running .
On 2 March 2013 , Benzema opened the scoring against Barcelona in the league game at the Santiago Bernabéu . Real went on to win the game 2 – 1 , the second time they beat Barcelona in a week . On 30 April 2013 , Benzema scored one goal and assisted to Sergio Ramos against Dortmund .
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
Benzema started new season by scoring in a 2 – 1 win over Real Betis at the Santiago Bernabéu . He scored again one week later in a 1 – 0 away over Granada , assisted by Cristiano Ronaldo . After four matches without scoring ( two with Real Madrid and two with France ) , he returned to goal @-@ scoring form by netting twice in a 6 – 1 away win over Galatasaray in Champions League . On 18 January 2014 , he scored his 100th goal for Madrid in a 5 – 0 victory at Real Betis . On 23 March , Benzema scored two goals against fierce rivals Barcelona in El Clásico at the Bernabéu from two crosses by Ángel Di María , taking his goal tally in La Liga to 17 goals , though Barcelona won the match 4 – 3 .
Benzema was part of Real Madrid 's starting eleven in the 2014 Copa del Rey Final on 16 April at the Mestalla Stadium , and assisted Di María 's opening goal before Gareth Bale hit the winner for Madrid in a 2 – 1 victory . One week later , Benzema scored the only goal of the game to win the first leg of a Champions League semi @-@ final against Bayern Munich . The club went on to win the final in May . Real Madrid 's attacking trio of Bale , Benzema and Cristiano , dubbed " BBC " , finished the season with 97 goals .
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
On 6 August 2014 , Real Madrid announced that Benzema had signed a new five @-@ year deal that will keep him at the club until 2019 . On 12 August 2014 , Benzema played the whole 90 minutes in Real Madrid 's 2 – 0 win against Sevilla in Cardiff to claim the UEFA Super Cup .
On 16 September 2014 , Benzema scored Real Madrid 's 1,000th goal in European competition after netting a goal in a 5 – 1 victory over FC Basel in the first match of the Champions League group stage . He scored the winning goal in Real Madrid 's 2 – 1 away victory against Ludogorets Razgrad in the Champions League after coming on as a second @-@ half substitute . The next weekend , he scored a brace in the 5 – 0 victory against Athletic Bilbao in La Liga .
Benzema was chosen as La Liga Player of the Month for October 2014 , with his manager Carlo Ancelotti winning the equivalent award . He scored three of Real Madrid 's 13 goals of the month , in which they won three matches and only conceded just one goal .
= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =
Benzema scored a hatrick in an 8 – 0 thrashing against Malmö FF on 8 December 2015 . On 20 December 2015 , he scored another hatrick in a 10 – 2 victory over Rayo Vallecano .
He was a regular starter when the team won the 2015 – 16 UEFA Champions League .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth = = =
Benzema is a former France youth international having earned caps at all levels for which he was eligible , excluding the under @-@ 16 team . He is a member of the group , commonly known in France as the Génération 1987 , a youth class that produced current internationals Hatem Ben Arfa , Jérémy Ménez and Samir Nasri , alongside himself . Benzema was the last of the four to make his youth international debut under coach Philippe Bergeroo and officially joined the team ahead of the 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Football Championship that was played on home soil . In the competition , he appeared in two matches . On his tournament debut , Benzema scored the opening goal in a 3 – 1 win over Northern Ireland . His lone other appearance in the competition was in a 1 – 0 group stage win over Spain as France went on to win the tournament defeated the same team in the final .
Benzema was a regular starter in the team at under @-@ 18 level . He made his debut with the team at a local tournament in the Czech Republic . Benzema scored his first goal at under @-@ 18 level in the competition against Poland in the team 's final group stage match . In the final against the hosts , he scored the opening goal in a 2 – 0 win as France were declared champions of the competition . On 30 September 2004 , Benzema was one of three goalscorers in France 's 3 – 0 away win over Norway . In the team 's next match against Russia , he scored a double in a 3 – 1 victory . Due to France winning the 2004 U17 European title , the under @-@ 18 team was allowed participation in the 2005 edition of the UEFA @-@ CAF Meridian Cup . Benzema was called up to the team for the competition and played in all four matches scoring a tournament @-@ high five goals as France were crowned champions of the tournament . He opened the tournament by scoring two goals in a 7 – 0 victory over Cameroon . After going scoreless in the team 's next match against Sierra Leone , Benzema responded by scoring a goal in a shutout victory over Nigeria and netting another double in a 4 – 1 win against Egypt . On 19 May 2005 , in the team 's final match of the season against Slovakia , Benzema scored all four goals in a 4 – 1 victory . He finished the under @-@ 18 campaign with 18 appearances and a team @-@ high 14 goals and was , subsequently , praised by Bergeroo who , following the campaign , declared that Benzema was " quite efficient " .
The foursome of Benzema , Ben Arfa , Ménez and Nasri returned to international play together for under @-@ 19 duty . The four were joined by Issiar Dia , Blaise Matuidi and Serge Gakpé with the objective of winning the 2006 UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Football Championship . The team opened the campaign with two friendly matches against Norway . Over the course of the two matches , Benzema scored one goal , which came in the first match , a 4 – 0 win . In the first round of qualification for the UEFA @-@ sanctioned tournament , he scored his only goal in the final group match against Austria . France won the match 2 – 0 , which resulted in the team progressing to the Elite Round . In the ensuing round , France were placed in a relatively easy group alongside Scotland , Bulgaria , and Belarus . In the opening group game against Bulgaria , Benzema scored a double converting a penalty and scoring in play as France won 4 – 0 . Both of his goals were scored within a minute of each other . After surprisingly drawing 0 – 0 with Belarus , France faced Scotland in the final group stage match . Benzema opened the scoring in the 11th minute , but his goal was cancelled out by Steven Fletcher in the second half . The match ultimately finished 1 – 1 and , despite finishing the round undefeated , France were eliminated after being beaten on points by the Scots .
Benzema made his under @-@ 21 debut for Les Espoirs under coach René Girard in the team 's first match following the 2006 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship against Belgium . He started the match and was replaced at half @-@ time by Yoann Gourcuff . He featured in qualification matches for the 2007 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship and appeared as a starter and substitute in the first leg and second leg , respectively , of the team 's surprising defeat to Israel in the qualifying playoffs . Despite still being eligible to represent the under @-@ 21 team until 2009 , his appearance in the second leg defeat to Israel was Benzema 's last with the team and he finished his under @-@ 21 career with five appearances and no goals . Prior to representing France at senior international level , Benzema was courted by the Algerian Football Federation ( FAF ) who sought for the player to represent Algeria at senior international level . In December 2006 , the striker was approached by former federation president Hamid Haddadj and then @-@ national team coach Jean @-@ Michel Cavalli , but turned down the invite citing his desire to continue his international career with France . Benzema later told French radio station Radio Monte Carlo " Algeria is my parents ’ country and it is in my heart , but football @-@ wise , I will only play for the French national team " .
= = = Senior = = =
= = = = Euro 2008 = = = =
Benzema was called up for the first time to the senior national team by Raymond Domenech on 9 November 2006 for the team 's friendly match against Greece that would be played on 15 November . Benzema described the call @-@ up as " a reward " , while also stating " I am pleased , of course , me and my family . A ( the senior national team ) , is the national team 's highest honor " . Two days before the match , he was forced to withdraw from the team due to a thigh injury , which he suffered while playing domestically for Lyon . After failing to make the squad for the team 's February 2007 match against Argentina , Benzema returned to the team in March for a UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying match against Lithuania and a friendly against Austria . After failing to appear in the qualifier , he made his international debut on 28 March 2007 against Austria . Benzema appeared as a half @-@ time substitute for Djibril Cissé and scored the only goal of the match after a free @-@ kick from Samir Nasri . On 13 October , Benzema scored a double in a 6 – 0 win against the Faroe Islands . After appearing regularly in the team for the rest of the 2007 – 08 season , he was named to the 23 @-@ man squad to participate in UEFA Euro 2008 .
Benzema made his debut in the competition on 9 June 2008 in the team 's opening match against Romania . Benzema started the match , but was substituted out for Nasri in the second half after a frustrating performance . The match finished 0 – 0 and Benzema was , subsequently , criticized by the French media for his performance with newspaper Le Point declaring that Benzema was " unrecognizable " and that he " symbolized the impotence of France in the attack " . The newspaper also cited his lack of international experience for his subdued performance . In the team 's next group game against the Netherlands , Benzema played no part in the 4 – 1 defeat . He returned to the team in its final group game against Italy and was given a place in the starting lineup . However , France lost 2 – 0 and were eliminated from the competition .
In November 2008 , Benzema , among several other young players in the team , was accused of being insolent during the team 's campaign at the European Championship . The accusation came from international teammate William Gallas who inserted the charge in his autobiography . Though most of Gallas ' accusations were directed at Nasri , during the competition , it was reported by newspaper Le Parisien that several of the national team players described Benzema as " arrogant " and that the striker was scolded by midfielder Claude Makélélé following the team 's loss to the Netherlands .
= = = = 2010 World Cup = = = =
Despite the reports from after Euro 2008 , Benzema remained a regular in the team and , ahead of qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup , switched to the number ten shirt after previously wearing the number nine . In the team 's first match following its elimination from Euro 2008 , Benzema scored a goal in a 3 – 2 friendly win over Sweden in Göteborg . Two months later , he scored another goal in a 3 – 1 victory against Tunisia at the Stade de France . On 5 June 2009 , Benzema converted the only goal of the match , a penalty shot , in a 1 – 0 win over Turkey at the Stade de Gerland , his home stadium . He scored his first World Cup qualification goals in victories over the Faroe Islands and Austria in October 2009 . His cap against Austria would be his last of the Domenech era as he failed to make France 's preliminary 30 @-@ man squad for the World Cup . Domenech cited Benzema 's struggle for form with his new club Real Madrid , rather than his alleged involvement in a sex scandal as his reason for leaving the striker out . Prior to the list being unveiled , Benzema informed Radio Monte Carlo that if he was not selected he would be " very disappointed , but not killed " and " I will support the France team no matter what " .
= = = = Euro 2012 = = = =
Following the World Cup , Benzema returned to the national team under the reign of new coach Laurent Blanc . Blanc , an admirer of Benzema , sought to build the attack around the striker and , after going almost a year without representing France , Benzema made his return to the team in its 2 – 1 defeat to Norway in Oslo . Alongside Gourcuff , Benzema led the team in scoring in qualifying for UEFA Euro 2012 netting three . He scored his three goals in wins over Bosnia and Herzegovina , Luxembourg , and Albania . On 17 November 2010 , Benzema scored the opening goal in France 's 2 – 1 win over England at Wembley Stadium . In the team 's next match against Brazil in February 2011 , he scored the only goal for France in a 1 – 0 win . After appearing regularly in qualifying for UEFA Euro 2012 , on 29 May 2012 , Benzema was named to the squad to participate in the competition . On 5 June , in the team 's final warm @-@ up friendly ahead of the European Championship , Benzema scored two goals in a 4 – 0 shutout win over Estonia . At UEFA Euro 2012 , Benzema started the team 's opening match against England , which ended in a 1 – 1 draw . In the team 's ensuing group stage match against the Ukraine , he assisted on both team goals in a 2 – 0 win .
= = = = 2014 World Cup = = = =
On 11 October 2013 , Benzema scored his first goal for the France national team since June 2012 in a friendly against Australia , thus ending a scoring drought for his national team which had lasted 1 @,@ 222 minutes . In that match played at the Parc des Princes stadium in Paris , which France won 6 – 0 , Benzema scored France 's sixth and final goal in the 50th minute after turning home Franck Ribéry 's left @-@ wing cross . In the second leg of the 2014 World Cup qualification play @-@ off against Ukraine held on 19 November 2013 at the Stade de France , Benzema scored France 's second goal in the 34th minute to level the aggregate score at 2 – 2 . Benzema scored his goal when he side @-@ footed home after a huge scramble in the Ukrainian penalty box , although he was shown on television replays to be offside by almost one metre when the ball took a final touch off Mathieu Valbuena 's chest . Benzema had four minutes earlier been denied a legitimate goal , the offside flag wrongly raised when he turned in Ribéry 's low cross into the net with his torso a metre from the Ukrainian goal @-@ line . Ukraine had won the first leg of the play @-@ off 2 – 0 in Kiev just four days earlier . France would eventually win the second leg 3 – 0 to advance to the 2014 World Cup finals in Brazil with a 3 – 2 aggregate scoreline .
On 6 June 2014 , Benzema was named in France 's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup , making his debut in the tournament . In the team 's first match , a 3 – 0 win against Honduras in Porto Alegre on 15 June , he scored a goal in each half , the first from a penalty kick . He also assisted the team 's second goal when his shot rebounded off the post and was fumbled over the goal @-@ line by Honduran goalkeeper Noel Valladares for an own goal , the first World Cup goal given by goal @-@ line technology . He was named by FIFA as man of the match for his performance . In the second group fixture , he scored and had a penalty saved in a 5 – 2 defeat of Switzerland , as Les Bleus all but secured qualification to the knockout stage . France were later knocked out by Germany in the quarter @-@ final stage of the tournament .
= = = = Euro 2016 = = = =
On 13 April 2016 , French Football Federation announced that Benzema would not be picked for Euro 2016 tournament on home soil . He responded on 1 June 2016 in Marca , in an interview entitled ' Benzema : " Deschamps folded due to pressure from France 's racist element " ' .
= = Style of play = =
A skillful , quick , agile , and prolific forward , who is good in the air , Benzema has been described as an " immensely talented striker " who is " strong and powerful " and " a potent finisher from inside the box " with both feet , despite being naturally right footed . An atypical number 9 , although he is usually deployed as a centre @-@ forward , Benzema is also capable of playing in several other offensive positions , and has been used on the wing , or even behind the main striker . In addition to his goalscoring , Benzema is indeed known for his willingness and ability to drop into deeper or wider positions , and either link @-@ up play with midfielders as a number 10 , or use his strength and technical ability to hold up the ball to provide assists for teammates , courtesy of his vision , creativity , passing , and eye for the final ball . He has also been praised for his work @-@ rate and tactical intelligence off the ball , as well as his attacking movement as a forward , which often draws opposition defenders out of position , and in turn creates spaces for Cristiano Ronaldo to make attacking runs into the centre of the area from the left wing .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 28 May 2016
1Includes Coupe de France , Coupe de la Ligue , Trophée des Champions , Copa del Rey and Supercopa de España2Includes UEFA Super Cup and FIFA Club World Cup
= = = International = = =
As of 8 October 2015
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Lyon
Ligue 1 : 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06 , 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08
Coupe de France : 2007 – 08
Trophée des Champions : 2006 , 2007
Real Madrid
UEFA Champions League : 2013 – 14 , 2015 – 16
UEFA Super Cup : 2014
FIFA Club World Cup : 2014
La Liga : 2011 – 12
Copa del Rey : 2010 – 11 , 2013 – 14
Supercopa de España : 2012
= = = International = = =
France
UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Football Championship ( 1 ) : 2004
= = = Individual = = =
Bravo Award : 2008
Ligue 1 Top Goalscorer : 2007 – 08
UNFP Ligue 1 Player of the Year : 2007 – 08
UNFP Ligue 1 Team of the Year : 2007 – 08
Étoile d 'Or : 2007 – 08
French Player of the Year ( 3 ) : 2011 , 2012 , 2014
Fastest goal in an El Clásico on 10 December 2011 ( 21 seconds )
= = Personal life = =
Karim Benzema was born in the city of Lyon , France to French nationals of Algerian descent . As a practicing Muslim , he observes fasting during the Islamic holy month of Ramadan . His grandfather , Da Lakehal Benzema , lived in the village of Tigzirt , located in the northern town of Beni Djellil in Algeria before migrating to Lyon , where he eventually settled in the 1950s . Benzema 's father , Hafid , was born in Tigzirt , while his mother , Wahida Djebbara , was born and raised in Lyon ; her family originated from Oran . Benzema is the third youngest in the family and grew up with eight other siblings in Bron , an eastern suburb of Lyon . His younger brothers Gressy and Sabri are also footballers . The former currently plies his trade at the amateur level with Vaulx @-@ le @-@ Velin in the Division d 'Honneur , the sixth division of French football , while the latter plays in the youth academy of a club in the family 's hometown of Bron . Since establishing himself as an international footballer , Benzema has been involved in numerous promotional campaigns . Since 2008 , he has regularly appeared on the cover of the French version of the annual FIFA video game . Benzema is sponsored by German sportswear company Adidas and has , subsequently , appeared in several television advertisements for the brand .
On 3 February 2014 , his longtime girlfriend , Chloé de Launay , gave birth to his daughter , Mélia .
= = = Legal issues = = =
On 18 April 2010 , it was first reported by French television channel M6 that four members of the French national team were being investigated for their roles as clients in a prostitute ring operated inside of a Paris nightclub , with some of the women possibly being underage or transgender . The players were eventually revealed to be Franck Ribéry , Sidney Govou , Hatem Ben Arfa and Benzema . Benzema was alleged to have had a sexual rendezvous with a prostitute when she was 16 years of age , an act Benzema denied through his lawyer . On 20 July , Benzema was questioned by Paris police and indicted on the charge of " solicitation of a minor prostitute " . In November 2011 , prosecutors asked for the cases against Ribéry and Benzema to be dropped , saying that the players were not aware that the escort , identified as Zahia Dehar , was 16 years old . However , the case has gone on to trial . The first hearing was held in June 2013 .
On 4 November 2015 , Benzema was arrested by French police for his alleged part in blackmailing fellow France international player Mathieu Valbuena . During the investigation over the blackmail plot , French Prime Minister Manuel Valls stated , " A great athlete should be exemplary . If he is not , he has no place in the France team . There are so many kids , so many youngsters in our suburbs that relate to great athletes . They wear the blue jersey , the colours of France , which are so important in these moments . "
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= Roanoke Building =
11 South LaSalle Street Building or Eleven South LaSalle Street Building ( formerly Roanoke Building and Tower and originally Lumber Exchange Building and Tower Addition or simply the Roanoke Building and Lumber Exchange Building ) is a Chicago Landmark building that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and that is located at 11 South LaSalle Street in the Loop community area of Chicago , Illinois , United States . This address is located on the southeast corner of LaSalle and Madison Street in Cook County , Illinois across the Madison Street from the One North LaSalle Building . The building sits on a site of a former Roanoke building ( once known as Major Block 2 ) that once served as a National Weather Service Weather Forecast official climate site and replaced Major Block 1 after the Great Chicago Fire . The current building has incorporated the frontage of other buildings east of the original site of Major Block 1 .
The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places ( under the name Lumber Exchange Building and Tower Addition ) on December 6 , 2007 , and named a Chicago Landmark on December 12 , 2007 . It incorporates the lands of the former DeSoto Building and former Farewell Hall .
= = Original Roanoke Building = =
A four @-@ story Major Block 1 building , designed by T. V. Widskier , sat on this location until the Great Chicago Fire . After the fire , this was replaced with the Major Block 2 , which eventually became known as the Roanoke Building . Major Block 2 stood from 1872 – 1912 as a seven @-@ story building on spread foundations . It was designed by Dixon & Hamilton and had a length of 136 feet ( 41 @.@ 5 m ) along South LaSalle Street and a width of 66 feet ( 20 @.@ 1 m ) along West Madison Street . A commonly published illustration of this building shows it as a five @-@ story building . From June 8 , 1873 to January 1 , 1887 the original Roanoke building served as the Chicago location for the National Weather Service Weather Forecast official climate site . The building is mentioned in Saul Bellow 's More Die of Heartbreak but there it is referred to as a wealthy residence building and not as an office building .
= = Current Roanoke Building = =
= = = The original current building = = =
The current building was designed in three phases : in 1915 Holabird & Roche 's design for the first 16 floors was built , and five floors were added in 1922 . It was built originally as the sixteen @-@ story high Lumber Exchange Building and later renamed as the 11 South LaSalle Street Building . The Holabird & Roche design had three basements and rock caissons . The original 16 @-@ floor building was a late Chicago school commercial building that incorporated arches at both the fourth and the top floor , but when the top five floors were added in 1922 under the original cornice , the top rank of arches disappeared . The building uses dark terra cotta with italianate designs . The vaulted ceiling and marble wall lobby contribute to what is described as a classical entrance and lobby . The Palladian entrance uses contrasting white varigated and black marble .
= = = Tower addition = = =
In 1925 , the building was built to its current 35 story height by the addition of an adjacent tower to the east of the Madison street frontage . The entire building contains 330 @,@ 000 square feet ( 31 @,@ 000 m2 ) . The 36 @-@ story tower was added east of the original structure on the site of the former DeSoto Building at 125 @-@ 129 West Madison . The tower was an early example of the use of setbacks and it uses ranks of paired windows . When the Tower was built four bronze bells were installed and were set to chime an original composition called " Samheim " which is Norse for " Tomorrow " every quarter @-@ hour . The largest of these chimes is 7 @,@ 000 pounds ( 3 @,@ 200 kg ; 500 st ) and inscribed with the name " Leander " in honor of Leander McCormick . The current Roanoke building is the city 's only example of a building in the style of Portuguese Gothic architecture . According to the press release from the city announcing the landmark promotion , the building 's terra cotta ornamentation is derived from Portuguese Gothic precedents . The building was modernized in the 1950s and went through a postmodern renovation in 1984 to evoke the original ornamentation . The building has the same frontage as the original Roanoke building plus that of the former Farewell Hall ( built by William W. Boyington at 131 @-@ 3 West Madison Street ) .
From 1920 until 1969 the building hosted the offices of the law firm Sidley & Austin . Today the building is leased by small service industry firms , such as second @-@ floor tenant Thomas P. Gohagan & Co . , which arranges travel trips and tours for non @-@ profit organizations .
The building is undergoing renovation to the lobby , the façade , the elevators and the exterior lighting . The recent National Register listing has made the renovation feasible by making the building eligible for federal tax credits and reduced property taxes . The building qualified for the landmark Class L tax status , which makes it eligible for twelve years of reduced property taxes and other economic incentives for repair and rehab of historic buildings > In order to perform the renovation the owners took out a $ 43 @.@ 3 million loan against the property according to Form 8 @-@ K filings with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission . Its National Registered Historic Places announcement listed it under the name " Lumber Exchange Building and Tower Addition " although its Chicago Landmark listing is under the name " Roanoke Building and Tower . "
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= Donnie Fatso =
" Donnie Fatso " is the ninth episode of the twenty @-@ second season of the animated comedy series The Simpsons . It first aired on Fox in the United States on December 12 , 2010 . The plot revolves around an FBI agent , who helps Homer go undercover to infiltrate Fat Tony 's mob . Homer agrees to this in hopes of decreasing his sentence after being charged for bribery . This episode is a reference to Goodfellas as well as real @-@ life FBI agent Donnie Brasco .
" Donnie Fatso " was written by Chris Cluess and directed by Ralph Sosa . Critics were polarized with the episode , with criticism stemming from its main plot and cultural references . Upon its initial airing , the episode received 7 @.@ 32 million viewers and attained a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . " Donnie Fatso " featured guest appearances from Jon Hamm and Joe Mantegna , as well as several recurring voice actors and actresses for the series .
= = Plot = =
Homer and Marge wake on New Year 's Day with hangovers after the family 's New Year 's Eve celebration . As Homer takes out the garbage , Chief Wiggum , Eddie , and Lou arrive and issue him multiple citations and fines - the result of recently passed , frivolous laws intended to bring in revenue for the city when broken . Taking Moe 's suggestion that he bribe a city official to clear up the fines , Homer leaves a sack full of cash on the official 's desk but is promptly arrested , convicted , and sentenced to 10 years in prison . Wiggum takes pity on Homer and tells him to meet with an FBI agent , who offers to reduce the sentence if Homer will go undercover in the prison to investigate Fat Tony , who is also serving time along with his top henchmen .
Homer quickly gains favor with Fat Tony , due to a confrontation engineered by the FBI agent , and Fat Tony breaks him and the entire group out of prison and offers him a chance to join the syndicate . Homer 's first task is to burn down Moe 's Tavern in revenge for Moe 's rudeness toward Fat Tony on the phone , but Homer finds that Moe has already done the deed himself . Fat Tony accepts Homer into the syndicate and the two develop a special bond ; however , complications over a scheme to import weapons put the syndicate under severe stress . Eventually Fat Tony discovers Homer 's undercover status and , emotionally devastated by his betrayal , suffers a fatal heart attack .
Meanwhile , Marge has begun to panic over being unable to communicate with Homer , as she knows nothing of his undercover work and cannot get any information on his whereabouts . She is surprised and thrilled when he returns home with his prison sentence lifted , but Homer feels guilt for Fat Tony 's death and bitterness toward the government over being used to bring him down . Homer visits Fat Tony 's grave to apologize , but is kidnapped by his cousin Fit Tony , who plans to kill him for revenge . However , Fit Tony spares his life after Homer tells of the time he and Fat Tony spent together , seeing that Fat Tony lives on in Homer 's memories . Fit Tony takes charge of the syndicate , but the stress of the position causes him to overeat and gain weight , becoming known first as Fit Fat Tony and then simply Fat Tony - now physically indistinguishable from the original .
= = Production = =
Donnie Fatso was written by Chris Cluess and directed by Ralph Sosa . In July 2010 , it was announced that Jon Hamm would make a guest appearance in the episode as an agent for the FBI . In his interview with Entertainment Weekly , showrunner Al Jean was pleased with Hamm 's performance , opining : " You gave him one note and he immediately did twelve great things with it . He was really funny . And handsome . He had it all . Hamm stated that appearing on the show was " an incredible experience " . In his interview with Access Hollywood , he continued , " I got to work on The Simpsons , which I watched for 20 years and the show is still fresh and still funny and the characters still resonate . It ’ s one of the best shows on television . It was an honor to be asked to be a part of it . " Joe Mantegna returned as Fat Tony , and voiced Fat Tony 's cousin Fit Tony .
" Donnie Fatso " features several references to music , film , media , and other pop culture phenomenon . The episode 's plot and title are parodical to that of the film Donnie Brasco . At the end of the episode , Homer 's monologue serves as a homage to monologue of Henry Hill in Goodfellas . Similarly , the parodying monologue is set to Sid Vicious ' version of " My Way " . Near the end of the episode , Fit Tony narrowly avoids a car bomb , a scene similar to that in Casino . The final scene between Fat Tony and Homer is reminiscent to that of the television show Wiseguy .
The opening sequence of " Donnie Fatso " featured a Fox News helicopter with the words " Merry Christmas from Fox News … But no other holidays . " It was the third episode of the season to satirize Fox News in its opening sequence , having first done so in " The Fool Monty " , in which helicopter can be seen hovering over New York City with the slogan " Fox News : Not Racist , But # 1 With Racists " . Bill O 'Reilly , host of the The O 'Reilly Factor , harshly criticized the show , calling the producers " pinheads " . He resumed : " Continuing to bite the hand that feeds part of it , Fox broadcasting once again allows its cartoon characters to run wild . " In response , producers added a brief scene at the beginning of the opening sequence in the following episode , " How Munched is That Birdie in the Window ? " , in which a helicopter appears bearing the slogan " Fox News : Unsuitable for Viewers Under 75 . " The scene was later removed from the opening sequence of " How Munched is That Birdie in the Window ? " , and was replaced by one reminiscing the film King Kong . According to showrunner Al Jean , the producers of the show were pleased that they had annoyed O 'Reilly , exclaiming that it was " very entertaining for [ them ] . "
= = Reception = =
" Donnie Fatso " was first broadcast on December 12 , 2010 in the United States as part of the animation television night on Fox . It was succeeded by episodes of Family Guy and American Dad ! . The episode was viewed by an estimated 7 @.@ 32 million viewers , despite airing simultaneously with Extreme Makeover Home Edition on ABC , The Amazing Race on CBS , and a game between the Philadelphia Eagles and the Dallas Cowboys as part of the 2010 NFL season on NBC . " Donnie Fatso " garnered a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , according to the Nielsen ratings . The episode also became the third highest rated show of the week on Fox , only behind Glee and Family Guy . Total viewership and ratings were significantly down from the previous episode , " The Fight Before Christmas " , which received 9 @.@ 56 million viewers and achieved a 4 @.@ 2 / 11 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic .
The episode attained mixed receptions from television critics . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a ' C ' grade , scoring lower than " Road to the North Pole " of Family Guy and " For Whom the Sleigh Bell Tolls " of American Dad . VanDerWerff felt that the episode was " fairly lazy " , and commented that the main plot was " too much of a mob movie pastiche . " Eric Hochberger of TV Fanatic criticized the humor of the episode , opining that " for an episode with such an overdone story , we could have forgiven things if it were at least funnier . " He continued : " Unfortunately , there just weren 't enough jokes to make the episode worth it . " In conclusion of his review , Hochberger gave " Donnie Fatso " a 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars .
Critics were also polarized with the conclusion of Fat Tony , and the addition of Fit Tony . Entertainment Weekly writer Darren Franich named Fat Tony 's death the ninth Best TV Character Death of 2010 , writing , " give the writers some credit for doing something different : In the middle of an otherwise straightforward mob @-@ themed episode , they actually went ahead and killed off Fat Tony , a character who was first introduced almost twenty years ago . "
Dan Castellaneta 's performance in the episode , as Homer , Barney , Krusty and Louie , was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards , but lost to Maurice LaMarche , who received the award for his role in the Futurama episode " Lrrreconcilable Ndndifferences " .
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= Hand in Glove =
" Hand in Glove " is a song by the British alternative rock band The Smiths , written by singer Morrissey and guitarist Johnny Marr . It was released as the band 's first single in May 1983 on independent record label Rough Trade Records . " Hand in Glove " peaked at number three on the UK Indie Chart . It did not chart ( top 75 ) but made number 124 outside the UK singles chart . A remixed version of the song was featured on the band 's debut album , The Smiths , in 1984 . That same year , a cover version recorded by singer Sandie Shaw featuring Smiths members Marr , Andy Rourke and Mike Joyce as backing musicians reached number 27 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Background and recording = =
Morrissey and Marr wrote " Hand in Glove " in January 1983 , between the second and third concerts The Smiths ever played . Morrissey claimed that after Marr gave him a demo cassette of the song , he went home and wrote lyrics for it in the span of two hours , conscious of the fact that it would be the group 's first recorded work . Even prior to performing the song live , the group was unanimous in the opinion that " Hand in Glove " was their strongest song to date .
The Smiths asked their manager Joe Moss to fund the recording of " Hand in Glove " . In late February , the group booked a one @-@ day recording session at Strawberry Studios in Stockport at the cost of £ 250 , which they produced themselves . Morrissey claimed in later years that he was dissatisfied with his vocal and returned a week later to re @-@ record his part , the day after which the entire group travelled to London and convinced Rough Trade owner Geoff Travis to release the record . However , author Simon Goddard noted that it was not until April 1983 that Marr and bassist Andy Rourke visited the Rough Trade offices . On that occasion , Marr handed Travis a cassette featuring " Hand in Glove " and a live recording of " Handsome Devil " , telling Travis , " [ L ] isten to this , it 's not just another tape " . Impressed , Travis promised he would . The following Monday , Travis called the group and invited them back to London to release " Hand in Glove " as a single . Both parties agreed to release the single as a temporary arrangement before agreeing to any long @-@ term partnership .
Two months after the single 's release , The Smiths recorded the song again during aborted sessions for their debut album with producer Troy Tate . This version was recorded a tone lower than the original in the key of F # minor , and features a shorter introduction . The Smiths recorded the song again with producer John Porter in October at Manchester 's Pluto Studios . Morrissey rejected this version of the song . Due to impending deadlines , the version that ultimately appeared on the band 's first album The Smiths was a remix of the original master recording from the Strawberry Studios session . For this version , Porter increased the separation between Marr 's guitar tracks and Morrissey 's vocals , emphasised drummer Mike Joyce 's drum beat , pushed Rourke 's bass back in the mix , and created a more dramatic opening and conclusion to the song .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
The original recorded version of " Hand in Glove " is in the key of G minor . The song begins with an overdub of Marr playing a harmonica over the rest of the music . Simon Goddard wrote that Marr 's use of the instrument " purposefully evoked the very same ' blunt vitality of working @-@ class " northernness " that Ian McDonald attributes to The Beatles ' parallel 1962 single ' Love Me Do ' , though infinitely more melancholy . " Of the backing music , Goddard wrote , " Marr 's redolent minor chord wash weeps with a rain @-@ soaked hopelessness while Rourke contributes one of his most inspired bass patterns " .
Morrissey explained that the song 's theme was " complete loneliness , " going on to state : " It was important to me that that there 'd be something searingly poetic about it , in a lyrical sense , and yet jubilant at the same time . " Goddard described " Hand in Glove " as " a bleak proclamation of doomed happiness [ . . . ] a shattering left @-@ hook of self @-@ loathing , loss and desperation " . Years later Morrissey considered the song to be the group 's " most special . " The singer said he was particularly proud of the song 's second verse , which included the lines " Though we may be hidden by rags / We have something they 'll never have . " Morrissey explained that the verse described " how I felt when I couldn 't afford clothes and used to dress in rags but I didn 't really feel mentally impoverished . "
In the song 's lyrics , Morrissey referenced works by playwright Shelagh Delaney , whom he would reference in several later songs . The song 's line " I 'll probably never see you again " appears in Delaney 's kitchen sink realism play A Taste of Honey and The Lion in Love . Morrissey paraphrased the line " Everything depends upon how near you stand next to me " from the 1974 Leonard Cohen song " Take This Longing " . Goddard conjectures that the song 's title was inspired by the 1947 detective novel Hand in Glove by Ngaio Marsh .
The song starts with the lines " Hand in glove / the sun shines out of our behinds " and then states that " No it 's not like any other love / this one 's different / because it 's us . " The lyrics then state that " the people stare " and " the Good People laugh " , " but we have something they 'll never have . " The song ends with the repeated line " I 'll probably never see you again " which is also taken from A Taste of Honey . The intro to the song uses the chords F major ( sus2 ) , Eb major and Bb major . The verse uses the chord G minor 7 , F7 ( sus2 ) and Eb major . ( The transcription cited is transposed to E minor instead of G minor . )
= = Release and reception = =
" Hand in Glove " was released as The Smiths ' debut recording in May 1983 . The single sold consistently for the next 18 months . Although the single failed to reach the UK Singles Chart , it reached number three on the UK Indie Chart . Its relative success earned the group a listing in the Guinness Book of Records in January 1984 when it and the group 's next two singles ' " This Charming Man " and " What Difference Does It Make ? " ' held the top three position on the UK Indie Chart . " It should have been a massive hit " , Morrissey later said , " it was so urgent . To me , it was a complete cry in every direction . It really was a landmark . " The single did raise the band 's profile ; a week after its release the band gained its first major live reviews in the music press , which in turn led to their first radio session with BBC Radio 1 disc jockey John Peel .
While reviewing a 1983 concert by The Smiths and The Go @-@ Betweens at The Venue in London , Barney Hoskyns , writing for the NME , described " Hand in Glove " as " one of the year 's few masterpieces , a thing of beauty and a joy forever " . In the 1984 edition of The Rock Yearbook , Hoskyns said the song " swept into my heart " . Bill Black , writing for Sounds , described it as a " daunting " debut . Writing for Allmusic , Ned Raggett calls the song a " stunning , surprising debut " and describes the music as " sparkling " stating that it relied on Marr 's " careful overdubbing of acoustic and electric guitars " . Raggett went on to describe Rourke 's bass and Joyce 's drumming as " sparse but effective " , and claimed that Joyce " especially shone " .
Reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine says lyrics to the Smiths single " Hand in Glove " contain " veiled references to homosexuality " .
= = Packaging = =
Morrissey had specific instructions on how he wanted the " Hand in Glove " single to be packaged . He told Rough Trade 's art department that the single should have a paper label centre with four vents encircling the middle , in homage to singles from the 1960s . The cover to the single features a photograph of George O 'Mara by Jim French , taken from Margaret Walters ' history The Nude Male . The sleeve 's homoerotic undertones elicited the reaction Morrissey was hoping for of unease and outrage . Rourke noted when he showed the recording to his parents his father was " mortified . He said to me , ' that 's a bloke 's bum ' and I said , ' yeah ' but when he asked me why I just didn 't have an answer for him " .
= = Track listing = =
Both songs written by Morrissey and Johnny Marr .
" Hand in Glove " – 3 : 16
" Handsome Devil " ( live , Manchester Hacienda , 4 / 2 / 83 ) – 2 : 53
= = Etchings on vinyl = =
British 7 " : KISS MY SHADES / KISS MY SHADES TOO
" Kiss my shades " is a lyric from the title track .
= = Sandie Shaw collaboration = =
Despite having established themselves as a group , Morrissey and Marr still harboured ambitions that they would be recognised as songwriters by having their songs covered by others . Their top choice was singer Sandie Shaw , who had scored several hits throughout the 1960s and was one of the most prominent British vocalists of her era . In the summer of 1983 , Marr and Morrissey began asking Shaw to cover their song " I Don 't Owe You Anything " , which they had conceived with her in mind to perform . The pair sent Shaw various letters coupled with song demos . Shaw was sceptical at first ; she was discouraged by the negative media attention that accompanied the Smiths song " Reel Around the Fountain " , and when she received a copy of " Hand in Glove " in the mail , she reportedly exclaimed to her husband " he 's started sending me pictures of naked men with their bums showing ! "
Shaw was eventually won over by the intervention of Geoff Travis and by Morrissey 's praise of her in the press . In January 1984 , NME announced that Shaw and The Smiths would release a collaborative recording of " I Don 't Owe You Anything " as a single on Rough Trade . In February , Shaw and The Smiths journeyed to Matrix Studios in London , where Shaw recorded three Smiths songs with Marr , Joyce and Rourke . The version of " Hand in Glove " recorded at Matrix was performed in the key of D minor , while Marr placed the intro riff 's accent on a major scale and Shaw altered some lyrics . Shaw ended up selecting their recording of " Hand in Glove " as the single 's A @-@ side , placing " I Don 't Owe You Anything " as the B @-@ side . The cover features a still of Rita Tushingham from the movie A Taste of Honey , an adaptation of the play of the same name that was written by Shelagh Delaney , who appeared on the covers of the single " Girlfriend In a Coma " and the compilation album Louder Than Bombs .
Released as a single in April 1984 solely under Shaw 's name , the recording became Shaw 's first hit in a decade when it reached number 27 on the UK Singles Chart . Marr , Rourke and Joyce backed Shaw on two mimed television performances of the song , first on Channel 4 's Earsay in March 1984 , and then on Top of the Pops on 26 April , where the band appeared barefoot in homage to the singer , who did so often in the 1960s .
= = = Track listing = = =
7 "
" Hand in Glove " – 2 : 58
" I Don 't Owe You Anything " – 4 : 06
12 "
" Hand in Glove " – 2 : 58
" I Don 't Owe You Anything " – 4 : 06
" Jeane " – 2 : 52
= = = Etchings on vinyl = = =
British 7 " : KISS MY SHADES / JM
= = = Charts = = =
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= Darlington F.C. =
Darlington Football Club was an English football club based in Darlington , County Durham . The club was founded in 1883 , and played its games at Feethams , before moving to the Darlington Arena in 2003 . The arena is an all @-@ seater stadium with a capacity of 25 @,@ 000 , although this was restricted to 10 @,@ 000 . The cost of the stadium was a major factor in driving the club into administration . The club originally played in regionally organised leagues , and were one of the founding members of the Northern League in 1889 . They were first admitted to the Football League when the Third Division North was formed in 1921 .
They won the Third Division North title in 1925 , and their 15th place in the Second Division in 1926 remained their highest ever league finish . After their admission to the League , they spent most of their history in the bottom tier . They won the Third Division North Cup in 1934 ; their first victory in nationally organised cup competition . They reached the last 16 of the FA Cup twice , and the quarter @-@ final of the Football League Cup once , in 1968 . In the early 1990s they won successive titles , with the Conference National in 1990 and the Fourth Division in 1991 . In 2011 they won the FA Trophy , defeating Mansfield Town 1 – 0 at Wembley Stadium .
In May 2012 , the club was bought out of a period of administration without entering into a Creditors Voluntary Agreement ( CVA ) . The Football Association ruled that it should be treated as a new club , which required a change of playing name . The name chosen was Darlington 1883 , and that team was placed in the Northern League Division One , which is the ninth tier of English football , for the 2012 – 13 season .
The club 's main rivals were Hartlepool United . The club 's traditional colours were black and white shirts , black shorts and black and white socks . The club 's crest depicted Locomotion No 1 , referring to the town 's railway history ; as well as a stylised Quaker hat , referring to the religious movement that had a historic influence on the town , and which was the source of the team 's nickname , the Quakers .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and pre @-@ war = = =
In July 1883 , a meeting was called in Darlington Grammar School to address concerns that so few Darlington @-@ based football clubs were entering the major competition in the region , the Durham Challenge Cup . The meeting agreed with the view expressed by the Darlington & Stockton Times newspaper , that there was " no club , urban or rural , sufficiently powerful to worthily represent Darlington " , decided to form a new club , and elected one Charles Samuel Craven , a local engineer , as secretary . Darlington Football Club duly entered the Durham Challenge Cup , reached the final in their first season , and won the trophy in 1885 . The following season Darlington entered the FA Cup for the first time , only to lose 8 – 0 to Grimsby Town . Craven was instrumental in the formation of the Northern League in 1889 . Darlington were one of the founder members , and went on to win the league title in 1896 and 1900 ; they reached the semi @-@ final of the FA Amateur Cup in the same two seasons .
The club turned professional in 1908 and joined the North Eastern League . The 1910 – 11 season saw Darlington reach the last 16 of the FA Cup , progressing through five qualifying rounds to lose to Swindon Town in the Third Round Proper , and two years later they won the North Eastern League . Ground improvements begun before the First World War left the club in financial difficulty during it ; the chairman of Darlington Forge Albion financed the completion of the East Stand and cleared the debts , allowing them to continue to compete . When competitive football resumed after the war , Darlington finished second in the North Eastern League , and were champions for a second time the following year . This victory was well timed , as it coincided with the formation of the Northern Section of the Football League 's Third Division , which Darlington were invited to join .
Their first season in the Third Division was a successful one and they ended up in second place . Three years later , in 1924 – 25 , they were champions and won promotion to the Football League Second Division . The 15th @-@ place finish in 1926 remains Darlington 's best League performance , but they were relegated back to the Third Division in 1927 , where they remained until the Second World War put an end to competitive football . They came as high as third in 1929 – 30 , but twice had to apply for re @-@ election to the League , in 1932 – 33 and 1936 – 37 , after finishing in last place in the section . In 1934 , they enjoyed their first success in a nationally @-@ organised cup competition , defeating Stockport County 4 – 3 at Old Trafford to win the Football League Third Division North Cup , and reached the final again two years later , this time losing 2 – 1 at home to Chester .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
Soon after the Football Association gave permission for competitive matches to be played under floodlights , Darlington beat Carlisle United 3 – 1 in the first floodlit FA Cup match between Football League clubs , a replay held at St James ' Park , Newcastle United 's ground , in November 1955 . The 1957 – 58 season saw the club equal their previous best FA Cup run , reaching the last 16 by defeating Chelsea , Football League champions only three years earlier , in the Fourth Round . After letting slip a three @-@ goal lead at Stamford Bridge , Darlington won the replay 4 – 1 after extra time , described as " a most meritorious win , earned by a combination of sound tactics and an enthusiasm that Chelsea never equalled " by The Times ' correspondent , who felt it " surprising that extra time was necessary , for Darlington always seemed to have the match well in hand " . In the League , Darlington 's fourth place in 1948 – 49 was their only top @-@ half finish in the first twelve seasons after the war , and when the regional sections of the Third Division were merged , they were allocated to the new Fourth Division .
The Supporters ' Club raised £ 20 @,@ 000 to pay for a roof at one end of the Feethams ground and for floodlights , which were first used on 19 September 1960 . Later that night , the West Stand burned down due to an electrical fault . Darlington 's attendance record , of 21 @,@ 023 against Bolton Wanderers in the League Cup fourth round , was set two months later . Under the management of Lol Morgan , they won promotion to the Third Division in 1966 . A crowd of 16 @,@ 000 watched the draw against Torquay United on the last day of the season which ensured they finished as runners @-@ up , but they were relegated the following year .
Darlington reached the quarter @-@ finals of the 1968 League Cup ; drawn away to Brian Clough 's Derby County , they took the lead , only to lose 5 – 4 . During the 1970s the club had to apply for re @-@ election to the League five times , and by 1982 they were facing a financial crisis which they survived thanks to fundraising efforts in the town . Three years later they won promotion by finishing third in the league under manager Cyril Knowles . Darlington spent two seasons in the Third Division ; the 13th @-@ place finish in 1986 was the highest position they achieved in the Football League since the introduction of the four @-@ division structure in 1958 , but they were relegated the following season .
Though Brian Little 's appointment as manager in February 1989 failed to stave off relegation to the Conference , he went on to lead them to successive promotions . An immediate return to the Football League as Conference champions preceded the Fourth Division title in 1990 – 91 , but Little 's departure for Leicester City was followed by relegation and a succession of short @-@ term managers . They came close to a return to the Third Division via the play @-@ offs in 1996 ; on their first visit to Wembley , against Plymouth Argyle , they were beaten by a Ronnie Mauge goal .
= = = Reynolds and after = = =
The 1999 – 2000 season , the first under new chairman George Reynolds , was marked by Darlington becoming the first team to lose an FA Cup tie and still qualify for the next round . Manchester United 's involvement in the FIFA Club World Championship meant they did not enter the FA Cup . To decide who took their place , a " lucky losers " draw was held from the 20 teams knocked out in the second round ; Darlington were selected , and lost their third @-@ round tie 2 – 1 to Aston Villa at Villa Park . Their second Wembley appearance came later that season , facing Peterborough United in the play @-@ off final after automatic promotion had seemed certain earlier in the season . After a 3 – 0 aggregate semi @-@ final win over Hartlepool United , Quakers missed numerous chances and were again undone by a single goal , this time from Andy Clarke .
In 2002 , Darlington made unsuccessful approaches to sign Paul Gascoigne and Faustino Asprilla , and moved into their new stadium , named the Reynolds Arena , in summer 2003 . Reynolds had paid the club 's debts when he took over , but the cost of the stadium , partly financed with high @-@ interest loans and built without realistic expectation of filling it , drove the club into administration six months later . Reynolds resigned as a director in January 2004 with the club under threat of imminent closure . A benefit match , featuring footballers such as Gascoigne , Bryan Robson and Kenny Dalglish , played in front of a crowd of over 14 @,@ 000 , raised £ 100 @,@ 000 to help ensure survival in the short term . Despite the off @-@ field problems , David Hodgson , in his third spell as manager , and his players produced some fine performances as the team avoided relegation .
At the end of the season , Reynolds was obliged to hand over control to the Sterling Consortium to bring the club out of administration , Stewart Davies taking over as chairman . He and his staff adopted a fan @-@ friendly approach , in contrast to the abrasive Reynolds , before in 2006 , the club was sold to property developer George Houghton . For four consecutive seasons , under Hodgson , sacked in 2006 , and then under successor Dave Penney , the Quakers finished in the top half of the table , reaching the play @-@ off semi @-@ final in 2008 only to lose to Rochdale on penalties . In February 2009 , Darlington again went into administration , triggering an automatic 10 @-@ point deduction , without which they would have again reached the play @-@ offs . Fundraising efforts kept the club going , but when no buyer was found for the club by a May deadline , the administrators made the majority of the first @-@ team squad available for transfer and cut staff numbers to a minimum . On 20 May , Houghton returned to the club as chairman , appointed former Middlesbrough boss Colin Todd as manager , and brokered an agreement which led to the club coming out of administration and ownership passing to local businessman Raj Singh , enabling the club to compete in the 2009 – 10 season without any points deduction . Todd left the club after losing seven of his first nine games and was replaced by former Republic of Ireland manager Steve Staunton , who only won four of 23 league games .
The club were eventually relegated to the Conference , and suffered more managerial turmoil during the summer when Simon Davey and successor Ryan Kidd both left within 11 days , to leave Mark Cooper in charge . He led the club to victory in the 2011 FA Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium , defeating Mansfield Town 1 – 0 with a goal from Chris Senior in the last minute of extra time . Following a succession of poor performances at the start of the 2011 – 12 season , Cooper and his assistant Richard Dryden were sacked by the club on 24 October 2011 . A little more than two months later , Singh placed the club into administration for a third time in less than a decade . A number of players were released and allowed to join other clubs for nominal fees in January before interim manager Craig Liddle and the remaining playing staff had their contracts terminated by Darlington 's administrator . Two days later , the club was spared from liquidation after a last @-@ minute injection of funding by supporters ' groups . Enough funds were raised for Darlington to complete the season , but relegation was confirmed with three matches remaining . After the club was taken over with the intention of moving into community ownership , without entering into a Creditors Voluntary Agreement ( CVA ) , Darlington were relegated four divisions , to the Northern League Division One , on the recommendation of the Football Association . Martin Gray was appointed manager . On 21 June 2012 , the Football Association rejected an appeal , confirming that the club was to be treated as a new club entered into the Northern League , and would no longer be able to play under the name Darlington F.C. The new owners opted to rename the new club Darlington 1883 .
= = Colours and badge = =
In 1888 , Darlington 's kit consisted of a shirt with black and white vertical stripes , black shorts and black socks . Apart from a period between the 1910s and 1936 , when blue shorts were worn , the basic colours of the home kit have remained black and white . The shirt design has varied , from the 1888 vertical stripes , through hoops , plain white , and back to hoops again in the 1990s . Sponsors ' names have appeared on Darlington 's shirts since the 1980s . A table of kit manufacturers ( since the 1970s ) and shirt sponsors appears on the right .
Supporters were invited to vote for the design of the 2010 – 11 kit , to be manufactured by Erreà ; options for the home shirt each had black @-@ and @-@ white hoops , while the proposed away colours were either the traditional red or sky @-@ blue and white . The front of the home shirt has black @-@ and @-@ white hoops with a curved white panel , the back is largely white , and it has black sleeves with white trim and a black collar ; shorts are white and socks have black @-@ and @-@ white hoops . The design originally chosen had to be changed to comply with Conference rules prohibiting predominantly black kit ( to avoid a clash with match officials ' colours ) . The away kit is all red with black trim on the shirt . The shirts bear the name of hotel The Morritt , winners of the right to sponsor the shirt in a draw from among seven local businesses , each of which had purchased a hospitality package .
The club badge is in the form of a shield , divided diagonally into two parts ; the smaller section , to the upper right , is in the club 's home colour of white , the larger is red , their traditional away colour . In the white section is a stylised Quaker hat , emblematic of the major role played by the Religious Society of Friends ( Quakers ) in the history of the town . The larger section depicts George Stephenson 's Locomotion No 1 , the steam locomotive that hauled the first train on the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 , representing the importance of the railway industry to the area . Across the bottom of the shield is a ribbon bearing the club 's nickname , The Quakers , and the whole rests on a bed of oak leaves , symbolic of strength and endurance .
= = Stadia = =
Feethams was originally used by Darlington Cricket Club , but began to be used for football in the 1860s . Darlington F.C. began playing there when they formed in 1883 . With growing crowd figures , the ground was expanded with the construction of the West stand at the turn of the twentieth century , and the construction of the Polam Lane end in 1905 . In 1913 , a pair of towers were built at the entrance to the ground , and in 1920 , offices and changing rooms were built underneath the East stand . Floodlights were installed in September 1960 , but after their first use an electrical fault gutted the West stand in a fire , prompting its rebuilding . In 1997 , the East stand was demolished and rebuilt as an all seater stand . The new stand brought the capacity of the stadium up to 8 @,@ 000 . However , the £ 3 million cost of the stand had a major negative effect on the club , and George Reynolds came in to stabilise the club . He initiated the construction of the 25 @,@ 000 seat Darlington Arena . The last match played at Feethams was a 2 – 2 draw with Leyton Orient on 3 May 2003 . Following the closure of the ground , the floodlights were sold to Workington A.F.C. and the stadium demolished . A 160 @-@ house housing estate was planned for the cleared site .
The all @-@ seater Darlington Arena was opened in 2003 , at a cost of £ 18 million . The first game at the new stadium was a 2 – 0 loss to Kidderminster Harriers on 16 August 2003 . The attendance of 11 @,@ 600 still stands as a record for the ground . Though the stadium can seat up to 25 @,@ 000 people , the club is restricted to just 10 @,@ 000 because of county and local planning regulations . The club struggled to fill the new stadium and entered administration in February 2009 .
Although generally known as the Darlington Arena , the ground has had a number of official names due to sponsorship reasons ; between 2003 and 2004 it was known as the Reynolds Arena , the Williamson Motors Stadium from 2004 to 2005 , the 96 @.@ 6 TFM Darlington Arena from 2005 to 2007 , the Balfour Webnet Darlington Arena between 2007 and 2009 , and since then it has been known as The Northern Echo Darlington Arena .
= = Supporters and rivalries = =
Darlington 's supporters consider Hartlepool United as their main rivals . The feeling is reciprocated : in a 2008 survey , 95 % of supporters of both clubs named the other as their bitterest rivals . The clubs , based 25 miles ( 40 km ) apart , with Middlesbrough directly between the two towns , had met 147 times ( as of 2009 – 10 ) , of which Hartlepool won 60 to Darlington 's 57 . The meeting between the two clubs in 2007 attracted a crowd of 10 @,@ 121 to the Darlington Arena , the largest attendance for that League fixture for 50 years , though the average League attendance at the stadium declined from over 5 @,@ 000 in its opening season to 2 @,@ 744 in 2009 – 10 .
Darlington has an official supporters ' club and an away supporters group , known as Darlington Away Far Travelling Supporters ( DAFTS ) , who represent Darlington supporters from places elsewhere in the country . A supporters ' trust was founded in 2002 ; it established a Disabled Supporters Group , tried to maintain a working relationship between club and supporters , and , together with the Darlington Camera Club , staged a " Farewell to Feethams " exhibition in celebration of the club 's longtime home . Together with the supporters ' club , the trust has been actively involved in fund @-@ raising particularly during the club 's periods of administration .
Fanzines included Mission Impossible , first published in the early 1990s , and Where 's The Money Gone , whose teenage editor , along with the editor of website Darlo Uncovered , Scott Thornberry , were among several supporters banned from the ground by chairman George Reynolds for criticising the running of the club .
The team mascot was Mr Q , described as " a flat @-@ looking cartoon man with a very big hat " . In 2006 , he was joined , and later replaced , by Darlo Dog , a Dalmatian , who was once ejected from the ground for climbing on the advertising boards in front of television cameras . Darlo Dog retired at the end of the 2009 – 10 season ; his successor , a panda named Feethams , was chosen via a design competition .
= = Honours = =
Honours achieved by Darlington since their foundation in 1883 include the following :
= = = League = = =
Football League Third Division North : 1
1924 – 25
Runners @-@ up : 1921 – 22
Fourth Division : 1990 – 91
Runners @-@ up : 1965 – 66
Football Conference : 1
1989 – 90
Northern League : 2
1895 – 96 , 1899 – 1900
Runners @-@ up : 1896 – 97 , 1898 – 99
North Eastern League : 2
1912 – 13 , 1920 – 21
Runners @-@ up : 1919 – 20
= = = Cup = = =
FA Trophy : 1
2010 – 11
Football League Third Division North Cup : 1
1933 – 34
Runners @-@ up : 1935 – 36
Durham Challenge Cup : 6
1884 – 85 , 1890 – 91 , 1892 – 93 , 1896 – 97 , 1919 – 20 , 1999 – 2000
= = Records = =
Darlington 's highest league finish was fifteenth in the Football League Second Division , during the 1925 – 26 season . The club 's best performance in the FA Cup has been two appearances in the last 16 of the competition . This first was in 1910 – 11 , when they lost to Swindon Town in the third round . The second was in the 1957 – 58 season , when they beat Chelsea 4 – 1 in a replay to reach the fifth round , in which they lost 6 – 1 to Wolverhampton Wanderers . The club 's best League Cup performance was reaching the quarter @-@ final in the 1967 – 68 season .
The Quakers ' biggest home win was a 13 – 1 defeat of Scarborough in the FA Cup on 24 October 1891 . Their best away win was on 22 October 1921 , when they beat Durham City 7 – 3 in the Third Division North .
The player with the most league appearances for Darlington is Ron Greener with 439 between 1955 and 1967 . He made a total of 490 senior appearances for the club . Alan Walsh scored a club @-@ record 87 league goals between 1978 and 1984 , and scored 100 goals for Darlington overall . The most league goals scored for the club by a single player in a season is 39 , by David Brown in the 1924 – 25 season . Franz Burgmeier has the most senior international appearances while a Darlington player , with seven caps for Liechtenstein in the 2008 – 09 season .
= = = Dream team = = =
As part of the " Farewell to Feethams " celebrations , a competition in the club programme in 2003 selected the following all @-@ time " Dream Team " : Mark Prudhoe , Ron Greener , Craig Liddle , Kevan Smith , John Peverell , Andy Toman , David McLean , Alan Sproates , Alan Walsh , Marco Gabbiadini and Colin Sinclair . Gabbiadini , scorer of 53 goals in his two seasons at Darlington , was voted greatest ever player .
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= Andry Rajoelina =
Andry Rajoelina ( Malagasy : [ ˈjanɖʐʲ nʲˈrinə radzoˈel ] ) ( born 30 May 1974 ) was the President of the High Transitional Authority of Madagascar . He became president on 21 March 2009 during a political crisis , having held the office of Mayor of Antananarivo for one year prior , and stepped down on 25 January 2014 following internationally recognized general elections held in 2013 . Before entering the political arena , Rajoelina launched several successful enterprises , including a printing and advertising company called Injet in 1999 and the Viva radio and television networks in 2007 . He began his career as an entrepreneur in his teenage years , first as a disc jockey at local clubs and parties , and later by organizing and promoting musical events in the capital .
Upon rising to power , Rajoelina dissolved the Senate and National Assembly and transferred their powers to a variety of new governance structures he made responsible for overseeing the transition toward a new constitutional authority . These administrative structures repeatedly conflicted with the internationally mediated process to establish a transitional government of consensus . Voters approved a new constitution in a national referendum unilaterally organized by the Rajoelina administration in November 2010 , ushering in the Fourth Republic and putting in place the conditions enabling Rajoelina to stand in the next general election . In January 2013 he announced his decision to abstain from running in the 2013 general election , but in May 2013 he reversed this decision and submitted his candidature . A special electoral court ruled in August 2013 that his candidature was invalid and that Rajoelina would not be permitted to run in the 2013 election . He has declared an interest in presenting himself as a presidential candidate in a future election .
= = Early years = =
Andry Rajoelina was born on 30 May 1974 to a relatively wealthy family in Antananarivo . His father , now @-@ retired Colonel Roger Yves Rajoelina , held dual nationality and fought for the French army in the Algerian War . At the age of 13 , Rajoelina became the 1987 junior @-@ class national karate champion . While still in high school , Rajoelina began working as a disc jockey at parties and clubs in Antananarivo to earn pocket money . Although Rajoelina 's family could afford a college education for their son , he opted to discontinue his studies after completing his baccalaureat to launch a career as an entrepreneur .
In 1994 , Rajoelina met his future spouse Mialy Razakandisa , who was then completing her senior year at a high school in Antananarivo . The couple courted long @-@ distance for six years while Mialy completed her undergraduate and masters studies in finance and accounting in Paris ; they were reunited in Madagascar in 2000 and wed the same year . Their marriage produced two boys , Arena ( born 2002 ) and Ilonstoa ( born 2005 ) , and a daughter born in 2007 that the couple named Andrialy , a contraction of their own names .
= = Media entrepreneur = =
In 1993 , at the age of 19 , Rajoelina established his first enterprise : a small event production company called Show Business . The connections and influence of his father , then a prominent military officer , in combination with Rajoelina 's own knowledge of Antananarivo nightlife , were factors in the company 's success . By the following year , he had firmly established his reputation among the youth elite of the capital for organizing an annual concert called Live that brought together foreign and Malagasy musical artists . The event continued to grow in popularity with each passing year , attracting 50 @,@ 000 participants on its tenth anniversary .
In 1999 , he launched Injet , an advertising and digital printing company that quickly grew in prominence with its expansion of billboard advertising throughout the capital . The business was the first to make digital printing technology available on the island . Local magazine Echo Australe , which named then @-@ mayor of Antananarivo Marc Ravalomanana their Entrepreneur of the Year in 1999 , bestowed the same honor on Rajoelina in 2000 . Following Rajoelina 's marriage in 2000 , his wife 's wealthy parents invested in Injet and allowed Rajoelina in 2001 to acquire Domapub , a competing Antananarivo @-@ based billboard advertising business that they owned . The couple worked together to manage the family businesses , with Rajoelina responsible for Injet and his wife handling the affairs of Domapub . A competition organized by French bank BNI Crédit Lyonnais awarded first prize for best young entrepreneur in Madagascar to Rajoelina in 2003 .
Rajoelina 's business affairs gradually drew him into the political arena . Shortly after Ravalomanana won the presidential elections in 2001 , Rajoelina befriended the new president 's daughter and continued to expand his relationship with the capital 's political elite over the course of the Ravalomanana presidency . He assumed an increasingly political role after the policies of Ravalomanana 's Tiako I Madagasikara ( TIM ) -dominated government increasingly obstructed the expansion of his business activities , such as requiring the removal of Antananarivo 's first LED advertising panels , which Rajoelina had installed at a major roundabout in the capital . In May 2007 he purchased the Ravinala television and radio stations , which he renamed Viva TV and Viva FM . The official launch of these newly acquired media channels on 27 May was attended by many of the capital 's political and cultural elite , including Antananarivo mayor Hery Rafalimanana and Jacques Sylla , president of the TIM political party . Rajoelina used these media channels as outlets for voicing criticism of the Ravalomanana administration , quickly transforming his public image into that of an opposition leader .
= = Mayor of Antananarivo = =
In 2007 Rajoelina created and led the political association Tanora malaGasy Vonona ( TGV ) , meaning " determined Malagasy youth " . Shortly afterward he announced his candidacy for the position of Mayor of Antananarivo . Rajoelina was elected on 12 December 2007 with 63 @.@ 3 % of the vote and a 75 % voter turnout , beating TIM party incumbent Hery Rafalimanana . Although Rafalimanana enjoyed strong popularity during his tenure as mayor , having been nationally and internationally credited with effectively managing the capital and achieving significant transformation of the urban landscape in the city , his campaign suffered from inadequate TIM promotional support and the increasingly unpopular image of the TIM party .
Rajoelina faced significant challenges in his tenure as mayor . Upon taking office , he was confronted with redressing the city 's treasury , which had accumulated 8 @.@ 2 billion Malagasy Ariary ( approximately 4 @.@ 6 million U.S. dollars ) in debts under previous mayors , including Ravalomanana himself . Beginning 4 January 2008 , Ravalomanana ordered water cutoffs at public pumps and brownouts of Antananarivo 's street lights run by the state utilities company Jirama , due to 3 @.@ 3 million ariary of unpaid debts to Jirama by the City of Antananarivo . Rajoelina responded by condemning the move as political and proceeded to undertake an audit that identified and addressed long @-@ standing procedural irregularities and issues of corruption within the city 's administration . Following a series of crimes against members of Rajoelina 's inner circle in 2008 that comprised the burgling of his cabinet director 's car , the kidnapping and ransoming of one of his special advisers , and the death of an assistant under mysterious circumstances , rumors spread that the Rajoelina administration was being deliberately intimidated by supporters of the president .
= = = Confrontation with Ravalomanana = = =
On 13 December 2008 , the Government closed Andry Rajoelina 's Viva TV , stating that a Viva interview with exiled former head of state Didier Ratsiraka was " likely to disturb peace and security " . This move catalyzed the political opposition and a public already dissatisfied with other recent actions undertaken by Ravalomanana , including the July 2008 deal with Daewoo Logistics to lease half the island 's arable land for South Korean cultivation of corn and palm oil , and the November 2008 purchase of a second presidential jet at a cost of 60 million U.S. dollars . Within a week Rajoelina met with twenty of Madagascar 's most prominent opposition leaders , referred to in the press as the " Club of 20 " , to develop a joint statement demanding that the Ravalomanana administration improve its adherence to democratic principles . The demand was broadcast at a public press conference where Rajoelina also promised to dedicate a politically open public space in the capital which he would call Place de la democratie ( " Democracy Place " ) .
Beginning in January 2009 , Andry Rajoelina led a series of political rallies in downtown Antananarivo where he gave voice to the frustration that Ravalomanana 's policies had triggered , particularly among the economically marginalized and members of the political opposition . On 17 January he gathered 30 @,@ 000 supporters at a public park and declared it renamed Place de la democratie . At a rally on 31 January 2009 Rajoelina announced that he was in charge of the entire Malagasy Republic , declaring : " Since the president and the government have not assumed their responsibilities , I therefore proclaim that I will run all national affairs as of today . " He added that a request for President Ravalomanana to formally resign would shortly be filed with the Parliament of Madagascar . This self @-@ declaration of power discredited Rajoelina in the eyes of many of the supporters who had rallied around his original pro @-@ democracy message , and the number of attendees at subsequent rallies declined , averaging around 3 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 participants .
On 3 February , Ravalomanana dismissed Rajoelina as mayor of Antananarivo and appointed a special delegation headed by Guy Randrianarisoa to manage the affairs of the capital . Rajoelina denounced the decision and warned that it would not be accepted by the populace . The following day Rajoelina instead designated Michele Ratsivalaka to succeed him as mayor . Rajoelina incited demonstrators on 7 February to occupy the presidential palace , prompting the presidential guard to open fire on the advancing crowd , killing 31 and wounding more than 200 . Popular disapproval of Ravalomanana intensified and polarized some in favor of his resignation , although perceptions of Rajoelina as an alternative remained mixed . Conflicts between pro @-@ Rajoelina demonstrators and security forces continued over the following weeks , resulting in several additional deaths . The security forces unsuccessfully attempted to arrest Rajoelina at his compound on 5 March ; they also raided the offices of his Viva media network . Initially they surrounded Viva , and after thirty minutes the staff attempted to remove Viva property , at which point the security forces stormed the building and confiscated the equipment . For the next several days Rajoelina took refuge in the home of the French ambassador , reporting to the press that he feared for his safety .
On 11 March , following a declaration of neutrality by army leadership , pro @-@ opposition soldiers from the CAPSAT ( Army Corps of Personnel and Administrative and Technical Services ) stormed the army headquarters and forced the army chief of staff to resign . Over the next several days the army deployed forces to enable the opposition to occupy key ministries , the chief of military police transferred his loyalty to Rajoelina , and the army sent tanks against the president 's Iavoloha Palace . Rajoelina rejected Ravalomanana 's offer on 15 March to hold a national referendum to determine whether the president should resign , and called on security forces to arrest the president . The following day , the army stormed the president 's Ambohitsorohitra Palace and captured the Central Bank . Hours later Ravalomanana transferred his power to group of senior army personnel , an act described by the opposition as a voluntary resignation , although Ravalomanana later declared he had been forced at gunpoint to relinquish power . The military council would have been charged with organizing elections within 24 months and re @-@ writing the constitution for the " Fourth Republic " . However , Vice Admiral Hyppolite Ramaroson announced on 18 March that it would transfer power directly to Rajoelina , making him president of the opposition @-@ dominated High Transitional Authority ( HAT ) that he had appointed weeks earlier . With the military 's backing , the authority was charged with taking up the task previously accorded to Ravalomanana 's proposed military directorate . Madagascar 's constitutional court deemed the transfer of power , from Ravalomanana to the military board and then to Rajoelina , to be legal ; the court 's statement did not include a justification for its decision .
Upon the army 's transfer of power to Rajoelina , Malagasy navy troops called for his resignation by 25 March , threatening to use force otherwise to protect the constitution of Madagascar and denouncing Rajoelina for the " civil war occurring in Madagascar " . The navy troops claimed there was " irrefutable " evidence that Rajoelina had paid the army corps hundreds of millions of ariary and that they should face trial in accordance with military law , but called for other nations not to get involved in what they considered a purely domestic affair . Rajoelina was sworn in as President on 21 March at Mahamasina stadium before a crowd of 40 @,@ 000 supporters . He was 35 years of age when sworn in , making him the youngest president in the country 's history and the youngest head of government in the world at that time .
The Southern African Development Community , a bloc of 15 nations including Madagascar , announced on 19 March that it would not recognize Rajoelina 's presidency since the takeover was unconstitutional . His ascension to the presidency was also condemned by the European Union and the United States , and the African Union suspended Madagascar and threatened sanctions if the constitutional government had not been restored in six months . No foreign diplomats attended Rajoelina 's investiture ; the HAT foreign minister said none had been invited .
= = President of the High Transitional Authority = =
Rajoelina took power in an atmosphere of national tension and international pressure to re @-@ establish constitutional authority . The new head of state announced on 17 March that a new constitution would be presented for voter approval and general elections would be held within 24 months . Immediately after taking office , Rajoelina began naming opposition leaders to positions within the HAT . He dissolved the Senate and Parliament and transferred their powers to his cabinet , the officials of the HAT , and the newly established Council for social and economic strengthening , through which his policies were issued as decrees . Legislative authority rested in practice with Rajoelina and his cabinet , composed of his closest advisers . A military committee established in April increased HAT control over security and defense policy . The following month , after the suspension of the country 's 22 regional governors , Rajoelina strengthened his influence over local government by naming replacements despite the fact that regional governorships were normally elected positions . The National Inquiry Commission ( CNME ) was established shortly thereafter ; although its official purpose was to strengthen HAT effectiveness in addressing judicial and legal matters , the new entity carried out investigations and arrests of TIM supporters and other opponents of the TGV party . In addition , the new administration launched a strong crackdown on demonstrations by the new opposition , composed largely of Ravalomanana supporters ; at two demonstrations in April 2009 security forces opened fire on unarmed civilians protesting the HAT 's closure of three media networks formerly controlled by Ravalomanana , killing four and wounding sixty . Political analysts have criticized Rajoelina for using his position primarily to consolidate power and protect his political position and business interests and those of his supporters , observing that his initially broad range of supporters within the opposition movement has significantly diminished over time .
While in power , Rajoelina periodically engaged in ongoing negotiations to establish conditions under which free and fair elections could be held to restore government constitutionality and legitimacy in the eyes of the international community . On 4 August 2009 Rajoelina met with former Madagascar presidents Ravalomanana , Ratsiraka and Zafy along with former Mozambican President Joaquim Chissano acting as mediator at the four @-@ day mediation crisis talks held in Maputo , Mozambique . The Maputo Accords signed by the four leaders in August and further accords signed in Addis @-@ Abeba in November provided guidelines for a period of consensual political transition . In the months that followed , however , Rajoelina obstructed the implementation of the accords , making unilateral political decisions and filling all important government posts with TGV party representatives .
After being pushed back repeatedly , a constitutional referendum was held on 17 November 2010 that resulted in adoption of the state 's fourth constitution with 73 % in favor and a voter turnout of 52 @.@ 6 % . The independent Malagasy political watchdog group KMF @-@ CNOE , as well as the political opposition and the international community , cited numerous irregularities in the process , which was carried out unilaterally by the HAT . The constitution in effect at the time Rajoelina took office required that presidential candidates attain a minimum of 40 years of age . One substantive change made by the new constitution was to lower the minimum age for presidential candidates from 40 to 35 , making Rajoelina eligible to stand in presidential elections . In addition , the new constitution mandated the leader of the High Transitional Authority – the position held by Rajoelina – be kept as interim president until an election could take place . The new constitution also contained a clause that required presidential candidates to have lived in Madagascar for at least six months prior to the elections , effectively barring Ravalomanana and other opposition leaders living in exile from running in the next election . After being repeatedly postponed , the general election was held on 25 October 2013 .
= = = Policies and governance = = =
The HAT under Rajoelina 's leadership affected highly visible , concrete activities that appealed to popular concerns . Rajoelina occasionally organized events to distribute basic items to groups of poor recipients , including medicines , clothing , house maintenance materials and school supplies . Rajoelina 's administration also spent billions of ariary to subsidize basic needs like electricity , petrol , and food staples . Public works construction projects featured prominently among Rajoelina 's activities . In 2010 , two years after Rajoelina launched the project as mayor of Antananarivo , the HAT completed the reconstruction of the Hotel de Ville ( town hall ) of Antananarivo which had been destroyed by arson during the rotaka political protests of 1972 . Also in 2010 , Rajoelina oversaw the construction of a hospital built to international standards in Toamasina . Through its trano mora ( " cheap house " ) initiative , the HAT built several subsidized housing developments intended for young middle class couples . Numerous other construction projects were planned or completed , including the restoration of historic staircases in Antananarivo built in the 19th century during the reign of Queen Ranavalona I , renovation of Toamasina 's two main markets and its principal boulevard , repaving of the heavily traveled road between Toamasina and Foulpointe , and the construction of a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity municipal stadium and new town hall in Toamasina .
On the national level , sanctions and suspension of donor aid amounting to 50 percent of the national budget and 70 percent of public investments obstructed the Rajoelina administration 's management of state affairs and its ability to systematically combat poverty on a wider scale . A United Nations envoy concluded in 2011 that Rajoelina 's controversial accession to the presidency had reduced food security , with Madagascar ranking among the worst in the world for child nutrition . The frequent non @-@ payment of civil servant and military salaries resulted in regular school and hospital closures , general strikes and widespread increases in corruption . Crime and insecurity grew dramatically , with a sharp upswing in violent crime and theft in Antananarivo and increasingly frequent and deadly incidences of armed cattle rustling in the central southern region of the island . Key development indicators steeply declined between 2009 and 2013 , including maternal and child mortality , education enrollment and completion , per capita income and employment rates . In 2010 the United Nations ranked Madagascar among the ten poorest countries in the world , noting that economic gains made under Ravalomanana had been lost following Rajoelina 's unconstitutional rise to power . In 2011 , Forbes magazine ranked Madagascar as the worst economy in the world , faulting its political instability and poor governance .
Environmental conditions on the island also worsened under Rajoelina . The illegal exportation of endangered rosewood from protected national forests abruptly increased under the HAT , with several business leaders and politicians linked to the HAT having been implicated in trafficking the valuable wood to China ; NGOs and the US government accused the Rajoelina administration of selling the wood to supplement the national budget and finance its public works projects . A large , unexplained stash of rosewood logs was discovered at the presidential palace after the end of Rajoelina 's term in office . Due to accelerating deforestation and a spike in bush meat consumption linked with deepening poverty , the island 's lemurs moved closer toward extinction under Rajoelina 's tenure . A July 2012 assessment found that 90 percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction , an increase from 38 percent in 2008 . Lack of funds for pesticides and systematic spraying resulted in the March 2013 outbreak of a locust infestation that was anticipated to persist for five to ten years and require $ 41 million U.S. dollars to bring under control , deepening the risk of nationwide famine and destruction of habitat for endangered species .
After coming to power , Rajoelina 's HAT pursued action against Ravalomanana and his business interests . On 2 June 2009 , Ravalomanana was fined 70 million US dollars ( 42 million British pounds ) and sentenced to four years in prison for alleged abuse of office which , according to HAT Justice Minister Christine Razanamahasoa , included the December 2008 purchase of a second presidential jet ( " Air Force II " ) worth $ 60 million . Rajoelina sold the controversial jet in 2012 and pursued legal action against Ravalomanana 's company Tiko to reclaim 35 million US dollars in back taxes . Additionally , on 28 August 2010 , the HAT sentenced Ravalomanana in absentia to hard labor for life and issued an arrest warrant for his role in the protests and ensuing deaths . Rajoelina likewise sought to distinguish himself from his predecessor in policy choices . One of Rajoelina 's first measures as president was to cancel Ravalomanana 's unpopular deal with Daewoo Logistics . He also rejected Ravalomanana 's medium term development strategy , termed the Madagascar Action Plan , and abandoned education reforms initiated by his predecessor that adopted Malagasy and English as languages of instruction , instead returning to the traditional use of French .
= = = Diplomatic relations = = =
The international community maintained that Rajoelina 's legitimacy was conditional to free and fair elections . A number of key international organizations in which Madagascar had been a member , including the Southern African Development Community ( SADC ) and the African Union , withheld recognition of Rajoelina 's legitimacy throughout his tenure . The United States , Madagascar 's largest bilateral donor and provider of humanitarian aid , also refused to acknowledge the Rajoelina administration . The United Nations responded to the power transfer by freezing 600 million euros in planned aid . The United States suspended Madagascar from the list of beneficiaries of the African Growth and Opportunity Act ( AGOA ) , which had ensured preferential tariffs for the import of Malagasy textiles . This sanction resulted in the loss of over 50 @,@ 000 jobs and dealt a severe blow to the textile sector , which had accounted for half of Madagascar 's exports . Rajoelina initially sought to persuade former donors to recommence their support ; when these efforts failed to yield results , the he explored the possibility of foregoing the support of traditional partners through new or strengthened relations with such alternatives as Libya , China and Saudi Arabia but was again unable to secure the desired partnerships .
Rajoelina 's relations with France were characterized by an initial period of gradually increasing diplomatic engagement that weakened after 2012 . On 13 May 2011 , Andry Rajoelina met with Alain Juppé , the French Minister of Foreign Affairs , and was received by the French President Nicolas Sarkozy on 7 December 2011 . According to the French presidency , " The interview was devoted to the situation in Madagascar and the completion of the political transition initiated in 2009 through the implementation of the roadmap for the return of constitutional order , validated by the international community " . Following Rajoelina 's announcement to run in the 2013 election , however , France responded by suspending the visas issued to Rajoelina and his family , and refusing to issue new visas requested by his ministers .
The Rajoelina administration was gradually afforded increasing entry to the United Nations . From 9 to 13 May 2011 , Rajoelina was invited to participate in the Fourth United Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries , held in Istanbul , Turkey . Rajoelina also spoke during the 66th Session of the United Nations General Assembly which took place on 23 September 2011 in New York City .
= = 2013 presidential candidacy = =
On 15 January 2013 , Rajoelina officially renounced his candidature in the next presidential election , then planned for May 2013 . This decision followed a similar declaration on the part of former president Ravalomanana . Exclusion of both political figures from the next general election was a key precondition to international recognition of the elections , as defined by the Southern African Development Community in its roadmap toward ending the political crisis . Rajoelina expressed support for Edgar Razafindravahy , interim mayor of Antananarivo and the official candidate of the TGV party among several other party candidates , and declared his intention to run in the 2018 presidential election .
However , on 3 May 2013 , Rajoelina made last @-@ minute arrangements to stand in the 2013 presidential elections , declaring the roadmap agreement had been breached when former president Ravalomanana 's wife , Lalao , decided to stand . The candidacy of former president Didier Ratsiraka was also permitted ; the candidature of all three prominent politicians was rejected by the international community . At the time that Rajoelina submitted his candidacy , he would have run against forty other candidates in total , of whom seven were affiliated with his own political movement .
The African Union urged Rajoelina , Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka to withdraw their controversial candidacies , and the European Union responded by suspended funding to the election . The French government sanctioned all three candidates by revoking their French visas , effectively barring them from French territory , and considered freezing their financial and real estate assets . Following the suspension of election funding , the HAT again pushed back the election date , citing inadequate financial resources . A special electoral court ruled in August 2013 that the candidatures of Rajoelina , Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka were invalid and that Rajoelina and his two chief rivals would not be permitted to run in the 2013 election . Rajoelina then announced his endorsement of presidential candidate Hery Rajaonarimampianina , who successfully progressed from the first round voting held 25 October 2013 alongside the candidate backed by Ravalomanana , Jean Louis Robinson . The run @-@ off between the two candidates was held on 20 December 2013 . Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the election , and Rajoelina officially stepped down on 25 January 2014 .
= = Post @-@ presidency = =
Following Rajaonarimampianina 's election , the international community offered " conditional recognition " of the new government . This tentative validation of the results was motivated by the concern that the new president was a puppet for Rajoelina , as well as the allegations by Robinson of massive electoral fraud after losing the runoff despite a wide lead over his opponent in the first round . Rajaonarimampianina set up the MAPAR committee to organize the selection of his cabinet , a process that extended over several months . During this time , Rajoelina sought to be nominated for the position of Prime Minister of Madagascar and claimed the MAPAR had promised he would be nominated . In April 2014 , Rajaonarimampianina instead announced the selection of Roger Kolo , following a consultation round which showed he had support from a majority in the parliament . On 18 April , a cabinet was announced that comprised 31 members with varied political affiliations . Rajoelina qualified Rajaonarimampianina 's decision to exclude him and form alliances with the political opposition , including Ravalomanana 's supporters , as " hypocrisy and betrayal " , and has declared a refusal to seek reconciliation with Rajaonarimampianina .
Following the end of Rajoelina 's term , the French government lifted its sanctions against him and 108 other HAT members . He and his family have since maintained a discreet profile , traveling to France , Dubai , South Africa and other foreign destinations . He has also made occasional visits to Madagascar . Rajoelina has declared an interest in presenting himself as a presidential candidate in the 2018 presidential election .
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= Supergirl ( Hannah Montana song ) =
" Supergirl " is a pop song by American recording artist and actress Miley Cyrus , performing as Hannah Montana – the alter ego of Miley Stewart – a character she played on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana . The song was written by Kara DioGuardi , in collaboration with Daniel James , and produced by Dreamlab . " Supergirl " was released on August 28 , 2009 , by Walt Disney Records as the lead and only single from the series ' third soundtrack , Hannah Montana 3 . A karaoke version is available in Disney 's Karaoke Series : Hannah Montana 3 . The song is characterized by dance @-@ pop elements in its musical composition and contains lyrics regarding the lows of pop stardom .
The song received average to mixed reception from contemporary critics and garnered average commercial outcomes for Cyrus in several countries , compared to those of her previous efforts as Montana . In the United States , it peaked at number five on Billboard 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles ( Hot 100 – 105 ) . It marked Cyrus ' first entry as Montana in Austria ; it peaked at number fifty @-@ eight on the Austrian Singles Chart . A music video for " Supergirl " was released , taken from footage of a concert performance .
= = Background = =
" Supergirl " was co @-@ written by Kara DioGuardi , who composed a total of four songs on Hannah Montana 3 , and Dan James . A karaoke version is available in Disney 's Karaoke Series : Hannah Montana 3 . " Supergirl " leaked into the Internet in November 2008 , along with six other songs from Hannah Montana 3 . The song first premiered on Radio Disney on July 2 , 2009 , in order to promote the soundtrack and was afterward released as the lead and only single from Hannah Montana 3 on August 28 , 2009 .
= = Composition = =
" Supergirl " is pop song with a length of two minutes and fifty @-@ five seconds . According to Allmusic , the song contains dance @-@ pop and teen pop elements in its music , while Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly cited rock music as its main influence . Peter Larsen of The Orange County Register described the track as a bouncy dance @-@ pop number also . The song is set in common time and has a moderate rock tempo . It is written in the key of C major and it follows the chord progression Am11 – Fmaj7 – C – G. Warren Truitt of About.com interpreted the lyrics of " Supergirl " to be about the lows of pop stardom . Larsen believed the line " You just wanna be like me " was a representation of Cyrus , " a super duper girl " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Supergirl " received average to mixed reception from contemporary critics . Heather Phares of Allmusic said , " That feeling of familiarity extends to the songs that haven 't appeared anywhere else . Whether it 's the happy side of Hannah ( ' It 's All Right Here , ' ' Supergirl ' ) [ ... ] they sound very much like what came before them . " Warren Truitt of About.com agreed but stated , " [ The song ] may be a little cookie @-@ cutter , but at least the songwriters realize who their audience is and they deliver the goods " . Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly compared the song 's style to that of Kelly Clarkson . While reviewing a concert before the release of the soundtrack , Peter Larsen of The Orange County Register predicted it would be released as a single and become popular with children , yet " saturate [ parents ' ] ears for a month or two " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
On the week ending July 25 , 2009 , in the United States , " Supergirl " debuted at number five on Billboard 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles Chart ( Hot 100 – 105 ) upon Hannah Montana 3 's release . The song dropped from the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles Chart in the following week . On the week ending September 11 , 2009 , " Supergirl " debuted and peaked at number fifty @-@ eight on the Austrian Singles Chart , marking Cyrus ' first appearance in the country as Montana ; it also dropped from the Austrian Singles Chart after one week . Along with its B @-@ side , " Every Part of Me " , the song peaked at number forty @-@ two on the German Singles Chart .
= = Live performances = =
On October 10 , 2008 , Cyrus , dressed as Montana , premiered " Supergirl " , along with eight other songs , at the concert taping for the third season of Hannah Montana , which was set on October 10 in Irvine , California at the Verizon Wireless Amphitheatre . The performance began with Montana , dressed in a white and pink tie @-@ dye tee shirt , white pants , pink leather jacket , and large sunglasses . The performance begins with Cyrus sitting in a bench , facing a mirror , as backup dancers apply makeup on her and attend her . She stands up and roams around the stage to sing afterward . Peter Larsen of The Orange County Register called it one of " hits of the night " . The performance was later premiered as the song 's music video on July 2 , 2009 , on Disney Channel to promote Hannah Montana 3 .
= = Track listings = =
U.S. / EU Vinyl CD Single / Digital Download
" Supergirl " ( Album Version ) – 2 : 55
" Supergirl " ( Instrumental ) – 2 : 55
" Every Part of Me " – 3 : 30
EU 2 @-@ Track CD Single
" Supergirl " ( Album Version ) – 2 : 55
" Every Part of Me " – 3 : 30
= = Charts = =
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= Leccinum manzanitae =
Leccinum manzanitae is an edible species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae . Described as new to science in 1971 , it is commonly known as the manzanita bolete for its usual mycorrhizal association with manzanita trees . Its fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) have sticky reddish to brown caps up to 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) , and its stipes are up to 16 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) long and 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick . They have a whitish background color punctuated with small black scales known as scabers . Found only in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada , it is the most common Leccinum species in California . The mushroom is edible , although opinions vary as to its quality . L. manzanitae can be usually distinguished from other similar bolete mushrooms by its large size , reddish cap , dark scabers on a whitish stipe , and association with manzanita and madrone .
= = Taxonomy = =
Leccinum manzanitae was first described by the American mycologist Harry Delbert Thiers in 1971 , from collections made in San Mateo County , California , the previous year . In that state , it is known as the manzanita bolete because of its close association with manzanita trees . It is classified in subsection Versicolores of the section Leccinum in the genus Leccinum . Closely related species in this section include L. piceinum , L. monticola , L. albostipitatum , and L. versipelle .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Leccinum manzanitae are sometimes massive , occasionally reaching weights of several pounds . The cap is 7 – 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , spherical to convex when young , and broadly convex to flattened or cushion @-@ shaped ( pulvinate ) . The surface of the cap is often shallowly to deeply pitted or reticulate , sticky , and covered with pressed @-@ down hairs that are more conspicuous toward the edge of the cap . Its color is dark red during all stages of development . The cap 's flesh is 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick , white when first exposed , but slowly and irregularly changing to dark brownish @-@ gray with no reddish intermediate state . The change in color upon bruising or injury is often more pronounced in young specimens .
The tubes comprising the hymenophore are 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) long , with an adnate attachment to the stipe ; their color is pale olive when young and darkens when bruised . Pores are up to 1 mm in diameter , angular , and the same color as the tubes . The stipe is 10 – 16 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 6 @.@ 3 in ) long , and 1 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick at the apex , and either club @-@ shaped or swollen in the middle . It is solid ( i.e. , not hollow ) , with a dry surface , and covered with small , stiff , granular projections called scabers . The scabers are usually whitish when young , but eventually turn dark brownish @-@ grey with age . The stipe flesh stains a bluish color when bruised , although this reaction is variable and sometimes slow to occur . It has no distinctive taste or odor .
Leccinum manzanitae mushroom produce a cinnamon @-@ brown spore print . Spores are 13 – 17 by 4 – 5 @.@ 5 µm , somewhat elliptical to cylindrical , and tapered on each end ( fusoid ) ; their walls are smooth and moderately thick . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are 27 – 32 by 6 – 9 µm , club @-@ shaped to pear @-@ shaped ( pyriform ) and four @-@ spored . The cystidia are 23 – 32 by 4 – 6 µm , fusoid to club @-@ shaped with narrow , elongated apices . Caulocystidia ( found on the stipe surface ) are thin @-@ walled , club @-@ shaped to somewhat fusoid , and sometimes end in a sharp point ; they measure 35 – 45 by 9 – 14 µm . Clamp connections are absent in the hyphae of Leccinum manzanitae . The hyphae of the cap cuticle are arranged in the form of a trichoderm ( wherein the outermost hyphae emerge roughly parallel , perpendicular to the cap surface ) .
Several chemical tests can be used to help confirm the identify of the mushroom : a drop of dilute ( 3 – 10 % ) potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) solution will turn the tubes pale red whereas nitric acid ( HNO3 ) on the tubes produces orange @-@ yellow ; a solution of Iron ( II ) sulfate ( FeSO4 ) applied to the flesh results in a pale grey color .
Thiers also described the variety L. manzanitae var. angustisporae from Mendocino County . Similar to the main form in appearance and habitat , it has smaller , narrowly elongated spores , typically 3 – 4 µm wide and 1 – 2 µm longer .
= = = Edibility = = =
Leccinum manzanitae is edible , and its taste is sometimes rated highly , although others have described the flavor as bland . Drying the mushroom may improve the flavor . One field guide advises caution when selecting this species for the table , as there have been poisonings reported with similar @-@ looking mushrooms found in the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Northwest region of the United States .
= = = Similar species = = =
In the field , Leccinum manzanitae fruit bodies can be usually distinguished from those of other similar bolete species by its large size , reddish cap , dark scabers on a whitish stipe , and association with manzanita and madrone . L. ponderosum also has a dark red sticky cap , but its flesh does not darken upon exposure , and its cap is smooth when young . L. armeniacum also grows with manzanita and madrone , but its cap is more orange . L. aeneum , known only from California , is another species that associates with manzanitae and madrone . It has an orangish cap and whitish scabers on the stipe that do not darken significantly as the mushroom matures . L. insigne , found in coniferous forests with aspens , has a coloration similar to L. manzanitae . The brown @-@ capped L. scabrum is associated with ornamental birch , usually in cultivated landscapes . L. constans , also found exclusively in California , is paler , and does not undergo color changes when the cut flesh is exposed to air ; it is found near madrone in coastal regions . The species L. largentii , found in northern regions of the West Coast , has a dry cap with a fibrillose to scaly edge , dark olive pores , and densely arranged scabers on the stipe . It associates with toyon ( Heteromeles arbutifolia ) .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Leccinum manzanitae is a mycorrhizal species . Its fruit bodies grow singly to scattered in soil under madrone and manzanita . Known to occur only in North America , it is commonly found from central California to southern Oregon , but has also been reported further north in Washington and British Columbia ( Canada ) . Thiers considered it the most abundant Leccinum in California .
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= Ramariopsis kunzei =
Ramariopsis kunzei is an edible species of coral fungi in the Clavariaceae family , and the type species of the genus Ramariopsis . It is commonly known as white coral because of the branched structure of the fruit bodies that resemble marine coral . The fruit bodies are up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) tall by 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide , with numerous branches originating from a short rudimentary stem . The branches are one to two millimeters thick , smooth , and white , sometimes with yellowish tips in age . Ramariopsis kunzei has a widespread distribution , and is found in North America , Europe , Asia , and Australia .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first described as Clavaria kunzei by pioneer mycologist Elias Magnus Fries in 1821 . E.J.H. Corner transferred the species to Ramariopsis in 1950 , and made it the type species . In general , coral fungi often have extensive taxonomic histories , as mycologists have not agreed on the best way to classify them . In addition to Clavaria and Ramariopsis , the R. kunzei has been placed in the genera Ramaria by Lucien Quélet in 1888 , and Clavulinopsis by Walter Jülich in 1985 . According to the taxonomic database MycoBank , the species has acquired a sizable list of synonyms , listed in the taxobox . It is commonly known as white coral because of the branched structure of the fruit bodies that resemble marine coral .
A phylogenetic analysis of clavarioid fungi concluded that R. kunzei is in a phylogenetic lineage together with several Clavulinopsis species ( including C. sulcata , C. helvola and C. fusiformis ) , and that this clade ( the ramariopsis clade ) is nested within a group of species representing the Clavariaceae family .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Ramariopsis kunzei are white to whitish @-@ yellow in color , and are highly branched structures resembling coral ; the dimensions are typically up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) tall and 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) wide . Older specimens may have a pinkish tinge . The tips of the branches are blunt , not crested as in some other species of coral fungi , like Clavulina cristata ; branches are between 1 and 5 millimeters thick . The branch tips of mature specimens may be yellow . A stem , if present , may be up to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) long and scurfy — covered with small flakes or scales . The texture of the flesh may range from pliable to brittle . This fungus does not undergo any color changes upon bruising or injury , however , a 10 % solution of FeSO4 ( a chemical test known as " iron salts " ) applied to the flesh will turn it green .
In deposit , the spores are white . Viewed with a light microscope , the spores are translucent and have an ellipsoid to roughly spherical shape with spines on the surface , and dimensions of 3 – 5 @.@ 5 by 2 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 µm . Spores are non @-@ amyloid , meaning that they do not absorb iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are usually 25 – 45 µm long by 6 – 7 µm wide , and 4 @-@ spored . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of this species .
= = = Edibility = = =
The species is edible , but " fleshless and flavorless . " Other authors concur that the odor and taste are not distinctive .
= = = Similar species = = =
The " crested coral " ( Clavulina cristata , edible ) is similar in appearance to R. kunzei , but its branches have fringed , feathery tips . The " jellied false coral " ( Tremellodendron pallidum , edible ) has whitish , tough , cartilaginous branches with blunt tips .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The species is thought to be saprobic and can be found growing on the ground , in duff , or less frequently on well @-@ decayed wood . Fruit bodies may grow singly , in groups , or clustered together . David Arora has noted a preference for growing under conifers , as well as a prevalence in redwood forests of North America . In contrast , an earlier author claimed this species grows " rarely in coniferous woods . "
In Europe , Ramariopsis kunzei has been collected in Scotland ( specifically , on the islands of Arran , Gigha and Kintyre peninsula ) , the Netherlands , Norway , former Czechoslovakia , Germany , Poland , and Russia ( Zhiguli Mountains ) . It has also been found in China , India , Iran , the Solomon Islands , and Australia . In North America , the distribution extends north to Canada , and includes the United States ( including Hawaii and Puerto Rico ) .
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= By the Grace of God ( song ) =
" By the Grace of God " is a song by American singer Katy Perry from her fourth studio album , Prism ( 2013 ) , included as its closing track . The song was written and produced by Perry and Canadian record producer Greg Wells . It was conceived following Perry 's divorce from English actor and comedian Russell Brand . This initially made Perry consider making a " darker " album , but instead was channeled into the song . Throughout its autobiographical lyrics , Perry is depicted finding her strength and standing up for herself .
The track was first unveiled at Perry 's headlining set at the 2013 iTunes Festival . Upon the release of Prism , " By the Grace of God " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who appreciated its vulnerability and picked it as one of the musical highlights from the album , but criticized its placement on the record . Following the album 's release , it has entered various musical charts due to strong digital downloads .
= = Background and production = =
After English actor and comedian Russell Brand divorced Perry in late December 2011 , she was so distraught over the event that she considered committing suicide . Greg Wells , who assisted Perry with the composition of " By the Grace of God " , commented on the situation : " I think she felt so kicked in the head and so publicly embarrassed at being divorced by a text message " . After overcoming her suicidal thoughts and initial shock , she felt prompted to create a " darker " project as compared to her previous albums . Instead , she channelled the entire divorce event into " By the Grace of God " , in which its lyrics depict Perry battling against her suicidal thoughts while lying on her bathroom floor . During an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Perry spoke on how she felt during the breakup : " Imagine what you go through . Imagine what happens when you go through a break up . We all go through break ups and we all get very depressed and desperate . "
" By the Grace of God " was unveiled to industry insiders during a listening party for Prism held in Manhattan , while its inclusion on the album track list was confirmed on October 1 , 2013 . Perry confirmed that the song was the only one included in Prism about her divorce from Brand . However , the song " Ghost " , also present on Prism , includes references to the divorce , particularly the lyric " You sent a text , it was like the wind changed your mind " , although Perry stated that the track was not about the split . She further stated : " That 's the funny thing - it 's not about that chapter in my life , people think that certain songs are about certain people and there is only one song about that time in my life and that song is ' By the Grace of God ' " .
Unlike many of the album 's songs which were written by a multitude of collaborators , " By the Grace of God " was composed solely by Perry and Greg Wells . Wells also co @-@ wrote " Choose Your Battles " , the third bonus track from the album 's deluxe edition . For this track , he contributed with playing drums , piano , and the synthesizer . The song was engineered by Ian McGregor at Rocket Carousel Studio in Los Angeles , and mixed by Serban Ghenea at MixStar Studios , Virginia Beach .
= = Composition = =
At a length of four minutes and twenty @-@ seven seconds , " By the Grace of God " is a pop piano @-@ driven power ballad . With a stripped @-@ down production , its instrumental is essentially composed of the sounds of various musical instruments , such as drums , piano and synthesizers along with military drums . Throughout the song , drums , piano , and synthesizers are used in its instrumental . According to the sheet music published by Alfred Publishing Co . , Inc. on Musicnotes.com , it is composed in the key of G minor and set in a 44 time signature at a tempo of 82 beats per minute . The melody spans the tonal range of B ♭ 3 to D5 , while the music follows the chord progression of Gm — E ♭ sus2 — B ♭ — Gm — E ♭ sus2 — Fsus4 .
Lyrically , Perry is depicted as having suicidal thoughts and lying on the floor of a bathroom . The song opens with only piano and Perry 's vocals , while she sings " Was twenty @-@ seven , surviving my return from Saturn " , and as the song carries on , she finds her strength , singing " By the grace of God / I picked myself back up / I put one foot in front of the other and I / Looked in the mirror and decided to stay / Wasn 't gonna let love take me out that way " . Perry commented on the lyrics : " [ They ] are very exact and autobiographical . That 's how I write . But the one thing about those lyrics is you can hear me finding my strength throughout the song . It starts off really low and then I kind of stand up for myself and say , ' No ! ' . " The song also sees Perry rejecting the idea that the relationship ended because of her .
Kitty Empire from The Guardian observed that the song served as a " vulnerable yin " to Perry 's hit single " Roar " ' s " righteous yang " . Josh Duboff from Vanity Fair highlighted the titles of " By the Grace of God " and deluxe edition song " Spiritual " , concluding that the religious undertones were " more prominent " in Prism . Helen Brown from The Daily Telegraph deemed the song " tender " , and Jason Lipshutz from Billboard said it " is the most revealing song Perry will likely ever pen " .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , " By the Grace of God " received critical acclaim . Jason Lipshutz from Billboard thought the song was " obviously not the radio fare fans are used to from the pop star ( Perry ) " , but that it was " crucial for anyone trying to understand Perry 's Prism mind set " . Philip Matusavage from musicOMH considered that " the fact that [ " By the Grace of God " ] is the album highlight and is the only song written by less than three people " is an indicator of what Perry should do next . Greg Kot from Chicago Tribune appreciated " Ghost " and " By the Grace of God " for allowing Perry 's vulnerability " to seep through " . In his review of Prism , Sam Lansky from Idolator showed himself divided relatively to the song : he classified it as the " most sonically conventional thing [ in the album ] " although he immediately stated it was " also the most emotionally gripping " in it .
Randall Roberts from Los Angeles Times affirmed that the song was " cosmic " and that it had a " humming , dark tension in which Perry and melody float like red balloons " . Helen Brown from The Daily Telegraph declared that , in the song , Perry " sounds like a woman , and an artist , who 's finally found herself " . Allison Stewart from The Washington Post said that " By the Grace of God " ranked " among Perry 's strongest ( tracks ) " , and that it was " her most strangely sensible and affecting song ever , one that distances her from her suddenly @-@ more @-@ callow @-@ seeming peers and also from Brand " . John Walker from MTV highlighted the fact that the song is " light on figures of speech and all @-@ too accessible platitudes " , as compared to the metaphors present on the lyrics of " Wide Awake " .
In contrast , Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine described it as " a sappy Paula Cole @-@ style statement of self @-@ actualization " . Jon Dolan from Rolling Stone criticized its lyrics and negatively likened them to those of Alanis Morissette . Kitty Empire from The Guardian found the song to be " ridden with cliché " . Mesfin Fekadu from ABC News thought both tracks were " good " , but stated that they " could be great if Perry didn 't hold back and explored more lyrically and sonically " . Chris Bosman from Consequence of Sound criticized its placement on the album track listing and thought that they " would stand out more if they ( By The Grace of God , and closing track Double Rainbow ) hadn 't been forced to rub elbows , thus stealing momentum and impact from each other " . Carl Williott from Idolator praised the track as a " nice counterpart to Roar " .
= = Commercial performance = =
Following the album 's release , " By the Grace of God " entered the UK Singles Chart at number 179 on the week of November 2 , 2013 , and peaked on the US Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number 10 , which represents the 25 songs which failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 . It also appeared on the US Hot Digital Songs chart at number 71 , where it stayed for only one week . It also entered the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 77 with sales of 2 @,@ 104 .
= = Live performances = =
" By the Grace of God " was debuted during Perry 's headlining set at the Roundhouse in London , England for her iTunes Festival , held on September 30 , 2013 . Once she finished singing , Perry thanked her fans for " letting [ her ] stay " . On October 22 , 2013 , Perry held a release party for Prism where she performed " By the Grace of God " along with the other songs from Prism . Tiffany Lee from Yahoo ! Music wrote that Perry 's renditions of " Unconditionally " and " By the Grace of God " " shone like lights through a prism in their acoustic setting " . The song was included as part of the setlist on The Prismatic World Tour .
Perry performed the song at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards which were held on February 8 , 2015 . The performance was in support of domestic violence and sexual assault victims . Before she appeared on stage , a prerecorded video message from U.S. President Barack Obama was screened , which featured him encouraging musicians to support the " # ItsOnUs " sexual assault campaign . Then , domestic violence victim Brooke Axtell delivered a brief speech about her story . During the performance , Perry was clothed in a white dress , while shadows danced behind her . MTV 's John Walker labelled it as her most " powerful performance yet " , while Arienne Thompson of USA Today wrote that it was " powerful and subdued " compared to the " flamboyant and playful " set Perry was known for .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Rocket Carousel Studios in Los Angeles , California .
Mixed at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia .
Personnel
Lead vocals - Katy Perry
Songwriting – Katy Perry , Greg Wells
Production – Katy Perry , Greg Wells
Vocal production – Katy Perry
Mixing – Serban Ghenea
Mixing engineer – John Hanes
Drums , piano , synths , and programming – Greg Wells
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Prism , Capitol Records .
= = Charts = =
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= Young at Heart ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Young at Heart " is the sixteenth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on February 11 , 1994 . It was written by Scott Kaufer and series creator Chris Carter , and directed by Michael Lange . The episode featured guest appearances by Dick Anthony Williams , William B. Davis and Alan Boyce , and saw Jerry Hardin reprise his role as Deep Throat . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Young at Heart " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 2 , being watched by 6 @.@ 8 million households in its initial broadcast ; and received mostly negative reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . When Mulder and Scully aid a former colleague of Mulder 's in an investigation into a series of robberies , it becomes apparent that the culprit is an old nemesis of Mulder 's — who had seemingly died in prison several years previously .
" Young at Heart " originated as a script from freelance writer Scott Kaufer , who was a friend of series creator Chris Carter and former employee of California magazine and Warner Bros comedy development department . Chris Carter rewrote the script , which included the addition of Barnett 's salamander hand . Director Michael Lange felt the episode offered him excellent scope to try new techniques , noting that the series producers " encourage cinematic stuff " . William B. Davis makes his second appearance of the series in this episode , although his role is simply credited as " CIA Agent " , rather than the more well @-@ known " Smoking Man " .
= = Plot = =
In 1989 , Joe Crandall , an inmate at a federal penitentiary in Pennsylvania , hears screaming from the infirmary . Inside , he discovers the prison 's doctor , Joe Ridley , amputating the hand of fellow inmate John Barnett . Ridley tells Crandall that Barnett is dead , threatening him with a scalpel . However , as Crandall leaves the room , he sees Barnett blinking at him .
Four years later , Fox Mulder is notified by his former FBI supervisor , Reggie Purdue , about a note from a jewelry store robbery mocking Mulder by name . Mulder recognizes the message as being from Barnett , a sociopathic multiple murderer whom he helped capture on his first case with the Bureau . Even though Barnett supposedly died in prison , the note bears his handwriting . Purdue shows Dana Scully a video of Barnett 's capture , which shows that Mulder didn 't fire on Barnett due to him having a hostage , per FBI regulations . Mulder 's hesitancy allowed Barnett to kill both the hostage and a fellow agent .
Scully looks into Barnett 's cause of death and discovers that despite it being listed as heart attack , he had no history of heart problems ; he had been sent to the infirmary over problems with his hand . Meanwhile , Barnett leaves Mulder another note in his car , along with photos of him and Scully .
Mulder and Scully visit the prison and meet Crandall , who recounts his experiences with Barnett and Ridley . Barnett makes taunting phone calls to Mulder , and strangles Purdue with his salamander @-@ like hand . Scully looks into Ridley 's past and finds that his medical license was revoked in 1979 due to malpractice ; he had performed illegal medical trials on children with progeria , a disease that causes premature aging . Mulder theorizes that Ridley 's experiments helped him find a way to reverse the aging process .
Scully summons Mulder when Ridley suddenly appears at her apartment . He tells the agents that he succeeded in making Barnett age in reverse after replacing his hand using salamander cells . However , Barnett stole Ridley 's government @-@ sponsored research . Deep Throat meets with Mulder and confirms Ridley 's story , saying that the government is negotiating with Barnett to purchase Ridley 's work .
Scully hears someone dialing into her answering machine and spots Barnett 's fingerprint on it . After Barnett calls again , Mulder decides to set up a sting operation at the cello recital for a friend of Scully 's , which Barnett learned about from her answering @-@ machine .
That night , FBI agents wait at the concert hall for Barnett 's arrival . Barnett , who goes completely unseen due to his youthful appearance , poses as a piano tuner . He shoots Scully in the chest during the recital and then flees , taking the cellist hostage . Mulder doesn 't hesitate this time around and fires at Barnett , fatally wounding him . Scully is revealed to have survived the attack , having worn a bullet @-@ proof vest . Despite the efforts of doctors and a mysterious CIA agent to resuscitate Barnett , he dies , and takes the secrets of Ridley 's research to the grave . The episode ends with the camera zooming in on locker number 935 in a train station , implying the secrets along with Barnett 's precaution , a bomb , are contained within and one day will be discovered .
= = Production = =
This episode originated as a script from freelance writer Scott Kaufer , who was an acquaintance of Chris Carter and former employee of California magazine and Warner Bros comedy development department . Chris Carter rewrote the script , which included the addition of Barnett 's salamander hand . Fox 's standards and practices department fought with the producers over the scene where Barnett strangles Reggie Purdue , and as a result the producers were forced to reduce the length of the scene . The footage of the young girl with progeria was filmed after the production crew contacted the Progeria Society and were put in touch with the family of Courtney Arciaga , who was a young girl with the disease . She and her family were fans of the series , and were flown from their San Diego home to Vancouver to shoot the scene .
Director Michael Lange felt the episode offered him excellent scope to try new techniques , noting that the series producers " encourage cinematic stuff " . He felt a highlight of this approach was in shooting the episode 's climactic stand @-@ off , explaining that " instead of shooting at a normal eye level as the Salamander Man takes the gun , I tilt up , and now I 'm shooting up his nose almost , and it was kind of like very disorienting . The show 's got a certain ennui that appeals to me , the film noir @-@ y movies of the ' 40s look , an undercurrent of tension and anxiety ' cause of all the weird things going on " .
William B. Davis makes his second appearance of the series in this episode , although his role is simply credited as " CIA Agent " , rather than " Smoking Man " , as per his credit in the pilot episode . The character of Reggie Purdue would later be referenced in the fourth season episode " Paper Hearts " , and the fifth season episode " Unusual Suspects " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Young at Heart " premiered on the Fox network on February 11 , 1994 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on January 12 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 2 with an 11 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of households watching TV , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 6 @.@ 8 million households watched this episode during its original airing .
Director Michael Lange said that he " liked the script very much , and I think I stayed fairly close to the original draft . I liked it because it had a good spookiness to it . To me , the intriguing part was the doctor 's research into being able to reverse the aging process , which I wish we could have explored more . " Executive Producer Robert Goodwin considered the episode one of the most emotional episodes of the first season , due to the time spent working with Courtney Arciaga , the little girl with progeria . In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , the episode was rated a C , being called " far @-@ fetched " and criticised for its unoriginal themes . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , described it as " sloppy , poorly edited " and " thoroughly unexciting " , pointing out the " forced " nature of the supporting characters ' past involvement with Fox Mulder . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , expressed mixed feelings over the episode , comparing it to Quincy , M.E. and stating that it " just wasn 't weird enough " for an episode of The X @-@ Files . " Young at Heart " has been cited , along with the fourth season episode " Paper Hearts " , as representing " the supreme irony and the hidden agenda of the series " — in both cases , Mulder , directly through his work on the X @-@ Files , puts information permanently beyond reach by killing those who hold it , showing that " despite the fact that Mulder drives the car , he frequently ends up — and goes — nowhere " .
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= SMS Stralsund =
SMS Stralsund was a Magdeburg @-@ class light cruiser of the German Kaiserliche Marine . Her class included three other ships : Magdeburg , Breslau , and Strassburg . She was built at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen from 1910 to December 1912 , when she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet . The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns and had a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) .
Stralsund was assigned to the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet for the majority of her career . She saw significant action in the early years of World War I , including several operations off the British coast and the Battles of Heligoland Bight and Dogger Bank , in August 1914 and November 1915 , respectively . She was not damaged in either action . The ship was in dockyard hands during the Battle of Jutland , and so she missed the engagement . After the end of the war , she served briefly in the Reichsmarine before being surrendered to the Allies . She was ceded to the French Navy , where she served as Mulhouse until 1925 . She was formally stricken in 1933 and broken up for scrap two years later .
= = Design = =
Stralsund was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Cormoran " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1910 and launched on 4 November 1911 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 10 December 1912 . The ship was 138 @.@ 7 meters ( 455 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 5 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 4 m ( 14 ft ) forward . She displaced 4 @,@ 570 t ( 4 @,@ 500 long tons ; 5 @,@ 040 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of AEG @-@ Vulcan steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 4 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 25 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) , but reached 33 @,@ 482 shp ( 24 @,@ 968 kW ) in service . These were powered by sixteen coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers , although they were later altered to use fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Stralsund carried 1 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 106 tonnes ( 104 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of approximately 5 @,@ 820 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 780 km ; 6 @,@ 700 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Stralsund had a crew of 18 officers and 336 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
Stralsund spent the majority of her career in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet . On 16 August , some two weeks after the outbreak of World War I , Stralsund and Strassburg conducted a sweep into the Hoofden to search for British reconnaissance forces . The two cruisers encountered a group of sixteen British destroyers and a light cruiser at a distance of about 10 @,@ 000 m ( 33 @,@ 000 ft ) . Significantly outnumbered , the two German cruisers broke contact and returned to port . The ship 's first major action was the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August 1914 . British battlecruisers and light cruisers raided the German reconnaissance screen in the Heligoland Bight . At 12 : 30 , Stralsund , Danzig , and Ariadne arrived to reinforce Rear Admiral Leberecht Maass , and quickly turned the tide against the British light cruisers . Shortly thereafter , the British battlecruisers intervened and sank Ariadne and Maass 's flagship Cöln . Stralsund and the rest of the surviving light cruisers retreated into the haze and were reinforced by the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group . Stralsund and Danzig returned and rescued most of the crew of Ariadne .
She also participated in the raid on Yarmouth on 2 – 3 November 1914 , as reconnaissance screen for the I Scouting Group . While the battlecruisers bombarded the town of Yarmouth , Stralsund laid a minefield , which sank a steamer and the submarine HMS D5 which had sortied to intercept the German raiders . After completing the bombardment , the German squadron returned to port without encountering British forces . Stralsund was also present during the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby , again screening for the I Scouting Group . In the withdrawal after bombarding the towns , the Germans were nearly intercepted by British forces ; the cruiser HMS Southampton spotted Stralsund and several torpedo boats . Confusion aboard the British flagship allowed the German squadron to escape , however . On 25 December , the British launched the Cuxhaven Raid , an air attack on the German naval base in Cuxhaven and the Nordholz Airbase . Stralsund engaged one of the attacking seaplanes , but was unable to shoot it down .
The ship was again part of the reconnaissance screen for the I Scouting Group at the Battle of Dogger Bank on 24 January 1915 . Stralsund and Graudenz were assigned to the front of the screen and Rostock and Kolberg steamed on either side of the formation ; each cruiser was supported by a half @-@ flotilla of torpedo boats . At 08 : 15 , lookouts on Stralsund and Kolberg spotted heavy smoke from large British warships approaching the formation . As the main German fleet was in port and therefore unable to support the battlecruisers , Hipper decided to retreat at high speed . The British battlecruisers were able to catch up to the Germans , however , and in the ensuing battle , the large armored cruiser Blücher was sunk .
Stralsund was not available for the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 as she was being rearmed with 15 cm SK L / 45 guns . The refit was completed at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel . The twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were replaced with seven 15 cm weapons and two 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 guns . On 2 February 1918 , Stralsund struck a mine laid by British ships in the North Sea . The dreadnought Kaiser and several other ships steamed out to escort Stralsund back to port . The ship was unavailable for the major fleet operation on 23 – 24 April 1918 to intercept a British convoy to Norway .
After the war , Stralsund served briefly with the reorganized Reichsmarine in 1919 . The Treaty of Versailles specified that the ship was to be disarmed and handed over to the Allies within two months of the signing of the treaty . She was ceded to France as a war prize under the transaction name " Z " . The ship was formally handed over in Cherbourg on 3 August 1920 . The ship was renamed Mulhouse and served briefly with the French Navy until a refit in 1925 in Brest . By this time , she was thoroughly worn out and was therefore placed in reserve shortly after completing the refit . On 15 February 1933 , Mulhouse was stricken from the naval register and broken up for scrap in Brest in 1935 . The ship 's bell was later returned to Germany and is now on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial .
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= Aaron Sorkin =
Aaron Benjamin Sorkin ( born June 9 , 1961 ) is an American screenwriter , producer , and playwright . His works include the Broadway plays A Few Good Men and The Farnsworth Invention ; the television series Sports Night , The West Wing , Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip , and The Newsroom ; and the films A Few Good Men , The American President , Charlie Wilson 's War , The Social Network , Moneyball , and Steve Jobs .
Sorkin 's trademark rapid @-@ fire dialogue and extended monologues are complemented , in television , by frequent collaborator Thomas Schlamme 's characteristic directing technique called the " walk and talk " . These sequences consist of single tracking shots of long duration involving multiple characters engaging in conversation as they move through the set ; characters enter and exit the conversation as the shot continues without any cuts .
= = Early years = =
Sorkin was born in Manhattan , New York City , to a Jewish family , and was raised in the NY suburb of Scarsdale . His mother was a schoolteacher and his father a copyright lawyer who had fought in WWII and put himself through college on the G.I. Bill ; both his older sister and brother went on to become lawyers . His paternal grandfather was one of the founders of the International Ladies ' Garment Workers ' Union ( ILGWU ) . Sorkin took an early interest in acting . Before he reached his teenage years , his parents were taking him to the theatre to see shows such as Who 's Afraid of Virginia Woolf ? and That Championship Season .
Sorkin attended Scarsdale High School where he became involved in the drama and theatre club . In eighth grade he played General Bullmoose in the musical Li 'l Abner . In Scarsdale High 's senior class production of Once Upon a Mattress , Sorkin played Sir Harry . He served as vice president in his junior and senior year at Scarsdale High School and graduated in 1979 .
In 1979 , Sorkin attended Syracuse University . In his freshman year he failed a class that was a core requirement . It was a devastating setback because he wanted to be an actor , and the drama department did not allow students to take the stage until they completed all the core freshman classes . Determined to do better , he returned in his sophomore year , and graduated in 1983 . Recalling the influence on him at college of drama teacher Arthur Storch , Sorkin recalled , after Storch 's death in March 2013 , that " Arthur 's reputation as a director , and as a disciple of Lee Strasberg , was a big reason why a lot of us went to [ Syracuse ] . " You have the capacity to be so much better than you are " , he started saying to me in September of my senior year . He was still saying it in May . On the last day of classes , he said it again , and I said , " How ? " , and he answered , " Dare to fail " . I 've been coming through on his admonition ever since " .
= = = Early career as an actor and playwright = = =
After graduating from Syracuse University with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in Musical Theatre in 1983 , Sorkin moved to New York City where he spent much of the 1980s as a struggling , sporadically employed actor who also worked odd jobs , such as delivering singing telegrams , driving a limousine , touring Alabama with the children 's theatre company Traveling Playhouse , handing out fliers promoting a hunting @-@ and @-@ fishing show , and bartending at Broadway 's Palace Theatre . One weekend , while housesitting at a friend 's place he found an IBM Selectric typewriter , started typing , and " felt a phenomenal confidence and a kind of joy that [ he ] had never experienced before in [ his ] life . "
He continued writing and eventually put together his first play , Removing All Doubt , which he sent to his old Syracuse theatre teacher , Arthur Storch , who was impressed . In 1984 , Removing All Doubt was staged for drama students at his alma mater , Syracuse University . After that , he wrote Hidden in This Picture which debuted off @-@ off @-@ Broadway at Steve Olsen 's West Bank Cafe Downstairs Theatre Bar in New York City in 1988 . The contents of his first two plays got him a theatrical agent . Producer John A. McQuiggan saw the production of Hidden in This Picture and commissioned Sorkin to turn the one @-@ act into a full @-@ length play called Making Movies .
= = = A Few Good Men = = =
Sorkin got the inspiration to write his next play , a courtroom drama called A Few Good Men , from a phone conversation with his sister Deborah ( who had graduated from Boston University Law School and signed up for a three @-@ year stint with the U.S. Navy Judge Advocate General 's Corps ) . Deborah told Sorkin that she was going to Guantanamo Bay to defend a group of Marines who came close to killing a fellow Marine in a hazing ordered by a superior officer . Sorkin took that information and wrote much of his story on cocktail napkins while bartending at the Palace Theatre . He and his roommates had purchased a Macintosh 512K so when he returned home he would empty his pockets of the cocktail napkins and type them into the computer , forming a basis from which he wrote many drafts for A Few Good Men .
In 1988 Sorkin sold the film rights for A Few Good Men to producer David Brown before it premiered , in a deal that was reportedly " well into six figures " . Brown had read an article in The New York Times about Sorkin 's one @-@ act play Hidden in This Picture and found out Sorkin also had a play called A Few Good Men that was having Off Broadway readings . Brown produced A Few Good Men on Broadway at the Music Box Theatre . It starred Tom Hulce and was directed by Don Scardino . After opening in late 1989 , it ran for 497 performances .
Sorkin continued writing Making Movies and in 1990 it debuted Off @-@ Broadway at the Promenade Theatre , produced by John A. McQuiggan , and again directed by Don Scardino . Meanwhile , David Brown was producing a few projects at TriStar Pictures and tried to interest them in making A Few Good Men into a film but his proposal was declined due to the lack of star actor involvement . Brown later got a call from Alan Horn at Castle Rock Entertainment who was anxious to make the film . Rob Reiner , a Castle Rock producing partner , opted to direct it .
= = Screenwriting career ( 1991 – 98 ) = =
= = = Working under contract for Castle Rock Entertainment = = =
In the early 1990s , Sorkin worked under contract for Castle Rock Entertainment , Inc . He wrote the scripts for A Few Good Men , Malice and The American President : The three films grossed about US $ 400 million worldwide . While writing for Castle Rock he became friends with colleagues such as William Goldman and Rob Reiner and met his future wife Julia Bingham , who was one of Castle Rock 's business affairs lawyers .
Sorkin wrote several drafts of the script for A Few Good Men in his Manhattan apartment , learning the craft from a book about screenplay format . He then spent several months at the Los Angeles offices of Castle Rock , working on the script with director Rob Reiner . William Goldman ( who regularly worked under contract at Castle Rock ) became his mentor and helped him to adapt his stageplay into a screenplay . The movie was directed by Reiner , starred Tom Cruise , Jack Nicholson , Demi Moore , and Kevin Bacon , and was produced by Brown . A Few Good Men was released in 1992 and was a box office success .
Goldman also approached Sorkin with a story premise , which Sorkin developed into the script for Malice . Goldman oversaw the project as creative consultant while Sorkin wrote the first two drafts . However , he had to leave the project to finish up the script for A Few Good Men , so screenwriter Scott Frank stepped in and wrote two drafts of the Malice screenplay . When production on A Few Good Men wrapped up , Sorkin took over and resumed working on the Malice right through the final shooting script . Harold Becker directed the film , a medical thriller released in 1993 , which starred Nicole Kidman and Alec Baldwin . Malice had mixed reviews . Vincent Canby in The New York Times described the film as " deviously entertaining from its start through its finish " . Roger Ebert gave it 2 out of 4 stars , and Peter Travers in a 2000 Rolling Stone review summarized it as having " suspense but no staying power " .
Sorkin 's last produced screenplay for Castle Rock was The American President and once again he worked with William Goldman , who served as a creative consultant . It took Sorkin a few years to write the screenplay for The American President , which started off as a massive 385 @-@ page screenplay ; it was eventually whittled down to a standard shooting script of around 120 pages . Rob Reiner directed . The film was critically acclaimed . Kenneth Turan in the Los Angeles Times described the film as " genial and entertaining if not notably inspired " , and believed its most interesting aspects were the " pipe dreams about the American political system and where it could theoretically be headed " .
= = = Script doctor for hire = = =
Sorkin did uncredited script doctor work on several films in the 1990s . He wrote some quips for Sean Connery and Nicolas Cage in The Rock . He worked on Excess Baggage , a comedy about a girl who stages her own kidnapping to get her father 's attention , and rewrote some of Will Smith 's scenes in Enemy of the State .
Sorkin collaborated with Warren Beatty on a couple of scripts , one of which was Bulworth . Beatty , known for occasionally personally financing his film projects through pre @-@ production , also hired Sorkin to rewrite a script titled Ocean of Storms which never went into production . At one point Sorkin sued Beatty for proper compensation for his work on the Ocean of Storms script ; once the matter was settled , he resumed working on the script .
= = Writing for television ( 1998 – 2007 ) = =
= = = Sports Night ( 1998 – 2000 ) = = =
Sorkin came up with the idea to write about the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes happenings on a sports show while he was living in a room in the Four Seasons Hotel in Los Angeles writing the screenplay for The American President . He would work late , with the TV tuned into ESPN , watching continuous replays of SportsCenter . The show inspired him to try to write a feature film about a sports show but he was unable to structure the story for film , so instead he turned his idea into a TV comedy series . Sports Night was produced by Disney and debuted on the Disney @-@ owned ABC network in the fall of 1998 .
Sorkin fought with the ABC network during the first season over the use of a laugh track and a live studio audience . The laugh track was widely decried by critics as jarring , with Joyce Millman of Salon.com describing it as " the most unconvincing laugh track you 've ever heard " . Sorkin commented that : " Once you do shoot in front of a live audience , you have no choice but to use the laugh track . Oftentimes [ enhancing the laughs ] is the right thing to do . Sometimes you do need a cymbal crash . Other times , it alienates me . " The laugh track was gradually dialed down and was gone by the end of the first season . Sorkin was triumphant in the second season when ABC agreed to his demands , unburdening the crew of the difficulties of staging a scene for a live audience and leaving the cast with more time to rehearse .
Although Sports Night was critically acclaimed , ABC canceled the show after two seasons due to its low ratings . Sorkin entertained offers to continue the show on other television channels but declined all the offers as they were mainly contingent on his involvement which would have been a difficult prospect given that he was simultaneously writing The West Wing at that point .
= = = The West Wing ( 1999 – 2006 ) = = =
Sorkin conceived the political TV drama The West Wing in 1997 when he went unprepared to a lunch with producer John Wells and in a panic pitched to Wells a show centered on the senior staff of the White House , using leftover ideas from his script for The American President . He told Wells about his visits to the White House while doing research for The American President , and they found themselves discussing public service and the passion of the people who serve . Wells took the concept and pitched it to the NBC network , but was told to wait because the facts behind the Lewinsky scandal were breaking and there was concern that an audience would not be able to take a show about the White House seriously . When a year later some other networks started showing interest in The West Wing , NBC decided to greenlight the series despite their previous reluctance . The pilot debuted in the fall of 1999 and was produced by Warner Bros. TV .
The West Wing was honored with nine Emmy Awards for its debut season , making the show a record holder for most Emmys won by a series in a single season . Following the awards ceremony , a fiasco ensued , centered on the Emmy for writing The West Wing episode " In Excelsis Deo " which was awarded to Sorkin and Rick Cleveland , when it was reported in a The New York Times article that Cleveland had been ushered off the stage by Sorkin without being given a chance to say a few words . The story behind The West Wing episode is based on Cleveland 's father , a Korean war veteran who spent the last years of his life on the street , as Cleveland explains in his FreshYarn.com essay titled " I Was the Dumb Looking Guy with the Wire @-@ Rimmed Glasses " . A back and forth took place between Sorkin and Cleveland in a public web forum at Mighty Big TV where Sorkin explained that he gives his writers " Story By " credit on a rotating basis " by way of a gratuity " and that he had thrown out Cleveland 's script and started from scratch . In the end , Sorkin apologized to Cleveland . Cleveland and Sorkin also won the Writers Guild of America Award for best episodic drama at the February 2001 ceremony for " In Excelsis Deo " .
In 2001 , after wrapping up the second season of The West Wing , Sorkin had a drug relapse , only two months after receiving a Phoenix Rising Award for drug recovery ; this became public knowledge when he was arrested at Burbank Airport for possession of hallucinogenic mushrooms , marijuana , and crack cocaine . He was ordered by a judge to attend a drug diversion program . His drug addiction was highly publicized , most notably when Saturday Night Live did a parody called " The West Wing " , though he did recover .
In 2002 , Sorkin criticized NBC news anchor Tom Brokaw 's TV special about a day in the life of a president , " The Bush White House : Inside the Real West Wing " , comparing it to the act of sending a valentine to President George W. Bush instead of real news reporting . Sorkin 's TV series The West Wing aired on the same network , and so at the request of NBC 's Entertainment President Jeff Zucker he apologized , but would later say " there should be a difference between what NBC News does and what The West Wing TV series does . "
Sorkin wrote 87 screenplays in all , which amounts to nearly every episode during the show 's first four Emmy @-@ winning seasons . Sorkin describes his role in the creative process as " not so much [ that of ] a showrunner or a producer . I 'm really a writer . " He admits that this approach can have its drawbacks , saying " Out of 88 [ West Wing ] episodes that I did we were on time and on budget never , not once . " In 2003 , at the end of the fourth season , Sorkin and fellow executive producer Thomas Schlamme left the show due to internal conflicts at Warner Bros. TV not involving the NBC network , thrusting producer John Wells into an expanded role as showrunner . Sorkin never watched any episodes beyond his writing tenure apart from 60 seconds of the fifth season 's first episode , describing the experience as " like watching somebody make out with my girlfriend . " Sorkin would later return in the final episode in a cameo appearance as a member of President Bartlet 's staff .
= = = Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = =
In 2003 Sorkin divulged to the American television interviewer Charlie Rose on The Charlie Rose Show that he was developing a TV series based on a late @-@ night sketch comedy show like Saturday Night Live . In early October 2005 a pilot script dubbed Studio 7 on the Sunset Strip for a new TV series , written by him and with Tommy Schlamme attached as producer , started circulating around Hollywood and generating interest on the web . A week later , NBC bought from Warner Bros. TV the right to show the TV series on their network for a near @-@ record license fee in a bidding war with CBS . The show 's name was later changed to Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip . Sorkin described the show as having " autobiographical elements " to it and " characters that are based on actual people " but said that it departs from those beginnings to look at the backstage maneuverings at a late night sketch comedy show .
In September 2006 , the pilot for Studio 60 aired on NBC , directed by Schlamme . The pilot was critically acclaimed and viewed by over 12 million people , but Studio 60 experienced a significant drop in audience by mid @-@ season . The seething anticipation that preceded the début was followed up by a large amount of thoughtful and scrupulous criticism in the press , as well as largely negative analysis in the blogosphere . In January 2007 , Sorkin spoke out against the press for focusing too heavily on the ratings slide and for using blogs and unemployed comedy writers as sources . After two months on hiatus , Studio 60 resumed to air the last episodes of season one , which would be its only season .
= = 2004 – present = =
= = = Return to the theatre = = =
In 2003 , Sorkin was writing a screenplay on spec about the story of inventor and television pioneer Philo Farnsworth , a topic he had first become familiar with back in the early 1990s when producer Fred Zollo approached him with the idea of adapting a memoir by Elma Farnsworth into a biopic . The next year he completed the screenplay under the title " The Farnsworth Invention " , and it was picked up by New Line Cinema with Thomas Schlamme signed on to direct . The story is about the patent battle between inventor Philo Farnsworth and RCA tycoon David Sarnoff for the technology that allowed the first television transmissions in the US .
At the same time , Sorkin was contacted by Jocelyn Clarke , the commissions manager of the Abbey Theatre in Dublin , requesting he write a play for them , a commission which he accepted . In time Sorkin decided to tackle his commission by rewriting " The Farnsworth Invention " as a play . He delivered a first draft of the play to the Abbey Theatre in early 2005 , and a production was purportedly planned for 2007 with La Jolla Playhouse in California deciding to stage a workshop production of the play in collaboration with the Abbey Theatre . But in 2006 the Abbey Theatre 's new management pulled out of all involvement with The Farnsworth Invention . Despite the setback , La Jolla Playhouse pushed on , with Steven Spielberg lending his talents as producer . The production opened under La Jolla 's signature Page To Stage program which allowed Sorkin and director Des McAnuff to develop the play from show to show according to audience reactions and feedback ; the play ran at La Jolla Playhouse from February 20 , 2007 through March 25 , 2007 . A production followed on Broadway , beginning in previews at the Music Box Theatre and scheduled to open on November 14 , 2007 ; however , the play was delayed by the 2007 Broadway stagehand strike . The Farnsworth Invention eventually opened at the Music Box Theatre on December 3 , 2007 following the end of the strike ; it closed on March 2 , 2008 .
In 2005 , Sorkin revised his play A Few Good Men for a revival at the London West End theatre , the Haymarket . The play opened at the Theatre Royal Haymarket in the fall of the same year and was directed by David Esbjornson , with Rob Lowe of The West Wing in the lead role .
= = = Return to film = = =
Sorkin 's return to film occurred when he was commissioned by Universal Pictures to adapt 60 Minutes producer George Crile 's nonfiction book Charlie Wilson 's War for Tom Hanks ' production company Playtone . Charlie Wilson 's War is about the colorful Texas congressman Charlie Wilson who funded the CIA 's secret war against the former Soviet Union in Afghanistan . Sorkin completed the screenplay and the film was released in 2007 starring Tom Hanks , Julia Roberts , and Philip Seymour Hoffman , directed by Mike Nichols .
In August 2008 , Sorkin announced that he had agreed to write a script for Sony and producer Scott Rudin about how Facebook was founded . The film , The Social Network , based on Ben Mezrich 's novel The Accidental Billionaires , was released on October 1 , 2010 . Sorkin won the Academy , BAFTA and Golden Globe Awards for The Social Network . One year later , Sorkin received nominations for the same awards for co @-@ writing the screenplay to the film Moneyball .
In May 2012 , Sony announced that Sorkin would write a movie based on Walter Isaacson 's biography of Steve Jobs . Sorkin was a guest at the D10 conference in May 2012 and explained his thoughts at the time on the adaptation of Isaacson 's biography :
To be honest , one of the hesitations I had in taking on the movie is that it was a little like writing about the Beatles — that there are so many people out there who know so much about him and who revere him that I just saw a minefield of disappointment . Frankly , that I was going to do something and that people who ... hopefully , when I 'm done with my research , I 'll be in the same ball park of knowledge about Steve Jobs that so many people in this room are .
Steve Jobs , written by Sorkin , directed by Danny Boyle , and starring Michael Fassbender as Jobs , was released in October 2015 . On January 10 , 2016 , Sorkin won the Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay for his work on this film .
= = = Return to television = = =
It was announced in 2011 Sorkin would be returning to television with two HBO projects . He has teamed with The Office star John Krasinski to develop a miniseries about the Chateau Marmont Hotel based on Life at the Marmont , a book by the hotel 's co @-@ owner Raymond R. Sarlot and Fred Basten . He also developed The Newsroom , a series about a fictional cable news network . The series lasted three seasons , premiering on June 24 , 2012 , and concluding on December 14 , 2014 .
= = = Future projects = = =
In March 2007 , it was reported that Sorkin had signed on to write a musical adaptation of the hit 2002 record Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots by psychedelic @-@ rock band The Flaming Lips , collaborating with director Des McAnuff who had been developing the project .
On July 12 , 2007 , Variety reported that Sorkin had signed a deal with DreamWorks to write three scripts . The first script is titled The Trial of the Chicago 7 , which Sorkin was already developing with Steven Spielberg and producers Walter Parkes and Laurie MacDonald . In March 2010 , Sorkin 's agent , Ari Emanuel , was reported as saying that the project was proving " tough to get together " . However , in late July 2013 , it was announced that Academy Award nominated director Paul Greengrass was in final talks to direct Sorkin 's script and that Steven Spielberg had previously been attached .
In August 2008 , Des McAnuff announced that Sorkin had been commissioned by the Stratford Shakespeare Festival to write an adaptation of Chekhov 's The Cherry Orchard .
In 2010 , Sorkin reportedly obtained the film rights to Andrew Young 's book , The Politician ( about Sen. John Edwards ) , and announced that he would make his debut as a film director while also adapting the book for the screen .
In November 2010 , it was reported that Sorkin would be writing a musical based on the life of Houdini , with music by Danny Elfman . In January 2012 , Stephen Schwartz was reported to be writing the music and lyrics , with Sorkin making his debut as a librettist . The musical was expected to come out in 2013 @-@ 14 , with Sorkin saying " The chance to collaborate with Stephen Schwartz , ( the director ) Jack O 'Brien , and Hugh Jackman on a new Broadway musical is a huge gift . " In January 2013 , he dropped out of the project , citing film and TV commitments .
In September 2015 , it was reported that Sorkin is writing a biopic that will focus on the twenty year marriage of Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz and their work together on I Love Lucy and The Lucy – Desi Comedy Hour . Academy Award winner Cate Blanchett is set to star as Ball , while the role of Arnaz is yet to be determined .
In January 2016 , it was announced that Sorkin would make his directorial debut with the film Molly 's Game for Sony Pictures Entertainment , based on Molly Bloom 's memoir and which he would adapt by himself .
In February 2016 , it was revealed that Sorkin will be adapting To Kill a Mockingbird for the stage , where he will be working alongside Bartlett Sher .
In March 2016 , it was announced that Sorkin would be adapting A Few Good Men for a live production on NBC , slated to air in 2017 .
= = Writing process and style = =
Sorkin has written for the theatre , film and television , and in each medium his level of collaboration with other creators has varied . He began in theatre which involved a largely solitary writing process , then moved into film where he collaborated with director Rob Reiner and screenwriter William Goldman , and eventually worked in television where he collaborated very closely with director Thomas Schlamme for nearly a decade on the shows Sports Night , The West Wing , and Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip ; he now moves between all three media . He has a habit of chain smoking while he spends countless hours cooped up in his office plotting out his next scripts . He describes his writing process as physical because he will often stand up and speak the dialogue he is developing .
A New York Times article by Peter De Jonge explained that " The West Wing is never plotted out for more than a few weeks ahead and has no major story lines " , which De Jonge believed was because " with characters who have no flaws , it is impossible to give them significant arcs " . Sorkin has stated : " I seldom plan ahead , not because I don 't think it 's good to plan ahead , there just isn 't time . " Sorkin has also said , " As a writer , I don 't like to answer questions until the very moment that I have to . " The Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer 's TV critic John Levesque has commented that Sorkin 's writing process " can make for ill @-@ advised plot developments " . Further complicating the matter , in television , Sorkin will have a hand in writing every episode , rarely letting other writers earn full credit on a script . Peter De Jonge has reported that ex @-@ writers of The West Wing have claimed that " even by the spotlight @-@ hogging standards of Hollywood , Sorkin has been exceptionally ungenerous in his sharing of writing credit " . In a comment to GQ magazine in 2008 , Sorkin said , " I 'm helped by a staff of people who have great ideas , but the scripts aren 't written by committee . "
Sorkin 's nearly decade @-@ long collaboration in television with director Thomas Schlamme began in early 1998 when they found they shared common creative ground on the soon to be produced Sports Night . Their successful partnership in television is one in which Sorkin focuses on writing the scripts while Schlamme executive produces and occasionally directs ; they have worked together on Sports Night , The West Wing , and Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip . Schlamme will create the look of the shows , work with the other directors , discuss the scripts with Sorkin as soon as they are turned in , make design and casting decisions , and attend the budget meetings ; Sorkin tends to stick strictly to writing . In response to what he perceived as unfair criticism of The Newsroom , Jacob Drum of Digital Americana wrote , " The essential truth that the critics miss is that The Newsroom is Sorkin being Sorkin as he always has been and always will be : one part pioneer ; one part self @-@ conscious romantic ; two parts actual Lewis & Clark @-@ style pioneer , trapping his way across an old , old idea of an America that can always stand to raise its game — but most importantly , spinning a good yarn while he does so . "
Sorkin is known for writing memorable lines and fast @-@ paced dialogue , such as " You can 't handle the truth ! " from A Few Good Men and the partly Latin tirade against God in The West Wing episode " Two Cathedrals " . For television , one hallmark of Sorkin 's writer 's voice is the repartee that his characters engage in as they small talk and banter about whimsical events taking place within an episode , and interject obscure popular culture references into conversation .
Although his scripts are lauded for being literate , Sorkin has been criticized for often turning in scripts that are overwrought . His mentor William Goldman has commented that normally in visual media speeches are avoided , but that Sorkin has a talent for dialogue and gets away with breaking this rule .
= = Personal life = =
Sorkin married Julia Bingham in 1996 and divorced in 2005 , with his workaholic habits and drug abuse reported to be a partial cause . Sorkin and Bingham have one daughter , Roxy . Sorkin was a dependent cocaine user for many years and , after a highly publicized arrest in 2001 , he received treatment in a drug diversion program .
For several years , he dated Kristin Chenoweth , who played Annabeth Schott on The West Wing ( though after Sorkin had left the show ) . He has also reportedly dated columnist Maureen Dowd and actress Kristin Davis .
A consistent supporter of the Democratic Party , Sorkin has made substantial political campaign contributions to candidates between 1999 and 2011 , according to CampaignMoney.com. During the 2004 US presidential election campaign , the liberal advocacy group MoveOn 's political action committee enlisted Sorkin and Rob Reiner to create one of their anti @-@ Bush campaign advertisements . In August 2008 , Sorkin was involved in a Generation Obama event at the Fine Arts Theater in Beverly Hills , California , participating in a panel discussion subsequent to a screening of Frank Capra 's Mr Smith Goes to Washington . Despite this Sorkin does not consider himself a political activist noting " I 've met political activists , and they 're for real . I 've never marched anyplace or done anything that takes more effort than writing a check in terms of activism " .
In 1987 , Sorkin started using marijuana and cocaine . He has said that in cocaine he found a drug that gave him relief from certain nervous tensions he deals with on a regular basis . In 1995 , he checked into rehab at the Hazelden Institute in Minnesota , on the advice of his then girlfriend and soon to be wife Julia Bingham , to try to beat his addiction to cocaine . In 2001 , Sorkin along with colleagues John Spencer and Martin Sheen received the Phoenix Rising Award for their personal victories over substance abuse . However , two months later on April 15 , 2001 , Sorkin was arrested when guards at a security checkpoint at the Burbank Airport found hallucinogenic mushrooms , marijuana , and crack cocaine in his carry @-@ on bag when a metal crack pipe set off the gate 's metal detector . He was ordered to a drug diversion program .
Sorkin continued working on The West Wing amidst his drug abuse . In his commencement speech for Syracuse University on May 13 , 2012 , Sorkin declared that he had not used cocaine for eleven years .
= = Credits = =
= = = Filmography = = =
= = = Plays = = =
= = = Cameo acting appearances = = =
= = Accolades = =
= = = Academy Awards = = =
= = = British Academy Film Awards = = =
= = = Critics ' Choice Movie Awards = = =
= = = Golden Globe Awards = = =
= = = Primetime Emmy Awards = = =
= = = = As writer = = = =
= = = = As producer = = = =
= = = Satellite Awards = = =
= = = Writers Guild of America Awards = = =
= = = = Film = = = =
= = = = Television = = = =
= = Further information = =
Aaron Sorkin ( July 2002 ) . The West Wing Script Book . Newmarket Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55704 @-@ 549 @-@ 2 .
Aaron Sorkin ( February 2004 ) . The West Wing Seasons 3 & 4 : The Shooting Scripts : Eight Teleplays . Newmarket Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55704 @-@ 612 @-@ 3 .
" Interview with Aaron Sorkin " ( PDF ) . On Writing Magazine , Issue 18 . The Writers Guild of America , East , Inc . February 2003 @.@ p . 6 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on January 28 , 2007 . Retrieved January 10 , 2007 .
Aaron Sorkin . " Early draft of the Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip pilot script " . Archived from the original on October 24 , 2009 . Retrieved February 1 , 2007 .
Aaron Sorkin and Rob Reiner ( 2001 ) . From Stage to Screen with Aaron Sorkin and Rob Reiner , A Few Good Men ( Special Edition DVD ) ( Documentary ) .
Aaron Barnhart ( January 21 , 2007 ) . " Aaron Sorkin , in his own words " . TV Barn ( Podcast ) .
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= Delaware Route 72 =
Delaware Route 72 ( DE 72 ) is a state highway located in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs from DE 9 near Delaware City north to DE 7 in Pike Creek . The route runs through suburban areas of northern New Castle County , passing through the eastern part of Newark . DE 72 intersects U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) , DE 1 , and DE 7 near Delaware City , DE 71 near Kirkwood , US 40 east of Glasgow , and DE 2 , DE 4 , and DE 273 in Newark . Parts of DE 72 were built as a state highway during the 1930s . By the 1940s , the route was designated between DE 2 in Newark and DE 7 in Pike Creek along Paper Mill Road . The route was extended south to DE 9 in the 1960s . In 1980 , the alignment was shifted to the east through Newark to bypass a railroad crossing on Chapel Street .
= = Route description = =
DE 72 begins at an intersection with DE 9 adjacent to the Delaware City Refinery near Delaware City , heading west on two @-@ lane undivided Wrangle Hill Road . The road continues between the oil refinery to the north and farmland to the south before coming to an intersection with US 13 and the southern terminus of DE 7 in Wrangle Hill , where it widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway . At this point , US 13 turns west for a short concurrency with DE 72 to a diamond interchange with the DE 1 freeway , where US 13 splits north onto DE 1 .
Past this interchange , DE 72 narrows back into a two @-@ lane undivided road and passes through a mix of farmland and residences , coming to an intersection with DE 71 . Following this , the road curves to the northwest through a mix of homes and commercial establishments , crossing Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line . The route curves north and comes to an intersection with US 40 in a commercial area to the east of Glasgow .
Past the US 40 intersection , DE 72 continues to the north on Sunset Lake Road , heading into wooded areas with some fields and residential development and closely running to the west of a Norfolk Southern line . The route crosses to the east side of the railroad tracks and widens into a five @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane as it comes to an intersection with Old Baltimore Pike . At this intersection , the route name changes to South Chapel Street and it passes through fields with some development , crossing under Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 , Delaware Turnpike ) without an interchange . DE 72 enters the eastern part of Newark and passes industrial parks before heading past businesses and residential neighborhoods as it comes to an intersection with DE 4 .
Following this intersection , the road narrows to two lanes as it heads through agricultural areas to the east of the University of Delaware campus . The route continues northeast onto Library Avenue and runs through woods as it comes to a bridge over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad line . The road bends north into commercial areas , passing to the east of Newark High School and widening into a four @-@ lane divided highway as it comes to an intersection with Delaware Avenue , which carries the eastbound direction of DE 273 . Here , eastbound DE 273 turns north to join DE 72 and the road reaches an intersection where westbound DE 273 runs west on Main Street and DE 273 continues east as Ogletown Road . Past this intersection , DE 72 becomes concurrent with DE 2 and the name changes to Capitol Trail as it turns northeast and passes under CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision railroad line . The road leaves Newark and heads northeast through residential areas , briefly becoming undivided as it crosses White Clay Creek .
DE 72 splits from DE 2 by heading northwest on two @-@ lane undivided Possum Park Road through a mix of fields , woods , and housing developments . In Milford Crossroads , the route turns northeast onto Paper Mill Road and curves north to pass between White Clay Creek State Park to the west and the Middle Run Valley Natural Area to the east . The road continues northeast into the suburban Pike Creek area . DE 72 turns east and reaches its northern terminus at another intersection with DE 7 .
DE 72 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 34 @,@ 091 vehicles at the north end of Newark to a low of 3 @,@ 489 vehicles at the US 13 intersection . The portions of DE 72 concurrent with US 13 and DE 2 are part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What is now DE 72 originally existed as a county road by 1920 . By 1931 , the road was proposed as a state highway between present @-@ day DE 9 and US 13 while what would become DE 72 north of Milford Crossroads was completed as a state highway . The road from present @-@ day DE 9 to US 13 became a state highway ba year later . On July 1 , 1935 , the remaining sections of the present @-@ day route were transferred from the county to the state . The portion of the road between US 13 and US 40 was improved by the state in 1937 , providing a better route to Baltimore and Washington , D.C. for residents in the Delaware City , Port Penn , and Odessa areas .
DE 72 was designated by 1942 to run from DE 2 in Newark north to DE 7 , following Chapel Street and Paper Mill Road . In 1939 , suggestions were made to replace the bridge over the White Clay Creek along Paper Mill Road in Newark . Plans were completed for this bridge by 1942 but construction was postponed due to World War II . The concrete bridge carrying Paper Mill Road over the White Clay Creek was completed in 1947 , with final work on the project finished in August 1949 . By 1954 , Sunset Lake Road was improved from a dirt road to a low @-@ type bituminous road . The roadway between US 40 and Newark was paved by 1966 .
DE 72 was extended to its present southern terminus at DE 9 the next year , following Chapel Street , Sunset Lake Road , and Wrangle Hill Road . In 1980 , the Chapel Street crossing of the Northeast Corridor rail line in Newark was removed , and DE 72 was realigned farther to the east to follow Library Avenue across the railroad tracks before continuing north on DE 2 and Possum Park Road to Paper Mill Road in Milford Crossroads . DE 2 was realigned to follow DE 72 around the eastern part of Newark on Library Avenue by 1990 . In 2013 , the DE 2 concurrency between DE 4 and DE 273 was removed due to the truncation of DE 2 to the DE 273 intersection . On April 29 , 2016 , Governor Jack Markell , DelDOT secretary Jennifer Cohan , and local officials attended a groundbreaking ceremony for a $ 7 million project that will rebuild the interchange with DE 1 into a diverging diamond interchange , the first such interchange in Delaware .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
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= Arthur Compton =
Arthur Holly Compton ( September 10 , 1892 – March 15 , 1962 ) was an American physicist who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1927 for his discovery of the Compton effect , which demonstrated the particle nature of electromagnetic radiation . It was a sensational discovery at the time : the wave nature of light had been well @-@ demonstrated , but the idea that light had both wave and particle properties was not easily accepted . He is also known for his leadership of the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory , and served as Chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis from 1945 to 1953 .
In 1919 , Compton was awarded one of the first two National Research Council Fellowships that allowed students to study abroad . He chose to go to Cambridge University 's Cavendish Laboratory in England , where he studied the scattering and absorption of gamma rays . Further research along these lines led to the discovery of the Compton effect . He used X @-@ rays to investigate ferromagnetism , concluding that it was a result of the alignment of electron spins , and studied cosmic rays , discovering that they were made up principally of positively charged particles .
During World War II , Compton was a key figure in the Manhattan Project that developed the first nuclear weapons . His reports were important in launching the project . In 1942 , he became head of the Metallurgical Laboratory , with responsibility for producing nuclear reactors to convert uranium into plutonium , finding ways to separate the plutonium from the uranium and to design an atomic bomb . Compton oversaw Enrico Fermi 's creation of Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , the first nuclear reactor , which went critical on December 2 , 1942 . The Metallurgical Laboratory was also responsible for the design and operation of the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge , Tennessee . Plutonium began being produced in the Hanford Site reactors in 1945 .
After the war , Compton became Chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis . During his tenure , the university formally desegregated its undergraduate divisions , named its first female full professor , and enrolled a record number of students after wartime veterans returned to the United States .
= = Early life = =
Arthur Compton was born on September 10 , 1892 in Wooster , Ohio , the son of Elias and Otelia Catherine ( née Augspurger ) Compton , who was named American Mother of the Year in 1939 . They were an academic family . Elias was dean of the University of Wooster ( later The College of Wooster ) , which Arthur also attended . Arthur 's eldest brother , Karl , who also attended Wooster , earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1912 , and was president of MIT from 1930 to 1948 . His second brother Wilson likewise attended Wooster , earned his PhD in economics from Princeton in 1916 and was president of the State College of Washington , later Washington State University from 1944 to 1951 . All three brothers were members of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity .
Compton was initially interested in astronomy , and took a photograph of Halley 's Comet in 1910 . Around 1913 , he described an experiment where an examination of the motion of water in a circular tube demonstrated the rotation of the earth . That year , he graduated from Wooster with a Bachelor of Science degree and entered Princeton , where he received his Master of Arts degree in 1914 . Compton then studied for his PhD in physics under the supervision of Hereward L. Cooke , writing his dissertation on " The intensity of X @-@ ray reflection , and the distribution of the electrons in atoms " .
When Arthur Compton earned his PhD in 1916 , he , Karl and Wilson became the first group of three brothers to earn PhDs from Princeton . Later , they would become the first such trio to simultaneously head American colleges . Their sister Mary married a missionary , C. Herbert Rice , who became the principal of Forman Christian College in Lahore . In June 1916 , Compton married Betty Charity McCloskey , a Wooster classmate and fellow graduate . They had two sons , Arthur Alan and John Joseph Compton .
Compton spent a year as a physics instructor at the University of Minnesota in 1916 – 17 , then two years as a research engineer with the Westinghouse Lamp Company in Pittsburgh , where he worked on the development of the sodium @-@ vapor lamp . During World War I he developed aircraft instrumentation for the Signal Corps .
In 1919 , Compton was awarded one of the first two National Research Council Fellowships that allowed students to study abroad . He chose to go to Cambridge University 's Cavendish Laboratory in England . Working with George Paget Thomson , the son of J. J. Thomson , Compton studied the scattering and absorption of gamma rays . He observed that the scattered rays were more easily absorbed than the original source . Compton was greatly impressed by the Cavendish scientists , especially Ernest Rutherford , Charles Galton Darwin and Arthur Eddington , and he ultimately named his second son after J. J. Thomson .
For a time Compton was a deacon at a Baptist church . " Science can have no quarrel " , he said , " with a religion which postulates a God to whom men are as His children . "
= = Physics professor = =
= = = Compton effect = = =
Returning to the United States , Compton was appointed Wayman Crow Professor of Physics , and Head of the Department of Physics at Washington University in St. Louis in 1920 . In 1922 , he found that X @-@ ray quanta scattered by free electrons had longer wavelengths and , in accordance with Planck 's relation , less energy than the incoming X @-@ rays , the surplus energy having been transferred to the electrons . This discovery , known as the " Compton effect " or " Compton scattering " , demonstrated the particle concept of electromagnetic radiation .
In 1923 , Compton published a paper in the Physical Review that explained the X @-@ ray shift by attributing particle @-@ like momentum to photons , something Einstein had invoked for his 1905 Nobel Prize – winning explanation of the photo @-@ electric effect . First postulated by Max Planck in 1900 , these were conceptualized as elements of light " quantized " by containing a specific amount of energy depending only on the frequency of the light . In his paper , Compton derived the mathematical relationship between the shift in wavelength and the scattering angle of the X @-@ rays by assuming that each scattered X @-@ ray photon interacted with only one electron . His paper concludes by reporting on experiments that verified his derived relation :
<formula>
where
<formula> is the initial wavelength ,
<formula> is the wavelength after scattering ,
<formula> is the Planck constant ,
<formula> is the electron rest mass ,
<formula> is the speed of light , and
<formula> is the scattering angle .
The quantity h ⁄ mec is known as the Compton wavelength of the electron ; it is equal to 2 @.@ 43 × 10 − 12 m . The wavelength shift λ ′ − λ lies between zero ( for θ |
= 0 ° ) and twice the Compton wavelength of the electron ( for θ =
180 ° ) . He found that some X @-@ rays experienced no wavelength shift despite being scattered through large angles ; in each of these cases the photon failed to eject an electron . Thus the magnitude of the shift is related not to the Compton wavelength of the electron , but to the Compton wavelength of the entire atom , which can be upwards of 10 @,@ 000 times smaller .
" When I presented my results at a meeting of the American Physical Society in 1923 , " Compton later recalled , " it initiated the most hotly contested scientific controversy that I have ever known . " The wave nature of light had been well demonstrated , and the idea that it could have a dual nature was not easily accepted . It was particularly telling that diffraction in a crystal lattice could only be explained with reference to its wave nature . It earned Compton the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1927 . Compton and Alfred W. Simon developed the method for observing at the same instant individual scattered X @-@ ray photons and the recoil electrons . In Germany , Walther Bothe and Hans Geiger independently developed a similar method .
= = = X @-@ rays = = =
In 1923 , Compton moved to the University of Chicago as Professor of Physics , a position he would occupy for the next 22 years . In 1925 , he demonstrated that the scattering of 130 @,@ 000 @-@ volt X @-@ rays from the first sixteen elements in the periodic table ( hydrogen through sulfur ) were polarized , a result predicted by J. J. Thomson . William Duane from Harvard University spearheaded an effort to prove that Compton 's interpretation of the Compton effect was wrong . Duane carried out a series of experiments to disprove Compton , but instead found evidence that Compton was correct . In 1924 , Duane conceded that this was the case .
Compton investigated the effect of X @-@ rays on the sodium and chlorine nuclei in salt . He used X @-@ rays to investigate ferromagnetism , concluding that it was a result of the alignment of electron spins . In 1926 , he became a consultant for the Lamp Department at General Electric . In 1934 , he returned to England as Eastman visiting professor at Oxford University . While there General Electric asked him to report on activities at General Electric Company plc 's research laboratory at Wembley . Compton was intrigued by the possibilities of the research there into fluorescent lamps . His report prompted a research program in America that developed it .
Compton 's first book , X @-@ Rays and Electrons , was published in 1926 . In it he showed how to calculate the densities of diffracting materials from their X @-@ ray diffraction patterns . He revised his book with the help of Samuel K. Allison to produce X @-@ Rays in Theory and Experiment ( 1935 ) . This work remained a standard reference for the next three decades .
= = = Cosmic rays = = =
By the early 1930s , Compton had become interested in cosmic rays . At the time , their existence was known but their origin and nature remained speculative . Their presence could be detected using a spherical " bomb " containing compressed air or argon gas and measuring its electrical conductivity . Trips to Europe , India , Mexico , Peru and Australia gave Compton the opportunity to measure cosmic rays at different altitudes and latitudes . Along with other groups who made observations around the globe , they found that cosmic rays were 15 per cent more intense at the poles than at the equator . Compton attributed this to the effect of cosmic rays being made up principally of charged particles , rather than photons as Robert Millikan had suggested , with the latitude effect being due to Earth 's magnetic field .
= = Manhattan Project = =
In April 1941 , Vannevar Bush , head of the wartime National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) , created a special committee headed by Compton to report on the NDRC uranium program . Compton 's report , which was submitted in May 1941 , foresaw the prospects of developing radiological weapons , nuclear propulsion for ships , and nuclear weapons using uranium @-@ 235 or the recently discovered plutonium . In October he wrote another report on the practicality of an atomic bomb . For this report , he worked with Enrico Fermi on calculations of the critical mass of uranium @-@ 235 , conservatively estimating it to be between 20 kilograms ( 44 lb ) and 2 tonnes ( 2 @.@ 0 long tons ; 2 @.@ 2 short tons ) . He also discussed the prospects for uranium enrichment with Harold Urey , spoke with Eugene Wigner about how plutonium might be produced in a nuclear reactor , and with Robert Serber about how the plutonium produced in a reactor might be separated from uranium . His report , submitted in November , stated that a bomb was feasible , although he was more conservative about its destructive power than Mark Oliphant and his British colleagues .
The final draft of Compton 's November report made no mention of using plutonium , but after discussing the latest research with Ernest Lawrence , Compton became convinced that a plutonium bomb was also feasible . In December , Compton was placed in charge of the plutonium project . He hoped to achieve a controlled chain reaction by January 1943 , and to have a bomb by January 1945 . To tackle the problem , he had the different research groups working on plutonium and nuclear reactor design at Columbia University , Princeton University and the University of California , Berkeley , concentrated together as the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago . Its objectives were to produce reactors to convert uranium to plutonium , to find ways to chemically separate the plutonium from the uranium , and to design and build an atomic bomb .
In June 1942 , the United States Army Corps of Engineers assumed control of the nuclear weapons program and Compton 's Metallurgical Laboratory became part of the Manhattan Project . That month , Compton gave Robert Oppenheimer responsibility for bomb design . It fell to Compton to decide which of the different types of reactor designs that the Metallurgical Laboratory scientists had devised should be pursued , even though a successful reactor had not yet been built .
When labor disputes delayed construction of the Metallurgical Laboratory 's new home in the Red Gate Woods , Compton decided to build Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , the first nuclear reactor , under the stands at Stagg Field . Under Fermi 's direction , it went critical on December 2 , 1942 . Compton arranged for Mallinckrodt to undertake the purification of uranium ore , and with DuPont to build the plutonium semi @-@ works at Oak Ridge , Tennessee .
A major crisis for the plutonium program occurred in July 1943 , when Emilio Segrè 's group confirmed that plutonium created in the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge contained high levels of plutonium @-@ 240 . Its spontaneous fission ruled out the use of plutonium in a gun @-@ type nuclear weapon . Oppenheimer 's Los Alamos Laboratory met the challenge by designing and building an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon .
Compton was at the Hanford site in September 1944 to watch the first reactor being brought online . The first batch of uranium slugs was fed into Reactor B at Hanford in November 1944 , and shipments of plutonium to Los Alamos began in February 1945 . Throughout the war , Compton would remain a prominent scientific adviser and administrator . In 1945 , he served , along with Lawrence , Oppenheimer , and Fermi , on the Scientific Panel that recommended military use of the atomic bomb against Japan . He was awarded the Medal for Merit for his services to the Manhattan Project .
= = Return to Washington University = =
After the war ended , Compton resigned his chair as Charles H. Swift Distinguished Service Professor of Physics at the University of Chicago and returned to Washington University in St. Louis , where he was inaugurated as the university 's ninth Chancellor in 1946 . During Compton 's time as Chancellor , the university formally desegregated its undergraduate divisions in 1952 , named its first female full professor , and enrolled record numbers of students as wartime veterans returned to the United States . His reputation and connections in national scientific circles allowed him to recruit many nationally renowned scientific researchers to the university . Despite Compton 's accomplishments , he was criticized then , and subsequently by historians , for moving too slowly toward full racial integration , making Washington University the last major institution of higher learning in St. Louis to open its doors to African Americans .
Compton retired as Chancellor in 1954 , but remained on the faculty as Distinguished Service Professor of Natural Philosophy until his retirement from the full @-@ time faculty in 1961 . In retirement he wrote Atomic Quest , a personal account of his role in the Manhattan Project , which was published in 1956 .
= = Philosophy = =
Compton was one of a handful of scientists and philosophers to propose a two @-@ stage model of free will . Others include William James , Henri Poincaré , Karl Popper , Henry Margenau , and Daniel Dennett . In 1931 , Compton championed the idea of human freedom based on quantum indeterminacy and invented the notion of amplification of microscopic quantum events to bring chance into the macroscopic world . In his somewhat bizarre mechanism , he imagined sticks of dynamite attached to his amplifier , anticipating the Schrödinger 's cat paradox , which was published in 1935 .
Reacting to criticisms that his ideas made chance the direct cause of people 's actions , Compton clarified the two @-@ stage nature of his idea in an Atlantic Monthly article in 1955 . First there is a range of random possible events , then one adds a determining factor in the act of choice .
A set of known physical conditions is not adequate to specify precisely what a forthcoming event will be . These conditions , insofar as they can be known , define instead a range of possible events from among which some particular event will occur . When one exercises freedom , by his act of choice he is himself adding a factor not supplied by the physical conditions and is thus himself determining what will occur . That he does so is known only to the person himself . From the outside one can see in his act only the working of physical law . It is the inner knowledge that he is in fact doing what he intends to do that tells the actor himself that he is free .
= = Death and legacy = =
Compton died in Berkeley , California , from a cerebral hemorrhage on March 15 , 1962 . He was survived by his wife and sons , and buried in the Wooster Cemetery in Wooster , Ohio .
Compton received many awards in his lifetime , including the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1927 , the Matteucci Gold Medal in 1933 , the Royal Society 's Hughes Medal and the Franklin Institute 's Benjamin Franklin Medal in 1940 . He is commemorated in various ways . The Compton crater on the Moon is co @-@ named for Compton and his brother Karl . The physics research building at Washington University in St Louis is named in his honor . Compton invented a more gentle , elongated , and ramped version of the speed bump called the " Holly hump , " many of which are on the roads of the Washington University campus . The University of Chicago Residence Halls remembered Compton and his achievements by dedicating Arthur H. Compton House in Chicago in his honor . It is now listed as a National Historic Landmark . Compton also has a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame . NASA 's Compton Gamma Ray Observatory was named in honor of Compton . The Compton effect is central to the gamma ray detection instruments aboard the observatory .
|
= Lockheed Have Blue =
Lockheed Have Blue was the code name for Lockheed 's demonstrator ( i.e. , " proof of concept " ) that preceded the F @-@ 117 Nighthawk production stealth aircraft . Have Blue was designed by Lockheed 's Skunk Works division , and tested at Groom Lake , Nevada . The Have Blue was the first fixed @-@ wing aircraft designed from an electrical engineering ( rather than an aerospace engineering ) perspective . The aircraft 's plate @-@ like , faceted shape was designed to deflect electromagnetic waves in directions other than that of the originating radar emitter , greatly reducing its radar cross @-@ section . Two flyable vehicles were constructed , but both crashed during the flight @-@ test program .
In the 1970s , it became increasingly apparent to U.S. planners that , in a military confrontation with Warsaw Pact forces , NATO aircraft would quickly suffer heavy losses . This came as a result of sophisticated Soviet defense networks , which used surveillance radars and radar @-@ guided surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles ( SAM ) and anti @-@ aircraft artillery to seek and eliminate enemy aircraft . Consequently , the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency ( DARPA ) started a study on low @-@ observability aircraft , seeking to design and produce an operational stealth aircraft . Five companies were initially invited , three of which bowed out early . The remaining two were later joined by Lockheed .
To design the aircraft , the Skunk Works ' design team devised a computer program to calculate the radar cross @-@ sections ( RCS ) of various designs . The eventual design characteristically featured faceted surfaces to deflect radar waves elsewhere . It had highly @-@ swept wings and inward @-@ canted vertical stabilizers , which led to its being nicknamed " Hopeless Diamond " . The first operational aircraft made its maiden flight on 1 December 1977 . The flight test program validated the feasibility of a flyable stealth aircraft . However , both prototypes were lost due to mechanical problems . Nevertheless , Have Blue was deemed a success , paving the way for the first operational stealth aircraft , Senior Trend , or F @-@ 117 Nighthawk .
= = Design and development = =
= = = Origins = = =
The Lockheed Have Blue was born out of a requirement to evade radar detection . During the Vietnam War , radar @-@ guided surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles ( SAM ) and anti @-@ aircraft artillery ( AAA ) posed a significant threat to US aircraft . As such , strike aircraft during the war often required support aircraft to perform combat air patrols and suppression of enemy air defenses ( SEAD ) . The 1973 Yom Kippur War again highlighted the vulnerability of aircraft to SAMs – the Israeli Air Force lost 109 aircraft in 18 days . During the Cold War , the Soviet Union developed an integrated defense network , central to which were medium- to long @-@ range surveillance radars . SAMs and AAAs would be set up around key locations to defend them from incoming enemy aircraft . If the loss ratio of Israel during the Yom Kippur War was experienced by NATO forces during a military confrontation with the Warsaw Pact , NATO aircraft numbers would be depleted within two weeks .
In 1974 , DARPA secretly requested answers from five aircraft manufacturers regarding two considerations . The first was about the signature thresholds at which an aircraft is virtually undetectable . The second point was whether these companies had the capacity to design and manufacture such an aircraft . Fairchild and Grumman declined to participate , while General Dynamics insisted on the use of electronic countermeasures . As a result , General Dynamics left the discussion . The remaining two companies , McDonnell Douglas and Northrop , were each awarded $ 100 @,@ 000 for further research .
= = = Design effort and early testing = = =
Lockheed , having been absent from the fighter aircraft industry for 10 years , was not approached by DARPA in 1974 . Ed Martin , Lockheed California Companies director of science and engineering , became aware of the research into stealth during his work at the Pentagon and Wright @-@ Patterson AFB . Martin and Ben Rich , who at that time had recently become Skunk Works ' president , briefed Clarence " Kelly " Johnson on the program . The Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) gave Skunk Works permission to discuss with DARPA on the stealth characteristics of the A @-@ 12 and D @-@ 21 . Rich and Martin formally requested DARPA for the company to participate in the program , but the agency initially refused because there were insufficient funds ; after much debate , Lockheed was allowed entry , albeit without a government contract .
Preliminary designer Dick Scherrer requested possible shapes upon which he could base his low radar cross @-@ section ( RCS ) design . He was introduced to Denys Overholser , who recommended an aircraft with flat surfaces . Overholser later recounted his discussion with Sherrer : " When Dick Scherrer asked me ... I said ' Well , it 's simple , you just make it out of flat surfaces , and tilt those flat surfaces over , sweeping the edges away from the radar view angle , and that way you basically cause the energy to reflect away from the radar . ' " Scherror subsequently drew a preliminary low @-@ RCS aircraft with faceted surfaces . At the same time , Overholser hired mathematician Bill Schroeder , with whom he had a prior working relationship – in fact , it was Schroeder who trained Overholser on mathematics relating to stealth aircraft . Kenneth Watson was hired as the senior lead aircraft designer .
During the next few weeks , the team created a computer program which could evaluate the RCS of possible designs . The RCS @-@ prediction software was called " ECHO 1 " . As tests with the program proceeded , it became apparent that edge calculations by the program were incorrect due to diffraction . In 1964 , Pyotr Ufimtsev , the chief scientist of the Moscow Institute for Radio Engineering , published a seminal paper titled Method of Edge Waves in the Physical Theory of Diffraction . The work was translated by the Air Force Systems Command 's Foreign Technnology Division ; subsequently , Overholser incorporated elements of Ufimtsev 's work to refine the software . ECHO 1 allowed the team to quickly decide which of the 20 possible designs were optimal , finally settling on the faceted delta @-@ wing design . However , many within the division were skeptical of the shape , giving rise to the name " Hopeless Diamond " – Kelly Johnson said to Rich , " Our old D @-@ 21 drone has a lower radar cross @-@ section than that goddamn diamond " .
In May 1975 , the Skunk Works produced an internal report titled , " Progress Report No. 2 , High Stealth Conceptual Studies . " Within it was a concept study called " Little Harvey , " including Kelly Johnson 's drawing of an aircraft with smoothly blended shapes . Johnson advocated for the use of blended shapes as the best way to achieve stealth , while Ben Rich advocated for faceted angles . Rich won the argument with Johnson , a rare occurrence .
The design effort produced a number of wooden models . A 24 @-@ inch long model , made of balsa wood , demonstrated placement of internal structure and access doors . An Air & Space article noted " The model shop found it nearly impossible to make all the flat surfaces come to a single point in one corner . Engineers later encountered the same difficulty fabricating the prototype on the factory floor . " For early tests of the design , two ⅓ -scale wooden mock @-@ ups were constructed . One model , coated in metal foil , was used to verify ECHO 1 's RCS calculations , while the other was earmarked for wind tunnel tests . Afterwards , a model was moved to the Grey Butte Range radar @-@ testing facility in the Mojave Desert near Palmdale , which allowed more accurate tests of the aircraft 's RCS . In the event , the aircraft 's RCS level confirmed ECHO 1 's predictions . This meant Ben Rich won a quarter from Johnson , who previously insisted that the D @-@ 21 had less RCS than Have Blue .
= = = Experimental Survivable Testbed = = =
In the summer of 1975 , DARPA informally invited Lockheed , Northrop and McDonnell Douglas to develop an aircraft under the name " Experimental Survivable Testbed " ( XST ) . McDonnell Douglas , having identified the thresholds at which aircraft were deemed undetectable , was unable to design and produce such an aircraft . Phase 1 of XST would see both Lockheed and Northrop build full @-@ scale models to test their RCS , construct flyable vehicles , and wind @-@ tunnel test their designs . Following Phase 1 , a sole contractor would be selected to continue with the construction and flight testing of two demonstrators as part of Phase 2 . Northrop 's and Lockheed 's designs were generally similar , though the former 's submission featured more angular and flat surfaces . The company used " GENSCAT " , software similar to ECHO 1 , to calculate the RCS of its designs .
On 1 November 1975 , Lockheed and Northrop were each awarded $ 1 @.@ 5 @-@ million contracts to proceed with Phase 1 of XST . During a four @-@ month period , the two companies were each required to construct full @-@ scale wooden mock @-@ ups , which would then be evaluated at the USAF 's Radar Target Scatter ( RATSCAT ) test facility at White Sands , New Mexico . To test the design 's radar returns , Lockheed erected a $ 187 @,@ 000 specially built pole upon which the model would be perched . In March 1976 , a Lockheed model was transferred to the range before being tested ; the following month Lockheed was pronounced the winner because the Northrop XST had a much higher side hemisphere RCS . DARPA , having realized the progress accumulated throughout the study , urged the Northrop team to remain together . The agency would later initiate the Battlefield Surveillance Aircraft @-@ Experimental ( BSAX ) , which evolved into the Tacit Blue and , ultimately , the B @-@ 2 bomber .
= = = Construction and further tests = = =
Skunk Works now had to design , construct and flight test two manned demonstrators as part of Phase 2 , or Have Blue . To build the demonstrators , Ben Rich had to raise $ 10 @.@ 4 million from the Lockheed management , which was secured by June . Phase 2 encompassed three main objectives , which were the validation of : reduced visibility in the radio wave , infrared , and visual spectrums and reduced acoustical observability ; acceptable flying qualities ; and the " modeling capabilities that accurately predict low observable characteristics of an aircraft in flight " .
Construction of both Have Blue demonstrators used leftover tools from the C @-@ 5 program . Final assembly of HB1001 was originally scheduled to end in August 1977 , before being ground tested until mid @-@ October . The secret roll @-@ out was envisaged to occur on 23 October , after which the aircraft would be dismantled and flown to the test area . On 1 September , however , with HB1001 partially complete , Lockheed machinists went on a four @-@ month strike . A group of managers instead took over the job of assembly , which was completed in six weeks , with ground tests beginning on 17 October .
While superficially similar to the later F @-@ 117 , the Have Blue prototypes were smaller aircraft , about one quarter the weight of the F @-@ 117 , with a wing sweep of 72 @.@ 5 ° and inward @-@ canted vertical tails ( inverse V @-@ tail ) . Radar @-@ absorbent material ( RAM ) , developed in a Lockheed laboratory , were applied to the aircraft 's flat surfaces – for the windscreen , special coatings were applied to give them metallic characteristics . The aircraft 's gross weight of 9 @,@ 200 – 12 @,@ 500 lb ( 4 @,@ 173 – 5 @,@ 669 kg ) enabled the aircraft to use the landing gear from the Northrop F @-@ 5 fighter . The aircraft 's powerplants were two 2 @,@ 950 @-@ pound @-@ force ( 13 @.@ 1 kN ) General Electric J85 @-@ GE @-@ 4As of the T @-@ 2B Buckeye . Because stealth took precedence above all else , the aircraft was inherently unstable . As a result , a quadruple redundant fly @-@ by @-@ wire ( FBW ) flight control system was integrated into the aircraft to give it normal flying characteristics . The flight control system was borrowed from the F @-@ 16 . The overwing engine inlet was covered by a low @-@ RCS grid ; during takeoffs , when more air is needed , blow @-@ in doors were constructed at the upper fuselage to admit additional airflow .
Throughout the one and a half months after the start of ground tests , HB1001 , the first of two demonstrators , underwent tests in preparations for the first flight . Flight instrumentation was checked first , followed by a thorough shakedown of the aircraft . In early November , two semi @-@ trailers were parked parallel to each other outside Building 82 ; a camouflage net was thrown over the top to cover the demonstrator during outdoor engine runs . During the engine tests , a local resident complained about the noise , but Have Blue retained its secrecy . HB1001 received a layer of iron @-@ coat paint ; during the weekend of 12 – 13 November , the aircraft received a camouflage scheme devised by Alan Brown , Have Blue 's chief technical engineer . The scheme , consisting of three colors , each with three tones , was used to deceive any casual onlooker from recognizing the design 's characteristic faceting . The aircraft was disassembled and loaded onto a C @-@ 5 – on 16 November , the aircraft was flown from Burbank Airport ( since renamed Bob Hope Airport ) to Area 51 at Groom Lake , Nevada . Upon touchdown , the aircraft was reassembled before undergoing another round of testing prior to the first flight . After four taxi tests , HB1001 was ready for test flights .
= = Operational history = =
= = = HB1001 = = =
HB1001 made its first flight on 1 December 1977 at the hands of Lockheed test pilot , Bill Park . He would fly the next four sorties , all chased by a T @-@ 38 piloted by Major ( later Lieutenant Colonel ) Ken Dyson . Dyson , an F @-@ 15 Eagle pilot , was previously approached by United States Air Force personnel about the project in 1976 . He made his first flight on HB1001 on 17 January 1978 , chased by Park . In fact , the two would be the only test pilots of Have Blue , alternating between the demonstrator and the chase plane . Flight test results allowed engineers to refine the FBW system . At the same time , they verified predictions made earlier by aerodynamic engineers on the aircraft 's behavior .
Flight tests proceeded fairly smoothly until 4 May 1978 , when HB1001 was making its 36th flight . The aircraft pitched up just as it made contact with the ground which forced the pilot , Bill Park , to abort the landing and make a second attempt . The impact had however been so hard that the landing gear had become jammed in a semi @-@ retracted position . Efforts to lower the gear were unsuccessful and Bill Park was forced to eject at 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) when fuel ran out . The aircraft was destroyed on impact in the vicinity of the Groom Lake facility . Park survived , but suffered a concussion , forcing him to retire from further test flights . Dyson , who was in the chase plane , recounted : " Just before touchdown the airplane pitched up ... It seemed it slammed down on the ground real hard ... He [ Park ] raised the gear on the go around , and when he tried to extend it on approach , only one of the mains and the nose wheel came down . All this time , gas was being consumed ... I suggested he climb up to 10 @,@ 000 feet for ejection ... He started climbing , but the engine started flaming out , from the lack of fuel , so he ejected . "
= = = HB1002 = = =
At the time of the crash , HB1002 was almost complete , with the lessons learned from the HB1001 incorporated into the aircraft , including the rebuilding of the aft fuselage . HB1002 was distinguished from the prototype in having a gray paint coat . It did not have the flight test instrumentation boom present on HB1001 's nose . As the aircraft was used to test RCS returns , the unstealthy spin recovery chute was removed , and the aircraft was covered in radar @-@ absorbent material . It first flew on 20 July 1978 with Dyson at the controls , who would be the only pilot to fly the aircraft .
HB1002 was lost on 11 July 1979 during the aircraft 's 52nd flight . A hydraulic leak caused an engine fire , resulting in the loss of hydraulic pressure , which in turn caused severe pitch oscillations . The pilot ejected safely , and the aircraft was destroyed . It was later discovered that an engine exhaust clamp had loosened , allowing the hot exhaust to migrate to the right engine compartment . The heat built up there , causing the hydraulic lines to fail . The debris from both aircraft was secretly buried somewhere within the Nellis complex . Despite the crashes , Have Blue was considered a success .
= = = Senior Trend = = =
In October 1977 , just prior to Phase 2 of the XST competition , Lockheed was tasked with exploring possible operational aircraft . Just a month later , on the day HB1001 was transported to Groom Lake , the Air Force awarded the company a contract under the code name Senior Trend . The Air Force wanted to exploit the revolutionary technologies developed during the Have Blue program . The Tactical Air Command ordered five full @-@ scale development and twenty production aircraft .
Based on the Have Blue demonstrators , Senior Trend aircraft were different from their predecessors in several aspects . The wings exhibited less sweep to resolve a center @-@ of @-@ gravity problem discovered during tests . The front fuselage was shortened to give the pilot a better view . And , the vertical stabilizers were canted outwards from the centerline . Additionally , provisions were made to include two weapons bays , each of which would accommodate a single 2 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 910 kg ) laser @-@ guided bomb , or the B61 tactical nuclear bomb .
Beset by early construction problems , the first FSD aircraft was transferred to Groom Lake in May 1981 inside a C @-@ 5 . Further problems , this time with fuel leaks , delayed the first flight . Under the control of Harold Farley , the aircraft took off on 18 June for its maiden flight , nine months after the July 1980 first flight originally envisaged . The first production F @-@ 117A was delivered in 1982 , and operational capability was achieved in October 1983 ; the 59th and last F @-@ 117 was delivered in 1990 .
= = Specifications = =
Data from Crickmore , Donald , Aronstein and Piccirillo
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 47 ft 3 in ( 14 @.@ 40 m )
Wingspan : 22 ft 6 in ( 6 @.@ 86 m )
Height : 7 ft 6 in ( 2 @.@ 29 m )
Wing area : 386 ft ² ( 35 @.@ 86 m ² )
Empty weight : 8 @,@ 950 lb ( 4 @,@ 060 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 12 @,@ 500 lb ( 5 @,@ 670 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × General Electric J85 @-@ GE @-@ 4A turbojets
Performance
Maximum speed : 600 mph ( 966 km / h )
Wing loading : 32 lb / ft ² ( 156 kg / m ² )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 46 – 0 @.@ 62
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= William Barley =
William Barley ( 1565 ? – 1614 ) was an English bookseller and publisher . He completed an apprenticeship as a draper in 1587 , but was soon working in the London book trade . As a freeman of the Drapers ' Company , he was embroiled in a dispute between it and the Stationers ' Company over the rights of drapers to function as publishers and booksellers . He found himself in legal tangles throughout his life .
Barley 's role in Elizabethan music publishing has proved to be a contentious issue among scholars . The assessments of him range from " a man of energy , determination , and ambition " , to " somewhat remarkable " , to " surely to some extent a rather nefarious figure " . His contemporaries harshly criticized the quality of two of the first works of music that he published , but he was also influential in his field .
Barley became the assignee of the Thomas Morley , who as well as being a composer held a printing patent ( a monopoly of music publishing ) . He published Anthony Holborne 's Pavans , Galliards , Almains ( 1599 ) , the first work of music for instruments rather than voices to be printed in England . His partnership with Morley enabled him to claim rights to music books , but was short @-@ lived . Morley gave work to the printer Thomas East , and died in 1602 . Some publishers ignored Barley 's claims , and many music books printed during his later life gave him no recognition .
= = Drapers ' Company = =
In a deposition of 1598 , Barley refers to his age as " xxxiii yeeres or thereabowt " , placing his date of birth around 1565 . Evidence suggests that Barley may have been born in Warwickshire . Little else is known about his early life . Barley was in London by 1587 , having completed an apprenticeship with the Drapers ' Company in that year . He trained as a bookseller under Yarath James , a small @-@ time publisher . James operated out of a shop in Newgate Market , near Christ Church Gate , in the 1580s . His interest in ballads was shared by Barley , who published a number of them during his lifetime . By 1592 , Barley had opened his own shop in the parish of St Peter upon Cornhill , whose register recorded his marriage to a Mary Harper on 15 June 1603 and christenings and burials of people associated with his family . He conducted business out of this shop for the next twenty years .
Barley is probably the same William Barley who opened a branch office in Oxford . This action brought him into conflict with the authorities . Barley most likely relied on his assistant , William Davis , to run the Oxford shop while he maintained the business at St Peter upon Cornhill . Davis was arrested in 1599 because Barley had failed to register as a bookseller with Oxford University . The two redeemed themselves though , and in 1603 , Barley and Davis were admitted as " privileged persons " of Oxford University . Privileged status at Oxford allowed tradesmen to practice their trade free from the jurisdiction of the town 's authorities .
Barley ran afoul of London authorities as well . In September 1591 , a warrant was issued for his arrest , although the charge is unknown . Barley also found himself in the midst of a longstanding feud between the Drapers ' Company and the Stationers ' Company . At the time , the latter held a monopoly over the publishing industry ; the Drapers ' Company wanted its members to be able to function as publishers and booksellers as well , insisting that it was the " custom of the City " to grant its freemen the right to engage in the book trade .
From 1591 to 1604 , Barley was associated with at least 57 works . The exact nature of his involvement is , at times , hard to identify . Some works were printed " for " him , others were " to be sold by " him , and two state that they were printed " by " him . He partnered with notable printers and publishers during this period , including Thomas Creede , Abel Jeffes , and John Danter . With Creede , Barley was involved in the publication of A Looking Glass for London and England ( 1594 ) and The True Tragedy of Richard III ( 1594 ) . During this period , Barley entered none of these works in the Stationers ' Register ( by entering a title into the register , a publisher recorded their rights to the work ) . This is probably due to the Stationers ' feud with the Drapers ' ; the Stationers ' viewed the ability of non @-@ members to enter works into the register as a special privilege . Thus , Barley relied on others , such as Creede , Jeffes , and Danter , to enter these titles . Whether Barley merely acted as a bookseller for the enterers or , in private agreements with them , actually retained the rights to some of the works remains unclear .
In 1595 , the Stationers ' Company fined Barley 40 shillings for illicitly publishing a number of works . Three years later , the organization sued him and a fellow draper , Simon Stafford , for allegedly publishing privileged books . A raid on Barley 's former premises found 4 @,@ 000 copies of the Accidence , a Latin grammar book protected by monopoly . Despite pleading his innocence in court , Barley , along with Stafford , Edward Venge , and Thomas Pavier ( who was Barley 's apprentice ) , was found guilty and sentenced to prison . The lawsuit affirmed the Stationers ' Company 's control over the Elizabethan book trade . Stafford , Pavier , and other draper @-@ booksellers joined the company within a few years so that they could continue their trade . Curiously , Barley did not join them until 1606 . The reasons for the delay are debated among scholars . Bibliographer J. A. Lavin suggests that the Stationers ' Company rejected Barley because he had no experience in the printing business . Gerald D. Johnson believes that his partnership with Thomas Morley , who held a royal patent on music publishing , allowed him to circumvent any legal obstacles . The Stationers ' Company could not interfere with the publication of works under royal grant .
= = Music publishing = =
In Elizabethan England , music printing was regulated by two royal patents issued by the queen : one for metrical psalters ( psalms set to music ) and one for all other types of music and music paper . The patent @-@ holders thus held a monopoly — only they or their assignees could legally print music . After printer John Day 's death in 1584 , the patent for metrical psalters transferred to his son Richard Day and was administered by his assignees , who were members of the Stationers ' Company . The more general one was awarded to composers Thomas Tallis and William Byrd in January 1575 . Despite the monopoly , Tallis and Byrd were not successful in their printing endeavors ; their 1575 collection of Latin motets called Cantiones quae ab argumento sacrae vocantur failed to sell and was a financial disaster . After Tallis died in 1585 , Byrd continued holding the patent , producing works with his assignee , Thomas East . The monopoly expired in 1596 , prompting prospective music publishers such as Barley to take advantage of the resulting power vacuum .
In 1596 , despite not having access to a proper music fount , Barley ( using the services of Danter and his wood blocks ) published The Pathway to Music , a music theory book , and A New Booke of Tabliture , a tutor for the lute and related instruments that included compositions by John Dowland , Philip Rosseter , and Anthony Holborne . Both featured numerous errors , and for the latter , Barley seems not to have gained prior publishing approval from the composers . Dowland disowned A New Booke of Tabliture , calling his lute lessons " falce and unperfect " , while Holborne complained of " corrupt coppies " of his work being presented by a " meere stranger " . Modern musicologists have labelled the publication " exasperating " and " seedy " . Morley criticized The Pathway to Music , stating that the author should be " ashamed of his labour " , and that " [ v ] ix est in toto pagina sana libro " ( " there is scarcely a page that makes sense in the whole book " ) . Despite their flaws , both works seem to have been instrumental in introducing music tutor books to the London market .
Two years later , Morley was awarded the same printing monopoly that Byrd had held . Morley 's pick of Barley as an assignee ( rather than experienced printers such as East or Peter Short , both of whom had previously worked with Morley ) is surprising . Morley may have been looking for help in challenging the metrical psalter patent of Richard Day and his assignees . At that time , East and Short were stationers , and the Stationers ' Company was actively enforcing the Day monopoly . Barley , however , was not a stationer , and in 1599 he and Morley published The Whole Booke of Psalmes and Richard Allison 's Psalmes of David in Metre . The former was a small pocket edition that was largely based on East 's 1592 publication of the same name . This work , although pirated and filled with small errors , provides some evidence of Barley 's editorial skill ; musicologist Robert Illing notes that if Barley " is to be discredited for roguery , he must also be applauded for his strokes of musical imagination " for successfully compressing such a large work into a pocket @-@ sized production . In Allison 's work , the two claimed that they had exclusive rights on the metrical psalter . Duly provoked , Day sued . The outcome of his lawsuit is not known , but neither Barley nor Morley ever published another metrical psalter .
Under Morley , Barley published eight books . The covers of each indicated that they were " printed by " Barley , but examination of the typography reveals this to be unlikely . At least two of the works contain designs that seem to belong to a device used by London printer Henry Ballard . Significant among these eight works is Holborne 's Pavans , Galliards , Almains ( 1599 ) , the first work of music for instruments rather than voices to be printed in England , and the first edition of Morley 's influential The First Booke of Consort Lessons ( 1599 ) .
= = Stationers ' Company = =
Barley 's relationship with Morley was short @-@ lived . By 1600 , Morley had turned to East as his assignee , authorizing him to print under his name for three years . Two years later , Morley died , and his music patent fell into abeyance . Unable to rely on the protections and privileges of Morley 's monopoly , Barley most likely came under increasing pressure from the Stationers ' Company . His financial circumstances also deteriorated after he was the target of a successful lawsuit by a cook named George Goodale , who was seeking payment of a debt of 80 pounds . As a result of the suit , many of Barley 's goods were seized , including various books and reams of paper . Barley greatly reduced his output from 1601 to 1605 , publishing only six works .
Barley evidently decided that it was futile to continue resisting the Stationers ' Company , and on 15 May 1605 , he successfully petitioned the Drapers ' Company for a transfer to the Stationers ' Company . On 25 June 1606 , the Stationers ' Company admitted him as a member . That same day , the Company 's court , which had the authority to resolve disputes between members , negotiated a settlement in a lawsuit Barley had brought against East concerning the copyrights on certain music books . East claimed that since he had lawfully entered the books into the Company 's register , the rights of the works belonged to him . Barley disagreed , claiming that the works were his through his partnership with Morley , who had held the royal music patent . The court 's compromise settlement recognized the rights of both , stipulating that if East were to print an edition of any of the books in question , he was to acknowledge Barley 's name on the imprint , pay Barley 20 shillings , and supply him with six free copies . On the other hand , Barley could not publish any of the books without the consent of East or his wife .
Despite the settlement recognizing his claim to Morley 's music patent , Barley seemingly found it difficult to enforce his rights , even with his new role as a stationer . Less than half of the known music books published from 1606 to 1613 recognized Barley 's rights on the imprint . Barley took Thomas Adams to the Stationers ' court in 1609 , challenging the copyrights of the music books Adams had published . The court handed down a settlement similar to the one between East and Barley . However , none of the music books Adams published afterward contained any recognition of Barley 's patent .
Barley himself published four books under his patent . In March 1612 , one of Barley 's servants died , possibly from plague . After receiving charitable remuneration from the Stationers ' Company , Barley moved , first to the parish of St Katherine Cree , and later to a house on Bishopsgate . Records from St Botolph @-@ without @-@ Bishopsgate indicate his burial on 11 July 1614 . His widow , Mary , and their son , William , were legatees of the will of Pavier . Mary Barley , who later remarried , transferred five of her husband 's patents to printer John Beale . Some of Barley 's remaining copyrights may have also been passed to the printer Thomas Snodham .
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= Battle of St. Louis =
The Battle of St. Louis , Spanish San Luis , also known as the Battle of Fort San Carlos , was an unsuccessful British @-@ led attack on St. Louis ( a French settlement in Spanish Louisiana , founded on the west bank of the Mississippi , after the Treaty of Paris ( 1763 ) ) on May 26 , 1780 , during the Anglo @-@ Spanish War of 1779 – 1783 . A force , composed primarily of Indians and led by a former British militia commander , attacked the settlement . The settlement 's defenders , mostly local militia , under the command of Lieutenant Governor of Spanish Louisiana Fernando de Leyba , had fortified the town , as best they could and successfully withstood the attack .
A second simultaneous attack on the nearby American outpost at Cahokia , on the opposite bank of the Mississippi and technically in British @-@ controlled territory , was also repulsed . The retreating Indians destroyed crops and took captive civilians outside the protected area . The British failure effectively ended their attempts to gain control of the Mississippi River , during the war .
= = Background = =
Following the entry of Spain into the American Revolutionary War in 1779 , British military planners in London wanted to secure the corridor of the Mississippi River against both Spanish and Patriot activity . Their plans included expeditions from West Florida to take New Orleans and other Spanish targets , and several expeditions to gain control of targets in the upper Mississippi , including the small town of St. Louis . The expedition from West Florida never got off the ground , since Bernardo de Gálvez , the Governor of Spanish Louisiana , had moved rapidly to gain control of British outposts on the lower Mississippi , and was threatening action against West Florida 's principal outposts of Mobile and Pensacola .
= = = British expedition = = =
The British expeditions from the north were organized by Patrick Sinclair , the military governor at Fort Michilimackinac in present @-@ day Michigan . Beginning in February 1780 he instructed fur traders to circulate through their territories , recruiting interested tribes for an expedition against St. Louis . The fur traders were offered the opportunity to control the fur trade in the upper parts of Spanish Louisiana as an incentive to participate .
Most of the force gathered at Prairie du Chien , where they were placed under the command of Emanuel Hesse , a former militia captain turned fur trader . The force numbered about two dozen fur traders and an estimated 750 to 1 @,@ 000 Indians when it left Prairie du Chien on May 2 . The largest contingent of the force was about 200 Sioux warriors led by Wapasha , with additional sizable companies from the Chippewa , Menominee , and Winnebago nations , and smaller numbers of warriors from other nations . The Chippewa chief Matchekewis was given overall command of the native forces . When the force reached Rock Island they were joined by about 250 men from the Sac and Fox nations . These warriors were somewhat reluctant to attack St. Louis , but Hesse gave them large gifts to secure their participation in the venture . The diversity within the expedition included some animosity among the tribes , for the Chippewa and Sioux in particular had a history of conflict with each other . However , Wapasha and Matchekewis promoted unity during the expedition .
= = = Spanish and American defenses = = =
The village of St. Louis was primarily a trading hub on the Mississippi River , but it was also the administrative capital of Upper Spanish Louisiana , and it was governed by Lieutenant Governor Fernando de Leyba , who was also a captain in the Spanish Army . Leyba was warned in late March 1780 by a fur trader that the British were planning an attack on St. Louis and the nearby American @-@ held post at Cahokia . He began developing plans for the village 's defense . He had only 29 regular army soldiers of the Fijo de Luisiana Colonial Regiment and an inexperienced militia force of 168 , most of whom were dispersed in the surrounding countryside .
Leyba developed a grand plan of defense that included the construction of four stone towers . Without funds , or the time to get them from New Orleans , Leyba asked the villagers to contribute funds and labor to the construction of these fortifications , and paid for some of the work from his private funds . By mid @-@ May a single round tower had been built that was about 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) in diameter and thirty to forty feet tall . The tower , dubbed Fort San Carlos , provided a commanding view of the surrounding countryside . As there did not appear to be sufficient time to build more towers , trenches were dug between the tower and the river to the north and south of the village . Five cannon were placed on top of the tower , and additional cannon were placed along the trenches .
With a force of only 197 men , 168 of which were inexperienced militia , it was highly probable that the opposing British @-@ Indian force of 1 @,@ 000 would overwhelm the Fort San Carlos . However , Leyba appealed to a 70 year old French habitant , Francois Valle , who was located 60 miles to the South of the fort at the site of the French Colonial Valles Mines . Valle sent his two sons and 151 well trained and equipped French militia men which tipped the scale in favor of the defenders . By Royal Decree on April 1 , 1782 , King Carlos III of Spain , conferred upon Francois Valle the rank of lieutenant in the regular Spanish army thus making him a Spanish don . ( citation : Colonial Ste . Genevieve : An Adventure on the Mississippi Frontier written by Carl J. Ekberg , Patrice Pr ; 2 Sub Edition , March 1996 ) .
Valle also greatly aided in the Battle of Fort San Carlos because he gave the defenders of both forts a major tactical advantage by supplying them with genuine lead ( instead of pebbles or stones ) from his mines for musket balls and cannonballs . Getting hit with a pebble or stone did not compare to the damage and knockdown power of a 52 caliber rifle ball at 100 feet . [ see http : / / en.wikipedia.org / France in the American Revolutionary War ]
As a result of his contributions , Francois Valle was called the " Defender of St. Louis " [ see http : / / vallemines.com / OfHistoricalNote / DefenderOfStLouis.aspx ] .
On May 15 , Leyba was visited by John Montgomery , the American commander at Cahokia , who proposed a joint Spanish @-@ American force to counter Hesse 's expedition , an idea that did not reach fruition . On May 23 , Leyba 's scouts reported that Hesse 's force was only 14 miles ( 23 km ) away , had landed their canoes , and were coming overland .
= = Battle = =
On May 25 , Hesse sent out scouting parties to determine the situation at St. Louis . These parties were unable to get close to the village due to the presence of workers , including women and children , in the fields outside the village . The next day Hesse sent Jean @-@ Marie Ducharme and 300 Indians across the river to attack Cahokia , while the remainder headed toward St. Louis , arriving about 1 : 00 pm . A warning shot was fired from the tower when they came in view , with the Sioux and Winnebagoes leading the way , followed by the Sac and Fox , and the fur traders , including Hesse , bringing up the rear . Leyba directed the defense from the tower , and opened a withering fire from there and the trenches when the enemy force came in range . On the first volley , most of the Sac and Fox fell back , apparently unwilling to fight , leaving many of the other participants suspicious of their motives in joining the expedition and complaining of their " treachery " .
Wapasha and the Sioux persisted for several hours in attempts to draw the Spanish defenders out , going so far as brutally killing some captives they had taken in the fields . Although this angered some of the townspeople to the point where the militia requested permission to make a sortie , Leyba refused , and the attackers eventually withdrew and headed north , destroying crops , livestock , and buildings as they went .
On the other side of the river , Ducharme 's attack on Cahokia was easily repulsed . The timely arrival of George Rogers Clark to lead its defense played a role ; Clark 's reputation as a frontier fighter made the Indian force reluctant to pursue the attack .
= = Aftermath = =
The village of 700 lost between 50 and 100 killed , wounded , and captured , virtually all civilians . A year later the Spaniards from St. Louis raided Fort St. Joseph , bringing the captured British flag back to St. Louis .
Fernando de Leyba died the following month , the subject of local criticism because he never formally recognized the efforts made by the citizenry in the town 's defense . His valor earned him a promotion to lieutenant colonel from King Charles , who did not know that he had died .
= = Legacy = =
The site where Fort San Carlos stood is at the corner of Fourth and Walnut Streets in St. Louis . A local organization annually commemorates the battle by reading the names of 21 people who lost their lives in the battle . The battle is also remembered in a mural and diorama located in the Missouri State Capitol ( pictured ) .
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= Ray Jones ( footballer , born 1988 ) =
Raymond Barry Bankote " Ray " Jones ( 28 August 1988 – 25 August 2007 ) was an English professional footballer who played as a striker . He was known as one of the best young players in English football outside the Premier League . Jones spent his professional career at Queens Park Rangers , making his debut in the Football League Championship in April 2006 . His good form at the start of the following season led to his only international match , for England under @-@ 19 against the Netherlands , as well as bids for other clubs to sign him . He totalled six goals in 37 professional matches .
Jones died three days before his 19th birthday , when he drove head @-@ on into a bus in London . His club retired his shirt number of 31 . An inquest into the accident ruled that had Jones survived , he would have faced charges of death by dangerous driving for the deaths of his two passengers .
= = Career = =
Born in East Ham , London , Jones was rejected as a youth team player at Colchester United before impressing the coaches at Queens Park Rangers ( QPR ) . He made his professional debut on 22 April 2006 , coming on for the final seven minutes as a substitute for Steve Lomas in a 1 – 2 home loss to promotion @-@ chasing Watford . Eight days later , he made his only other appearance of the season , coming on for Stefan Bailey in the 68th minute of a defeat by the same score away to the already @-@ crowned winners of the Football League Championship , Reading .
Jones had his first professional start on 12 August 2006 , in a 2 – 0 win over Southend United at Loftus Road . He assisted Nick Ward 's goal in the 41st minute , which gave QPR their first win of the new season . Brian Glanville of The Sunday Times opined that Jones and fellow youngster Dexter Blackstock combined in the forward line " as though they had been playing together for years " . Ten days later in the second round of the Football League Cup at home to Northampton Town , Jones came on for Marc Bircham in the 84th minute , and three minutes later headed Marcus Bignot 's cross for his first career goal , winning the match 3 – 2 .
On 5 September , Jones made his only international appearance , replacing Giles Barnes in a goalless friendly draw for England under @-@ 19 against the Netherlands at the Bescot Stadium in Walsall . Eighteen days later , he scored his first league goal , opening a 2 – 0 home win over Hull City , the first match of John Gregory 's tenure . Jones followed this the following weekend as QPR came from behind to win 2 – 1 at Southampton , scoring the decisive goal after rounding goalkeeper Kelvin Davis . On 17 November , as a substitute for Blackstock , Jones scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 away win over high @-@ flying Cardiff City , connecting with Ward 's cross with less than three minutes left of the match .
Many Premier League clubs showed interest in Jones after several solid performances , and Gregory at one point stated that he was resigned to him leaving . After scoring the only goal against Colchester on 1 January 2007 , he pledged his future to the club , and a week later as he signed a new three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year deal . In total , Jones played 37 games ( 19 as a substitute ) for QPR in all competitions , scoring six goals .
Colchester made a £ 200 @,@ 000 offer for Jones in June 2007 , which was rejected , but they made another bid the following day , which was also turned down . QPR 's West London derby rivals Fulham also bid for him , as did Derby County , who offered £ 5 @.@ 75 million for him and teammate Lee Cook . He missed the start of the 2007 – 08 season , in the last month of his life , due to a foot injury .
= = = Style of play = = =
Writing Jones ' obituary in The Guardian , QPR fan Benjie Goodhart remembered him as the club 's " own Wayne Rooney , the prodigy , all precocious talent and burgeoning potential " , and attributed him the essential qualities for a forward including strength , speed , intelligence and confidence . He was perceived by the supporters to be the epitome of a new era under manager Gregory and prospective new owner Flavio Briatore , and could do " things for real that his peers acted out on their games consoles " . In spite of his confidence and talent , Jones was humble , and took the London Underground back home from games alongside the supporters .
= = Death = =
Jones died in a car crash in East Ham in the early hours of 25 August 2007 when the vehicle he was driving collided with a bus . He had only become a licensed driver 23 days earlier . Two passengers in his car , Idris Olasupo and Jess Basilva , were also killed ; Olasupo received a letter later that day , inviting him to Fulham 's academy . Jones ' death was compared to that of Kiyan Prince , a QPR youth player who was fatally stabbed the previous year at the age of 15 when breaking up a fight . Goodhart wrote that tributes would be " done particularly beautifully at QPR because , heartbreakingly , we 're getting rather good at it " .
As a mark of respect QPR postponed their upcoming game with Burnley , a team who in turn replaced it with an open training session with proceeds going to the charity of QPR 's choice . QPR also decided to retire the number 31 shirt in memory of Jones , who wore that shirt during his career . In their league game against Southampton on 1 September 2007 , all of the QPR players carried Jones ' name on the back of their shirts as a mark of respect . Ten days later , in the England U19 friendly against Belarus at Meadow Lane in Nottingham , a minute 's applause was held before the match .
An inquest in April 2008 found that Jones had sped over a pedestrian crossing on the wrong side of the road , leading to a head @-@ on collision . His death was recorded as an accident , but it was confirmed that had he survived , he would have been facing two charges of death by dangerous driving .
= = Career statistics = =
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= Gheorghe Tătărescu =
For the artist , see Gheorghe Tattarescu .
Gheorghe I. Tătărescu ( also known as Guță Tătărescu , with a slightly antiquated pet form of his given name ; 2 November 1886 – 28 March 1957 ) was a Romanian politician who served twice as Prime Minister of Romania ( 1934 – 1937 ; 1939 – 1940 ) , three times as Minister of Foreign Affairs ( interim in 1934 and 1938 ; appointed to the office in 1945 @-@ 1947 ) , and once as Minister of War ( 1934 ) . Representing the " young liberals " faction inside the National Liberal Party ( PNL ) , Tătărescu began his political career as a collaborator of Ion G. Duca , becoming noted for his anti @-@ Communism and , in time , for his conflicts with the PNL 's leader Dinu Brătianu and the Foreign Minister Nicolae Titulescu . During his first time in office , he moved closer to King Carol II , leading an ambivalent policy toward the fascist Iron Guard and ultimately becoming instrumental in establishing the authoritarian and corporatist regime around the National Renaissance Front . In 1940 , he accepted the cession of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union , and consequently had to resign .
After the start of World War II , Gheorghe Tătărescu initiated a move to rally political forces in opposition to Ion Antonescu 's dictatorship , and sought an alliance with the Romanian Communist Party ( PCR ) . He was twice expelled from the PNL , in 1938 and 1944 , creating instead his own group , the National Liberal Party @-@ Tătărescu , and representing it inside the Communist @-@ endorsed Petru Groza cabinet . In 1946 @-@ 1947 , he was also the President of the Romanian Delegation to the Peace Conference in Paris . After that moment , relations between Tătărescu and the PCR began to sour , and he was replaced from the leadership of both his own party and the Foreign Ministry when his name was implicated in the Tămădău Affair . Following the Communist takeover , he was arrested and held as a political prisoner , while being called to testify in the trial of Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu . He died soon after his release from prison .
Elected an honorary member of the Romanian Academy in 1937 , he was removed from his seat by the Communist authorities in 1948 . One of his brothers , Colonel Ștefan Tătărescu , was at some point the leader of a minor Nazi group , the National Socialist Party .
= = Early life and politics = =
Born in Târgu Jiu , Tătărescu studied at Carol I High School in Craiova . He later went to France , where he was awarded a doctorate from the University of Paris in 1912 , with a thesis on the Romanian parliamentary system ( Le régime électoral et parlementaire en Roumanie ) . He subsequently worked as a lawyer in Bucharest . He fathered a son , Tudor , and a daughter , Sanda ( married to the lawyer Ulise Negropontes in 1940 ) .
After joining the National Liberal Party ( PNL ) , he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the first time in November 1919 , representing Gorj County . Among his first notable actions as a politician was an initiative to interpellate Nicolae L. Lupu , the Minister of Interior Affairs Ministry in the Romanian National Party @-@ Peasants ' Party cabinet , in answer to concerns that the executive was tolerating socialist agitation in the countryside .
He stood among the PNL 's " young liberals " faction ( as they were colloquially known ) , supporting free trade and a more authoritarian rule over the country around King Carol II , and opposing both the older generation of leaders ( who tended to advocate protectionism and a liberal democracy ) and the dissident group of Gheorghe I. Brătianu ( see National Liberal Party @-@ Brătianu ) .
Undersecretary in the Interior Affairs Ministry under several PNL cabinets ( beginning with that of Ion I. C. Brătianu in 1922 @-@ 1926 ) , he first became noted as a collaborator of Ion G. Duca . In 1924 @-@ 1936 , in contrast to his post @-@ World War II agenda , Tătărescu was a noted anti @-@ communist , and reacted vehemently against the Romanian Communist Party ( PCdR , later PCR ) — recommending and obtaining its outlawing , based on Communist adversity to the concept of Greater Romania , and notably arguing that the Comintern @-@ supported Tatarbunary Uprising was evidence of " imperialist communism " .
= = First cabinet = =
= = = Context = = =
Tătărescu became leader of the cabinet in January 1934 , as the fascist Iron Guard had assassinated Prime Minister Duca on 30 December 1933 ( the five @-@ day premiership of Constantin Anghelescu ensured transition between the two governments ) . His was the second PNL cabinet formed during Carol 's reign , and the latter 's failure to draw support from the mainstream group led to a tight connection being established between Carol and the young liberals , with Tătărescu backing the process leading to the creation of a royal dictatorship . One of Tătărescu 's first measures was a decisive move to end the conflict between the National Liberal executive and the Mayor of Bucharest , Dem I. Dobrescu ( who was backed by the National Peasants ' Party ) — making use of his prerogative , he removed Dobrescu from office on 18 January .
The brief period constituted a reference point in Romanian economy , as the emergence from the Great Depression , although marked by endemic problems , saw prosperity more widespread than ever before . This was , in part , the contribution of new economic relations which Tătărescu defended and encouraged : the state transformed itself into the main agent of economic activities , allowing for prosperous businesses to benefit from its demands , and , in time , leading to the creation of a camarilla dominated by the figures of industrialists such as Aristide Blank , Nicolae Malaxa , and Max Auschnitt . In this context , Tătărescu 's allegedly subservient position in front of Carol was a frequent topic of ridicule at the time . According to a hostile account of the socialist Petre Pandrea :
" Tătărescu was ceremonious in order to cover his menial nature . When he was leaving audiences [ with the King ] , he pressed forward on the small of his back and returned facing backwards from the desk to the door , not daring to show his back . [ ... ] Watching over the scene [ ... ] , Carol II exclaimed to his intimate assistants :
— I don 't have a big enough tooshie for all the politicians to kiss ! "
Among other services rendered , he intervened in the conflict between Carol and his brother , Prince Nicholas , asking the latter to renounce either his marriage to Ioana Dumitrescu @-@ Doletti — considered a misalliance by Carol , it had not been recognized by Romanian authorities — or his princely prerogatives . Nicholas chose the latter alternative in 1937 .
Inside his party , Tătărescu lost ground to Dinu Brătianu , elected by the traditional Liberal elite as a compromise in order to ensure unity ; upon his election in 1934 , the latter stated :
" This time as well , I would have gladly conceded , if I were to believe that anyone else in the party could gather voter unanimity . "
The issue remained debated for the following two years . The party congress of July 1936 eventually elected Tătărescu to the second position in the party , that of general secretary .
= = = European politics = = =
In his foreign policy , Prime Minister Tătărescu balanced two different priorities , attempting to strengthen the traditional military alliance with Poland which was aimed at the Soviet Union , and reacting against the growing regional influence of Nazi Germany by maintaining the relevancy of the Little Entente and establishing further contacts with the Soviets .
In August 1936 , he removed Nicolae Titulescu from the office of Foreign Minister , replacing him with Victor Antonescu . This caused an uproar , with most of Romania 's diplomatic corps voicing their dissatisfaction . Over the following months , virtually all of Titulescu 's supporters were themselves recalled ( including , among others , Constantin Vișoianu , the ambassador to Poland , Constantin Antoniade , Romania 's representative to the League of Nations , Dimitrie Ghyka , the ambassador to Belgium , and Caius Brediceanu , the ambassador to Austria ) while Titulescu 's adversaries , such as Antoine Bibesco , were returned to office . Bibesco subsequently campaigned in France and the United Kingdom , in an attempt to reassure Romania 's main allies that the move did not signify a change in Romania 's priorities . Tătărescu was later blamed by his own party for having renounced the diplomatic course on which Romania had engaged .
In early 1937 , Tătărescu rejected the proposal of Józef Beck , Poland 's Minister of Foreign Affairs , to withdraw Romania 's support for Czechoslovakia and attempt a reconciliation with Hungary ( the following year , Romania withdrew its support for the former , indicating , just before the Munich Agreement , that it was not in a position to guarantee Czechoslovakia 's frontiers ) . This was accompanied by Czechoslovak initiatives to establish close contacts between the Little Entente and the Soviets : a scandal erupted in the same year , when the country 's ambassador to Romania , Jan Šeba , published a volume calling for Soviet @-@ Entente military cooperation ( despite the Soviet @-@ Romanian conflict over Bessarabia ) and expressing the hope that the Soviet state would extend its borders into West Belarus and Ukraine . Kamil Krofta , Czechoslovakia 's Foreign Minister , received criticism for having prefaced the book , and , after Tătărescu paid a visit to Czechoslovak Prime Minister Milan Hodža , Šeba was recalled to Prague .
= = = Facing the Iron Guard = = =
In combating the Iron Guard , Tătărescu chose to relax virtually all pressures on the latter ( while mimicking some of its messages ) , and instead concentrated again on curbing the activities of the Romanian Communist Party ( PCR ) and outlawing its Popular Front @-@ type organizations ( see Amicii URSS ) .
In April 1936 , he and the Minister of the Interior Ion Inculeț allowed the a youth congress to gather in Târgu Mureș , aware of the fact that it was masking a fascist gathering ; delegates to the congress , traveling in a special train commissioned by the government , vandalized Ion Duca 's memorial plate in Sinaia train station , and , upon their arrival in Târgu Mureș , made public their violent anti @-@ Semitic agenda . It was probably there that death squads were designated and assigned missions , leading to the murder of Mihai Stelescu , a former associate , in June of the next year .
In February 1937 , an intense publicity campaign by the Guard , begun with the ostentatious funerals of Ion Moța and Vasile Marin ( killed in the Spanish Civil War ) and culminating in the physical assaulting of Traian Bratu , rector of the University of Iași , by Guardist students , provoked the premier 's order to close down universities throughout the country .
Later in that year , the collaboration between monarch and premier , coupled with the fact that Tătărescu had successfully attracted nationalist votes from the Iron Guard , led to the signing of an electoral agreement between the latter , the National Peasants ' Party ( the main democratic opposition group ) , and the National Liberal Party @-@ Brătianu — the pact was meant to prevent all attempt by Carol to manipulate the votes in elections . ( A secondary and unexpected development was that the illegal PCR , which had decided to back the National Peasants ' Party prior to the elections , eventually supported the electoral pact . ) Tătărescu 's own alliance policy rose the anger of his opponents inside the PNL , as he signed collaboration agreements with the fascist Romanian Front and German Party .
The 1937 elections led to an unprecedented situation : although the PNL and Tătărescu had gained the largest percentage of the vote ( almost 36 % ) , they fell short of being awarded majority bonus ( granted at 40 % of the vote ) . As the far right had gathered momentum ( the Guard , running under the name of " Everything for the Fatherland Party " , had obtained 15 @.@ 6 % of the vote ) , Carol was faced with the threat of an Iron Guard government , which would have been one deeply opposed to all of his political principles : he called on a third party , Octavian Goga 's National Christian Party ( coming from the anti @-@ Semitic far right but deeply opposed to the Guard ) to form a new cabinet in December of that year .
Consequently , Tătărescu renounced his offices inside the party , and , while keeping his office of general secretary , he was surpassed by the readmitted Gheorghe I. Brătianu — who was elected to the new office of PNL vice president on 10 January 1938 . After the failure of Goga 's policies to curb the rise of their competitors , the king , backed by Tătărescu , resorted to dissolving all political parties on 30 May 1938 , creating instead the National Renaissance Front .
= = Second cabinet = =
In this context , Tătărescu chose to back the regime , as the PNL , like the National Peasants ' Party , remained active in nominal clandestinity ( as the law banning it had never been enforced any further ) . Having personally signed the document banning opposition parties , he was expelled from the PNL in April 1938 , and contested the legitimacy of the action for the following years . Allegedly , his ousting was recommended by Iuliu Maniu , leader of the National Peasants ' Party 's and , for the following years , the closest of Dinu Brătianu 's political allies .
Soon after his second arrival to power , Tătărescu became noted for the enthusiastic support he gave to the modernist sculptor Constantin Brâncuși , and directed state funds to finance the building of Brâncuși 's The Endless Column complex in Târgu Jiu ( completed in October 1938 ) .
Alongside Alexandru Vaida @-@ Voevod and Constantin Argetoianu ( whom he succeeded as Premier ) , Tătărescu became a dominant figure in the group of maverick pro @-@ Carol politicians . After a bloody crackdown on the Iron Guard , the Front attempted to reunite political forces in a national government that was to back Carol 's foreign policies in view of increasing threats on Romania 's borders after the outbreak of World War II . In 1945 , Tătărescu stressed his belief that authoritarianism benefited Romania , and supported the view that Carol had meant to keep Romania out of the war . Tătărescu 's second cabinet was meant to reflect the latter policies , but it did not draw any support from traditional parties , and , in April 1940 , Carol , assisted by Ernest Urdăreanu and Mihail Ghelmegeanu , began talks with the ( by then much weaker ) Iron Guard .
Tătărescu remained in office throughout the rest of the Phony War , until the fall of France , and his cabinet signed an economic agreement with Nazi Germany ( through which virtually all Romanian exports were directed towards the latter country ) and saw the crumbling of Romania 's alliance with the United Kingdom and France . The cabinet was brought down by the cession of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union ( effects of the Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact ) , as well as by Carol 's attempt to appease German hostility by dissolving it , replacing Tătărescu with Ion Gigurtu , and recreating the Front as the totalitarian Party of the Nation .
= = World War = =
After the Second Vienna Award ( when Northern Transylvania was lost to Hungary ) , confirming Carol 's failure to preserve both the country 's neutrality and its territorial integrity , Romania was taken over by an Iron Guard dictatorial government ( the National Legionary State ) . Speaking five years later , Dinu Brătianu placed the blame for the serious developments on Tătărescu 's own actions , addressing him directly :
" I remind you : [ ... ] you have contributed directly , in 1940 , in steering the country towards a foreign policy that , as one could tell even then , was to prove ill @-@ fated and which led us to the loathsome Vienna settlement , one which you have supported inside the Crown Council [ ... ] . "
On 26 November 1940 , the Iron Guard began a bloody retaliation against various political figures who had served under Carol ( following a late investigation into the 1938 killing of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu , the movement 's founder and early leader , by Carol 's authorities ) . Tătărescu and Constantin Argetoianu were among the second wave of captured politicians ( on 27 November ) , and were destined for arbitrary execution ; they were , however , saved by the intervention of regular police forces , most of whom had grown hostile to the Guardist militias .
Retired from political life during the war , he was initially sympathetic to Ion Antonescu 's pro @-@ German dictatorship ( see Romania during World War II ) — Dinu Brătianu , who remained in opposition to the Antonescu regime , made mention an official visit to Bessarabia , recovered after the start of Operation Barbarossa , when Tătărescu had accompanied Antonescu , " thus making common cause with his warmongering action " . At the time , his daughter Sandra Tătărescu Negropontes worked as an ambulance driver for the Romanian Red Cross .
In the end , Tătărescu became involved in negotiations aimed at withdrawing Romania from the conflict , and , while beginning talks with the Romanian Communist Party ( PCR ) , tried to build foreign connections to support Romania 's cause following the inevitable defeat ; he thus corresponded with Edvard Beneš , leader of the Czechoslovak government in exile in England . Beneš , who had already been discussing matters involving Romania with Richard Franasovici and Grigore Gafencu , and had agreed to support the Romanian cause , informed the Allied governments of Tătărescu 's designs .
Tătărescu later contrasted his diplomatic approach with the strategy of Barbu Știrbey ( who had only attempted an agreement with the Western Allies in Cairo , instead of opening relations with the Soviets ) . Initially meeting with the refusal of Iuliu Maniu and Dinu Brătianu ( who decided to invest their trust in Știrbey ) , he was relatively successful after the Cairo initiative proved fruitless : the two traditional parties accepted collaboration with the bloc formed by the PCR , the Romanian Social Democratic Party , the Ploughmen 's Front , and the Socialist Peasants ' Party , leading to the formation of the short @-@ lived and unstable National Democratic Bloc ( BND ) in June 1944 . It overthrew Antonescu in August , by means of the successful King Michael Coup .
= = Alliance with the Communists = =
Tătărescu returned to the PNL later in 1944 — after the Soviet Red Army had entered Romania and the country had become an Allied state , political parties were again allowed to register . Nevertheless , Tătărescu was again opposed to the party leaders Dinu and Gheorghe I. Brătianu , and split to form his own group in June – July 1945 . Dinu Brătianu convened the PNL leadership and formally excluded Tătărescu and his partisans , citing their support for dictatorial regimes .
As the PCR , which was growing more influential ( with the backing of Soviet occupation ) while generally lacking popular appeal , sought to form alliances with various forces in order to increase its backing , Tătărescu declared his group to be left @-@ wing and Social liberal , while attempting to preserve a middle course in the new political setting , by pleading for close relations to be maintained with both the Soviet Union and the Western Allies . N. D. Cocea , a prominent socialist who had joined the PNL , represented the faction in talks for an alliance with the Communists . The agreement , favored by Ana Pauker , was vehemently opposed by another member of the Communist leadership , Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu , who argued in favor of " making a distinction inside the bourgeoisie " , and collaborating with the main PNL , while calling Tătărescu 's faction " a gang of con artists , blackmailers , and well @-@ known bribers " .
Tătărescu became Foreign Minister and vice president of the government in the cabinet of Petru Groza when the latter came into office after Soviet pressures in 1945 ; his faction had been awarded leadership of four other ministries — Finance , with three successive office @-@ holders ( of whom the last was Alexandru Alexandrini ) , Public Works , with Gheorghe Vântu , Industry ( with Petre N. Bejan ) , and Religious Affairs , with Radu Roșculeț . He indirectly helped the PCR carry out an electoral fraud during the general election in 1946 by failing to reply to American proposals for organizing fair elections . At the Paris Conference , where he was accompanied by the PCR leaders Gheorghe Gheorghiu @-@ Dej and Pătrășcanu , he acknowledged the dissolution of Greater Romania under the provisions of the new Treaty ( 1947 ) .
= = 1947 and after = =
Tensions between his group with the PCR occurred when the former founded itself as a party under the name of National @-@ Liberal Party ( commonly known as the National Liberal Party @-@ Tătărescu ) , and , in June – July 1945 , proclaimed its goal to be the preservation of property and a middle class under a new regime . Of himself and his principles , Tătărescu stated :
" I am not a communist . Taking in view my attitudes towards mankind , society , property , I am not a communist . Thus , the new orientation in external politics which I demand for my country cannot be accused of being determined by affinities or sympathies of doctrine . "
Speaking in retrospect , Gheorghiu @-@ Dej indicated the actual relation between his party and Tătărescu 's : " we have had to tolerate by our side a capitalist @-@ gentry political group , Tătărescu 's group " .
Tătărescu himself continued to show his support for several PCR policies : in the summer of 1947 , he condemned the United States for having protested against the repression of forces in the opposition . Nevertheless , at around the same time , he issued his own critique of the Groza government , becoming the target of violent attacks initiated by Miron Constantinescu in the PCR press . Consequently , he was singled out for negligence in office when , during the kangaroo trial of Iuliu Maniu ( see Tămădău Affair ) , it was alleged that several employees of his ministry had conspired against the government . Scînteia , the official voice of the PCR , wrote of all National Liberal Party @-@ Tătărescu offices in the government : " The rot is all @-@ encompassing ! It has to be removed ! " .
Tătărescu resigned his office on 6 November 1947 , and was replaced by the Communist Ana Pauker . For the following two months , he was sidelined in his own party by PCR pressures , and removed from its leadership in January 1948 ( being replaced with Petre N. Bejan — the party was subsequently known as National Liberal Party @-@ Petre N. Bejan ) . One of his last actions as cabinet member had been to sign the document officially rejecting the Marshall Plan .
After the proclamation of the People 's Republic of Romania on 30 December 1947 , the existence of all parties other than the PCR had become purely formal , and , after the elections of 28 March the one @-@ party state was confirmed by legislation . He was arrested on 5 May 1950 , and held in the notorious Sighet prison ( alongside three of his brothers — Ștefan Tătărescu included — and his former collaborator Bejan ) . His son Tudor , who was living in Paris , suffered from schizophrenia after 1950 , and had to be committed to an institution ( where he died in 1955 ) . Sandra Tătărescu Negropontes was also imprisoned in 1950 , and released three years later , upon the death of Joseph Stalin .
One of Gheorghe Tătărescu 's last appearances in public was his stand as one of the prosecution 's witnesses in the 1954 trial of Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu , when he claimed that the defendant had been infiltrated into the PCR during the time when he had been premier ( Pătrășcanu was posthumously cleared of all charges ) . Released in 1955 , Tătărescu died in Bucharest , less than two years later . According to Sanda Tătărescu Negropontes , this came as a result of tuberculosis contracted while in detention .
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= Someday ( I Will Understand ) =
" Someday ( I Will Understand ) " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears . It was written by Spears and produced by Guy Sigsworth . The song was released on August 18 , 2005 , by Jive Records , as the sole single from Spears ' first extended play , Britney & Kevin : Chaotic ( 2005 ) . In July 2004 , Spears announced her engagement to American dancer Kevin Federline , later revealing she would be taking another career break to start a family . Spears wrote the song two weeks before knowing she was pregnant with her first child , Sean Preston Federline . A pop ballad , " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " lyrics refer to a feeling of empowerment as a pregnant woman . A remixed version of the song was included on the 2005 remix compilation , B in the Mix : The Remixes .
" Someday ( I Will Understand ) " has received mixed reviews from music critics . A few reviewers considered it as a lesson on the singer 's history and a " tear @-@ jerker " ballad , while others considered it a non @-@ savable " flop single " . The song reached the top ten in Denmark , Sweden and Switzerland and also charted in a number of European countries . An accompanying music video , directed by Michael Haussman , premiered on the finale of Britney & Kevin : Chaotic . Entirely shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , the music video features Spears as a pregnant woman and portrays a transformation of her character . Contemporary critics noted the video as a departure from Spears ' previous music videos , while comparing the imagery of it to American entertainer Madonna 's Kabbalah makeover .
= = Background = =
In July 2004 , Spears announced her engagement to American dancer Kevin Federline , whom she had met three months before . The romance received intense attention from the media , since Federline had recently broken up with actress Shar Jackson , who was still pregnant with their second child at the time . The initial stages of their relationship were chronicled in Spears 's first reality show Britney & Kevin : Chaotic . They held a wedding ceremony on September 18 , 2004 , but were not legally married until three weeks later on October 6 due to a delay finalizing the couple 's prenuptial agreement . In October 2004 , the singer announced she would be taking another career break to start a family . Spears gave birth to her first child , Sean Preston Federline , on September 14 , 2005 .
" Someday ( I Will Understand ) " was composed by Spears on the piano at her house , two weeks before she learned of her pregnancy with Sean Preston . She explained the song came " like a prophecy ... when you 're pregnant , you 're empowered " . It was produced by Guy Sigsworth , who previously worked with the singer on " Everytime " ( 2003 ) . Spears recorded her vocals for the song at Conway Studios in Los Angeles , California , and at Frou Frou Central in London . The piano was played by Spears herself , while all other instruments and mixing were done by Sigsworth . Background vocals for the song were provided by Kate Havnevik .
= = Critical response = =
" Someday ( I Will Understand ) " received mixed reviews from music critics . While reviewing Britney & Kevin : Chaotic , Mike McGuirk of Rhapsody noted , " Britney now sings about either the husband or the kid . ( Sorry , people . It 's a sad day for the middle @-@ aged American male sicko . ) For everyone else , these bonus tracks further Spears ' upward path of totally bangin ' production and almost uncanny Prince @-@ channeling . " Gil Kaufman of MTV thought the song a " horrible Britney ballad with the black @-@ and @-@ white video that began her descent into madness . " Leo Ebersole of Chicago Tribune considered it " a fictional piece " , while another reviewer from the same newspaper noted that " as a matter of fact , the song is more or less a lesson in Britney history . " Becky Bain of Idolator praised the track , stating that " Britney goes genuine for this ode to her unborn baby . " Kurt Kirton of About.com said that " And Then We Kiss " and other remixes of songs like " Toxic " and " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " on the remix album B in the Mix : The Remixes " hold their own " . IGN writer Spence D. noted the Hi @-@ Bias Signature Radio Remix " reverberates with all the clichés that often stifle the music that rustles through the late night / early morning club scenes around the world . " Rolling Stone contributor Barry Walters gave the song 's remix a negative review , saying that " nothing can rescue Spears ' freakishly sappy flop single " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " . " Bradley Stern also of MTV , however , praised the Leama & Moor Remix , saying it " transforms the tearjerker of a ballad into a full @-@ on trance anthem . Big beats , stuttering vocals -- it 's heartbreak on the dance floor . "
= = Commercial performance = =
On September 1 , 2005 , " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " debuted at number 46 on the Swedish Singles Chart . It peaked at number 10 the following week . In Switzerland , the song debuted at number eight on the week of September 4 , 2005 . On September 9 , 2005 , the song debuted in the Danish Singles Chart at number 11 . The following week , it peaked at the eight position . " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " also reached the top 20 in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Finland and Norway and charted in Austria and the Netherlands . " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " has sold 60 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the United States , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " was directed by Michael Haussman . Spears commented that he " [ did ] a great job capturing the song , the essence and the emotion " and added that the video had " a different feeling " from any of her previous videos . It was shot entirely in black @-@ and @-@ white . Spears asserted that her life had " come full circle " and implied that in the process she underwent changes in her soul and body , as shown in the video . It premiered on June 14 , 2005 during the fifth and last episode of Spears 's reality show Britney & Kevin : Chaotic , titled " Veil of Secrecy " . The music video features a pregnant Spears lying in bed and walking around a house while singing to her unborn child . She also gazes through the window at the Roman sculptures in the garden .
Dana Alice Heller noted that her provocative costuming and dancing are replaced in the video with a solitary , fabric @-@ draped Spears that evokes an ethereal calmness . Heller compared the imagery to Madonna 's Kabbalah makeover , but added that while Madonna was " in her thirties after a tabloid head @-@ lining first marriage and a few other misguided relationships , Spears was only twenty @-@ two , making her transformation seem forced " . Hayley Butler of Jam ! said " the video is a far cry from the snake handling , sweating and skimpy Britney videos of the past . Dressed in a classy silk dress , she runs through gardens , lies in bed and walks through the grass , all with a burgeoning belly . " John Mitchel of MTV included the video on the list " Beyonce , Britney And Madonna : What To Expect When You 're Expecting — Music Video Edition " in 2011 . Despite praising the track , Idolator blogger Becky Bain stated that " at this point she still looks like a teenager herself , so it 's a little disconcerting seeing her with that huge belly , singing about motherhood . "
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Source :
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Willie Mount =
Willie Landry Mount ( born August 25 , 1949 ) is an American politician from Louisiana who served as a Democratic member of the Louisiana State Senate from 2000 to 2012 . She represented District 27 , which includes parts of Lake Charles and the surrounding cities of Sulphur and Westlake . From 1993 to 1999 , Mount was the first female to have served as the mayor of Lake Charles .
Mount was a candidate in the 2004 U.S. House of Representatives election for Louisiana 's 7th congressional district . She was defeated by Republican Charles Boustany in a contested general election campaign that received national attention .
= = Personal life = =
Born and reared in Lake Charles , Mount in 1974 obtained a Bachelor of Business Administration degree from McNeese State University in Lake Charles . She owned a small business and worked as a real estate agent and pharmaceutical representative for Lederle Laboratories . Mount resides in her hometown with her husband , attorney Benjamin Mount ; they have no children .
= = Career = =
Mount had been active in community work , through organizations such as the Junior League of Lake Charles , and ran for mayor of Lake Charles in 1993 , winning against Paul Savoie , a Democrat and a former mayor . During her tenure she served as president of the Louisiana Conference of Mayors and supported restoration efforts following hurricanes . To this end Mount testified before Congress in support of the Conservation and Reinvestment Act of 1999 . She also co @-@ sponsored the building of an Amtrak station , modeled after an older station that had been destroyed in a fire . In an effort to succeed retiring state senator James J. Cox , Mount announced her senate candidacy on October 19 , 1999 , while addressing the Calcasieu Parish School Board , which she asked to support her . Upon being elected , Mount resigned as mayor and City Council President Rodney Geyen took over the office .
In the senate , Mount served on a variety of committees , chairing the Senate Committees on Coastal Restoration and Flood Control , Revenue and Fiscal Affairs , and also serving as Vice @-@ Chair of the Senate Committee on Education . In 2008 , she became chairwoman of the Senate Committee on Health and Welfare . Mount often sponsors legislation regarding health and public service . This includes bills intended to identify sex offenders and enact term limits for various boards and commissions . She was responsible for passing these term limits as an amendment to the Louisiana Constitution , as SB 232 on November 4 , 2008 . Mount also sponsored legislation to merge New Orleans criminal and civil district courts , create a childhood and family learning center , couple the opening of new hospice care providers with inspections of existing ones , allow police to suspend driver 's licenses of teenagers with problems at school , and create a state @-@ run internet database providing information on the quality of health care providers . Mount was responsible for legislation that made Louisiana water fluoridation mandatory , and , in her capacity as chair of the Senate Health committee , Mount in 2008 declared major Louisiana health care reform unlikely without prior federal reform .
As senator , Mount raised funds for health care facilities ( Mount had herself roasted in support of the Southwest Louisiana Center for Health Services ) . Mount is a member of a number of boards and charitable organisations and provides an annual compilation of " Louisiana positives " about Louisiana 's standing in national ratings . Due to term limits , Mount was eligible to serve as senator until 2012 .
= = 2004 Congressional race = =
Mount ran for Congress in 2004 to succeed Chris John , who had announced his retirement from the U.S. House of Representatives to run for the U.S. Senate . She positioned herself as a conservative Democrat , supportive of balanced budgets and conservative social views , emphasizing job creation , health care and her opposition to offshoring . Her major Democratic opponent in the jungle primary was African American State Senator Don Cravins , Sr. , the father of another lawmaker , Don Cravins , Jr . , of Opelousas . Her major Republican opponent was Charles Boustany , a retired heart surgeon from Lafayette , who ran on a platform of preventing tax increases and passing a new energy bill . The Louisiana Democratic Party was supporting Mount , as Cravins was believed to be a weaker contestant in a run @-@ off . Polls taken in late October had shown Boustany , Cravins and Mount statistically tied and the election was hotly contested .
In the first ballot on November 2 , 2004 , Boustany and Mount garnered the most votes ; Cravins was defeated by less than two thousand votes . As both fell short of a majority , a second ballot was mandated . In the subsequent campaign , Mount criticized Boustany for favouring tax cuts for the rich and being indifferent to health care , while Boustany rejected the attacks as false and stressed his willingness to work with Democrats and Independents . Boustany in turn portrayed Mount as liberal and favoring tax increases . Mount also criticized Boustany for favoring the privatization of social security , an unpopular position in Louisiana , and as removed from the interests of voters . She received endorsements by U.S. Senator John Breaux , who had represented the 7th district for over fourteen years , and governor Kathleen Blanco . Boustany was helped by Vice President Dick Cheney , who campaigned on his behalf in Lake Charles . Mount , however , was not endorsed by Democratic primary opponent Don Cravins , who complained about the state Democratic Party 's endorsement of Mount in a partially party funded mailer that excluded him and which he believed contributed to his narrow loss . Cravins prepared a suit in federal court claiming that the state Democratic Party violated the Voting Rights Act .
In the general election on December 4 , 2004 , Boustany defeated Mount , 55 percent to 45 percent in an election with low voter turnout . Democrats had hoped on a big turnout , as the district is nearly a quarter African American , a reliable Democratic constituency . Analysis of the race suggested that Mount 's defeat was helped by the open primary system that had the Democratic candidates work against each other and led to Cravin 's conflict with the state Democratic Party which in turn led to suppressed voter turnout . The large number of negative advertisements was also cited as a factor that contributed to low turnout . Another detriment for Mount mentioned was the strong support for George W. Bush in the presidential election in the district , which he carried by about 60 percent . Following her defeat , Mount ruled out another campaign for the seat , but not a campaign for another state @-@ wide office .
When Mount left the Senate in 2012 , she was succeeded by a Republican , former State Representative Ronnie Johns of Sulphur , who ran unopposed for the open seat .
= = Campaign for tax assessor = =
In 2011 , Mount announced her candidacy for tax assessor of Calcasieu Parish . She received 13 @,@ 477 votes ( 38 @.@ 3 percent ) in the primary held on October 22 and promptly withdrew from the November 19 general election . Victory hence went to the acting assessor , Wendy Curphy Aguillard , an Independent who led the primary balloting with 17 @,@ 208 votes ( 48 @.@ 9 percent ) . A third candidate , Republican Mike Regan , was also eliminated in the primary , having received the remaining 4 @,@ 538 votes ( 12 @.@ 9 percent ) .
= = Electoral history = =
Mayor , City of Lake Charles , 1993
Threshold > 50 %
First Ballot , April 3 , 1993
Second Ballot , May 1 , 1993
Mount was unopposed for a second term as mayor .
Louisiana State Senator , 27th Senatorial District , 1999
October 23 , 1999
Mount was unopposed on October 4 , 2003 and October 20 , 2007 for her second and third term as state senator .
U.S. Representative , 7th Congressional District , 2004
Threshold > 50 %
First Ballot , November 2 , 2004
Second Ballot , December 4 , 2004
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= No. 36 Squadron RAAF =
No. 36 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) strategic transport squadron . It operates Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III heavy airlifters from RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . The squadron has seen active service flying transport aircraft during World War II , the Korean War , the Indonesia – Malaysia Konfrontasi , the Vietnam War , and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq . It has also supported Australian humanitarian and peacekeeping operations around the world , including Somalia , Cambodia , East Timor and Indonesia .
The squadron was formed at RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , in March 1942 , and equipped with Douglas DC @-@ 2s , among other aircraft . Later in the war it began operating Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas . From 1946 to 1953 it was controlled by No. 86 ( Transport ) Wing , which was based in New South Wales at RAAF Station Schofields and , later , RAAF Station Richmond . In 1953 it was re @-@ formed at Iwakuni , Japan , as part of No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing . It returned to Australia and the aegis of No. 86 Wing in 1955 . The squadron began re @-@ equipping with Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules at Richmond in 1958 , becoming the first non @-@ US operator of the type . Over the next half @-@ century it flew two models of Hercules , the C @-@ 130A and C @-@ 130H . The squadron transferred to Amberley in 2006 , when it took delivery of its first Globemaster .
= = Role and equipment = =
No. 36 Squadron is responsible for strategic air transport in Australia and overseas , conducting missions as part of military operations and humanitarian efforts . It is located at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , and controlled by No. 86 Wing , which is part of Air Mobility Group . The unit headquarters comprises executive , administrative and operational components . As well as aircrew , the squadron is staffed by maintenance personnel responsible for regular servicing of equipment ; they are frequently required to accompany the aircraft on deployments overseas . More complex servicing is conducted by Boeing . No. 36 Squadron 's official crest , approved in May 1966 , depicts a horse intended to symbolise strength , speed , mobility and dependability . The unit 's motto is " Sure " .
The squadron operates eight Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster IIIs , the first of which entered service in December 2006 . The eighth and last was delivered in November 2015 . The aircraft are generally crewed by two pilots and a loadmaster , the latter being responsible for the loading , carriage and unloading of cargo or passengers . The C @-@ 17 can carry 70 tonnes of equipment , and is large enough to accommodate helicopters , tanks and other military vehicles . It can also carry over 130 passengers , and is designed for aerial despatch of paratroops or cargo . The C @-@ 17 has a range of some 10 @,@ 000 km ( 6 @,@ 200 miles ) and is able to operate from short and unsealed airstrips . Flown with a joystick and fly @-@ by @-@ wire controls , the aircraft is also highly manoeuvrable and responsive considering its size . It can be refuelled in flight by the Airbus KC @-@ 30A Multi Role Tanker Transports operated by No. 33 Squadron .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
During February and March 1942 , the RAAF formed four transport units : Nos. 33 , 34 , 35 and 36 Squadrons . No. 36 Squadron was established on 11 March at RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , under the control of Southern Area Command . Its initial strength was twenty @-@ six personnel and one Douglas DC @-@ 2 . This was gradually built up to a force of six DC @-@ 2s , as well as examples of various de Havilland types including the DH.84 Dragon , DH.86 Express , DH.89 Dragon Rapide , and Tiger Moth . Tasked with transport operations throughout Australia and to Port Moresby , New Guinea , the squadron relocated to Essendon , Victoria , on 17 July . One of the DC @-@ 2s crashed at Seven Mile Aerodrome , Port Moresby , on 14 September ; all aboard were killed . The squadron was transferred to Townsville , Queensland , on 11 December 1942 . During 1943 , it maintained detachments at Essendon and in New Guinea , and began re @-@ equipping with twelve Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas .
On 27 March 1943 , a Dakota of No. 36 Squadron crashed on takeoff in pre @-@ dawn fog at RAAF Station Archerfield , killing all twenty @-@ three occupants , twenty of whom were RAAF or Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force personnel . The squadron relocated to Garbutt on 20 February 1944 . During the New Guinea campaign it was responsible for carrying troops and cargo , and undertaking courier runs and supply drops . In 1945 , a detachment of No. 36 Squadron Dakotas augmented No. 84 Wing 's operations in Bougainville , flying almost 800 sorties between January and June . The squadron lost two Dakotas on supply missions in Aitape during February 1945 . In August , it flew paratroopers into Singapore as part of the reoccupation of the city , after which it continued to transport troops and cargo , and repatriate prisoners of war . Following the end of hostilities , in March 1946 , a detachment of six Dakotas established a courier service between Morotai and Japan , where Australian units had joined the British Commonwealth Occupation Force .
= = = Berlin Airlift and Korean War = = =
On 19 August 1946 , No. 36 Squadron transferred to RAAF Station Schofields , New South Wales , where it came under the control of No. 86 ( Transport ) Wing along with Nos. 37 and 38 Squadrons , also operating Dakotas , and No. 486 ( Maintenance ) Squadron . No. 486 Squadron provided day @-@ to @-@ day servicing for each of the flying squadrons , deeper maintenance being handled by No. 2 Aircraft Depot , based at the nearby RAAF Station Richmond . Courier flights to Japan continued until December 1947 , a 21 @,@ 000 km ( 13 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ) round trip from Schofields . On 25 August 1948 , twenty staff from No. 36 Squadron joined five crews from No. 38 Squadron to take part in the Berlin Airlift , a commitment that lasted almost a year . The Australians delivered over 16 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 7 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 kg ) of supplies , and over 7 @,@ 000 passengers . In the absence of these crews , Nos. 36 and 38 Squadron operations were amalgamated , flying hours being recorded under the latter 's auspices . During June 1949 , No. 36 Squadron and the other extant components of No. 86 Wing , Nos. 38 and 486 Squadrons , relocated from Schofields to Richmond .
Nos. 36 and 38 Squadrons began to operate separately again in June 1950 , following the return of crews from Berlin and No. 38 Squadron 's departure for service in the Malayan Emergency . No. 36 Squadron assumed control of the Governor @-@ General 's Flight in October 1950 . On 21 November 1952 , the squadron was awarded the Duke of Gloucester Cup for its proficiency . The return of No. 38 Squadron from Malaya in December stripped No. 36 Squadron of crews to ensure an even distribution of personnel among the two units . This led to No. 36 Squadron again merging with No. 38 Squadron . The former disbanded at Richmond on 9 March 1953 , re @-@ forming the next day from No. 30 Transport Unit at Iwakuni , Japan . Here it was part of No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing , which controlled the RAAF 's units during the Korean War and its immediate aftermath . Its complement included eight Dakotas and one CAC Wirraway . In July and August , the squadron evacuated over 900 Commonwealth prisoners of war . It departed Japan on 13 March 1955 , having carried over 42 @,@ 000 passengers and 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 kg ) of cargo , and was re @-@ established on 1 May at RAAF Base Canberra , where No. 86 Wing had transferred the previous year .
= = = Hercules era = = =
No. 36 Squadron handed over its six Dakotas to No. 38 Squadron in July 1958 , prior to re @-@ equipping with the Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules . It returned to Richmond in August , followed by the rest of No. 86 Wing a month later . After conversion training of its personnel in the United States , No. 36 Squadron became the first non @-@ US operator of the Hercules in December 1958 , when it began taking delivery of twelve C @-@ 130As ; deliveries completed in March 1959 . The official history of the post @-@ war Air Force described the Hercules as " probably the biggest step @-@ up in aircraft capabilities " the RAAF had ever received , considering it roughly four times as effective as the Dakota , taking into account the improvements in payload , range , and speed . In September 1960 , No. 36 Squadron began parachute trials on the Hercules . It made the Hercules ' first troop @-@ carrying flights into a combat zone in December 1962 , joining a Commonwealth airlift from Singapore to Borneo at the onset of the Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia ; similar missions were undertaken over the next five years . The squadron was again awarded the Gloucester Cup in 1963 .
In August 1964 , No. 36 Squadron became an independently operating unit under the command of Headquarters RAAF Base Richmond , following the disbandment of No. 86 Wing . No. 486 Squadron was disbanded at the same time , leaving No. 36 Squadron responsible for its own day @-@ to @-@ day maintenance until 1966 ; No. 486 Squadron was re @-@ formed that year to service both No. 36 Squadron and No. 37 Squadron , the latter having taken delivery of twelve C @-@ 130E Hercules . During the Vietnam War , both squadrons undertook long @-@ range transport and medical evacuation flights between Australia and South East Asia , servicing Phan Rang , Vung Tau , and Nui Dat . No. 36 Squadron was presented with its own standard by Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , on 1 April 1971 , in recognition of a quarter @-@ century 's service . Eight of its twelve Hercules were involved in relief efforts after Cyclone Tracy struck Darwin , Northern Territory , on Christmas Eve 1974 ; the aircraft flew over 550 hours , carrying 2 @,@ 864 passengers and almost 800 @,@ 000 pounds ( 360 @,@ 000 kg ) of cargo . Having remained in service for twenty years , clocking up 147 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours , the C @-@ 130As were replaced by C @-@ 130Hs in 1978 .
In November 1978 , one of No. 36 Squadron 's C @-@ 130Hs became the first Australian Hercules to land in Antarctica , at McMurdo Sound . The squadron reached a total of 200 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours in C @-@ 130s during 1984 . When No. 86 Wing was re @-@ formed at Richmond on 2 February 1987 , under the newly established Air Lift Group ( later Air Mobility Group ) , No. 36 Squadron formed part of its complement . The unit again received the Gloucester Cup in 1989 . That year , it provided transport for civilian passengers during the pilots ' dispute that curtailed operations by the two domestic airlines ; three aircraft and five crews undertook this task , over and above their normal duties . The squadron reached 100 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours on the C @-@ 130H during 1990 . In December 1990 and January 1991 , it flew missions to Dubai in support of Australia 's naval contribution to the Gulf War , and in 1993 transported Australian troops to Somalia as part of Operation Solace . Four of its C @-@ 130Hs were equipped with Electronic Warfare Self Protection packs , including radar and missile warning systems , and countermeasures such as chaff and flares , in 1994 . Later in the decade , one of the C @-@ 130Hs was fitted with signals intelligence equipment and crewed by RAAF and Defence Signals Directorate personnel .
Six of No. 36 Squadron 's Hercules evacuated over 450 civilians from Cambodia following the coup in July 1997 . The unit again became responsible for its own routine maintenance in 1998 , when No. 486 Squadron was disbanded . A detachment from No. 36 Squadron supported INTERFET operations in East Timor between September 1999 and February 2000 . The squadron was assigned four C @-@ 130Es previously operated by No. 37 Squadron during the latter 's transition to the new C @-@ 130J Super Hercules , which commenced in 1999 ; the E models were retired the following year . No. 36 Squadron was once more awarded the Gloucester Cup in 2001 . It took part in relief efforts following the Bali Bombings in October 2002 . In February 2003 , it deployed a detachment of two Hercules to the Middle East as part of the Australian contribution to the invasion of Iraq . The aircraft arrived on 10 February , and began flying transport sorties less than two weeks later . A No. 36 Squadron Hercules became the first Coalition aircraft to land at Al Asad Airbase , west of Baghdad , after it was secured by Australian special forces personnel . One aircraft was hit by ground fire near Baghdad on 27 June 2004 , killing a coalition passenger . The detachment remained in Iraq until September 2004 , when it was relieved by two C @-@ 130Js from No. 37 Squadron . No. 36 Squadron also participated in Operation Sumatra Assist in the wake of the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami .
= = = Globemaster era = = =
In May 2006 , No. 36 Squadron personnel began conversion training in the US in preparation for re @-@ equipping with Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III heavy transports . It transferred its C @-@ 130Hs to No. 37 Squadron on 17 November 2006 , prior to relocating to Amberley . Also on 17 November , Wing Commander Linda Corbould took command of the unit , becoming the first woman to lead an RAAF flying squadron . Corbould was responsible for delivering the first Globemaster from the United States to Australia on 4 December . No. 36 Squadron achieved initial operating capability with the C @-@ 17 on 11 September 2007 , following eight months ' work @-@ up training . In June 2008 , it received the Gloucester Cup as the RAAF 's most proficient flying squadron of 2007 " for achieving all training objectives , supporting air lift activities globally and nationally and fulfilling short @-@ notice , high priority tasks , despite the squadron 's expertise being in its infancy " . Corbould completed her posting as commanding officer on 8 December 2008 , the day the squadron marked the second anniversary of C @-@ 17 operations by conducting the RAAF 's first flight with an all @-@ female aircrew .
Since re @-@ equipping with the Globemaster , No. 36 Squadron has continued to support Coalition forces in Afghanistan , as well as humanitarian operations worldwide . In 2011 , it took part in relief efforts following the floods in Queensland , the Christchurch earthquake , and the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami in Japan . The Queensland floods necessitated the evacuation of two C @-@ 17s to Richmond , when Amberley was threatened by rising waters ; of the other two Globemasters , one was in the Middle East and the other was undergoing maintenance at Amberley and could not be flown but was moved onto high ground and escaped damage . The deployment to Japan involved all three of the squadron 's available C @-@ 17s , the fourth still being serviced at Amberley . On 11 May 2012 , a C @-@ 17 flew an Australian Army M1 Abrams tank from RAAF Base Darwin to Shoalwater Bay for a training exercise ; it was the first time an RAAF Globemaster had airlifted an Abrams , which at 61 tonnes was among the largest single items the 70 @-@ tonne @-@ capacity aircraft could carry . In November that year the squadron took delivery of its sixth Globemaster . It was again awarded the Gloucester Cup in March 2013 , for its proficiency the previous year .
In September 2014 , RAAF C @-@ 17s were used to airlift arms and munitions to forces in Kurdish @-@ controlled northern Iraq following an offensive by ISIL militants . On 10 April 2015 , Prime Minister Tony Abbott announced the purchase of two more C @-@ 17s , which would bring No. 36 Squadron 's complement to eight aircraft . Concurrent with delivery of the new C @-@ 17s by year 's end , No. 36 Squadron 's facilities were to be improved , obviating the need for maintenance to take place in No. 33 Squadron hangars . Also on 10 April , the squadron was awarded the Gloucester Cup a record seventh time , and the RAAF 's Maintenance Trophy a record fourth time . Later the same month , an Airbus KC @-@ 30A Multi Role Tanker Transport of No. 33 Squadron carried out the RAAF 's first in @-@ flight refuelling of a No. 36 Squadron Globemaster . The Governor @-@ General , Sir Peter Cosgrove , presented the squadron with a new standard on 19 May ; the old standard was laid up in Holy Trinity Chapel at RAAF Williams , Victoria . No. 36 Squadron was awarded the Meritorious Unit Citation in the Queen 's Birthday Honours on 13 June 2016 for " for sustained outstanding service in warlike operations throughout the Middle East Area of Operations over the period January 2002 to June 2014 " .
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= Cucurbita =
Cucurbita ( Latin for gourd ) is a genus of herbaceous vines in the gourd family , Cucurbitaceae , also known as cucurbits , native to the Andes and Mesoamerica . Five species are grown worldwide for their edible fruit , variously known as squash , pumpkin , or gourd depending on species , variety , and local parlance , and for their seeds . First cultivated in the Americas before being brought to Europe by returning explorers after their discovery of the New World , plants in the genus Cucurbita are important sources of human food and oil . Other kinds of gourd , also called bottle @-@ gourds , are native to Africa and belong to the genus Lagenaria , which is in the same family and subfamily as Cucurbita but in a different tribe . These other gourds are used as utensils or vessels , and their young fruits are eaten much like those of Cucurbita species .
Most Cucurbita species are herbaceous vines that grow several meters in length and have tendrils , but non @-@ vining " bush " cultivars of C. pepo and C. maxima have also been developed . The yellow or orange flowers on a Cucurbita plant are of two types : female and male . The female flowers produce the fruit and the male flowers produce pollen . Many North and Central American species are visited by specialist bee pollinators , but other insects with more general feeding habits , such as honey bees , also visit .
The fruits of the genus Cucurbita are good sources of nutrients , such as vitamin A and vitamin C , among other nutrients according to species . The plants contain the toxins , such as cucurbitin , cucurmosin , and cucurbitacin .
There is debate about the taxonomy of the genus , as the number of accepted species varies from 13 to 30 . The five domesticated species are Cucurbita argyrosperma , C. ficifolia , C. maxima , C. moschata , and C. pepo . All of these can be treated as winter squash because the full @-@ grown fruits can be stored for months ; however , C. pepo includes some cultivars that are better used only as summer squash .
Cucurbita fruits have played a role in human culture for at least 2 @,@ 000 years . They are often represented in Moche ceramics from Peru . After Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the New World , paintings of squashes started to appear in Europe early in the sixteenth century . The fruits have many culinary uses including pumpkin pie , biscuits , bread , desserts , puddings , beverages , and soups . Pumpkins and other Cucurbita fruits are celebrated in festivals and in flower and vegetable shows in many countries .
= = Description = =
Cucurbita species fall into two main groups . The first group are annual or short @-@ lived perennial vines and are mesophytic , i.e. they require a more or less continuous water supply . The second group are perennials growing in arid zones and so are xerophytic , tolerating dry conditions . Cultivated Cucurbita species were derived from the first group . Growing 5 to 15 meters ( 16 to 49 ft ) in height or length , the plant stem produces tendrils to help it climb adjacent plants and structures or extend along the ground . Most species do not readily root from the nodes ; a notable exception is C. ficifolia , and the four other cultivated mesophytes do this to a lesser extent . The vine of the perennial Cucurbita can become semiwoody if left to grow . There is wide variation in size , shape , and color among Cucurbita fruits , and even within a single species . C. ficifolia is an exception , being highly uniform in appearance . The morphological variation in the species C. pepo and C. maxima is so vast that its various subspecies and cultivars have been misidentified as totally separate species .
The typical cultivated Cucurbita species has five @-@ lobed or palmately divided leaves with long petioles , with the leaves alternately arranged on the stem . The stems in some species are angular . All of the above @-@ ground parts may be hairy with various types of trichomes , which are often hardened and sharp . Spring @-@ like tendrils grow from each node and are branching in some species . C. argyrosperma has ovate @-@ cordate ( egg @-@ shaped to heart @-@ shaped ) leaves . The shape of C. pepo leaves varies widely . C. moschata plants can have light or dense pubescence . C. ficifolia leaves are slightly angular and have light pubescence . The leaves of all four of these species may or may not have white spots .
There are male ( staminate ) and female ( pistillate ) flowers ( unisexual flowers ) on a single plant ( monoecious ) , and these grow singly , appearing from the leaf axils . Flowers have five fused yellow to orange petals ( the corolla ) and a green bell @-@ shaped calyx . Male flowers in Cucurbitaceae generally have five stamens , but in Cucurbita there are only three , and their anthers are joined together so that there appears to be one . Female flowers have thick pedicels , and an inferior ovary with 3 – 5 stigmas that each have two lobes . The female flowers of C. argyrosperma and C. ficifolia have larger corollas than the male flowers . Female flowers of C. pepo have a small calyx , but the calyx of C. moschata male flowers is comparatively short .
Cucurbita fruits are large and fleshy . Botanists classify the Cucurbita fruit as a pepo , which is a special type of berry derived from an inferior ovary , with a thick outer wall or rind with hypanthium tissue forming an exocarp around the ovary , and a fleshy interior composed of mesocarp and endocarp . The term " pepo " is used primarily for Cucurbitaceae fruits , where this fruit type is common , but the fruits of Passiflora and Carica are sometimes also pepos . The seeds , which are attached to the ovary wall ( parietal placentation ) and not to the center , are large and fairly flat with a large embryo that consists almost entirely of two cotyledons . Fruit size varies considerably : wild fruit specimens can be as small as 4 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) and some domesticated specimens can weigh well over 300 kilograms ( 660 lb ) . The current world record was set in 2014 by Beni Meier of Switzerland with a 2 @,@ 323 @.@ 7 @-@ pound ( 1 @,@ 054 @.@ 0 kg ) pumpkin .
= = Taxonomy = =
Cucurbita was formally described in a way that meets the requirements of modern botanical nomenclature by Linnaeus in his Genera Plantarum , the fifth edition of 1754 in conjunction with the 1753 first edition of Species Plantarum . Cucurbita pepo is the type species of the genus . Linnaeus initially included the species C. pepo , C. verrucosa and C. melopepo ( both now included in C. pepo ) , as well as C. citrullus ( watermelon , now Citrullus lanatus ) and C. lagenaria ( now Lagenaria siceraria ) ( both are not Cucurbita but are in the family Cucurbitaceae .
The Cucurbita digitata , C. foetidissima , C. galeotti , and C. pedatifolia species groups are xerophytes , arid zone perennials with storage roots ; the remainder , including the five domesticated species , are all mesophytic annuals or short @-@ life perennials with no storage roots . The five domesticated species are mostly isolated from each other by sterility barriers and have different physiological characteristics . Some cross pollinations can occur : C. pepo with C. argyrosperma and C. moschata ; and C. maxima with C. moschata . Cross pollination does occur readily within the family Cucurbitaceae . The buffalo gourd ( C. foetidissima ) , which does not taste good , has been used as an intermediary as it can be crossed with all the common Cucurbita .
Various taxonomic treatments have been proposed for Cucurbita , ranging from 13 – 30 species . In 1990 , Cucurbita expert Michael Nee classified them into the following oft @-@ cited 13 species groups ( 27 species total ) , listed by group and alphabetically , with geographic origin :
C. argyrosperma ( synonym C. mixta ) – cushaw pumpkin ; origin : Panama , Mexico
C. kellyana , origin : Pacific coast of western Mexico
C. palmeri , origin : Pacific coast of northwestern Mexico
C. sororia , origin : Pacific coast Mexico to Nicaragua , northeastern Mexico
C. digitata – fingerleaf gourd ; origin : southwestern United States ( USA ) , northwestern Mexico
C. californica
C. cordata
C. cylindrata
C. palmata
C. ecuadorensis , origin : Ecuador 's Pacific coast
C. ficifolia – figleaf gourd , chilacayote ; origin : Mexico , Panama , northern Chile and Argentina
C. foetidissima – stinking gourd , buffalo gourd ; origin : Mexico
C. scabridifolia , likely a natural hybrid of C. foetidissima and C. pedatifolia
C. galeottii is little known ; origin : Oaxaca , Mexico
C. lundelliana , origin : Mexico , Guatemala , Belize
C. maxima – winter squash , pumpkin ; origin : Argentina , Bolivia , Ecuador
C. andreana , origin – Argentina
C. moschata – butternut squash , ' Dickinson ' pumpkin , golden cushaw ; origin : Bolivia , Colombia , Ecuador , Mexico , Panama , Puerto Rico , Venezuela
C. okeechobeensis , origin : Florida
C. martinezii , origin : Mexican Gulf Coast and foothills
C. pedatifolia , origin : Querétaro , Mexico
C. moorei
C. pepo – field pumpkin , summer squash , zucchini , vegetable marrow , courgette , acorn squash ; origin : Mexico , USA
C. fraterna , origin : Tamaulipas and Nuevo León , Mexico
C. texana , origin : Texas , USA
C. radicans – calabacilla , calabaza de coyote ; origin : Central Mexico
C. gracilior
The taxonomy by Nee closely matches the species groupings reported in a pair of studies by a botanical team led by Rhodes and Bemis in 1968 and 1970 based on statistical groupings of several phenotypic traits of 21 species . Seeds for studying additional species members were not available . Sixteen of the 21 species were grouped into five clusters with the remaining five being classified separately :
C. digitata , C. palmata , C. californica , C. cylindrata , C. cordata
C. martinezii , C. okeechobeensis , C. lundelliana
C. sororia , C. gracilior , C. palmeri ; C. argyrosperma ( reported as C. mixta ) was considered close to the three previous species
C. maxima , C. andreana
C. pepo , C. texana
C. moschata , C. ficifolia , C. pedatifolia , C. foetidissima , and C. ecuadorensis were placed in their own separate species groups as they were not considered significantly close to any of the other species studied .
= = = Phylogeny = = =
The full phylogeny of this genus is unknown , and research was ongoing in 2014 . The following cladogram of Cucurbita phylogeny is based upon a 2002 study of mitochondrial DNA by Sanjur and colleagues .
= = Reproductive biology = =
All species of Cucurbita have 20 pairs of chromosomes . Many North and Central American species are visited by specialist pollinators in the apid tribe Eucerini , especially the genera Peponapis and Xenoglossa , and these squash bees can be crucial to the flowers producing fruit after pollination .
When there is more pollen applied to the stigma , more seeds are produced in the fruits and the fruits are larger with greater likelihood of maturation , an effect called xenia . Competitively grown specimens are therefore often hand @-@ pollinated to maximize the number of seeds in the fruit , which increases the fruit size ; this pollination requires skilled technique . Seedlessness is known to occur in certain cultivars of C. pepo .
The most critical factors in flowering and fruit set are physiological , having to do with the age of the plant and whether it already has developing fruit . The plant hormones ethylene and auxin are key in fruit set and development . Ethylene promotes the production of female flowers . When a plant already has a fruit developing , subsequent female flowers on the plant are less likely to mature , a phenomenon called " first @-@ fruit dominance " , and male flowers are more frequent , an effect that appears due to reduced natural ethylene production within the plant stem . Ethephon , a plant growth regulator product that is converted to ethylene after metabolism by the plant , can be used to increase fruit and seed production .
The plant hormone gibberellin , produced in the stamens , is essential for the development of all parts of the male flowers . The development of female flowers is not yet understood . Gibberellin is also involved in other developmental processes of plants such as seed and stem growth .
= = = Germination and seedling growth = = =
Seeds with maximum germination potential develop ( in C. moschata ) by 45 days after anthesis , and seed weight reaches its maximum 70 days after anthesis . Some varieties of C. pepo germinate best with eight hours of sunlight daily and a planting depth of 1 @.@ 2 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) . Seeds planted deeper than 12 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) are not likely to germinate . In C. foetidissima , a weedy species , plants younger than 19 days old are not able to sprout from the roots after removing the shoots . In a seed batch with 90 percent germination rate , over 90 percent of the plants had sprouted after 29 days from planting .
Experiments have shown that when more pollen is applied to the stigma , as well as the fruit containing more seeds and being larger ( the xenia effect mentioned above ) , the germination of the seeds is also faster and more likely , and the seedlings are larger . Various combinations of mineral nutrients and light have a significant effect during the various stages of plant growth . These effects vary significantly between the different species of Cucurbita . A type of stored phosphorus called phytate forms in seed tissues as spherical crystalline intrusions in protein bodies called globoids . Along with other nutrients , phytate is used completely during seedling growth . Heavy metal contamination , including cadmium , has a significant negative impact on plant growth . Cucurbita plants grown in the spring tend to grow larger than those grown in the autumn .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Archaeological investigations have found evidence of domestication of Cucurbita going back over 8 @,@ 000 years from the very southern parts of Canada down to Argentina and Chile . Centers of domestication stretch from the Mississippi River watershed and Texas down through Mexico and Central America to northern and western South America . Of the 27 species that Nee delineates , five are domesticated . Four of them , C. argyrosperma , C. ficifolia , C. moschata , and C. pepo , originated and were domesticated in Mesoamerica ; for the fifth , C. maxima , these events occurred in South America .
Within C. pepo , the pumpkins , the scallops , and possibly the crooknecks are ancient and were domesticated at different times and places . The domesticated forms of C. pepo have larger fruits than non @-@ domesticated forms and seeds that are bigger but fewer in number . In a 1989 study on the origins and development of C. pepo , botanist Harry Paris suggested that the original wild specimen had a small round fruit and that the modern pumpkin is its direct descendant . He suggested that the crookneck , ornamental gourd , and scallop are early variants and that the acorn is a cross between the scallop and the pumpkin .
C. argyrosperma is not as widespread as the other species . The wild form C. a. subsp. sororia is found from Mexico to Nicaragua , and cultivated forms are used in a somewhat wider area stretching from Panama to the southeastern United States . It was probably bred for its seeds , which are large and high in oil and protein , but its flesh is of poorer quality than that of C. moschata and C. pepo . It is grown in a wide altitudinal range : from sea level to as high as 1 @,@ 800 meters ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) in dry areas , usually with the use of irrigation , or in areas with a defined rainy season , where seeds are sown in May and June .
C. ficifolia and C. moschata were originally thought to be Asiatic in origin , but this has been disproven . The origin of C. ficifolia is Latin America , most likely southern Mexico , Central America , or the Andes . It grows at altitudes ranging from 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) to 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) in areas with heavy rainfall . It does not hybridize well with the other cultivated species as it has significantly different enzymes and chromosomes .
C. maxima originated in South America over 4 @,@ 000 years ago , probably in Argentina and Uruguay . The plants are sensitive to frost , and they prefer both bright sunlight and soil with a pH of 6 @.@ 0 to 7 @.@ 0 . C. maxima did not start to spread into North America until after the arrival of Columbus . Varieties were in use by native peoples of the United States by the 16th century . Types of C. maxima include triloba , zapallito , zipinka , Banana , Delicious , Hubbard , Marrow ( C. maxima Marrow ) , Show , and Turban .
C. moschata is native to Latin America , but the precise location of origin is uncertain . It has been present in Mexico , Belize , Guatemala , and Peru for 4 @,@ 000 – 6 @,@ 000 years and has spread to Bolivia , Ecuador , Panama , Puerto Rico , and Venezuela . This species is closely related to C. argyrosperma . A variety known as the Seminole Pumpkin has been cultivated in Florida since before the arrival of Columbus . Its leaves are 20 to 30 centimeters ( 8 to 12 in ) wide . It generally grows at low altitudes in hot climates with heavy rainfall , but some varieties have been found above 2 @,@ 200 meters ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) . Groups of C. moschata include Cheese , Crookneck ( C. moschata ) , and Bell .
C. pepo is one of the oldest , if not the oldest , domesticated species with the oldest known locations being Oaxaca , Mexico , 8 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 years ago , and Ocampo , Tamaulipas , Mexico , about 7 @,@ 000 years ago . It is known to have appeared in Missouri , United States , at least 4 @,@ 000 years ago . Debates about the origin of C. pepo have been on @-@ going since at least 1857 . There have traditionally been two opposing theories about its origin : 1 ) that it is a direct descendant of C. texana and 2 ) that C. texana is merely feral C. pepo . A more recent theory by botanist Thomas Andres in 1987 is that descendants of C. fraterna hybridized with C. texana , resulting in two distinct domestication events in two different areas : one in Mexico and one in the eastern United States , with C. fraterna and C. texana , respectively , as the ancestral species . C. pepo may have appeared in the Old World before moving from Mexico into South America . It is found from sea level to slightly above 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . Leaves have 3 – 5 lobes and are 20 – 35 centimeters ( 8 – 14 in ) wide . All the subspecies , varieties , and cultivars are interfertile . In 1986 Paris proposed a revised taxonomy of the edible cultivated C. pepo based primarily on the shape of the fruit , with eight groups . All but a few C. pepo cultivars can be included in these groups . There is one non @-@ edible cultivated variety : C. pepo var. ovifera .
= = History and domestication = =
The ancestral species of the genus Cucurbita were present in the Americas before the arrival of humans , and are native to the New World . The likely center of origin is southern Mexico , spreading south through what is now known as Mesoamerica , on into South America , and north to what is now the southwestern United States . Evolutionarily speaking , the genus is relatively recent in origin , dating back only to the Holocene , whereas the family Cucurbitaceae , in the shape of seeds similar to Bryonia , dates to the Paleocene . No species within the genus is entirely genetically isolated . C. moschata can intercross with all the others , though the hybrid offspring may not themselves be fertile unless they become polyploid . The genus was part of the culture of almost every native peoples group from southern South America to southern Canada . Modern @-@ day cultivated Cucurbita are not found in the wild . Genetic studies of the mitochondrial gene nad1 show there were at least six independent domestication events of Cucurbita separating domestic species from their wild ancestors . Species native to North America include C. digitata ( calabazilla ) , and C. foetidissima ( buffalo gourd ) , C. palmata ( coyote melon ) , and C. pepo . Some species , such as C. digitata and C. ficifolia , are referred to as gourds . Gourds , also called bottle @-@ gourds , which are used as utensils or vessels , belong to the genus Lagenaria and are native to Africa . Lagenaria are in the same family and subfamily as Cucurbita but in a different tribe .
The earliest known evidence of the domestication of Cucurbita dates back at least 8 @,@ 000 years ago , predating the domestication of other crops such as maize and beans in the region by about 4 @,@ 000 years . This evidence was found in the Guilá Naquitz cave in Oaxaca , Mexico , during a series of excavations in the 1960s and 1970s , possibly beginning in 1959 . Solid evidence of domesticated C. pepo was found in the Guilá Naquitz cave in the form of increasing rind thickness and larger peduncles in the newer stratification layers of the cave . By c . 8 @,@ 000 years BP the C. pepo peduncles found are consistently more than 10 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) thick . Wild Cucurbita peduncles are always below this 10 mm barrier . Changes in fruit shape and color indicate that intentional breeding of C. pepo had occurred by no later than 8 @,@ 000 years BP . During the same time frame , average rind thickness increased from 0 @.@ 84 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 033 in ) to 1 @.@ 15 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 045 in ) .
Squash was domesticated first , followed by maize and then beans , becoming part of the Three Sisters agricultural system of companion planting . The English word " squash " derives from askutasquash ( a green thing eaten raw ) , a word from the Narragansett language , which was documented by Roger Williams , the founder of Rhode Island , in his 1643 publication A Key Into the Language of America . Similar words for squash exist in related languages of the Algonquian family .
= = = Production = = =
The family Cucurbitaceae has many species used as human food . Cucurbita is one of the most important of those , with the various species being prepared and eaten in many ways . Although the stems and skins tend to be more bitter than the flesh , the fruits and seeds of cultivated varieties are quite edible and need little or no preparation . The flowers and young leaves and shoot tips can also be consumed . The seeds and fruits of most varieties can be stored for long periods of time , particularly the sweet @-@ tasting winter varieties with their thick , inedible skins . Summer squash have a thin , edible skin . The seeds of both types can be roasted , eaten raw , made into pumpkin seed oil , ground into a flour or meal , or otherwise prepared .
Squashes are primarily grown for the fresh food market . The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO ) reported that the ranking of the top five squash @-@ producing countries was stable between 2005 and 2009 . Those countries are : China , India , Russia , the United States , and Egypt . By 2012 , Iran had moved into the 5th slot , with Egypt falling to 6th . The top 10 countries in terms of metric tons of squashes produced are :
The only additional countries that rank in the top 20 where squashes are native are Cuba , which ranks 14th with 347 @,@ 082 metric tons , and Argentina , which ranks 17th , with 326 @,@ 900 metric tons . In addition to being the 4th largest producer of squashes in the world , the United States is the world 's largest importer of squashes , importing 271 @,@ 614 metric tons in 2011 , 95 percent of that from Mexico . Within the United States , the states producing the largest amounts are Florida , New York , California , and North Carolina .
This is how Cucurbita compares to several other major Cucurbitaceae crops in terms of crop tonnage harvested :
= = Nutrients = =
As an example of Curcubita , raw summer squash is 94 % water , 3 % carbohydrates , and 1 % protein , with negligible fat content ( table ) . In 100 grams , raw squash supplies 16 calories and is rich in vitamin C ( 20 % of the Daily Value , DV ) , moderate in vitamin B6 and riboflavin ( 12 @-@ 17 % DV ) , but otherwise devoid of appreciable nutrient content ( table ) , although the nutrient content of different Curcubita species may vary somewhat .
Pumpkin seeds contain vitamin E , crude protein , B vitamins and several dietary minerals ( see nutrition table at pepita ) . Also present in pumpkin seeds are unsaturated and saturated oils , palmitic , oleic and linoleic fatty acids , as well as carotenoids .
= = Toxins = =
Cucurbitin is an amino acid and a carboxypyrrolidine that is found in raw Cucurbita seeds . It retards the development of parasitic flukes when administered to infected host mice , although the effect is only seen if administration begins immediately after infection .
Cucurmosin is a ribosome inactivating protein found in the flesh and seed of Cucurbita , notably Cucurbita moschata . Cucurmosin is more toxic to cancer cells than healthy cells .
Cucurbitacin is a plant steroid present in wild Cucurbita and in each member of the family Cucurbitaceae . Poisonous to mammals , it is found in quantities sufficient to discourage herbivores . It makes wild Cucurbita and most ornamental gourds , with the exception of an occasional C. fraterna and C. sororia , bitter to taste . Ingesting too much cucurbitacin can cause stomach cramps , diarrhea and even collapse . This bitterness is especially prevalent in wild Cucurbita ; in parts of Mexico the flesh of the fruits is rubbed on a woman 's breast to wean children . While the process of domestication has largely removed the bitterness from cultivated varieties , there are occasional reports of cucurbitacin causing illness in humans . Cucurbitacin is also used as a lure in insect traps .
= = Pests and diseases = =
Cucurbita species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species , including the Cabbage Moth ( Mamestra brassicae ) , Hypercompe indecisa , and the Turnip Moth ( Agrotis segetum ) . Cucurbita can be susceptible to the pest Bemisia argentifolii ( silverleaf whitefly ) as well as aphids ( Aphididae ) , cucumber beetles ( Acalymma vittatum and Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi ) , squash bug ( Anasa tristis ) , the squash vine borer ( Melittia cucurbitae ) , and the twospotted spidermite ( Tetranychus urticae ) . The squash bug causes major damage to plants because of its very toxic saliva . The red pumpkin beetle ( Raphidopalpa foveicollis ) is a serious pest of cucurbits , especially the pumpkin , which it can defoliate . Cucurbits are susceptible to diseases such as bacterial wilt ( Erwinia tracheiphila ) , anthracnose ( Colletotrichum spp . ) , fusarium wilt ( Fusarium spp . ) , phytophthora blight ( Phytophthora spp. water molds ) , and powdery mildew ( Erysiphe spp . ) . Defensive responses to viral , fungal , and bacterial leaf pathogens do not involve cucurbitacin .
Species in the genus Cucurbita are susceptible to some types of mosaic virus including : Cucumber mosaic virus ( CMV ) , Papaya ringspot virus @-@ cucurbit strain ( PRSV ) , Squash mosaic virus ( SqMV ) , Tobacco ringspot virus ( TRSV ) , Watermelon mosaic virus ( WMV ) , and Zucchini yellow mosaic virus ( ZYMV ) . PRSV is the only one of these viruses that does not affect all cucurbits . SqMV and CMV are the most common viruses among cucurbits . Symptoms of these viruses show a high degree of similarity , which often results in laboratory investigation being needed to differentiate which one is affecting plants .
= = Human culture = =
= = = Art , music , and literature = = =
Along with maize and beans , squash has been depicted in the art work of the native peoples of the Americas for at least 2 @,@ 000 years . For example , cucurbits are often represented in Moche ceramics .
Though native to the western hemisphere , Cucurbita began to spread to other parts of the world after Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the New World in 1492 . Until recently , the earliest known depictions of this genus in Europe was of Cucurbita pepo in De Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes in 1542 by the German botanist Leonhart Fuchs , but in 1992 , two paintings , one of C. pepo and one of C. maxima , painted between 1515 and 1518 , were identified in festoons at Villa Farnesina in Rome . Also , in 2001 depictions of this genus were identified in Grandes Heures of Anne of Brittany ( Les Grandes Heures d 'Anne de Bretagne ) , a French devotional book , an illuminated manuscript created between 1503 and 1508 . This book contains an illustration known as Quegourdes de turquie , which was identified by cucurbit specialists as C. pepo subsp. texana in 2006 .
In 1952 , Stanley Smith Master , using the pen name Edrich Siebert , wrote " The Marrow Song ( Oh what a beauty ! ) " to a tune in 6 / 8 time . It became a popular hit in Australia in 1973 , and was revived by the Wurzels in Britain on their 2003 album Cutler of the West . John Greenleaf Whittier wrote a poem entitled The Pumpkin in 1850 . " The Great Pumpkin " is a fictional holiday figure in the comic strip Peanuts by Charles M. Schulz .
= = = Soap = = =
The fruit pulp of some species , such as C. foetidissima , can be used as a soap or detergent .
= = = Folk remedies = = =
Cucurbita have been used in various cultures as folk remedies . Pumpkins have been used by Native Americans to treat intestinal worms and urinary ailments . This Native American remedy was adopted by American doctors in the early nineteenth century as an anthelmintic for the expulsion of worms . In southeastern Europe , seeds of C. pepo were used to treat irritable bladder and benign prostatic hyperplasia . In Germany , pumpkin seed is approved for use by the Commission E , which assesses folk and herbal medicine , for irritated bladder conditions and micturition problems of prostatic hyperplasia stages 1 and 2 , although the monograph published in 1985 noted a lack of pharmacological studies that could substantiate empirically found clinical activity . The FDA in the United States , on the other hand , banned the sale of all such non @-@ prescription drugs for the treatment of prostate enlargement in 1990 .
In China , C. moschata seeds were also used in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of the parasitic disease schistosomiasis and for the expulsion of tape worms .
In Mexico , herbalists use C. ficifolia in the belief that it reduces blood sugar levels .
= = = Culinary uses = = =
Long before European contact , Cucurbita had been a major food source for the native peoples of the Americas , and the species became an important food for European settlers , including the Pilgrims , even featuring at the first Thanksgiving . Commercially made pumpkin pie mix is most often made from varieties of C. moschata ; ' Libby 's Select ' uses the Select Dickinson Pumpkin variety of C. moschata for its canned pumpkin . Other foods that can be made using members of this genus include biscuits , bread , cheesecake , desserts , donuts , granola , ice cream , lasagna dishes , pancakes , pudding , pumpkin butter , salads , soups , and stuffing . The xerophytic species are proving useful in the search for nutritious foods that grow well in arid regions . C. ficifolia is used to make soft and mildly alcoholic drinks .
In India , squashes ( ghia ) are cooked with seafood such as prawns . In France , marrows ( courge ) are traditionally served as a gratin , sieved and cooked with butter , milk , and egg , and flavored with salt , pepper , and nutmeg , and as soups . In Italy , zucchini and larger squashes are served in a variety of regional dishes , such as cocuzze alla puviredda cooked with olive oil , salt and herbs from Puglia ; as torta di zucca from Liguria , or torta di zucca e riso from Emilia @-@ Romagna , the squashes being made into a pie filling with butter , ricotta , parmesan , egg , and milk ; and as a sauce for pasta in dishes like spaghetti alle zucchine from Sicily . In Japan , squashes such as small C. moschata pumpkins ( kabocha ) are eaten boiled with sesame sauce , fried as a tempura dish , or made into balls with sweet potato and Japanese mountain yam .
= = = Festivals = = =
Cucurbita fruits including pumpkins and marrows are celebrated in festivals in countries such as Argentina , Bolivia , Britain , Canada , Croatia , France , Germany , Italy , Japan , Peru , Portugal , Spain , Switzerland , and the United States . Argentina holds an annual nationwide pumpkin festival Fiesta Nacional del Zapallo ( " Squashes and Pumpkins National Festival " ) , in Ceres , Santa Fe , on the last day of which a Reina Nacional del Zapallo ( " National Queen of the Pumpkin " ) is chosen . In Portugal the Festival da Abóbora de Lourinhã e Atalaia ( " Squashes and Pumpkins Festival in Lourinhã and Atalaia " ) is held in Lourinhã city , called the Capital Nacional da Abóbora ( the " National Capital of Squashes and Pumpkins " ) . Ludwigsburg , Germany annually hosts the world 's largest pumpkin festival . In Britain a giant marrow ( zucchini ) weighing 54 @.@ 3177 kilograms ( 119 @.@ 750 lb ) was displayed in the Harrogate Autumn Flower Show in 2012 . In the USA , pumpkin chucking is practiced competitively , with machines such as trebuchets and air cannons designed to throw intact pumpkins as far as possible . The Keene Pumpkin Fest is held annually in New Hampshire ; in 2013 it held the world record for the most jack @-@ o @-@ lanterns lit in one place , 30 @,@ 581 on October 19 , 2013 .
Halloween is widely celebrated with jack @-@ o @-@ lanterns made of large orange pumpkins carved with ghoulish faces and illuminated from inside with candles . The pumpkins used for jack @-@ o @-@ lanterns are C. pepo , not to be confused with the ones typically used for pumpkin pie in the United States , which are C. moschata . Kew Gardens marked Halloween in 2013 with a display of pumpkins , including a towering pyramid made of many varieties of squash , in the Waterlily House during its " IncrEdibles " festival .
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= Beautiful Liar =
" Beautiful Liar " ( Spanish : Bello Embustero ) is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé and Colombian singer Shakira . It was written by Beyoncé , Amanda Ghost , Ian Dench , and Stargate members Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen , and produced by Stargate and Beyoncé for the re @-@ release of Beyoncé 's second solo album , B 'Day ( 2006 ) . The mixing of the song was done by Gustavo Celis . " Beautiful Liar " was released on March 14 , 2007 , by Columbia Records as the first single from the deluxe edition of the album . A Spanish and English mixed version of the song was produced and titled " Bello Embustero " .
" Beautiful Liar " is a mid @-@ tempo song ; musically , it is a melding of Shakira 's Latin and Middle Eastern styles with Beyoncé 's contemporary hip hop and R & B styles . Its theme is female empowerment ; two female protagonists sing about being charmed by the same man , but instead of fighting over him , both ladies agree that he is not worth their time . The song was well received by music critics , who praised generally Beyoncé 's and Shakira 's collaboration . " Beautiful Liar " was nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 50th Grammy Awards and the Spanish version was nominated for Record of the Year at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2007 . It won an Ivor Novello Awards for Best @-@ Selling British Song in 2008 .
" Beautiful Liar " was commercially successful . It peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and experienced the largest upward movement on that chart until 2008 . The song peaked at number one in many European countries , including France , Germany , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands , New Zealand , Switzerland , and the United Kingdom . Its accompanying music video was directed by Jake Nava , incorporates belly dancing moves . " Beautiful Liar " won the Most Earthshattering Collaboration award at the 2007 MTV Video Music Award . The song was included on Beyoncé 's set list during her 2007 The Beyoncé Experience world tour .
= = Conception and recording = =
" Beautiful Liar " was written by Mikkel S. Eriksen , Tor Erik Hermansen , Amanda Ghost , Ian Dench , and Beyoncé . It was produced by Eriksen and Hermansen using their stage name , Stargate , and Beyoncé . Eriksen told Sound on Sound , " This song is very simple . Most of the time we have more chords in a song , because we find it hard writing a great song on just one chord . But if you do it right , you can make it work , and this song is an example . " The track had already been written in 2006 . Eriksen and Hermansen played it to their manager , Tyran Smith , who said that it would be perfect for a duet between Shakira and Beyoncé . Eriksen and Hermansen considered this to be impossible , however Smith was devoted to that idea . As they had no lyric or top melody , various writers attempted to finish the song . The first three attempts were not satisfactory , and Smith put Eriksen and Hermansen to work together with Ghost and Dench , who wrote a significant part of the lyrics and the melody .
" Beautiful Liar " initially had a Spanish title and different lyrics . Hermansen re @-@ titled it when he heard the line " beautiful liar " in one of the verses . When the production of the song was almost completed , it was presented to Beyoncé , who approved it . She added a few lines to the lyrics and recorded a solo version a few months before the release of the deluxe edition of B 'Day ( 2006 ) . Beyoncé confirmed that she would perform a duet with Shakira in an interview for Univision in December 2006 . In another interview for MTV News , Beyoncé said that she met Shakira several times at various awards shows , and they talked about plans to collaborate on a song as they are both fans of each other and respect each other 's work . Beyoncé said that she was very happy that they were able to work together after waiting for years .
When Beyoncé invited her to record a song for the re @-@ release of Beyoncé 's studio second album , B 'Day , Shakira was touring and consequently had difficulties to match her schedule with Beyoncé 's . A few months later , Shakira agreed to sing on the track . As she recorded her vocals , the songwriters and producers added the ethnic strings and percussion break . Beyoncé and Shakira recorded their vocals in different studios ; the vocals were engineered by Gustavo Celis . " Beautiful Liar " was recorded at Sony Music Studios and Battery Studios in New York City , Elastic Mix Studios and The Hit Factory in Florida , and Futura Productions in Boston , Massachusetts .
= = Composition = =
" Beautiful Liar " is a contemporary R & B and pop song , which is written in the key of G Phrygian dominant , and set in common time at a tempo of 96 beats per minute . Beyoncé 's vocal range spans from G3 to B ♭ 5 . Anna Pickard of The Guardian found elements of Latino and bounce music . The song opens with Shakira 's vocals accompanied by a piping , Middle Eastern figure , later joined by a mariachi @-@ flavored horn section . Groaning noises can be heard in the background which complement the melody . The names of the two singers are then heard : " Bee on say , be @-@ on @-@ SAY ! Sha kee ra , Sha @-@ ki @-@ RA " . The verses are sung on a mid @-@ tempo , strutting , hip @-@ thrusting arrangement , accented by rapid , flamenco @-@ like hand claps and guitar strums . The song also features Persian instruments such as , oud and ney .
Lyrically , " Beautiful Liar " speaks about two women who chose not to end a friendship because of a man who has cheated both of them . Its theme is one of female independence . Beyoncé told MTV News that " Beautiful Liar " is about female empowerment , in keeping with the theme of the album : " It 's about a guy who 's kind of playing both of us , and instead of us arguing over the guy we say , ' Forget him . Let 's stick together . He 's a beautiful liar . " The chorus features the lines , " Let 's not kill the karma , let 's not start a fight " with the female protagonists bonding in their mutual betrayal . Beyoncé and Shakira sing with staccato , intense vocal approach throughout the song . Beyoncé sings the lines " I didn 't know about you then , till I saw you with him again " earnestly while Shakira later adds " I walked in on your love scene , slow dancing " . In the end , the female protagonists conclude , " we can live without him " , referring to their cheating lover .
= = Release = =
" Beautiful Liar " was leaked onto the internet and appeared as an unpaid download in early February 2007 . The song was sent to radio stations in the United States on February 12 , 2007 ; it was added to rhythmic contemporary , contemporary hit radio , and urban contemporary playlists . " Beautiful Liar " was released as a CD Single in Australia on March 14 , 2007 , and on April 16 , 2007 , in the United Kingdom where it was released as a digital download two days earlier . In Europe , the song was released as a digital EP on April 14 , 2007 , and a maxi single on April 20 , 2007 . " Beautiful Liar " was later serviced as a digital EP in the UK and the US on May 20 , 2007 . Different versions of the song were produced ; Puerto Rican reggaeton artist Don Omar recorded verses for one of the song 's remixes , but this was not released . In the UK , most radio stations , including Radio 1 played an up @-@ beat dance remix of " Beautiful Liar " by the Freemasons instead of the original mix . Celis produced and mixed a Spanish @-@ language version , titled " Bello Embustero " , with additional lyrical contributions by Rudy Pérez . The Spanish version appeared on some regional releases of the deluxe edition of B 'Day in late May 2007 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Nick Levine of Digital Spy awarded " Beautiful Liar " three stars out of five and wrote that it " isn 't as ridiculously overblown " as previous collaborations of Whitney Houston and Mariah Carey on " When You Believe " ( 1998 ) and Barbra Streisand and Celine Dion on " Tell Him " ( 1997 ) . However , he added that " it 's as calculated as a wannabe page 3 model 's decision to have a boob job " , and that an accompanying music video will keep fans happy . Ben Sisario of The New York Times called it a " steamy track " . Richard Cromelin of the Los Angeles Times wrote that the singers " have fun with the grand soap @-@ operatics " of the song adding that " Beautiful Liar " has " cultural as well as musical resonance , furthering Beyonce 's bilingual agenda " . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song " is a minor letdown ; Shakira 's voice is too like Beyoncé 's for a truly complementary tango " . On April 26 , 2011 , Gary Trust of Billboard magazine listed " Beautiful Liar " at the fourth position on his list of the 10 All @-@ Female Hit Collaborations , calling it a " female @-@ bonding boy @-@ bashing anthem " . Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz of the same publication ranked the song at number 22 on their list of " Beyonce 's 30 Biggest Billboard Hits " . In 2014 , Emily Exton of VH1 placed the track on her list of Shakira 's best duets , calling it a " sexy ode to the men we know we can 't trust " and praising both singers for their complementing vocal performance .
The song was nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 50th Annual Grammy Awards . Its Spanish version was nominated at the 8th Annual Latin Grammy Award for Record of the Year . In Europe , " Beautiful Liar " won the Best @-@ Selling British Song at the 2008 Ivor Novello Awards . It was deemed eligible for the award because British songwriters Amanda Ghost and Ian Dench had worked on it .
= = = Chart performance = = =
Immediately after its release , " Beautiful Liar " reached number one on the iTunes best @-@ seller list in March 2007 . The song debuted at number 94 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart ; most sales were digital downloads . The following week , it rose 91 positions to number three after 150 @,@ 000 download copies were sold ; this set a record for the largest upward movement in the history of the Hot 100 chart , until it was surpassed by Britney Spears 's 2008 single " Womanizer " , and Kelly Clarkson 's 2009 single " My Life Would Suck Without You " . On the US Pop 100 chart , " Beautiful Liar " rose from number 77 to number three . It is one of the few singles to debut at number one on both the US Hot Digital Tracks chart and US Hot Digital Songs chart . In mid @-@ May , the song peaked at number one on the US Hot Singles Sales , becoming the fifth single from B 'Day to accomplish this feat . " Beautiful Liar " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in February 2009 , denoting shipment of one million copies . As of March 2014 , it has sold over 1 @,@ 419 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the US .
Outside the US , " Beautiful Liar " reached number one in 32 countries . In the UK , the Freemasons remixed version of the song was widely promoted by radio stations , including BBC Radio 1 , where it was put on the A @-@ List . Two weeks before the CD release , the song debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 10 , based solely on downloads sales , which accumulated to 37 @,@ 500 units in its first week . It became both Beyoncé 's and Shakira 's highest debut on the UK Singles Chart based on digital sales alone . After the physical release , " Beautiful Liar " reached number one , becoming Beyoncé 's third UK number one single , and Shakira 's second . It remained at number one for three weeks . On June 20 , 2007 , the song was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting sales of 400 @,@ 000 copies . " Beautiful Liar " was 2007 's 12th biggest @-@ selling single in the UK . As of September 2014 , the single has sold 430 @,@ 000 units in the UK . In Australia , the song reached number five , and was the country 's 51st best @-@ performing single in 2007 . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) certified " Beautiful Liar " platinum , denoting shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies . It debuted at number one on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and topped the Irish Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Beautiful Liar " was directed by Jake Nava , who directed several of Beyoncé 's other videos . It was filmed over two days , during the two @-@ week production of B 'Day Anthology Video Album . Because of a busy schedule , the production team did not have enough time for the choreography . The dance sequences were choreographed spontaneously and the routines were rehearsed in forty minutes . Beyoncé learned some of the choreography from Shakira , who created most of them and taught Beyoncé some belly dancing moves . Beyoncé originated the idea of playing a lookalike after an experience when she saw a boy dancing , and thought he was performing before a mirror , but realized he was dancing with another person . The music video premiered on Total Request Live on February 28 , 2007 .
The first half of the video features Beyoncé and Shakira in separate scenes . It begins with the women 's faces masked by smoke . As the video progresses they are featured against several different backgrounds , including dawn ( Beyoncé ) and dusk ( Shakira ) ; sheets blown in the wind ; bamboo covered with yellow orchids ; a room with blue neon lighting and Avestan writing on the walls ; and a background of stormy weather . Slow dance moves and belly dancing , during a breakdown after the bridge , are featured throughout the video . The women wear matching hairstyles and black outfits for the entirety of the video .
Alex Denney of Yahoo ! Music wrote that the dance moves of Beyoncé and Shakira in the video were convincing and erotic " without reaching the point of tackiness . " He added that the music video " is a real treat for men and women alike . The catchy beat and their lithe , sexy dance just provides an amazing entertaining video . " Nick Levine of Digital Spy praised the " gratuitous belly @-@ wiggling " choreography in the video . James Montgomery of MTV News noted that the music video " is enough to give you whiplash " due to Beyoncé 's and Shakira 's dance abilities . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine praised the scene during the bridge of the song , where Beyoncé and Shakira " begin mirroring each other 's movements " . Anna Pickard of The Guardian praised the clothes of the singers , saying that they matched their " mighty curves " , but criticized Beyoncé 's dancing throughout the video . Erin Strecker of Billboard noted how the clip " taught us all just how perfectly seductive the two could be " . " Beautiful Liar " was nominated for the Video Of The Year award at the 2007 BET Awards , but another Beyoncé video , " Irreplaceable " won it . At the 2007 MTV Video Music Award , it won the Most Earthshattering Collaboration , a new category in the awards show that year . Beyoncé received the award alone because Shakira was in Canada during the ceremonies .
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé has never performed " Beautiful Liar " together with Shakira and the latter never performed the song live . Beyoncé 's first and only televised performance of the song was during The Early Show on CBS on April 2 , 2007 which was broadcast four days later . " Beautiful Liar " was later included on Beyoncé 's set list during her 2007 tour The Beyoncé Experience . On The Beyoncé Experience , Beyoncé was dressed in a green belly dancing outfit and stood in darkness with dry ice billowing behind her . A microphone was then lowered from the ceiling and as she began singing the first verse , colored illumination was projected onto the backdrop . Beyoncé then performed several hip dance routines . Towards the end of the performance , pairs of female dancers , clothed in purple dresses , performed mirrored choreography . Beyoncé was accompanied by two drummers , two keyboardists , a percussionist , a horn section , three backup vocalists called The Mamas and a lead guitarist , Bibi McGill . Throughout the performance Shakira appeared on the video screen on stage .
While reviewing Beyoncé 's performance at the Madison Square Garden in Manhattan , on August 5 , 2007 , Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote , " Beyoncé needs no distractions from her singing , which can be airy or brassy , tearful or vicious , rapid @-@ fire with staccato syllables or sustained in curlicued melismas . But she was in constant motion , strutting in costumes . " Shaheem Reid of MTV News compared the performance with Michael Buffer further adding that " Beyoncé acknowledged Shakira by shaking her hips rapidly " . While reviewing Beyoncé 's performance of the song in Saskatoon on September 14 , 2007 , a writer of The StarPhoenix noted that it was one of the musical surprises during the evening . Jim Harrington from the San Jose Mercury News noted that Beyoncé 's all @-@ female band provided " plenty of punch " to the live performance of the song in Fresno on August 28 , 2007 further noting that the singer looked like a " sex kitten purring through " the song . In Los Angeles , on September 2 , Beyoncé performed " Beautiful Liar " , dressed in a green belly dancing outfit , with several female backup dancers , and live instrumentation . " Beautiful Liar " was included on Beyoncé 's live album The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) .
= = Formats and track listings = =
US and UK Digital EP
" Beautiful Liar " ( featuring Shakira ) – 3 : 21
" Beautiful Liar ( Bello Embustero ) " ( Spanish Version ) - 3 : 22
" Beautiful Liar ( Spanglish Version ) " ( featuring Sasha Fierce a.k.a. Beyoncé ) - 3 : 21
" Beautiful Liar ( Instrumental ) " - 3 : 19
New Zealand and UK Digital Download
" Beautiful Liar " ( featuring Shakira ) – 3 : 19
Australia , New Zealand and UK CD Single
" Beautiful Liar " ( featuring Shakira ) – 3 : 19
" Beautiful Liar ( Freemasons Remix Edit ) " ( featuring Shakira ) - 3 : 27
European Maxi single
" Beautiful Liar " ( featuring Shakira ) – 3 : 19
" Beautiful Liar ( Freemasons Remix Edit ) " ( featuring Shakira ) - 3 : 27
" Irreplaceable ( Maurice Joshua Remix Edit ) " - 4 : 03
" Déjà Vu ( Freemasons Radio Mix ) " - 3 : 15
" Beautiful Liar " ( Video ) - 3 : 34
= = Credits = =
Credits are taken from B 'Day liner notes.Source :
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Star Wars : Rogue Squadron =
Star Wars : Rogue Squadron ( known as Star Wars : Rogue Squadron 3D on the PC ) is an arcade @-@ style action game co @-@ developed by Factor 5 and LucasArts . The first of three games in the Rogue Squadron series , it was published by LucasArts and Nintendo and released for Microsoft Windows and the Nintendo 64 in December 1998 . Rogue Squadron was one of the first games to take advantage of the Nintendo 64 's Expansion Pak , which allows gameplay at a 640 × 480 display resolution , instead of that system 's standard 320 × 240 resolution .
Set in the fictional Star Wars galaxy and inspired by the Star Wars : X @-@ wing Rogue Squadron comics , the game takes place primarily between events in the films Star Wars and The Empire Strikes Back . The player controls Luke Skywalker , commander of the elite X @-@ wing pilots known as Rogue Squadron . As the game progresses , Skywalker and Rogue Squadron fight the Galactic Empire in sixteen missions across various planets .
Rogue Squadron received generally positive reviews . Critics praised the game 's technical achievements and flight controls , but its use of distance fog and the lack of a multiplayer mode drew criticism . The game 's sales exceeded expectations ; by August 1999 , more than one million copies had sold worldwide . It spawned two sequels developed and released for the GameCube — Star Wars Rogue Squadron II : Rogue Leader and Star Wars Rogue Squadron III : Rebel Strike — as well as Star Wars : Episode I : Battle for Naboo , a spiritual successor released for Windows and Nintendo 64 .
= = Gameplay = =
Unlike the Star Wars : X @-@ Wing computer game series that emphasizes space combat simulation , Rogue Squadron is a fast @-@ paced , arcade @-@ style action game . Each of the game 's sixteen levels introduces mission objectives that must be completed to progress to the next level . These objectives are divided into four categories : search and destroy , reconnaissance , rescue , and protect . Enemy aircraft are primarily composed of TIE fighters . Ground defenses are more varied and include three different walkers , laser and missile turrets , tanks , probe droids , shuttles , stormtroopers and speeder bikes .
The heads @-@ up display features a health meter , a radar and an ammunition count for secondary weapons . The player can control five craft : X @-@ wing , A @-@ wing , Y @-@ wing , snowspeeder and V @-@ wing . Each vehicle offers a unique armament arrangement , as well as varying degrees of speed and maneuverability . The game initially restricts the player to a particular craft for each level ; however , after a level is completed , it can be replayed with any available craft . Levels set on non @-@ atmospheric moons expose the player 's craft to space ; thus disallowing the Speeder and V @-@ Wing ( which are repulsorcraft ) from being used ; but as on other levels , the craft is vertically confined . Nine bonus power @-@ ups are hidden in different levels throughout the game . These bonuses improve a craft 's weapons or durability and are applied to each eligible craft for the remainder of the game .
The player 's performance is measured throughout the game , and performance statistics are checked after each level against three medal benchmarks . Each benchmark contains five categories : completion time , number of enemies destroyed , shot accuracy , number of friendly craft and structures saved and number of bonuses collected . If a player 's performance exceeds one of the level 's three benchmarks in all five categories , a medal — bronze , silver or gold — is awarded on completion . Acquiring these medals promotes the player 's rank and helps unlock hidden content .
= = = Unlockable content = = =
Rogue Squadron includes a number of unlockable secrets . The player can unlock three bonus levels : " Beggar 's Canyon " , " The Death Star Trench Run " and " The Battle of Hoth " . These levels are made available when the player obtains all bronze , silver or gold medals , respectively , on each level . Alternatively , they can be unlocked via password . Unlike the game 's primary levels , the bonus levels are adaptions of events from the Star Wars films . " Beggar 's Canyon " allows the player to reenact the race mentioned in A New Hope , while " The Death Star Trench Run " allows the player to execute an alternate version of the movie 's climactic battle . In the " Battle of Hoth " bonus level , the player can join the Rebel Alliance 's combat against Imperial troops , as depicted in The Empire Strikes Back .
Several craft are also available when unlocked . Both the Millennium Falcon and a TIE interceptor are initially present in the craft selection screen . However , neither may be selected until the player enters the correct passwords or achieves all bronze or silver medals , respectively , on the bonus levels . Two other craft can be unlocked , but each is confined to a specific level . One is the T @-@ 16 Skyhopper in " Beggar 's Canyon " , and an AT @-@ ST is playable in a basic demonstration level unlocked only via password . A playable model of a 1969 Buick Electra 225 based on a car owned by the game 's sound designer , Rudolph Stember , is also included in the game as an Easter egg .
During Rogue Squadron 's development , Star Wars Episode I : The Phantom Menace — the first new Star Wars film in more than 15 years — was less than one year from its scheduled release date . To take advantage of this marketing opportunity , Factor 5 included content from the upcoming film in Rogue Squadron . LucasFilm provided the developers with design art for the Naboo Starfighter , a ship prominently featured in the new film . These designs were used to create an in @-@ game model . Because the game was scheduled to be released six months before the film , Factor 5 was required to keep the ship 's inclusion a secret . As a result , most of the game 's development team at Factor 5 and LucasArts were not informed of its inclusion . A complex scrambling system was also developed to help hide the ship 's code from gamers using cheat cartridges such as GameShark or Action Replay . More than six months after the release of Rogue Squadron , LucasArts unveiled the code to unlock the Naboo Starfighter as a playable craft . The code has been named the Nintendo 64 's most well @-@ hidden code because of the length of time before its discovery .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Star Wars : Rogue Squadron is set in the fictional Star Wars galaxy , where a war is fought between the Galactic Empire and the Rebel Alliance . The game 's first fifteen levels occur six months after the Battle of Yavin — as depicted in A New Hope — and before the events of The Empire Strikes Back . As the Empire gathers strength for an all @-@ out assault on the rebel forces , Luke Skywalker and Wedge Antilles form Rogue Squadron , a group comprising twelve of the most skilled X @-@ wing pilots from the Rebel Alliance .
The sixteenth and final level of the game takes place during Dark Empire , six years after Star Wars Episode VI : Return of the Jedi 's Battle of Endor . The Rebel Alliance has established the New Republic , which now controls three quarters of the galaxy . After the deaths of Emperor Palpatine and Darth Vader , the Galactic Empire collapsed , but was reborn under a mysterious new leader ( who is actually a clone of Palpatine ) . Rogue Squadron , now under the command of Wedge Antilles , continues to fight the Empire to protect the newly formed Republic .
= = = Plot = = =
The story is divided into four chapters , each of which starts with an opening crawl resembling those featured in the Star Wars films . Further story details are presented through the game 's instruction manual , pre @-@ mission briefings , character conversations during the game and in @-@ game cut scenes . The game begins with Rogue Squadron briefly encountering the Empire at the Mos Eisley spaceport on Tatooine . The team then executes escort and rescue missions on Barkhesh and Chorax , respectively .
The Rebels learn that Imperial officer Crix Madine wishes to defect to the Rebel Alliance . The Empire launches an attack on Corellia , where Madine is stationed , to prevent his departure . Rogue Squadron , with the help of Han Solo and Chewbacca in the Millennium Falcon , fights off the Empire and helps escort Madine safely off the planet . Soon after , Rogue Squadron is joined by Gold Squadron , a group of Y @-@ wings now led by Crix Madine ; they are dispatched to the moon of Gerrard V to aid its quest for independence from the Empire . They encounter the 128th TIE interceptor Squadron and disable Kasan Moor 's TIE . When Rogue Squadron tells Moor that she has been taken prisoner , she offers to defect and provide the Rebel Alliance with Imperial intelligence .
With the help of Kasan Moor 's intelligence , the Alliance launches three consecutive attacks on Imperial bases throughout the galaxy . After an assault on the Imperial Enclave , a facility on Kile II supporting the Empire 's Naval operations , Wedge Antilles is ambushed by a group of TIEs and is taken captive . The Rebel Alliance tracks Wedge to an Imperial prison complex on the planet of Kessel . The remaining members of Rogue Squadron travel to Kessel and rescue him and other Rebel prisoners .
With Wedge Antilles free and Rogue Squadron again at full strength , the Rebel Alliance turns its attention to a new Imperial threat — Moff Kohl Seerdon . Seerdon is consolidating Imperial power in preparation for an attack aimed at capturing Thyferra , a planet which produces the healing substance bacta . Rogue Squadron is ordered to disrupt his operation with hit @-@ and @-@ run missions against key targets on Taloraan and Fest . In retaliation , Seerdon attacks and holds a city on the planet of Chandrila hostage . Rogue Squadron and the Alliance strike back by initiating a Kasan Moor @-@ engineered raid on an Imperial base located inside a volcano on Sullust . While still on Sullust , however , General Rieekan informs the Squadron that Moff Seerdon has used their raid as a diversion and begun his attack on Thyferra . With Seerdon in control of the planet 's bacta and their own supply threatened , Rogue Squadron quickly reaches Thyferra , kills Seerdon and frees the planet .
In the final chapter , the game moves into the future , six years after the Battle of Endor . Rogue Squadron , now under the command of Wedge Antilles , continues to fight the wounded Empire . On the planet of Mon Calamari , new Imperial weapons called World Devastators are destroying the planet . Rogue Squadron is deployed , disables all three Devastators and destroys the Imperial presence .
= = Development = =
After the success of Star Wars : Shadows of the Empire on the Nintendo 64 in 1996 , LucasArts began planning a follow @-@ up . At the time , Factor 5 was developing a game engine to create large terrain maps . LucasArts , pleased with earlier collaborations with the company , decided to use Factor 5 's engine for its new game . The game 's focus would be space combat ; this direction was inspired by a level of Shadows of the Empire in which the player flies a snowspeeder during the Battle of Hoth . Rogue Squadron and Factor 5 production manager Brett Tosti stated , " That whole scene was actually the genesis for Rogue Squadron because everybody said , ' Why don 't you do a whole game like that ? ' So we did . " Factor 5 initially pitched a concept to allow gamers to play through missions similar to the fans ' favorite action sequences from the Star Wars films . This proposal was rejected , however . At that time , LucasFilm was not comfortable with video games drawing directly from the films .
During the early stages of development , the designers at LucasArts were inspired by Rogue Squadron and later Star Wars : X @-@ wing Rogue Squadron , a series of books and comic books set during the years of the original film trilogy . They began developing the story and gameplay with a similar setting that would include characters from the films participating in new , original missions using Factor 5 's terrain map engine as the base . In May 1998 , a demo of the game was displayed at E3 , but the game was so incomplete at the time that Tosti considered it a tech demo . It rendered a basic heightmap and an immobile AT @-@ AT model , while TIE fighters lacking artificial intelligence flew and fired in a predetermined path . When " playing " the demo for audiences , Tosti followed a very specific flight path of his own to give the illusion that he was actually battling with the TIEs . Despite the demo 's barebones presentation , response from gamers was largely positive .
Factor 5 appealed to Nintendo to use the Nintendo 64 's newly developed memory Expansion Pak . Nintendo was reluctant , expecting the technology to be reserved solely for hardware peripherals . However , after Iguana Entertainment used the Expansion Pak to achieve a higher display resolution for Turok 2 : Seeds of Evil , Factor 5 was given the green light . The Expansion Pak is used to increase Rogue Squadron 's N64 resolution from 320 × 240 to 640 × 480 .
LucasFilm was hesitant to grant access to the Star Wars library of sound effects for the game 's sound designer , Rudolph Stember . As a compromise , the company provided Stember with sounds sampled at the relatively low rate of 22 kHz , half the standard rate . Stember objected , claiming that the clips sounded worse than effects he had lifted from VHS tapes for a previous Star Wars project . The game includes voice work from several notable persons , including screen actors Olivia Hussey and Raphael Sbarge as well as voice actors Bob Bergen , Neil Ross and Terence McGovern . Instead of using Nintendo 's default sound drivers , Factor 5 developed its own tool called MOsys FX Surround . The Factor 5 drivers use Nintendo 64 processors , but tax them less ; advanced compression techniques were also employed . As a result , the game includes over 80 minutes of high @-@ quality stereo sound .
In November 1998 , a month before the game 's scheduled release , LucasArts signed a worldwide agreement with Nintendo concerning three new Star Wars video games . It granted Nintendo the rights to market the games and hold exclusive , worldwide distribution rights for five years following each release . Rogue Squadron was the first game released under this agreement .
= = Reception = =
Many reviews compared Star Wars : Rogue Squadron to one of its inspirations , the Battle of Hoth flight combat level in Star Wars : Shadows of the Empire , considered one of that game 's best elements . GamePro remarked that Rogue Squadron " enhanced the flight model with true pitch , roll , and bank mechanics " . IGN praised its inclusion of " upgrades , more enemies , better sound , and stunning second @-@ generation graphics " . The Nintendo 64 version received mostly positive reviews , and received an aggregate score of 85 percent from both GameRankings and Metacritic . GamePro named it one of the best games released in 1998 . In a 2008 retrospective , IGN 's Levi Buchanan stated that the game revived the Star Wars license on consoles through well @-@ paced gameplay , a story tied into the Star Wars canon and visuals that made it " one of the generation 's top stunners " .
The game 's technical aspects were singled out for acclaim . Its visuals were called " respectable " in the standard resolution , but highly praised in high @-@ resolution mode ( achieved via the Nintendo 64 's Expansion Pak ) . GameSpot remarked that in a higher resolution , " [ the ] textures of the landscapes , the ships , the lighting effects — everything looks so much better , " while IGN 's Peer Schneider said , " After playing the game in the optional high resolution mode ( 640 × 480 ) once , it 's impossible to go back to the still respectable standard resolution . " Citing details such as decals , Rebel markings , R2 units , cockpit views and exhaust flames , Schneider described the game 's 3D ship models as " gorgeous " . IGN 's Matt Casamassina said that the game was the best @-@ looking Nintendo 64 game to date .
Reviewers also praised the game 's sound design . Powered by the new Factor 5 audio drivers , Rogue Squadron features about 40 minutes of speech and 40 minutes of music . GameSpot 's Ryan Mac Donald believed that the game 's inclusion of extended voice work helped create a " movie @-@ like " atmosphere . IGN noted that in addition to being technically impressive , the game 's Dolby Pro Logic surround sound was an important gameplay element . The audio signals helped players determine enemy positions and direction of travel . IGN awarded the game three sound awards , including Sound Effects , Best Voice and Best Overall Sound of 1998 on the Nintendo 64 .
Some reviewers complained about aspects of the game 's visuals ; critics disliked the heavy reliance on distance fog . Another common criticism of the game was the lack of multiplayer modes . GamePro 's review called the omission a " serious , unforgivable sin " ; Schneider believed that while adding these modes would have extended Rogue Squadron 's replay value , the game was still enjoyable for its medal reward system and large number of secrets and unlockables .
Although nearly identical , the game 's PC version garnered lower review scores than its Nintendo 64 counterpart , with an aggregated GameRankings score of 80 percent . This version enjoyed many of the same praises for its gameplay , but handling and graphics were cited as problematic . Directly comparing the two versions , AllGame 's Brad Cook wrote that PC version 's handling is more difficult than the N64 version . He believed the PC 's " choppy " feel made it difficult to target enemies . In contrast to its opinion of the N64 version , IGN 's PC review was not enthusiastic about the game 's visuals . IGN staff remarked that Rogue Squadron 's " graphics and special effects aren 't spectacular " and that they had " seen better graphics " on the PC .
= = = Sales = = =
When Rogue Squadron was released in early December 1998 , the title 's Nintendo 64 incarnation was the second @-@ highest @-@ selling video game for the first half of the month ( behind Nintendo 's The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time ) and the holiday season . Delayed until after Christmas in the United Kingdom , the game was released mid @-@ January and debuted as the second @-@ best @-@ selling game of the month , ahead of Ocarina of Time . In August 1999 , Nintendo added the title to its best @-@ selling Player 's Choice collection , while the PC version was re @-@ released as a part of the LucasArts Archive Series in May 2001 . Rogue Squadron 's retail success was not anticipated by the game 's producer Julian Eggebrecht , who said that the game sold " about 100 times better than anybody expected " . The Nintendo 64 version sold over 1 million copies in the United States , and over 44 @,@ 000 in Japan .
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= HMS Glatton ( 1914 ) =
HMS Glatton and her sister ship Gorgon were originally built as coastal defence ships for the Royal Norwegian Navy , as Bjørgvin and Nidaros respectively . She was requisitioned from Norway at the beginning of World War I , but was not completed until 1918 although she had been launched over three years earlier . On 16 September 1918 , before she had even gone into action , she suffered a large fire in one of her 6 @-@ inch magazines , and had to be scuttled to prevent an explosion of her main magazines that would have devastated Dover . Her wreck was partially salvaged in 1926 , and moved into a position in the northeastern end of the harbour where it would not obstruct traffic . It was subsequently buried by landfill underneath the current car ferry terminal .
= = Background = =
Bjørgvin was ordered by Norway in 1913 to supplement the older Eidsvold class and Tordenskjold class classes of coastal defense ships . She would have been known in Norway as P / S Bjørgvin ; P / S stands for Panserskip ( " armoured ship " ) , while Bjørgvin was the old name for the Norwegian city of Bergen . However , when World War I broke out , the Royal Navy requisitioned most warships under construction in Britain for foreign powers and refunded the two @-@ thirds of Bjørgvin 's £ 370 @,@ 000 purchase price already paid by the Norwegians .
= = Construction and description = =
Bjørgvin was laid down by Armstrong Whitworth at Elswick on 26 May 1913 and launched on 8 August 1914 . She was renamed Glatton after an earlier breastwork monitor of 1871 . Her completion was greatly delayed by the modifications made by the British , which included modifying the boilers to use both oil and coal and conversion of 12 double @-@ bottom tanks to carry the oil . This work began on 9 January 1915 , but was suspended the following May , when it was estimated that only another 10 – 12 months of work remained , to allow for faster progress to be made on the large light cruisers Furious and Courageous that were building in Armstrong 's Naval Yard downriver . In September 1917 , work was resumed to a new design that added a large anti @-@ torpedo bulge along about 75 % of the hull 's length , suppression of the torpedo tubes and 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns planned by the Norwegians , and a large tripod mast was to be fitted behind the single funnel to carry the directors for both the 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) and 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) guns . Both of these guns had to be relined to use standard British ammunition and the mount for the 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch gun was modified to give a maximum elevation of 40 ° which gave the gun a maximum range of 39 @,@ 000 yards ( 36 @,@ 000 m ) . Addition of the bulges cost 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) in speed , but prevented the extra weight resulting from all of these changes from deepening her draft . She was finally completed on 8 September 1918 .
Glatton displaced 5 @,@ 746 long tons ( 5 @,@ 838 t ) at deep load as built , with a length of 310 ft ( 94 m ) , a beam of 73 feet 7 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) at maximum , although her main hull only had a beam of 55 feet ( 16 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 16 feet 4 inches ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) . She was powered by two vertical triple expansion steam engines , which developed a total of 4 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 000 kW ) from four Yarrow watertube boilers and gave a maximum speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
She was armed with two 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns arranged in two single @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . Her secondary armament consisted of four six @-@ inch guns , also in single @-@ gun turrets , two of which superfired over the 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch turrets . The other two were positioned on each side of the superstructure . One 3 in ( 76 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft gun was mounted on each center @-@ line 6 @-@ inch turret . She also carried four 3 @-@ pounder and two 2 @-@ pounder guns on high @-@ angle mounts .
= = Fate = =
After completion , Glatton sailed for Dover on 11 September 1918 to prepare for the offensive planned for later that month . At 6 : 15 on the evening of 16 September , Glatton 's midships 6 @-@ inch magazine had a low @-@ order explosion that ignited the cordite stored there . Flames shot through the roof of ' Q ' turret , starboard midside , and started to spread aft . The ship 's captain — Commander N. W. Diggle — ordered the forward magazines flooded , but the crew were unable to flood the rear magazines as the flames blocked access to the magazine flooding controls . The presence of the ammunition ship Gransha only 150 yards ( 140 m ) away risked a massive explosion that would devastate Dover if Glatton 's rear magazine exploded and set off Gransha 's ammunition . Vice @-@ Admiral Keyes — who had been walking with Commander Diggle when Glatton 's magazine exploded — boarded the recently arrived destroyer Cossack once apprised of the danger . He ordered Cossack to torpedo Glatton in an attempt to flood the magazine before it detonated . Cossack 's first 18 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) torpedo struck the anti @-@ torpedo bulge amidships , but failed to explode because it had been fired too close to Glatton . Her second torpedo blew a hole in Glatton at 7 : 40 , but the torpedo 's 200 @-@ pound ( 91 kg ) warhead was too small to penetrate through her bulge and Glatton remained afloat , still burning . Keyes transferred to the destroyer Myngs and ordered her to fire on Glatton with her 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedoes at 8 : 15 . They were aimed at the hole blown in Glatton 's starboard side by Cossack 's second torpedo and succeeded in causing Glatton to capsize until her masts and superstructure rested on the harbour bottom and dousing the fire . Casualties were heavy : 60 men were killed outright and 124 were injured of whom 19 later died of their burns .
= = = Inquiry = = =
A Court of Enquiry held immediately afterwards found that the explosion had occurred in the midships 6 @-@ inch magazine situated between the boiler and engine rooms . The cause was more difficult to establish , but the Court did note that the stokers were in the habit of piling the red @-@ hot clinker and ashes from the boilers against the bulkhead directly adjoining the magazine to cool down before they were sent up the ash ejector . The magazine was well insulated with 5 inches ( 13 cm ) of cork , covered by wood planking .75 inches ( 1 @.@ 9 cm ) thick and provided with special cooling equipment so it was not likely that the cordite had spontaneously combusted . The magazine of Glatton 's sister ship Gorgon was emptied and examined . The red lead paint on the bulkhead was blistered beneath the lagging and tests at the National Physical Laboratory demonstrated that it had been subject to temperatures of at least 400 ° F ( 204 ° C ) . Recorded temperatures inside the magazine did not exceed 83 ° F ( 28 ° C ) and a test of red @-@ hot ashes was inconclusive as the temperature in the lagging only reached 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) with occasional hot spots of 150 ° F ( 66 ° C ) . Other tests did reveal that the cork could give off flammable fumes under high heat and pressurized air . While not entirely satisfied with this conclusion it found in April 1919 that " The slow combustion of the cork lagging of the 6 @-@ inch midship magazine of the Glatton led to the ignition of the magazine and then to the ignition of the cordite in it and so caused the explosion . "
As a precaution , Gorgon 's lagging was stripped out and replaced with silicate wool , revealing the real cause . Part of the cork was missing and folded newspapers were found in the empty space which were left there by the dockyard workers during construction . Furthermore , a number of rivets were entirely missing which meant that 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) holes were present , which could have allowed the hot ashes to ignite the newspapers . The forced @-@ draught pressure in the boiler room would have supplied air through the rivet holes , causing the cork to give off flammable gases , and eventually ignite the cordite charges .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Glatton remained in Dover Harbour , an obstruction to shipping , with her hull visible at low tide as the Harbour Board could not afford the £ 45 @,@ 000 quoted on average by salvage companies . Finally they asked the Harbourmaster , Captain John Iron , if he could do it for less . He estimated it would cost about £ 5 @,@ 000 if he was granted use of the salvage craft already at Dover . The Board accepted his offer and work began in May 1925 . Some 12 @,@ 000 short tons ( 11 @,@ 000 t ) of silt were removed from underneath Glatton and her mainmast and superstructure were blasted away from the wreck . Four lifting lighters , with a capacity of 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) , were hired , but they would not suffice to lift a water @-@ logged 5 @,@ 000 long tons ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) ship . It was necessary to seal all of the holes on her topside and pump air into each compartment at a rate of 70 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 2 @,@ 000 m3 ) per minute to restore her buoyancy . The first attempt to lift her began on 2 December 1925 and was successful in breaking the suction holding her to the bottom in combination with the rising tide . That was enough for the first try and the major lifting effort began the following day . Slowly she was moved , taking advantage of the tides , until on 16 March 1926 she was moved to a deep gully next to the western pier of the submarine harbour , close by the shore . The total cost was considerably more than originally estimated , but still far less than that quoted by the salvage companies , at no more than £ 12 @,@ 000 . There she remains , buried by landfill underneath the current car ferry terminal .
= = Memorial = =
A memorial was erected at St Mary 's Church and Grange Road cemetery in Gillingham , Kent . It was used from 1867 until 1973 when the site was largely cleared of memorials to provide a community open space for the local population . Then Woodlands Road Cemetery was used and this is the site of HMS Glatton 's Memorial with the graves of one officer and 56 men .
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= Leo Martello =
Leo Martello ( September 26 , 1931 – June 29 , 2000 ) was a Sicilian @-@ American witch and gay rights activist , and author . He was a founding member of the Strega Tradition of Witchcraft , a form of the modern Pagan new religious movement which drew upon his own Sicilian heritage . During his lifetime he published a number of books on such esoteric subjects as Witchcraft , astrology , and tarot reading .
Born to a working @-@ class Italian American family in Dudley , Massachusetts , he was raised Roman Catholic although became interested in esotericism as a teenager . He later claimed that when he was 21 , relatives initiated him into a tradition of witchcraft inherited from their Sicilian ancestors ; this conflicts with other statements that he made , and there is no independent evidence to corroborate his claim . During the 1950s , he was based in New York City , where he worked as a graphologist and hypnotist . After beginning to publish books on paranormal topics in the early 1960s , he publicly began identifying as Wiccan in 1969 , and stated that he was involved in a New York coven .
After the Stonewall riots of 1969 , Martello – himself a gay man – involved himself in gay rights activism , becoming a member of the Gay Liberation Front ( GLF ) . Leaving the GLF following an internal schism , he became a founding member of the Gay Activist Alliance ( GAA ) and authored a regular column , " The Gay Witch " , for its newspaper . In 1970 he founded the Witches International Craft Associates ( WICA ) as a networking organization for Wiccans , and under its auspices organized a " Witch In " that took place in Central Park at Halloween 1970 , despite opposition from the New York City Parks Department . To campaign for the civil rights of Wiccans , he founded the Witches Anti @-@ Defamation League , which was later renamed the Alternative Religions Education Network . In 1973 , he visited England , there being initiated into Gardnerian Wicca by the Gardnerian High Priestess Patricia Crowther . He continued practicing Wicca into the 1990s , when he retreated from public life , eventually succumbing to cancer in 2000 .
= = Early life = =
= = = Youth : 1930 – 49 = = =
Martello was born on September 26 , 1930 , in Dudley , Massachusetts , being raised on a small farm rented by his father , the Italian immigrant Rocco Luigi Martello . Following the economic turmoil of the Great Depression , the Martellos were forced from their land and moved first to Worcester , Massachusetts and then to Southbridge , Massachusetts . It was here that Leo was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church , but his parents divorced soon after . Unable to care for him alone , his father sent Martello to the Catholic boarding preparatory school attached to Assumption College , Worcester , which was run by the Augustinians of the Assumption . He spent six years at the school , later describing it as the unhappiest period of his life . He studied graphology and from the age of 16 began making radio appearances as a graphologist , also writing stories for magazines .
Martello later claimed to have experienced psychic phenomena as a child , sparking his interest in occultism . By his early teenage years , he had begun studying palmistry and tarot card reading with a Gypsy named Marta . He also later claimed that his father had informed him that his grandmother , Maria Concetta , had been a psychic known as a Strega Maga ( " Great Witch " ) in her hometown of Enna , Sicily , Italy . According to Martello 's account , Concetta had worked as a folk magician and tarot card reader , and attracted the hatred and envy of the local Catholic clergy . He also related that on one occasion , she had killed a Mafioso using magic when he threatened her husband for not paying protection money . Martello related that when he was 16 , his father told him that he had cousins in New York City who wished to meet him . He proceeded to do so and – according to his account – they informed him that they were initiates of an ancient Italian witchcraft religion , La Vecchia ( " the Old Religion " ) . After identifying his possession of psychic powers , they initiated him into the tradition on his 21st birthday in 1951 , making him swear an oath never to reveal the secrets of the La Vecchia . Moving to the city , he studied at Hunter College and the Institute for Psychotherapy .
Martello never produced any proof to support his claims , and there is no independent evidence that corroborate them . An anonymous woman who had known Martello informed the researcher Michael G. Lloyd that during the 1980s , he had told her that he had never been initiated into a tradition of Witchcraft , and that he had simply embraced occultism in the 1960s in order to earn a living . The Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White expressed criticism of Martello 's claims , noting that it was " extremely doubtful " that a tradition of Wicca could have been passed down through Martello 's Sicilian family . Instead , he suggested that Martello might have been instructed in a tradition of folk magic that he later embellished into a form of Wicca , that the cousins themselves had constructed a form of Wicca that they passed on to Martello , or that the entire scenario had been a fabrication of Martello 's .
= = = New York City : 1950 – 68 = = =
Based in New York City , in 1950 Martello founded the American Hypnotism Academy , continuing to direct the organization until 1954 . From 1955 to 1957 , he served as treasurer of the American Graphological Society , and worked as a freelance graphologist for such corporate clients as the Unifonic Corporation of America and the Associated Special Investigators International . He also published a column titled " Your Handwriting Tells " for eight years that ran in the Chelsea Clinton News , and supplied various articles on the subject of graphology to different magazines . In the city , he also began to frequent the gay scene . In 1955 , Martello was awarded a Doctorate in Divinity by a non @-@ accredited organization , the National Congress of Spiritual Consultants , a clearing house for registered yet unaffiliated ministers . That year , he founded the Temple of Spiritual Guidance , taking on the role of Pastor , which he would continue in until 1960 , when he began to focus on his writing and his new philosophy of " psychoselfism " . In 1961 he published his first book , Your Pen Personality , in which he discussed the manner in which handwriting could be used to reveal the personality of the writer . Martello corresponded with California @-@ based Pagan Victor Henry Anderson , and it was at Martello 's encouragement that Anderson established his Mahaelani Coven circa 1960 .
Martello claimed that in the summer of 1964 , he moved to Tangier , Morocco , where he researched the history of the tarot , resulting in the publication of It 's in the Cards ( 1964 ) . Returning to the U.S. in 1965 , he moved in to an apartment in Greenwich Village , New York City , writing a book on astrology , It 's Written in the Stars , and a book on psychic protection , How to Prevent Psychic Blackmail . He also began attending the Spiritualist gatherings that were operated by Clifford Bias at the Ansonia Hotel . At some point High Priestess Lori Bruno founded a witchcraft coven and church , Our Lord and Lady of the Trinacrian Rose , in which Leo was acknowledged as Elder . In 1969 he publicly revealed himself to be a practitioner of Witchcraft ; claiming that he had gained the permission of his coven to do so . Intent on countering the negative publicity that Wicca had been receiving , he published The Weird Ways of Witchcraft in 1969 , the same year that he also published The Hidden World of Hypnotism .
= = Public activism = =
= = = Gay Liberation : 1969 – 70 = = =
In July 1969 , Martello attended an open meeting of the Mattachine Society 's New York branch . He was appalled at the Society 's negative reaction to the Stonewall riots , and castigated those gay people in the audience who accepted the categorization of homosexuality as a mental illness , accusing them of being self @-@ loathing . He proceeded to publish his thoughts in an essay in which he stated that " homosexuality is not a problem in itself . The problem is society 's attitude towards it . " Those gay rights activists who rejected the Mattachine Society 's approach and who favored a confrontational stance against the police and authorities founded the Gay Liberation Front ( GLF ) , with Martello elected the group 's first moderator . Martello supported the GLF 's stance that condemned " this rotten , dirty , vile , fucked @-@ up capitalist conspiracy " that dominated American society , and he volunteered by producing articles both for the group 's newsletter Come Out ! and for the wider press . He was involved in the GLF 's campaign against The Village Voice 's decision to ban the word " gay " from advertisements ; the magazine preferred the term " homophile " , which had also been used by the Mattachine Society . Wanting to break from previous gay liberation organizations , the GLF embraced the term " gay " , with Martello dismissing " homophile " as sounding like a nail file for homosexuals .
The GLF was structured around a system of anarchic consensus , which made it difficult for the group to reach conclusions on any issue , and heated arguments became commonplace at its meetings . In November 1969 , the group 's membership voted to provide political and financial support to the Black Panthers , an armed African @-@ American leftist group . This was heavily controversial among the GLF , given the homophobic nature of the Black Panthers , and resulted in a walk @-@ out of many senior members , including Martello , Arthur Evans , Arthur Bell , Lige Clarke , and Jack Nichols . That month , Martello was invited to a private meeting of these disaffected GLF members which resulted in the formation of the Gay Activist Alliance ( GAA ) . Although continuing the GLF 's emphasis on taking a confrontational approach to conventional American society and authority , the group was more tightly organized and structured , and focused exclusively on attaining equal rights for gay and lesbian people . The businessman Al Goldstein agreed to invest $ 25 @,@ 000 in the GAA 's new venture , a newspaper written by , and aimed at , the country 's gay community . It was launched in December 1969 as GAY , and it soon gained a readership of 25 @,@ 000 . Martello contributed a regular column known as " The Gay Witch " , reaching his widest audience to date , also authoring a variety of other articles that appeared in it .
= = = WICA and WADL : 1970 – 74 = = =
In 1970 , Martello founded the Witches International Craft Associates ( WICA ) , through which he issued The WICA Newsletter , set up to explain what Witchcraft and Wicca was to the wider public and to serve as a resource through which occultists could contact one another . In April 1970 he appeared on the WNEW @-@ TV Channel 5 documentary series Helluva Town , performing Witchcraft rites with several assistants in Central Park . That year saw one of New York 's first substantial gatherings of occultists , the Festival of Occult Arts , as well as the first Earth Day celebration and the first Christopher Street Gay Liberation Day parade . These events inspired Martello 's desire to hold a public Witchcraft Sabbat celebration . Acting under the auspices of WICA , in late summer he approached the New York City Parks Department asking for permission to hold a " Witch @-@ In " in Sheep Meadow , at the south end of Central Park , on October 31 , 1970 . The Department refused , and when Martello stated that the Witchcraft community would gather there regardless in their capacity as private individuals , he was threatened with police action . Martello gained the legal assistance of the New York Civil Liberties Union ( NYCLU ) , who informed the Parks Department that they were in breach of the First Amendment . The Department subsequently reversed their decision , and the event went ahead .
Inspired by his victory over the Parks Department , Martello founded an organization devoted to campaigning for the religious rights of Witches , the Witches Anti @-@ Defamation League ( WADL ) , which would eventually be renamed the Alternative Religions Education Network ( AREN ) . For WADL , he authored an essay titled " The Witch Manifesto " , likely influenced by Carl Wittman 's " Refugees from Amerika : A Gay Manifesto " ( 1970 ) , which demanded that the Roman Catholic Church face a tribunal for crimes committed against accused witches in the Early Modern period and that they pay reparations to the modern Witchcraft community for those actions . During this decade he authored a column for Gnostica magazine which was titled " Wicca Basket " , a pun on the phonetic similarity between " Wicca " and " wicker " .
In 1971 , a young gay Wiccan named Eddie Buczynski contacted Martello , and requested initiation . Due to Buczynski 's inexperience in the religion , Martello turned him down , although developed a friendship with him . Martello introduced Buczynski both to other covens who might initiate him , and to Herman Slater , who would become his long @-@ time partner . Slater was ill with various medical complications , and on one occasion was rehabilitating at the New York University Medical Center when Martello performed a healing ritual on him with the assistance of Buczynski . Martello would come to be known as a regular at The Warlock Shop , an occult store opened by Slater in New York . Through The WICA Newsletter , Martello had met Lady Gwen Thompson , the founder of the New England Covens of Traditionalist Witches ( NECTW ) , and decided to introduce Buczynski to her , resulting in Buczynski 's initiation into the tradition in Spring 1972 . Martello and Thompson later fell out , with some unconfirmed accounts claiming that it was because he lent her money and she did not pay him back . In October 1972 , Buczynski founded his own tradition of Wicca , termed Welsh Traditionalist Witchcraft , with Martello becoming an early initiate and taking on the name of " Nemesis " within that tradition . In turn , Martello welcomed Buczynski into his La Vecchia tradition , and initiated him through its three degree system .
In November 1972 , Martello lectured at the first Friends of the Craft conference , held at New York 's First Unitarian Church . In April 1973 , he moved to England for six months , where he was initiated and trained in the three degrees of Gardnerian Wicca by the Sheffield coven run by Patricia Crowther and her husband Arnold Crowther . He continued to encourage acceptance of homosexuality within the Pagan and Witchcraft community , authoring an article titled " The Gay Pagan " for Green Egg magazine . He expressed the view that homophobic Wiccans were " sexually insecure " and that they viewed the religion simply as " a ritual means of fornication " . He was also among the prominent male Pagans to endorse feminist and female @-@ only variants of Wicca , such as the Dianic Wicca promoted by Zsuzsanna Budapest .
= = = Later life = = =
During the 1990s , Martello retired from his public work . Doyle White noted that while Martello faded from prominence as the head of the Strega Wicca movement , the tradition gained a " new public advocate " in Raven Grimassi . Martello died of cancer on 29 June 2000 . Bruno was the executrix of his estate .
= = Personal life = =
Lloyd described Martello as " a lanky , hungry scrapper with piercing eyes , the face of a dark angel , and a mouth like a bear trap " , while in her encyclopaedia on Wicca , Rosemary Ellen Guiley described him as " a colourful figure , known for his humor " . Bruno described him as " a loving man , yet sometimes caustic " , stating that to know him " was an honor , and ever a challenge " . He was often noted for his scruffy appearance , with him typically wearing second @-@ hand clothes .
= = = Beliefs = = =
Martello defended the growing rise of feminists in Wicca during the 1970s , criticizing what he deemed as the continual repression of women within the Pagan movement . He also espoused the view that any Pagan who was involved in the U.S. government or military was a hypocrite . He was critical of Wiccans who espoused a division between white magic and black magic , commenting that it had racial overtones and that many of those advocating such a view were racist .
Although aware that historians had criticized the witch @-@ cult hypothesis of Margaret Murray , Martello stood by her claims , believing that the cult had been passed through oral tradition and thus evaded appearing in the textual sources studied by historians . Martello thought it unimportant that many Wiccans had lied about the origins of their beliefs , being quoted by Pagan journalist Margot Adler in her book Drawing Down the Moon as having stated " Let 's assume that many people lied about their lineage . Let 's further assume that there are no covens on the current scene that have any historical basis . The fact remains : they do exist now . And they can claim a spiritual lineage going back thousands of years . All of our pre @-@ Judeo @-@ Christian or Moslem ancestors were Pagans ! "
= = Publications = =
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