page
stringlengths 23
146k
|
|---|
= Tropical Storm Julio ( 2008 ) =
Tropical Storm Julio was a tropical storm that made landfall on the southern tip of Baja California Sur in August 2008 . The tenth named storm of the 2008 Pacific hurricane season , it developed from a tropical wave on August 23 off the coast of Mexico . It moved parallel to the coast , reaching peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) before moving ashore and weakening . On August 26 it dissipated in the Gulf of California . Julio was the third tropical cyclone to make landfall in the Pacific Ocean basin during the season , after Tropical Storm Alma , which struck Nicaragua in May , and Tropical Depression Five @-@ E , which moved ashore along southwestern Mexico in July . The storm brought locally heavy rainfall to southern Baja California , killing one person and leaving several towns isolated . Moisture from Julio reached Arizona , producing thunderstorms , including one which damaged ten small planes in Chandler .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 20 , a tropical wave became discernible about 800 miles ( 1300 km ) off the coast of Mexico , which in the next day developed a large area of convection , or thunderstorms . Initially , conditions were unfavorable for development , due to strong upper @-@ level wind shear . Tracking northwestward parallel to the Mexican coast , the system became better organized on August 22 , though later that day its structure deteriorated . On August 23 , a strong area of convection developed and persisted near a circulation center , despite strong wind shear . With banding features becoming more prominent , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E about 345 miles ( 555 km ) south @-@ southeast of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula .
The tropical depression initially moved northwestward around the southwestern periphery of a ridge over Mexico . Convection continued to develop to the west of the center , and late on August 23 , a ship report confirmed the depression intensified Tropical Storm Julio . Initially , the persistent shear left the center partially exposed from the thunderstorm activity , though upper level conditions gradually became more favorable for strengthening . On August 24 , Tropical Storm Julio attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) as intense convection developed near the center . Shortly thereafter , the center became difficult to locate , and late on August 24 the storm moved ashore along the southwestern coast of the Baja California Peninsula .
Tropical Storm Julio quickly weakened over land , although it initially maintained strong convection near its center . By early on August 26 , however , the low @-@ level and upper @-@ level circulations separated , with the upper @-@ circulation continuing quickly northeastward into mainland Mexico ; the low @-@ level circulation slowed as it entered the Gulf of California , after having been separated from its deep convection . Later in the day , the NHC discontinued advisories after the storm failed to maintain enough organized convection to be considered a tropical cyclone .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Shortly before it was named , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch in the state of Baja California Sur , from Santa Fe on the Pacific coast around the peninsula to Buenavista along the Gulf of California . About 24 hours prior to landfall , the watch was replaced with a warning from Santa Fe to San Evaristo , and the tropical storm watch was extended along both sides of the peninsula . Prior to it making landfall , more than 2 @,@ 500 families in susceptible areas left their homes . Officials opened several shelters in the area where the storm struck .
As Julio made landfall , it produced lightning and locally heavy rainfall , which left more than a dozen communities isolated due to flooding . The flooding damaged several houses and killed two people . Winds were generally light , although strong enough to damage a few electrical poles and small buildings . In nearby Sinaloa , rainfall from the storm led to an emergency evacuation of 500 residents .
Moisture from Julio developed thunderstorms across Arizona , including one near Chandler which produced winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) ; the storm damaged ten small planes at Chandler Municipal Airport , as well as a hangar . The damages at the airport were estimated at $ 1 million ( USD ) . The storms also dropped heavy rainfall , reaching over 1 inch ( 25 mm ) in Gilbert , which caused flooding on Interstate 17 .
|
= Hubble Space Telescope =
The Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth orbit in 1990 , and remains in operation . Although not the first space telescope , Hubble is one of the largest and most versatile , and is well known as both a vital research tool and a public relations boon for astronomy . The HST is named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble , and is one of NASA 's Great Observatories , along with the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory , the Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory , and the Spitzer Space Telescope .
With a 2 @.@ 4 @-@ meter ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) mirror , Hubble 's four main instruments observe in the near ultraviolet , visible , and near infrared spectra . Hubble 's orbit outside the distortion of Earth 's atmosphere allows it to take extremely high @-@ resolution images , with substantially lower background light than ground @-@ based telescopes . Hubble has recorded some of the most detailed visible @-@ light images ever , allowing a deep view into space and time . Many Hubble observations have led to breakthroughs in astrophysics , such as accurately determining the rate of expansion of the universe .
The HST was built by the United States space agency NASA , with contributions from the European Space Agency . The Space Telescope Science Institute ( STScI ) selects Hubble 's targets and processes the resulting data , while the Goddard Space Flight Center controls the spacecraft .
Space telescopes were proposed as early as 1923 . Hubble was funded in the 1970s , with a proposed launch in 1983 , but the project was beset by technical delays , budget problems , and the Challenger disaster ( 1986 ) . When finally launched in 1990 , Hubble 's main mirror was found to have been ground incorrectly , compromising the telescope 's capabilities . The optics were corrected to their intended quality by a servicing mission in 1993 .
Hubble is the only telescope designed to be serviced in space by astronauts . After launch by Space Shuttle Discovery in 1990 , four subsequent Space Shuttle missions repaired , upgraded , and replaced systems on the telescope . A fifth mission was canceled on safety grounds following the Columbia disaster ( 2003 ) . However , after spirited public discussion , NASA administrator Mike Griffin approved one final servicing mission , completed in 2009 . The telescope is operating as of 2016 , and could last until 2030 – 2040 . Its scientific successor , the James Webb Space Telescope ( JWST ) , is scheduled for launch in 2018 .
= = Conception , design and aim = =
= = = Proposals and precursors = = =
In 1923 , Hermann Oberth — considered a father of modern rocketry , along with Robert H. Goddard and Konstantin Tsiolkovsky — published Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen ( " The Rocket into Planetary Space " ) , which mentioned how a telescope could be propelled into Earth orbit by a rocket .
The history of the Hubble Space Telescope can be traced back as far as 1946 , to the astronomer Lyman Spitzer 's paper " Astronomical advantages of an extraterrestrial observatory " . In it , he discussed the two main advantages that a space @-@ based observatory would have over ground @-@ based telescopes . First , the angular resolution ( the smallest separation at which objects can be clearly distinguished ) would be limited only by diffraction , rather than by the turbulence in the atmosphere , which causes stars to twinkle , known to astronomers as seeing . At that time ground @-@ based telescopes were limited to resolutions of 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 0 arcseconds , compared to a theoretical diffraction @-@ limited resolution of about 0 @.@ 05 arcsec for a telescope with a mirror 2 @.@ 5 m in diameter . Second , a space @-@ based telescope could observe infrared and ultraviolet light , which are strongly absorbed by the atmosphere .
Spitzer devoted much of his career to pushing for the development of a space telescope . In 1962 , a report by the US National Academy of Sciences recommended the development of a space telescope as part of the space program , and in 1965 Spitzer was appointed as head of a committee given the task of defining scientific objectives for a large space telescope .
Space @-@ based astronomy had begun on a very small scale following World War II , as scientists made use of developments that had taken place in rocket technology . The first ultraviolet spectrum of the Sun was obtained in 1946 , and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) launched the Orbiting Solar Observatory ( OSO ) to obtain UV , X @-@ ray , and gamma @-@ ray spectra in 1962 . An orbiting solar telescope was launched in 1962 by the United Kingdom as part of the Ariel space program , and in 1966 NASA launched the first Orbiting Astronomical Observatory ( OAO ) mission . OAO @-@ 1 's battery failed after three days , terminating the mission . It was followed by OAO @-@ 2 , which carried out ultraviolet observations of stars and galaxies from its launch in 1968 until 1972 , well beyond its original planned lifetime of one year .
The OSO and OAO missions demonstrated the important role space @-@ based observations could play in astronomy , and in 1968 , NASA developed firm plans for a space @-@ based reflecting telescope with a mirror 3 m in diameter , known provisionally as the Large Orbiting Telescope or Large Space Telescope ( LST ) , with a launch slated for 1979 . These plans emphasized the need for manned maintenance missions to the telescope to ensure such a costly program had a lengthy working life , and the concurrent development of plans for the reusable space shuttle indicated that the technology to allow this was soon to become available .
= = = Quest for funding = = =
The continuing success of the OAO program encouraged increasingly strong consensus within the astronomical community that the LST should be a major goal . In 1970 , NASA established two committees , one to plan the engineering side of the space telescope project , and the other to determine the scientific goals of the mission . Once these had been established , the next hurdle for NASA was to obtain funding for the instrument , which would be far more costly than any Earth @-@ based telescope . The U.S. Congress questioned many aspects of the proposed budget for the telescope and forced cuts in the budget for the planning stages , which at the time consisted of very detailed studies of potential instruments and hardware for the telescope . In 1974 , public spending cuts led to Congress deleting all funding for the telescope project .
In response to this , a nationwide lobbying effort was coordinated among astronomers . Many astronomers met congressmen and senators in person , and large scale letter @-@ writing campaigns were organized . The National Academy of Sciences published a report emphasizing the need for a space telescope , and eventually the Senate agreed to half of the budget that had originally been approved by Congress .
The funding issues led to something of a reduction in the scale of the project , with the proposed mirror diameter reduced from 3 m to 2 @.@ 4 m , both to cut costs and to allow a more compact and effective configuration for the telescope hardware . A proposed precursor 1 @.@ 5 m space telescope to test the systems to be used on the main satellite was dropped , and budgetary concerns also prompted collaboration with the European Space Agency . ESA agreed to provide funding and supply one of the first generation instruments for the telescope , as well as the solar cells that would power it , and staff to work on the telescope in the United States , in return for European astronomers being guaranteed at least 15 % of the observing time on the telescope . Congress eventually approved funding of US $ 36 million for 1978 , and the design of the LST began in earnest , aiming for a launch date of 1983 . In 1983 the telescope was named after Edwin Hubble , who made one of the greatest scientific breakthroughs of the 20th century when he discovered that the universe is expanding .
= = = Construction and engineering = = =
Once the Space Telescope project had been given the go @-@ ahead , work on the program was divided among many institutions . Marshall Space Flight Center ( MSFC ) was given responsibility for the design , development , and construction of the telescope , while Goddard Space Flight Center was given overall control of the scientific instruments and ground @-@ control center for the mission . MSFC commissioned the optics company Perkin @-@ Elmer to design and build the Optical Telescope Assembly ( OTA ) and Fine Guidance Sensors for the space telescope . Lockheed was commissioned to construct and integrate the spacecraft in which the telescope would be housed .
= = = Optical Telescope Assembly ( OTA ) = = =
Optically , the HST is a Cassegrain reflector of Ritchey – Chrétien design , as are most large professional telescopes . This design , with two hyperbolic mirrors , is known for good imaging performance over a wide field of view , with the disadvantage that the mirrors have shapes that are hard to fabricate and test . The mirror and optical systems of the telescope determine the final performance , and they were designed to exacting specifications . Optical telescopes typically have mirrors polished to an accuracy of about a tenth of the wavelength of visible light , but the Space Telescope was to be used for observations from the visible through the ultraviolet ( shorter wavelengths ) and was specified to be diffraction limited to take full advantage of the space environment . Therefore , its mirror needed to be polished to an accuracy of 10 nanometers , or about 1 / 65 of the wavelength of red light . On the long wavelength end , the OTA was not designed with optimum IR performance in mind — for example , the mirrors are kept at stable ( and warm , about 15 ° C ) temperatures by heaters . This limits Hubble 's performance as an infrared telescope .
Perkin @-@ Elmer intended to use custom @-@ built and extremely sophisticated computer @-@ controlled polishing machines to grind the mirror to the required shape . However , in case their cutting @-@ edge technology ran into difficulties , NASA demanded that PE sub @-@ contract to Kodak to construct a back @-@ up mirror using traditional mirror @-@ polishing techniques . ( The team of Kodak and Itek also bid on the original mirror polishing work . Their bid called for the two companies to double @-@ check each other 's work , which would have almost certainly caught the polishing error that later caused such problems . ) The Kodak mirror is now on permanent display at the National Air and Space Museum . An Itek mirror built as part of the effort is now used in the 2 @.@ 4 m telescope at the Magdalena Ridge Observatory .
Construction of the Perkin @-@ Elmer mirror began in 1979 , starting with a blank manufactured by Corning from their ultra @-@ low expansion glass . To keep the mirror 's weight to a minimum it consisted of top and bottom plates , each one inch ( 25 @.@ 4 mm ) thick , sandwiching a honeycomb lattice . Perkin @-@ Elmer simulated microgravity by supporting the mirror from the back with 130 rods that exerted varying amounts of force . This ensured that the mirror 's final shape would be correct and to specification when finally deployed . Mirror polishing continued until May 1981 . NASA reports at the time questioned Perkin @-@ Elmer 's managerial structure , and the polishing began to slip behind schedule and over budget . To save money , NASA halted work on the back @-@ up mirror and put the launch date of the telescope back to October 1984 . The mirror was completed by the end of 1981 ; it was washed using 2 @,@ 400 gallons ( 9 @,@ 100 L ) of hot , deionized water and then received a reflective coating of 65 nm @-@ thick aluminum and a protective coating of 25 nm @-@ thick magnesium fluoride .
Doubts continued to be expressed about Perkin @-@ Elmer 's competence on a project of this importance , as their budget and timescale for producing the rest of the OTA continued to inflate . In response to a schedule described as " unsettled and changing daily " , NASA postponed the launch date of the telescope until April 1985 . Perkin @-@ Elmer 's schedules continued to slip at a rate of about one month per quarter , and at times delays reached one day for each day of work . NASA was forced to postpone the launch date until March and then September 1986 . By this time , the total project budget had risen to US $ 1 @.@ 175 billion .
= = = Spacecraft systems = = =
The spacecraft in which the telescope and instruments were to be housed was another major engineering challenge . It would have to withstand frequent passages from direct sunlight into the darkness of Earth 's shadow , which would cause major changes in temperature , while being stable enough to allow extremely accurate pointing of the telescope . A shroud of multi @-@ layer insulation keeps the temperature within the telescope stable , and surrounds a light aluminum shell in which the telescope and instruments sit . Within the shell , a graphite @-@ epoxy frame keeps the working parts of the telescope firmly aligned . Because graphite composites are hygroscopic , there was a risk that water vapor absorbed by the truss while in Lockheed 's clean room would later be expressed in the vacuum of space ; resulting in the telescope 's instruments being covered by ice . To reduce that risk , a nitrogen gas purge was performed before launching the telescope into space .
While construction of the spacecraft in which the telescope and instruments would be housed proceeded somewhat more smoothly than the construction of the OTA , Lockheed still experienced some budget and schedule slippage , and by the summer of 1985 , construction of the spacecraft was 30 % over budget and three months behind schedule . An MSFC report said that Lockheed tended to rely on NASA directions rather than take their own initiative in the construction .
= = = Computer systems and data processing = = =
The two initial , primary computers on the HST were the 1 @.@ 25 MHz DF @-@ 224 system , built by Rockwell Autonetics , which contained three redundant CPUs , and two redundant NSSC @-@ 1 ( NASA Standard Spacecraft Computer , Model 1 ) systems , developed by Westinghouse and GSFC using diode @-@ transistor logic ( DTL ) . A co @-@ processor for the DF @-@ 224 was added during Servicing Mission 1 in 1993 , which consisted of two redundant strings of an Intel @-@ based 80386 processor with an 80387 math co @-@ processor . The DF @-@ 224 and its 386 co @-@ processor were replaced by a 25 MHz Intel @-@ based 80486 processor system during Servicing Mission 3A in 1999 .
Additionally , some of the science instruments and components had their own embedded microprocessor @-@ based control systems . The MATs ( Multiple Access Transponder ) components , MAT @-@ 1 and MAT @-@ 2 , utilize Hughes Aircraft CDP1802CD microprocessors . The Wide Field and Planetary Camera ( WFPC ) also utilized an RCA 1802 microprocessor ( or possibly the older 1801 version ) . The WFPC @-@ 1 was replaced by the WFPC @-@ 2 during Servicing Mission 1 in 1993 , which was then replaced by the Wide Field Camera 3 ( WFC3 ) during Servicing Mission 4 in 2009 .
= = = Initial instruments = = =
When launched , the HST carried five scientific instruments : the Wide Field and Planetary Camera ( WF / PC ) , Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph ( GHRS ) , High Speed Photometer ( HSP ) , Faint Object Camera ( FOC ) and the Faint Object Spectrograph ( FOS ) . WF / PC was a high @-@ resolution imaging device primarily intended for optical observations . It was built by NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , and incorporated a set of 48 filters isolating spectral lines of particular astrophysical interest . The instrument contained eight charge @-@ coupled device ( CCD ) chips divided between two cameras , each using four CCDs . Each CCD has a resolution of 0 @.@ 64 megapixels . The " wide field camera " ( WFC ) covered a large angular field at the expense of resolution , while the " planetary camera " ( PC ) took images at a longer effective focal length than the WF chips , giving it a greater magnification .
The GHRS was a spectrograph designed to operate in the ultraviolet . It was built by the Goddard Space Flight Center and could achieve a spectral resolution of 90 @,@ 000 . Also optimized for ultraviolet observations were the FOC and FOS , which were capable of the highest spatial resolution of any instruments on Hubble . Rather than CCDs these three instruments used photon @-@ counting digicons as their detectors . The FOC was constructed by ESA , while the University of California , San Diego , and Martin Marietta Corporation built the FOS .
The final instrument was the HSP , designed and built at the University of Wisconsin – Madison . It was optimized for visible and ultraviolet light observations of variable stars and other astronomical objects varying in brightness . It could take up to 100 @,@ 000 measurements per second with a photometric accuracy of about 2 % or better .
HST 's guidance system can also be used as a scientific instrument . Its three Fine Guidance Sensors ( FGS ) are primarily used to keep the telescope accurately pointed during an observation , but can also be used to carry out extremely accurate astrometry ; measurements accurate to within 0 @.@ 0003 arcseconds have been achieved .
= = = Ground support = = =
The Space Telescope Science Institute ( STScI ) is responsible for the scientific operation of the telescope and the delivery of data products to astronomers . STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy ( AURA ) and is physically located in Baltimore , Maryland on the Homewood campus of Johns Hopkins University , one of the 39 US universities and seven international affiliates that make up the AURA consortium . STScI was established in 1981 after something of a power struggle between NASA and the scientific community at large . NASA had wanted to keep this function in @-@ house , but scientists wanted it to be based in an academic establishment . The Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility ( ST @-@ ECF ) , established at Garching bei München near Munich in 1984 , provided similar support for European astronomers until 2011 , when these activities were moved to the European Space Astronomy Centre .
One rather complex task that falls to STScI is scheduling observations for the telescope . Hubble is in a low @-@ Earth orbit to enable servicing missions , but this means that most astronomical targets are occulted by the Earth for slightly less than half of each orbit . Observations cannot take place when the telescope passes through the South Atlantic Anomaly due to elevated radiation levels , and there are also sizable exclusion zones around the Sun ( precluding observations of Mercury ) , Moon and Earth . The solar avoidance angle is about 50 ° , to keep sunlight from illuminating any part of the OTA . Earth and Moon avoidance keeps bright light out of the FGSs , and keeps scattered light from entering the instruments . If the FGSs are turned off , however , the Moon and Earth can be observed . Earth observations were used very early in the program to generate flat @-@ fields for the WFPC1 instrument . There is a so @-@ called continuous viewing zone ( CVZ ) , at roughly 90 ° to the plane of Hubble 's orbit , in which targets are not occulted for long periods . Due to the precession of the orbit , the location of the CVZ moves slowly over a period of eight weeks . Because the limb of the Earth is always within about 30 ° of regions within the CVZ , the brightness of scattered earthshine may be elevated for long periods during CVZ observations .
Hubble orbits in the upper atmosphere at an altitude of approximately 569 kilometers ( 354 mi ) and an inclination of 28 @.@ 5 ° . The position along its orbit changes over time in a way that is not accurately predictable . The density of the upper atmosphere varies according to many factors , and this means that Hubble 's predicted position for six weeks ' time could be in error by up to 4 @,@ 000 km ( 2 @,@ 500 mi ) . Observation schedules are typically finalized only a few days in advance , as a longer lead time would mean there was a chance that the target would be unobservable by the time it was due to be observed .
Engineering support for HST is provided by NASA and contractor personnel at the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt , Maryland , 48 km ( 30 mi ) south of the STScI . Hubble 's operation is monitored 24 hours per day by four teams of flight controllers who make up Hubble 's Flight Operations Team .
= = = Challenger disaster , delays , and eventual launch = = =
By early 1986 , the planned launch date of October that year looked feasible , but the Challenger accident brought the U.S. space program to a halt , grounding the Space Shuttle fleet and forcing the launch of Hubble to be postponed for several years . The telescope had to be kept in a clean room , powered up and purged with nitrogen , until a launch could be rescheduled . This costly situation ( about $ 6 million per month ) pushed the overall costs of the project even higher . This delay did allow time for engineers to perform extensive tests , swap out a possibly failure @-@ prone battery , and make other improvements . Furthermore , the ground software needed to control Hubble was not ready in 1986 , and in fact was barely ready by the 1990 launch .
Eventually , following the resumption of shuttle flights in 1988 , the launch of the telescope was scheduled for 1990 . On April 24 , 1990 , shuttle mission STS @-@ 31 saw Discovery launch the telescope successfully into its planned orbit .
From its original total cost estimate of about US $ 400 million , the telescope had by now cost over $ 2 @.@ 5 billion to construct . Hubble 's cumulative costs were estimated to be about US $ 10 billion in 2010 , twenty years after launch .
= = Flawed mirror = =
Within weeks of the launch of the telescope , the returned images indicated a serious problem with the optical system . Although the first images appeared to be sharper than those of ground @-@ based telescopes , Hubble failed to achieve a final sharp focus and the best image quality obtained was drastically lower than expected . Images of point sources spread out over a radius of more than one arcsecond , instead of having a point spread function ( PSF ) concentrated within a circle 0 @.@ 1 arcsec in diameter as had been specified in the design criteria .
Analysis of the flawed images showed that the cause of the problem was that the primary mirror had been ground to the wrong shape . Although it was probably the most precisely figured mirror ever made , with variations from the prescribed curve of only 10 nanometers , at the perimeter it was too flat by about 2 @,@ 200 nanometers ( 2 @.@ 2 micrometers ) . This difference was catastrophic , introducing severe spherical aberration , a flaw in which light reflecting off the edge of a mirror focuses on a different point from the light reflecting off its center .
The effect of the mirror flaw on scientific observations depended on the particular observation — the core of the aberrated PSF was sharp enough to permit high @-@ resolution observations of bright objects , and spectroscopy of point sources was only affected through a sensitivity loss . However , the loss of light to the large , out of focus halo severely reduced the usefulness of the telescope for faint objects or high @-@ contrast imaging . This meant that nearly all of the cosmological programs were essentially impossible , since they required observation of exceptionally faint objects . NASA and the telescope became the butt of many jokes , and the project was popularly regarded as a white elephant . For instance , in the 1991 comedy The Naked Gun 2 ½ : The Smell of Fear , Hubble was pictured with the Titanic , the Hindenburg , and the Edsel . Nonetheless , during the first three years of the Hubble mission , before the optical corrections , the telescope still carried out a large number of productive observations of less demanding targets . The error was well characterized and stable , enabling astronomers to partially compensate for the defective mirror by using sophisticated image processing techniques such as deconvolution .
= = = Origin of the problem = = =
A commission headed by Lew Allen , director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , was established to determine how the error could have arisen . The Allen Commission found that the main null corrector , a testing device used to achieve a properly shaped non @-@ spherical mirror , had been incorrectly assembled — one lens was out of position by 1 @.@ 3 mm . During the initial grinding and polishing of the mirror , Perkin @-@ Elmer analyzed its surface with two conventional null correctors . However , for the final manufacturing step ( figuring ) , they switched to a custom @-@ built null corrector , designed explicitly to meet very strict tolerances . The incorrect assembly of the device resulted in the mirror being ground very precisely but to the wrong shape . There was one later opportunity to catch the error , since for technical reasons a few of the final tests needed to use the two conventional null correctors . These tests correctly reported spherical aberration , but were dismissed since the reflective null corrector was considered more accurate .
The commission blamed the failings primarily on Perkin @-@ Elmer . Relations between NASA and the optics company had been severely strained during the telescope construction , due to frequent schedule slippage and cost overruns . NASA found that Perkin @-@ Elmer did not review or supervise the mirror construction adequately , did not assign its best optical scientists to the project ( as it had for the prototype ) , and in particular did not involve the optical designers in the construction and verification of the mirror . While the commission heavily criticized Perkin @-@ Elmer for these managerial failings , NASA was also criticized for not picking up on the quality control shortcomings , such as relying totally on test results from a single instrument .
= = = Design of a solution = = =
The design of the telescope had always incorporated servicing missions , and astronomers immediately began to seek potential solutions to the problem that could be applied at the first servicing mission , scheduled for 1993 . While Kodak had ground a back @-@ up mirror for Hubble , it would have been impossible to replace the mirror in orbit , and too expensive and time @-@ consuming to bring the telescope back to Earth for a refit . Instead , the fact that the mirror had been ground so precisely to the wrong shape led to the design of new optical components with exactly the same error but in the opposite sense , to be added to the telescope at the servicing mission , effectively acting as " spectacles " to correct the spherical aberration .
The first step was a precise characterization of the error in the main mirror . Working backwards from images of point sources , astronomers determined that the conic constant of the mirror as built was − 1 @.@ 01390 ± 0 @.@ 0002 , instead of the intended − 1 @.@ 00230 . The same number was also derived by analyzing the null corrector used by Perkin @-@ Elmer to figure the mirror , as well as by analyzing interferograms obtained during ground testing of the mirror .
Because of the way the HST 's instruments were designed , two different sets of correctors were required . The design of the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 , already planned to replace the existing WF / PC , included relay mirrors to direct light onto the four separate charge @-@ coupled device ( CCD ) chips making up its two cameras . An inverse error built into their surfaces could completely cancel the aberration of the primary . However , the other instruments lacked any intermediate surfaces that could be figured in this way , and so required an external correction device .
The Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement ( COSTAR ) system was designed to correct the spherical aberration for light focused at the FOC , FOS , and GHRS . It consists of two mirrors in the light path with one ground to correct the aberration . To fit the COSTAR system onto the telescope , one of the other instruments had to be removed , and astronomers selected the High Speed Photometer to be sacrificed . By 2002 , all of the original instruments requiring COSTAR had been replaced by instruments with their own corrective optics . COSTAR was removed and returned to Earth in 2009 where it is exhibited at the National Air and Space Museum . The area previously used by COSTAR is now occupied by the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph .
= = Servicing missions and new instruments = =
Hubble was designed to accommodate regular servicing and equipment upgrades . Five servicing missions ( SM 1 , 2 , 3A , 3B , and 4 ) were flown by NASA space shuttles , the first in December 1993 and the last in May 2009 . Servicing missions were delicate operations that began with maneuvering to intercept the telescope in orbit and carefully retrieving it with the shuttle 's mechanical arm . The necessary work was then carried out in multiple tethered spacewalks over a period of four to five days . After a visual inspection of the telescope , astronauts conducted repairs , replaced failed or degraded components , upgraded equipment , and installed new instruments . Once work was completed , the telescope was redeployed , typically after boosting to a higher orbit to address the orbital decay caused by atmospheric drag .
= = = Servicing Mission 1 = = =
After the problems with Hubble 's mirror were discovered , the first servicing mission assumed greater importance , as the astronauts would need to do extensive work to install corrective optics . The seven astronauts for the mission were trained to use about a hundred specialized tools . SM1 flew aboard Endeavour in December 1993 , and involved installation of several instruments and other equipment over ten days .
Most importantly , the High Speed Photometer was replaced with the COSTAR corrective optics package , and WFPC was replaced with the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 ( WFPC2 ) with an internal optical correction system . The solar arrays and their drive electronics were also replaced , as well as four gyroscopes in the telescope pointing system , two electrical control units and other electrical components , and two magnetometers . The onboard computers were upgraded with added coprocessors , and Hubble 's orbit was boosted .
On January 13 , 1994 , NASA declared the mission a complete success and showed the first sharper images . At the time , the mission was one of the most complex , involving five long extra @-@ vehicular activity periods . Its success was a boon for NASA , as well as for the astronomers with a more capable space telescope .
= = = Servicing Mission 2 = = =
Servicing Mission 2 , flown by Discovery in February 1997 , replaced the GHRS and the FOS with the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph ( STIS ) and the Near Infrared Camera and Multi @-@ Object Spectrometer ( NICMOS ) , replaced an Engineering and Science Tape Recorder with a new Solid State Recorder , and repaired thermal insulation . NICMOS contained a heat sink of solid nitrogen to reduce the thermal noise from the instrument , but shortly after it was installed , an unexpected thermal expansion resulted in part of the heat sink coming into contact with an optical baffle . This led to an increased warming rate for the instrument and reduced its original expected lifetime of 4 @.@ 5 years to about 2 years .
= = = Servicing Mission 3A = = =
Servicing Mission 3A , flown by Discovery , took place in December 1999 , and was a split @-@ off from Servicing Mission 3 after three of the six onboard gyroscopes had failed . The fourth failed a few weeks before the mission , rendering the telescope incapable of performing scientific observations . The mission replaced all six gyroscopes , replaced a Fine Guidance Sensor and the computer , installed a Voltage / temperature Improvement Kit ( VIK ) to prevent battery overcharging , and replaced thermal insulation blankets . The new computer is 20 times faster , with six times more memory , than the DF @-@ 224 it replaced . It increases throughput by moving some computing tasks from the ground to the spacecraft , and saves money by allowing the use of modern programming languages .
= = = Servicing Mission 3B = = =
Servicing Mission 3B flown by Columbia in March 2002 saw the installation of a new instrument , with the FOC ( which , except for the Fine Guidance Sensors when used for astrometry , was the last of the original instruments ) being replaced by the Advanced Camera for Surveys ( ACS ) . This meant that COSTAR was no longer required , since all new instruments had built @-@ in correction for the main mirror aberration . The mission also revived NICMOS by installing a closed @-@ cycle cooler and replaced the solar arrays for the second time , providing 30 percent more power .
= = = Servicing Mission 4 = = =
Plans called for Hubble to be serviced in February 2005 , but the Columbia disaster in 2003 , in which the orbiter disintegrated on re @-@ entry into the atmosphere , had wide @-@ ranging effects on the Hubble program . NASA Administrator Sean O 'Keefe decided that all future shuttle missions had to be able to reach the safe haven of the International Space Station should in @-@ flight problems develop . As no shuttles were capable of reaching both HST and the ISS during the same mission , future manned service missions were canceled . This decision was assailed by numerous astronomers , who felt that Hubble was valuable enough to merit the human risk . HST 's planned successor , the James Webb Telescope ( JWST ) , is not expected to launch until at least 2018 . A gap in space @-@ observing capabilities between a decommissioning of Hubble and the commissioning of a successor is of major concern to many astronomers , given the significant scientific impact of HST . The consideration that JWST will not be located in low Earth orbit , and therefore cannot be easily upgraded or repaired in the event of an early failure , only makes these concerns more acute . On the other hand , many astronomers felt strongly that the servicing of Hubble should not take place if the expense were to come from the JWST budget .
In January 2004 , O 'Keefe said he would review his decision to cancel the final servicing mission to HST due to public outcry and requests from Congress for NASA to look for a way to save it . The National Academy of Sciences convened an official panel , which recommended in July 2004 that the HST should be preserved despite the apparent risks . Their report urged " NASA should take no actions that would preclude a space shuttle servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope " . In August 2004 , O 'Keefe asked Goddard Space Flight Center to prepare a detailed proposal for a robotic service mission . These plans were later canceled , the robotic mission being described as " not feasible " . In late 2004 , several Congressional members , led by Senator Barbara Mikulski , held public hearings and carried on a fight with much public support ( including thousands of letters from school children across the country ) to get the Bush Administration and NASA to reconsider the decision to drop plans for a Hubble rescue mission .
The nomination in April 2005 of a new NASA Administrator with an engineering rather than accounting background , Michael D. Griffin , changed the situation , as Griffin stated he would consider a manned servicing mission . Soon after his appointment Griffin authorized Goddard to proceed with preparations for a manned Hubble maintenance flight , saying he would make the final decision after the next two shuttle missions . In October 2006 Griffin gave the final go @-@ ahead , and the 11 @-@ day mission by Atlantis was scheduled for October 2008 . Hubble 's main data @-@ handling unit failed in September 2008 , halting all reporting of scientific data until its back @-@ up was brought online on October 25 , 2008 . Since a failure of the backup unit would leave the HST helpless , the service mission was postponed to incorporate a replacement for the primary unit .
Servicing Mission 4 , flown by Atlantis in May 2009 , was the last scheduled shuttle mission for HST . SM4 installed the replacement data @-@ handling unit , repaired the ACS and STIS systems , installed improved nickel hydrogen batteries , and replaced other components . SM4 also installed two new observation instruments — Wide Field Camera 3 ( WFC3 ) and the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph ( COS ) — and the Soft Capture and Rendezvous System , which will enable the future rendezvous , capture , and safe disposal of Hubble by either a crewed or robotic mission . Except for the High Resolution Channel of the ACS which was unable to be repaired , the work accomplished during SM4 rendered the telescope fully functional , and it remains so as of 2015 .
= = Major projects = =
Since the start of the program , a number of research projects have been carried out , some of them almost solely with Hubble , others coordinated facilities such as Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory and ESO 's Very Large Telescope . Although the Hubble observatory is nearing the end of its life , there are still major projects scheduled for it . One example is the upcoming Frontier Fields program , inspired by the results of Hubble 's deep observation of the galaxy cluster Abell 1689 .
= = = Cosmic Assembly Near @-@ infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey = = =
In an August 2013 press release , CANDELS was referred to as " the largest project in the history of Hubble " . The survey " aims to explore galactic evolution in the early Universe , and the very first seeds of cosmic structure at less than one billion years after the Big Bang . " The CANDELS project site describes the survey 's goals as the following :
The Cosmic Assembly Near @-@ IR Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey is designed to document the first third of galactic evolution from z = 8 to 1 @.@ 5 via deep imaging of more than 250 @,@ 000 galaxies with WFC3 / IR and ACS . It will also find the first Type Ia SNe beyond z > 1 @.@ 5 and establish their accuracy as standard candles for cosmology . Five premier multi @-@ wavelength sky regions are selected ; each has multi @-@ wavelength data from Spitzer and other facilities , and has extensive spectroscopy of the brighter galaxies . The use of five widely separated fields mitigates cosmic variance and yields statistically robust and complete samples of galaxies down to 109 solar masses out to z ~ 8 .
= = = Frontier Fields program = = =
The program , officially named " Hubble Deep Fields Initiative 2012 " , is aimed to advance the knowledge of early galaxy formation by studying high @-@ redshift galaxies in blank fields with the help of gravitational lensing to see the " faintest galaxies in the distant universe . " The Frontier Fields web page describes the goals of the program being :
to reveal hitherto inaccessible populations of z = 5 – 10 galaxies that are 10 to 50 times fainter intrinsically than any presently known
to solidify our understanding of the stellar masses and star formation histories of sub @-@ L * galaxies at the earliest times
to provide the first statistically meaningful morphological characterization of star forming galaxies at z > 5
to find z > 8 galaxies stretched out enough by cluster lensing to discern internal structure and / or magnified enough by cluster lensing for spectroscopic follow @-@ up .
= = Public use = =
Anyone can apply for time on the telescope ; there are no restrictions on nationality or academic affiliation , but funding for analysis is only available to US institutions . Competition for time on the telescope is intense , with about one @-@ fifth of the proposals submitted in each cycle earning time on the schedule .
Calls for proposals are issued roughly annually , with time allocated for a cycle lasting about one year . Proposals are divided into several categories ; " general observer " proposals are the most common , covering routine observations . " Snapshot observations " are those in which targets require only 45 minutes or less of telescope time , including overheads such as acquiring the target . Snapshot observations are used to fill in gaps in the telescope schedule that cannot be filled by regular GO programs .
Astronomers may make " Target of Opportunity " proposals , in which observations are scheduled if a transient event covered by the proposal occurs during the scheduling cycle . In addition , up to 10 % of the telescope time is designated " director 's discretionary " ( DD ) time . Astronomers can apply to use DD time at any time of year , and it is typically awarded for study of unexpected transient phenomena such as supernovae .
Other uses of DD time have included the observations that led to views of the Hubble Deep Field and Hubble Ultra Deep Field , and in the first four cycles of telescope time , observations that were carried out by amateur astronomers .
= = = Amateur observations = = =
The first director of STScI , Riccardo Giacconi , announced in 1986 that he intended to devote some of his director discretionary time to allowing amateur astronomers to use the telescope . The total time to be allocated was only a few hours per cycle but excited great interest among amateur astronomers .
Proposals for amateur time were stringently reviewed by a committee of amateur astronomers , and time was awarded only to proposals that were deemed to have genuine scientific merit , did not duplicate proposals made by professionals , and required the unique capabilities of the space telescope . Thirteen amateur astronomers were awarded time on the telescope , with observations being carried out between 1990 and 1997 . One such study was " Transition Comets — UV Search for OH " . The very first proposal , " A Hubble Space Telescope Study of Posteclipse Brightening and Albedo Changes on Io " , was published in Icarus , a journal devoted to solar system studies . A second study from another group of amateurs was also published in Icarus . After that time , however , budget reductions at STScI made the support of work by amateur astronomers untenable , and no additional amateur programs have been carried out .
= = = 20th and 25th anniversaries = = =
The Hubble Space Telescope celebrated its 20th anniversary in space on April 24 , 2010 . To commemorate the occasion , NASA , ESA , and the Space Telescope Science Institute ( STScI ) released an image from the Carina Nebula .
To commemorate Hubble 's 25th anniversary in space on April 24 , 2015 , STScI released images of the Westerlund 2 cluster , located about 20 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 6 @,@ 100 pc ) away in the constellation Carina , through its Hubble 25 website . The European Space Agency created a dedicated 25th anniversary page on its website .
= = Scientific results = =
= = = Key projects = = =
In the early 1980s , NASA and STScI convened four panels to discuss Key Projects . These were projects that were both scientifically important and would require significant telescope time , which would be explicitly dedicated to each project . This guaranteed that these particular projects would be completed early , in case the telescope failed sooner than expected . The panels identified three such projects : 1 ) a study of the nearby intergalactic medium using quasar absorption lines to determine the properties of the intergalactic medium and the gaseous content of galaxies and groups of galaxies ; 2 ) a medium deep survey using the Wide Field Camera to take data whenever one of the other instruments was being used and 3 ) a project to determine the Hubble Constant within ten percent by reducing the errors , both external and internal , in the calibration of the distance scale .
= = = Important discoveries = = =
Hubble has helped resolve some long @-@ standing problems in astronomy , as well as raising new questions . Some results have required new theories to explain them . Among its primary mission targets was to measure distances to Cepheid variable stars more accurately than ever before , and thus constrain the value of the Hubble constant , the measure of the rate at which the universe is expanding , which is also related to its age . Before the launch of HST , estimates of the Hubble constant typically had errors of up to 50 % , but Hubble measurements of Cepheid variables in the Virgo Cluster and other distant galaxy clusters provided a measured value with an accuracy of ± 10 % , which is consistent with other more accurate measurements made since Hubble 's launch using other techniques . The estimated age is now about 13 @.@ 7 billion years , but before the Hubble Telescope scientists predicted an age ranging from 10 to 20 billion years .
While Hubble helped to refine estimates of the age of the universe , it also cast doubt on theories about its future . Astronomers from the High @-@ z Supernova Search Team and the Supernova Cosmology Project used ground @-@ based telescopes and HST to observe distant supernovae and uncovered evidence that , far from decelerating under the influence of gravity , the expansion of the universe may in fact be accelerating . The cause of this acceleration remains poorly understood ; the most common cause attributed is dark energy .
The high @-@ resolution spectra and images provided by the HST have been especially well @-@ suited to establishing the prevalence of black holes in the nuclei of nearby galaxies . While it had been hypothesized in the early 1960s that black holes would be found at the centers of some galaxies , and astronomers in the 1980s identified a number of good black hole candidates , work conducted with Hubble shows that black holes are probably common to the centers of all galaxies . The Hubble programs further established that the masses of the nuclear black holes and properties of the galaxies are closely related . The legacy of the Hubble programs on black holes in galaxies is thus to demonstrate a deep connection between galaxies and their central black holes .
The collision of Comet Shoemaker @-@ Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994 was fortuitously timed for astronomers , coming just a few months after Servicing Mission 1 had restored Hubble 's optical performance . Hubble images of the planet were sharper than any taken since the passage of Voyager 2 in 1979 , and were crucial in studying the dynamics of the collision of a comet with Jupiter , an event believed to occur once every few centuries .
Other discoveries made with Hubble data include proto @-@ planetary disks ( proplyds ) in the Orion Nebula ; evidence for the presence of extrasolar planets around Sun @-@ like stars ; and the optical counterparts of the still @-@ mysterious gamma ray bursts . HST has also been used to study objects in the outer reaches of the Solar System , including the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris .
A unique window on the Universe enabled by Hubble are the Hubble Deep Field , Hubble Ultra @-@ Deep Field , and Hubble Extreme Deep Field images , which used Hubble 's unmatched sensitivity at visible wavelengths to create images of small patches of sky that are the deepest ever obtained at optical wavelengths . The images reveal galaxies billions of light years away , and have generated a wealth of scientific papers , providing a new window on the early Universe . The Wide Field Camera 3 improved the view of these fields in the infrared and ultraviolet , supporting the discovery of some of the most distant objects yet discovered , such as MACS0647 @-@ JD .
The non @-@ standard object SCP 06F6 was discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope in February 2006 . During June and July 2012 , US astronomers using Hubble discovered a tiny fifth moon moving around icy Pluto .
In March 2015 , researchers announced that measurements of aurorae around Ganymede revealed that the moon has a subsurface ocean . Using Hubble to study the motion of its aurorae , the researchers determined that a large saltwater ocean was helping to suppress the interaction between Jupiter 's magnetic field and that of Ganymede . The ocean is estimated to be 100 km ( 60 mi ) deep , trapped beneath a 150 km ( 90 mi ) ice crust .
On December 11 , 2015 , Hubble captured an image of the first @-@ ever predicted reappearance of a supernova , dubbed " Refsdal " , which was calculated using different mass models of a galaxy cluster whose gravity is warping the supernova 's light . The supernova was previously seen in November 2014 behind galaxy cluster MACS J1149.5 + 2223 as part of Hubble 's Frontier Fields program . Astronomers spotted four separate images of the supernova in an arrangement known as an Einstein Cross . The light from the cluster has taken about five billion years to reach Earth , though the supernova exploded some 10 billion years ago . The detection of Refsdal 's reappearance served as a unique opportunity for astronomers to test their models of how mass , especially dark matter , is distributed within this galaxy cluster .
On March 3 , 2016 , researchers using Hubble data announced the discovery of the farthest known galaxy to date : GN @-@ z11 . The Hubble observations occurred on February 11 , 2015 , and April 3 , 2015 , as part of the CANDELS / GOODS @-@ North surveys .
= = = Impact on astronomy = = =
Many objective measures show the positive impact of Hubble data on astronomy . Over 9 @,@ 000 papers based on Hubble data have been published in peer @-@ reviewed journals , and countless more have appeared in conference proceedings . Looking at papers several years after their publication , about one @-@ third of all astronomy papers have no citations , while only 2 % of papers based on Hubble data have no citations . On average , a paper based on Hubble data receives about twice as many citations as papers based on non @-@ Hubble data . Of the 200 papers published each year that receive the most citations , about 10 % are based on Hubble data .
Although the HST has clearly helped astronomical research , its financial cost has been large . A study on the relative astronomical benefits of different sizes of telescopes found that while papers based on HST data generate 15 times as many citations as a 4 m ( 13 ft ) ground @-@ based telescope such as the William Herschel Telescope , the HST costs about 100 times as much to build and maintain .
Deciding between building ground- versus space @-@ based telescopes is complex . Even before Hubble was launched , specialized ground @-@ based techniques such as aperture masking interferometry had obtained higher @-@ resolution optical and infrared images than Hubble would achieve , though restricted to targets about 108 times brighter than the faintest targets observed by Hubble . Since then , advances in adaptive optics have extended the high @-@ resolution imaging capabilities of ground @-@ based telescopes to the infrared imaging of faint objects . The usefulness of adaptive optics versus HST observations depends strongly on the particular details of the research questions being asked . In the visible bands , adaptive optics can only correct a relatively small field of view , whereas HST can conduct high @-@ resolution optical imaging over a wide field . Only a small fraction of astronomical objects are accessible to high @-@ resolution ground @-@ based imaging ; in contrast Hubble can perform high @-@ resolution observations of any part of the night sky , and on objects that are extremely faint .
= = Hubble data = =
= = = Transmission to Earth = = =
Hubble data was initially stored on the spacecraft . When launched , the storage facilities were old @-@ fashioned reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape recorders , but these were replaced by solid state data storage facilities during servicing missions 2 and 3A . About twice daily , the Hubble Space Telescope radios data to a satellite in the geosynchronous Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System ( TDRSS ) , which then downlinks the science data to one of two 60 @-@ foot ( 18 @-@ meter ) diameter high @-@ gain microwave antennas located at the White Sands Test Facility in White Sands , New Mexico . From there they are sent to the Space Telescope Operations Control Center at Goddard Space Flight Center , and finally to the Space Telescope Science Institute for archiving . Each week , HST downlinks approximately 140 gigabytes of data .
= = = Color images = = =
All images from Hubble are monochromatic grayscale , in which its cameras incorporate a variety of filters each sensitive to specific wavelengths of light . Color images are created by combining separate monochrome images taken through different filters . This process can also create false @-@ color versions of images including infrared and ultraviolet channels , where infrared is typically rendered as a deep red and ultraviolet is rendered as a deep blue .
= = = Archives = = =
All Hubble data is eventually made available via the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes at STScI , CADC and ESA / ESAC . Data is usually proprietary — available only to the principal investigator ( PI ) and astronomers designated by the PI — for one year after being taken . The PI can apply to the director of the STScI to extend or reduce the proprietary period in some circumstances .
Observations made on Director 's Discretionary Time are exempt from the proprietary period , and are released to the public immediately . Calibration data such as flat fields and dark frames are also publicly available straight away . All data in the archive is in the FITS format , which is suitable for astronomical analysis but not for public use . The Hubble Heritage Project processes and releases to the public a small selection of the most striking images in JPEG and TIFF formats .
= = = Pipeline reduction = = =
Astronomical data taken with CCDs must undergo several calibration steps before they are suitable for astronomical analysis . STScI has developed sophisticated software that automatically calibrates data when they are requested from the archive using the best calibration files available . This ' on @-@ the @-@ fly ' processing means that large data requests can take a day or more to be processed and returned . The process by which data are calibrated automatically is known as ' pipeline reduction ' , and is increasingly common at major observatories . Astronomers may if they wish retrieve the calibration files themselves and run the pipeline reduction software locally . This may be desirable when calibration files other than those selected automatically need to be used .
= = = Data analysis = = =
Hubble data can be analyzed using many different packages . STScI maintains the custom @-@ made Space Telescope Science Data Analysis System ( STSDAS ) software , which contains all the programs needed to run pipeline reduction on raw data files , as well as many other astronomical image processing tools , tailored to the requirements of Hubble data . The software runs as a module of IRAF , a popular astronomical data reduction program .
= = Outreach activities = =
It has always been important for the Space Telescope to capture the public 's imagination , given the considerable contribution of taxpayers to its construction and operational costs . After the difficult early years when the faulty mirror severely dented Hubble 's reputation with the public , the first servicing mission allowed its rehabilitation as the corrected optics produced numerous remarkable images .
Several initiatives have helped to keep the public informed about Hubble activities .
In the United States , outreach efforts are coordinated by the Space Telescope Science Institute ( STScI ) Office for Public Outreach , which was established in 2000 to ensure that U.S. taxpayers saw the benefits of their investment in the space telescope program . To that end , STScI operates the HubbleSite.org website . The Hubble Heritage Project , operating out of the STScI , provides the public with high @-@ quality images of the most interesting and striking objects observed . The Heritage team is composed of amateur and professional astronomers , as well as people with backgrounds outside astronomy , and emphasizes the aesthetic nature of Hubble images . The Heritage Project is granted a small amount of time to observe objects which , for scientific reasons , may not have images taken at enough wavelengths to construct a full @-@ color image .
Since 1999 , the leading Hubble outreach group in Europe has been the Hubble European Space Agency Information Centre ( HEIC ) . This office was established at the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility in Munich , Germany . HEIC 's mission is to fulfill HST outreach and education tasks for the European Space Agency . The work is centered on the production of news and photo releases that highlight interesting Hubble results and images . These are often European in origin , and so increase awareness of both ESA 's Hubble share ( 15 % ) and the contribution of European scientists to the observatory . ESA produces educational material , including a videocast series called Hubblecast designed to share world @-@ class scientific news with the public .
The Hubble Space Telescope has won two Space Achievement Awards from the Space Foundation , for its outreach activities , in 2001 and 2010 .
There is a replica of the Hubble Space Telescope on the courthouse lawn in Marshfield , Missouri , the hometown of namesake Edwin P. Hubble .
= = Future = =
= = = Equipment failure = = =
Past servicing missions have exchanged old instruments for new ones , both avoiding failure and making possible new types of science . Without servicing missions , all of the instruments will eventually fail . In August 2004 , the power system of the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph ( STIS ) failed , rendering the instrument inoperable . The electronics had originally been fully redundant , but the first set of electronics failed in May 2001 . This power supply was fixed during servicing mission 4 in May 2009 . Similarly , the Advanced Camera for Surveys ( ACS ) main camera primary electronics failed in June 2006 , and the power supply for the backup electronics failed on January 27 , 2007 . Only the instrument 's Solar Blind Channel ( SBC ) was operable using the side @-@ 1 electronics . A new power supply for the wide angle channel was added during SM 4 , but quick tests revealed this did not help the high resolution channel .
HST uses gyroscopes to stabilize itself in orbit and point accurately and steadily at astronomical targets . Normally , three gyroscopes are required for operation ; observations are still possible with two , but the area of sky that can be viewed would be somewhat restricted , and observations requiring very accurate pointing are more difficult . There are further contingency plans for observations with just one gyro , but if all gyros fail , continued scientific observations will not be possible . In 2005 , it was decided to switch to two @-@ gyroscope mode for regular telescope operations as a means of extending the lifetime of the mission . The switch to this mode was made in August 2005 , leaving Hubble with two gyroscopes in use , two on backup , and two inoperable . One more gyro failed in 2007 . By the time of the final repair mission , during which all six gyros were replaced ( with two new pairs and one refurbished pair ) , only three gyros were still working . Engineers are confident that they have identified the root causes of the gyro failures , and the new models should be much more reliable .
= = = Orbital decay = = =
Hubble orbits the Earth in the extremely tenuous upper atmosphere , and over time its orbit decays due to drag . If it is not re @-@ boosted , it will re @-@ enter the Earth 's atmosphere within some decades , with the exact date depending on how active the Sun is and its impact on the upper atmosphere . If Hubble were to descend in a completely uncontrolled re @-@ entry , parts of the main mirror and its support structure would probably survive , leaving the potential for damage or even human fatalities . In 2013 , deputy project manager James Jeletic projected that Hubble could survive into 2020 . Based on solar activity and atmospheric drag , or lack thereof , a natural atmospheric reentry for Hubble will occur between 2030 and 2040 . In June 2016 , NASA extended the service contract for Hubble until June 2021 .
NASA 's original plan for safely de @-@ orbiting Hubble was to retrieve it using a space shuttle . Hubble would then have most likely been displayed in the Smithsonian Institution . This is no longer possible since the space shuttle fleet has been retired , and would have been unlikely in any case due to the cost of the mission and risk to the crew . Instead , NASA considered adding an external propulsion module to allow controlled re @-@ entry . Ultimately NASA installed the Soft Capture and Rendezvous System , to enable deorbit by either a crewed or robotic mission .
= = = Successors = = =
There is no direct successor to Hubble as an ultraviolet and visible @-@ light space telescope , as near @-@ term space telescopes do not duplicate Hubble 's wavelength coverage ( near @-@ ultraviolet to near @-@ infrared wavelengths ) , instead concentrating on the farther infrared bands . These bands are preferred for studying high redshift and low @-@ temperature objects , objects generally older and farther away in the universe . These wavelengths are also difficult or impossible to study from the ground , justifying the expense of a space @-@ based telescope . Large ground @-@ based telescopes can image some of the same wavelengths as Hubble , sometimes challenge HST in terms of resolution by using adaptive optics ( AO ) , have much larger light @-@ gathering power , and can be upgraded more easily , but cannot yet match Hubble 's excellent resolution over a wide field of view with the very dark background of space .
Plans for a Hubble successor materialized as the Next Generation Space Telescope project , which culminated in plans for the James Webb Space Telescope ( JWST ) , the formal successor of Hubble . Very different from a scaled @-@ up Hubble , it is designed to operate colder and farther away from the Earth at the L2 Lagrangian point , where thermal and optical interference from the Earth and Moon are lessened . It is not engineered to be fully serviceable ( such as replaceable instruments ) , but the design includes a docking ring to enable visits from other spacecraft . A main scientific goal of JWST is to observe the most distant objects in the universe , beyond the reach of existing instruments . It is expected to detect stars in the early Universe approximately 280 million years older than stars HST now detects . The telescope is an international collaboration between NASA , the European Space Agency , and the Canadian Space Agency since 1996 , and is planned for launch on an Ariane 5 rocket . Although JWST is primarily an infrared instrument , its coverage extends down to 600 nm wavelength light , or roughly orange in the visible spectrum . A typical human eye can see to about 750 nm wavelength light , so there is some overlap with the longest visible wavelength bands , including orange and red light .
A complementary telescope , looking at even longer wavelengths than Hubble or JWST , was the European Space Agency 's Herschel Space Observatory , launched on May 14 , 2009 . Like JWST , Herschel was not designed to be serviced after launch , and had a mirror substantially larger than Hubble 's , but observed only in the far infrared and submillimeter . It needed helium coolant , of which it ran out on April 29 , 2013 .
Further concepts for advanced 21st @-@ century space telescopes include the Advanced Technology Large @-@ Aperture Space Telescope , a conceptualized 8- to 16 @-@ meter ( 320- to 640 @-@ inch ) optical space telescope that if realized could be a more direct successor to HST , with the ability to observe and photograph astronomical objects in the visible , ultraviolet , and infrared wavelengths , with substantially better resolution than Hubble or the Spitzer Space telescope . This effort is being planned for the 2025 – 2035 time frame .
Existing ground @-@ based telescopes , and various proposed Extremely Large Telescopes , can exceed the HST in terms of sheer light @-@ gathering power and diffraction limit due to larger mirrors , but other factors affect telescopes . In some cases , they may be able to match or beat Hubble in resolution by using adaptive optics . However , AO on large ground @-@ based reflectors will not make Hubble and other space telescopes obsolete . Most AO systems sharpen the view over a very narrow field — Lucky Cam , for example , produces crisp images just 10 " to 20 " wide , whereas Hubble 's cameras are super sharp across a 2 ½ ' ( 150 " ) field . Furthermore , space telescopes can study the universe across the entire electromagnetic spectrum , most of which is blocked by Earth 's atmosphere . Finally , the background sky is darker in space than on the ground , because air absorbs solar energy during the day and then releases it at night , producing a faint — but nevertheless discernible — airglow that washes out low @-@ contrast astronomical objects .
= = List of Hubble instruments = =
Advanced Camera for Surveys ( ACS )
Cosmic Origins Spectrograph ( COS )
Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement ( COSTAR )
Faint Object Camera ( FOC )
Faint Object Spectrograph ( FOS )
Fine Guidance Sensor ( FGS )
Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph ( GHRS / HRS )
High Speed Photometer ( HSP )
Near Infrared Camera and Multi @-@ Object Spectrometer ( NICMOS )
Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph ( STIS )
Wide Field and Planetary Camera ( WFPC )
Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 ( WFPC2 )
Wide Field Camera 3 ( WFC3 )
|
= California spiny lobster =
The California spiny lobster ( Panulirus interruptus ) is a species of spiny lobster found in the eastern Pacific Ocean from Monterey Bay , California to the Gulf of Tehuantepec , Mexico . It typically grows to a length of 30 cm ( 12 in ) and is a reddish @-@ brown color with stripes along the legs , and has a pair of enlarged antennae but no claws . The interrupted grooves across the tail are characteristic for the species .
Females can carry up to 680 @,@ 000 eggs , which hatch after 10 weeks into flat phyllosoma larvae . These feed on plankton before the metamorphosis into the juvenile state . Adults are nocturnal and migratory , living among rocks at depths of up to 65 m ( 213 ft ) , and feeding on sea urchins , clams , mussels and worms . The spiny lobster is eaten by various fish , octopuses and sea otters , but can defend itself with a loud noise produced by its antennae . The California spiny lobster is the subject of both commercial and recreational fishery in both Mexico and the United States , with sport fishermen using hoop nets and commercial fishermen using lobster traps .
= = Description = =
In common with all spiny lobsters , the California spiny lobster has two large , spiny antennae , but no large claws on its legs . The California spiny lobster is one of the largest spiny lobster species , and grows up to 60 centimeters ( 24 in ) long , but does not usually exceed 30 cm ( 12 in ) . Males can weigh up to 7 @.@ 4 kilograms ( 16 lb ) . , with the record being a 16 lbs . , 1 oz. male caught off Catalina island in 1968 . The upper side of the animal is brownish red , without the paler bands or spots seen in some other spiny lobsters . The legs are a similar color , but with one or more lighter streaks running along their length .
Males and females of all ages can be distinguished by the position of the two round genital openings or gonopores . In females , they are at the bases of the third pair of pereiopods , while in males they are at the base of the fifth ( last ) pereiopods , furthest from the head and the closest to the abdomen . Mature females have a small claw on the fifth pereiopod , and enlarged pleopods .
= = Distribution = =
The California spiny lobster is found in parts of the Gulf of California , and along the Pacific coast of the length of the Baja California peninsula , extending as far north as San Luis Obispo Bay , California . There are occasional records from Monterey Bay , but the water there is too cold for the California spiny lobster to breed , and it is thought that any adult found in Central California arrived as a larva during El Niño years .
California spiny lobsters live on rocky substrates , at depths of up to 65 meters ( 213 ft ) . Although they can be found in shallow water , including tide pools , they are more frequent in deeper waters . Juveniles generally inhabit rocky habitats at a depth of 0 – 4 m ( 0 – 13 ft ) with dense plant cover , especially the surf grass Phyllospadix torreyi .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
California spiny lobsters are nocturnal , hiding in crevices during the day , with only the tips of their long antennae showing , as a means of avoiding predators . Towards dawn , the spiny lobsters form aggregations , which they maintain until dusk . At night , they emerge and feed on sea urchins , clams , mussels and worms . This activity is important in limiting sea urchin populations , and so maintaining healthy seabed communities .
Natural predators of the California spiny lobster include bony fish such as the California sheepshead , giant sea bass and cabezone , sharks including the horn shark and leopard shark , octopuses and sea otters . In response to an approaching predator , spiny lobsters including the California spiny lobster can produce a loud noise using the stick @-@ slip phenomenon , akin to a bowed instrument . The bases of the antennae act as a plectrum , which is rubbed over a file on the edge of the antennular plate . If a predator is very close , spiny lobsters will flex their muscular tail in order to escape the predator , backwards .
There is an annual migration , in which spiny lobsters enter shallower water in spring and summer , and head out to deeper water in fall and winter , reaching depths as great as 240 ft ( 73 m ) , perhaps to avoid the effects of winter storms .
= = Life cycle = =
Female California spiny lobsters reach sexual maturity at a length of 65 – 69 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 7 in ) , which is typically at an age of 5 – 9 years ; males are sexually mature after 3 – 6 years . Because all the hard parts are lost at each molt , the life span of mature spiny lobsters is uncertain ; they are thought to live for 50 years or more .
Spiny lobsters do not have the gonopods ( first pleopods modified for reproduction ) that occur in clawed lobsters and crabs , and females do not have a deep pocket on the sternum in which to store sperm . Instead , a spermatophore is transferred directly from one of the male 's gonopores to the sternum of the female . The male gonopore is , however , adorned with a " penile process " , which is straight and serrated , with a small " hairbrush " . The sternum of mature females has three " windows " on the last three segments , which uniquely among Panulirus species , span both halves of the sternum . These windows are softer than the rest of the exoskeleton , and are thought to help the male locate the correct location to place the tar @-@ like spermatophore .
After mating , the fertilized eggs are carried on the female 's pleopods until they hatch , with between 120 @,@ 000 and 680 @,@ 000 carried by a single female . The eggs begin coral red , but darken as they develop to a deep maroon . When she is carrying the eggs , the female is said to be " berried " . The eggs are ready to hatch after 10 weeks , and spawning takes place from May to August , The larvae that hatch ( called phyllosoma larvae ) do not resemble the adults . Instead , they are flat , transparent animals around 14 mm ( 0 @.@ 55 in ) long , but as thin as a sheet of paper . The larvae feed on plankton , and grow through ten molts into ten further larval stages , the last of which is around 30 – 32 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 3 in ) long . The full series of larval molts takes around 7 months , and when the last stage molts , it metamorphoses into the puerulus state , which is a juvenile form of the adult , albeit still transparent . The puerulus larvae settle to the sea floor when the water is near its maximum temperature , which in Baja California is in the fall .
The diet of the juveniles is varied , but comprises mostly amphipods and isopods , together with coralline algae and the plant Phyllospadix . When available , the juveniles prefer to eat crabs .
= = Fishery = =
In his original description , John Witt Randall noted that the California spiny lobster is " used as food by the natives " of Upper California . The California spiny lobster is now the most economically important lobster on the American West Coast . Sport fishing may account for up to half the entire catch , while most of the commercial catch comes from lobster traps , with smaller amounts coming from the use of trammel nets or by trawling . The major fishing area is west of Baja California , and imports from Mexico to the United States are twice the amount produced in California .
= = = Sport fishing in California = = =
Recreational fishermen are allowed to catch lobsters with hoop nets or by SCUBA diving or free @-@ diving ; almost all come from California , with only small numbers from other U.S. states . The California Department of Fish and Game estimates that recreational fishers caught more than 200 @,@ 000 spiny lobsters in the first half of the 2008 / 2009 season , amounting to around 280 @,@ 000 pounds ( 130 @,@ 000 kg ) , compared to commercial fishermen , who caught a total of 580 @,@ 000 lb ( 260 @,@ 000 kg ) in the same time .
The California Department of Fish and Game sets and enforces a number of regulations pertaining to recreational fishing of spiny lobsters :
Open season for California spiny lobster runs from the Saturday before the first Wednesday in October until the first Wednesday after March 15 .
No implements other than hoop nets may be used ; no one person may have more than 5 nets and no vessel may use more than 10 hoop nets . When fishing from land , each fisherman is limited to two hoop nets .
Lobster fishers may not land more than seven California spiny lobsters on any given day , and may not have more than seven in their possession at any time .
Fishers must carry a lobster gauge , and any lobster smaller than the minimum landing size must be returned to the sea immediately . The minimum size is a carapace length of 3 1 ⁄ 4 inches ( 82 @.@ 6 mm ) , measured along the midline from the rear of the eye socket between the horns , to the end of the carapace . This is equivalent to a total body length of 20 centimeters or 7 @.@ 9 inches .
To fish for spiny lobster south of Point Arguello , a sport fishing license with ocean enhancement stamp must be displayed or kept nearby .
A report card for the season must be bought , filled in and returned before April 30 after the season ends .
Commercial and recreational traps must not be interfered with .
= = = Commercial fishing in California = = =
The open season for commercial fishing begins on the first Wednesday in October and runs until the first Wednesday after the 15th of March . Commercial fishermen may use individually buoyed traps , but may not dive for lobsters .
For those using lobster traps , the fishing effort is greatest at the beginning of the permitted season in California , and peters out towards the end of the season , 24 weeks later . Although the fishing effort becomes better concentrated on areas with more spiny lobsters during the season , the fishing efficiency ( catch per unit effort ) nonetheless decreases throughout the season .
= = = Fishing in Mexico = = =
In Mexico , spiny lobsters are an important commercial resource , representing the fifth most valuable fishery , worth US $ 18 million . Three species are exploited along the Pacific coast of the Baja California peninsula , but the catch of 744 t of the California spiny lobster makes up 95 % – 97 % of the total , with only small quantities of Panulirus inflatus and Panulirus gracilis . The fishing rights are held by 26 local co @-@ operatives .
The main legal restrictions on fishing for California spiny lobster in Mexico are a minimum landing size of 82 @.@ 5 mm ( 3 @.@ 25 in ) , the prohibition of catching berried females , and a closed season : from February 16 to November 15 , fishing for spiny lobsters is prohibited in a region which moves south along Mexico 's Pacific coast during the season .
The Mexican fishery for the California spiny lobster was the first Latin American fishery to be awarded the Marine Stewardship Council 's sustainable fishery ecolabel , and the species is classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
= = Names = =
Panulirus interruptus is called the California spiny lobster by the Food and Agriculture Organization , but a number of other local , vernacular names exist , including California lobster , California marine crayfish , and red lobster in the United States , and langosta colorada and langosta roja in Mexico . The preferred common name of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service is simply spiny lobster .
John Witt Randall described the species in the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia in 1840 , based on material given to him by Thomas Nuttall . The exact locality is not known , being given only as " Upper California " , but the most likely sources are the places where Nuttall was most active , namely Santa Barbara and San Diego . The specific epithet interruptus refers to the grooves on the abdominal tergites , which are interrupted in this species . Although originally placed in the genus Palinurus , the California spiny lobster was later transferred to Adam White 's new genus Panulirus , together with other spiny lobsters that have long flagella on their first antennae .
= = Related species = =
The California spiny lobster is one of 19 species in the genus Panulirus , which is one of several genera of spiny lobsters whose names are anagrams of the original spiny lobster genus , Palinurus . Its closest relatives are not the other species that occur in the East Pacific , but rather Panulirus argus from the Caribbean Sea and West Pacific species such as Panulirus japonicus , Panulirus marginatus , Panulirus pascuensis , Panulirus cygnus and Panulirus longipes ; this relationship has been recovered from comparative studies of adult and larval morphology , as well as from molecular phylogenetics , using the sequences from cytochrome c oxidase and 16S ribosomal RNA genes .
The California spiny lobster can be differentiated from the other species in the genus by the interrupted grooves across the abdomen ; other species either lack grooves , or have grooves which span the entire body segment .
|
= Hybrid Theory =
Hybrid Theory is the debut album by the American rock band Linkin Park , released on October 24 , 2000 through Warner Bros. Records . The album was a commercial success , having been certified Diamond for sales of over 11 million units in the United States alone as of 2010 , peaking at number two on the Billboard 200 , and also reaching high positions on other charts worldwide .
Recorded at NRG Recordings in North Hollywood , California , and produced by Don Gilmore , the album 's lyrical themes deal with problems lead vocalist Chester Bennington experienced during his adolescence , including drug abuse and the constant fighting and divorce of his parents . Hybrid Theory takes its title from the previous name of the band as well as the concept of music theory and combining different styles .
Four singles were released from the album : " One Step Closer " , " Crawling " , " Papercut " , and " In the End " , all of them being responsible for launching Linkin Park into mainstream popularity . While " In the End " was the most successful of the four , all of the singles in the album remain some of the band 's most successful songs to date . Although " Runaway " , " Points of Authority " , and " My December " from the special edition bonus disc album were not released as singles , they were minor hits on alternative rock radio stations thanks to the success of all of the band 's singles and the album . At the 2002 Grammy Awards , Hybrid Theory was nominated for Best Rock Album . The album is listed in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . It was ranked # 11 on Billboard 's Hot 200 Albums of the Decade . A special edition of Hybrid Theory was released March 11 , 2002 , a year and a half after its original pressing . Hybrid Theory has sold over 28 million copies worldwide , which makes it the best selling debut album of the 2000s . Linkin Park performed the album in its entirety for the first time at the Download Festival on June 14 , 2014 .
= = Background = =
Linkin Park was founded in 1996 as the rap rock band , Xero : lead guitarist Brad Delson , vocalist and rhythm guitarist Mike Shinoda , drummer Rob Bourdon , turntablist Joe Hahn , lead vocalist Mark Wakefield and bassist Dave Farrell ( who was not with the band during this point to tour with Tasty Snax ) . In 1999 , after Wakefield 's departure , lead vocalist Chester Bennington joined the five members Xero and the band was renamed to Linkin Park . Bennington 's previous band , Grey Daze , had recently disbanded , so his lawyer recommended him to Jeff Blue , vice president of A & R coordination for Zomba , who at the time was seeking a lead vocalist for Xero . Blue sent Bennington two tapes of Xero 's unreleased recordings — one with vocals by former Xero member Mark Wakefield , and the other with only the instrumental tracks — asking for his " interpretation of the songs " . Bennington wrote and recorded new vocals over the instrumentals and sent the tapes back to Blue . As Delson recalls , " [ Bennington ] really was kind of the final piece of the puzzle [ ... ] We didn 't see anything close to his talent in anybody else . " After Bennington joined , the group first renamed itself to Hybrid Theory and released a self @-@ titled EP . Legal complications with Welsh electronic music group Hybrid prompted a second name change , thus deciding on " Linkin Park " . Throughout 1999 , Linkin Park was a regular act at the Los Angeles club , The Whisky .
= = Writing and recording = =
The music that would ultimately become the Hybrid Theory album was first produced by Linkin Park in 1999 as a nine @-@ track demo tape . The band sent this tape to various recording companies and played forty @-@ two different showcases for recording industry representatives , including performances for Los Angeles promoter and impresario , Mike Galaxy 's showcase at The Gig on melrose . However , they were initially turned down by most of the major labels and several independent record labels . The band was signed by Warner Bros. Records in 1999 , due in large part to the constant recommendations of Jeff Blue , who had joined the label after resigning from Zomba .
Despite initial difficulties in finding a producer willing to take charge of the debut album of a newly signed band , Don Gilmore ultimately agreed to head up the project , with Andy Wallace hired as the mixer . Recording sessions , which mostly involved re @-@ recording the songs off the demo tape , began at NRG Recordings in North Hollywood , California in early 2000 and lasted four weeks . Shinoda 's rapping sections in most of the songs were significantly altered from the original , while most choruses remained largely unchanged . Due to the absence of Dave Farrell and Kyle Christener , who took part in the 1999 extended play , the band hired Scott Koziol and Ian Hornbeck as stand @-@ in bassists ; Delson also played bass throughout most of the album . The Dust Brothers provided additional beats for the track “ With You ” .
Bennington and Shinoda wrote the lyrics of Hybrid Theory based in part on early demos with Mark Wakefield . Shinoda characterized the lyrics as interpretations of universal feelings , emotions , and experiences , and as “ everyday emotions you talk about and think about . ” Bennington later described the songwriting experience to Rolling Stone magazine in early 2002 :
= = Composition = =
The music of Hybrid Theory draws from diverse inspirations . Bennington 's singing style is influenced by acts such as Depeche Mode and Stone Temple Pilots , while the riffs and playing techniques of guitarist Brad Delson are modeled after Deftones , Guns N ' Roses , U2 , and The Smiths . Mike Shinoda 's rapping , present in seven tracks , is very close to The Roots ' style . The lyrical content of the songs primarily touches upon the problems that Bennington encountered during his childhood , including child abuse , constant and excessive drug and alcohol abuse , the divorce of his parents , isolation , disappointments , and the aftermath feelings of failed relationships . Stylistically , the album has been described as nu metal , rap metal and alternative metal .
The album eventually produced four singles . " One Step Closer " , the album 's second track and first single , was gradually recorded in increments after Linkin Park struggled with " Runaway " , and features a guitar riff and electronic percussion in the introduction transitioning into a bridge with distortion @-@ heavy guitars and aggressive drums . It is also infamous for the " Shut up when I 'm talkin ' to you ! " refrain screamed by Bennington one minute and 48 seconds into the song . The music video for " One Step Closer " was shot in a Los Angeles subway and became an instant hit , eventually receiving heavy rotation on MTV and other music television networks . Stand @-@ in bassist Scott Koziol is shown performing with the band in the video .
The second single was " Crawling " . Lyrically , the song focuses on Bennington 's personal experiences with child abuse — the physical violence , the difficulty in breaking the cycle of abuse , and the subsequent loss of self @-@ esteem . This concept is echoed in the music video , in which a girl ( Katelyn Rosaasen ) is abused by her father and can be seen in the beginning of the video with several visible bruises .
" Papercut " was the album 's third single , and its lyrics describe paranoia . The music video for " Papercut " features the band performing in a hallway opposite a completely dark room on the walls of which are scribbled the song 's lyrics . Various supernatural themes are present in the video , and special effects are used to create eerie renditions , such as the " stretching " of Shinoda 's fingers and the “ melting ” of Bourdon 's face .
The fourth single to come from Hybrid Theory was " In the End " , which prominently features a signature piano riff performed by Shinoda . His rapping also dominates the verses of the song and is later joined by Bennington 's vocals in the chorus . The song 's concept is mainly based on one person 's failure . It is considered symbolic of an ending relationship , however , it can also represent broken trust in a once long @-@ lasting friendship . The music video for " In the End " was shot at various stops along the 2001 Ozzfest tour and was directed by Nathan " Karma " Cox and the band 's DJ Joe Hahn , who would go on to direct many of Linkin Park 's future videos ( the two also directed the music video for " Papercut " ) . Although the background for the " In the End " video was filmed in a California desert , the band itself performed on a studio stage in Los Angeles , with prominent CGI effects and compositing being used to create the finished version . Performing on a studio stage allowed Hahn and Cox to set off water pipes above the stage near the end and drench the band . The music video won the Best Rock Video award at the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards .
" Points of Authority " , the fourth track on the album , has its own music video that can be found on Frat Party at the Pankake Festival , the band 's first DVD . Drummer Rob Bourdon describes the recording process of the song : “ Brad wrote this riff , then went home . Mike decided to cut it up into different pieces and rearranged them on the computer [ ... ] Brad had to learn his own part from the computer . ” Regarding the song , Delson praised Shinoda 's skill , describing him as “ a genius ” and “ Trent Reznor @-@ talented ” . On live performances of the song , when Shinoda raps the line , " Forfeit the game " verse for the third time in the song , Bennington would rap the verse along with Mike .
= = Artwork = =
With Hybrid Theory being Linkin Park 's first album , Mike Shinoda , who had worked as a graphic designer before becoming a professional musician , has stated that the band had looked through books for inspiration on how to present themselves for the first time . The result was a winged @-@ soldier which Shinoda illustrated himself . According to Chester Bennington , the idea of the soldier with dragonfly wings was to describe the blending of hard and soft musical elements by the use of the jaded looks of the soldier and frail touches of the wings . The art style was largely influenced by stencil graffiti , including early works by Banksy . The cover also features scrambled lyrics of the album 's songs within the background , though the lyrics of " One Step Closer " are the most prominent . A different version of the soldier can be seen on some of the album 's singles . The cover of Reanimation , a remix album of Hybrid Theory , features a robotic version of the soldier that is similar in appearance to a mobile suit Gundam , a line of robotic combat machines that are featured in the popular Gundam Wing anime series .
= = Release = =
Hybrid Theory was released in the United States on October 24 , 2000 following radio airplay of " One Step Closer " . Hybrid Theory also sold 50 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , entering the U.S. Billboard 200 charts at # 16 in late 2000 , and was certified gold by the RIAA five weeks after its release . In 2001 , Hybrid Theory sold 4 @.@ 8 million copies in the United States , making it the best @-@ selling album of the year , and it was estimated that the album continued selling 100 @,@ 000 copies per week in early 2002 . Throughout the following years , the album continued to sell at a fast pace and was certified diamond by the RIAA in 2005 for shipment of 10 million copies in the US . As of June 2014 , the album has sold 10 @,@ 222 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
Four singles from the album were released throughout 2001 ( though " Points of Authority " was released as a promotional single ) , three of which were chart successes on the US Billboard Modern Rock Tracks charts . The single " In the End " was the highest charting single from the album , which peaked at # 1 on the Modern Rock Tracks charts and appearing on charts worldwide . The success of " In the End " was partly responsible for Hybrid Theory 's chart success ; it reached # 2 in the Billboard 200 in early 2002 behind Weathered by Creed and by J to tha L – O ! : The Remixes by Jennifer Lopez . Hybrid Theory was the 11th best performing album on the Billboard 200 during the decade , the album reached the top ten in its 38th week on the chart and stayed in the top ten for 34 weeks . The album spent 105 weeks on the chart ( roughly 2 years ) and re entered at # 167 in February 2011 . The album also charted in 11 other countries at fairly high positions and ranked among the top ten in the charts of the United Kingdom , Sweden , New Zealand , Austria , Finland , and Switzerland . At the 44th Grammy Awards in 2002 , Linkin Park won Best Hard Rock Performance for their song " Crawling " . Additional nominations for Best New Artist and Best Rock Album lost out to Alicia Keys and All That You Can 't Leave Behind by U2 .
Following the success of Hybrid Theory , Linkin Park received invitations to perform at various rock concerts and tours , including Ozzfest , the Family Values Tour , KROQ @-@ FM 's Almost Acoustic Christmas , and the band 's self @-@ created tour , Projekt Revolution , which was headlined by Linkin Park and featured other bands such as Cypress Hill and Adema . During this time , Linkin Park reunited with their original bassist , Dave “ Phoenix ” Farrell . The band kept an online journal on their official website throughout their 2001 and 2002 touring regime , in which each band member made a respective notation . Although the notes are no longer on their website , they are available on fansites . Linkin Park played 324 shows in 2001 .
= = = Special editions = = =
A two @-@ disc special edition of Hybrid Theory was released on March 11 , 2002 in Asia . The first disc contains the original album , and the second disc features live performances of " Papercut " , " Points of Authority " , and " A Place for My Head " recorded at the Docklands Arena for BBC Radio 1 . Also featured on the second disc are two studio tracks : " My December " — a song written after the release of Hybrid Theory for inclusion on KROQ 's " Slim Santa " CD , and " High Voltage " , a remix of the song originally on the Hybrid Theory EP .
On August 12 , 2014 , the band released a Live CD of the Download Festival 2014 performance where they played their debut album in its entirely , " Hybrid Theory : Live at Download Festival 2014 " .
= = Critical reception = =
Hybrid Theory received generally positive reviews from critics . Stephanie Dickison of PopMatters commented that the band was a " far more complex and talented group than the hard rock boy bands of late " , and claimed that " they will continue to fascinate and challenge music 's standard sounds . " Q magazine gave Hybrid Theory four out of five stars . Robert Christgau of The Village Voice wrote that “ the men don 't know what the angry boys understand ” , and gave the album a " two @-@ star honorable mention rating " , citing " Papercut " and " Points of Authority " as highlights of the album . Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone gave the album two and a half stars and commented that Hybrid Theory had " as much potency as albums by Limp Bizkit or Korn " and called it an album that " reflects the frustration of life " .
AllMusic writer William Ruhlmann said that " Linkin Park sounds like a Johnny @-@ come @-@ lately to an already overdone musical style " and called " One Step Closer " " a typical effort " , referring to the lyrics of the song 's chorus . Johan Wippsson from Melodic praised Don Gilmore 's production and described the albums as " destructive and angry but always with a well controlled melodic feeling all over . " NME 's Noel Gardner commented that " otherwise damn fine soaring emo @-@ crunchers like ' With You ' and ' A Place for My Head ' are pointlessly jazzed up with tokenistic scratching , " giving the album a score of six out of ten . Tyler Fisher at Sputnikmusic gave the album a 3 @.@ 0 / 5 , saying " Hybrid Theory stands as a defining mainstream album at the turn of the century , and for good reason . " , but calling the guitar riffs " often bland and unoriginal " . Mike Ross of Jam ! declares the albums as a combination of the best of hip hop and heavy metal . He goes on to state " ... they can actually rap . They can actually crank out a ferocious , head @-@ banging groove . They can write introspective lyrics with intelligence . It adds up to one of the finest new rap metal bands I 've ever heard . "
Later in 2002 , Linkin Park released an album entitled Reanimation . It included the songs of Hybrid Theory remixed and reinterpreted by nu metal and underground hip hop artists . Contributors to the album included Black Thought , Pharoahe Monch , Jonathan Davis , Stephen Carpenter , and Aaron Lewis . The sound of later Linkin Park albums would involve experimentation with classical instruments such as strings and piano , both of which , along with the same elements of electronica from Hybrid Theory , are prominently included in the band 's second studio album Meteora . As Shinoda explains the difference in the sound between Hybrid Theory and Meteora : " That electronic element has always been there in the band – it 's just that sometimes we bring it closer to the front . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Accolades = = =
Hybrid Theory found itself in several " must have " lists that were compiled by various music publications , networks , and other media . In 2012 , Rock Sound named Hybrid Theory the best modern classic album of the last 15 years . In 2013 , Loudwire ranked it at # 10 in its Best Hard Rock Debut Albums list . Some of the more prominent of these lists to feature Hybrid Theory are shown below :
* denotes an unordered list
= = Track listing = =
= = Hybrid Theory – Live Around the World = =
Hybrid Theory – Live Around the World is a live album which features live versions of eight songs from the debut studio album , Hybrid Theory . They were recorded in various cities around the world from 2007 to 2010 .
= = = Track listing = = =
All songs written and composed by Linkin Park , except " A Place for My Head " Linkin Park , Wakefield , Farrell .
= = Personnel = =
Linkin Park
Chester Bennington – lead vocals
Mike Shinoda – lead vocals , rapping , rhythm guitar , keyboard , piano
Brad Delson – lead guitar , bass guitar , backing vocals
Joe Hahn – turntables , samples , programming , backing vocals
Rob Bourdon – drums , percussion , backing vocals
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
An en @-@ dash ( – ) denotes countries in which the singles were not released or did not chart .
|
= Eurasian wryneck =
The Eurasian wryneck ( Jynx torquilla ) is a species of wryneck in the woodpecker family . This species mainly breeds in temperate regions of Europe and Asia . Most populations are migratory , wintering in tropical Africa and in southern Asia from Iran to the Indian Subcontinent , but some are resident in northwestern Africa . It is a bird of open countryside , woodland and orchards .
Eurasian wrynecks measure about 16 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) in length and have bills shorter and less dagger @-@ like than those of other woodpeckers . Their upperparts are barred and mottled in shades of pale brown with rufous and blackish bars and wider black streaks . Their underparts are cream speckled and spotted with brown . Their chief prey is ants and other insects , which they find in decaying wood or on the ground . The eggs are white as is the case with many birds that nest in holes and a clutch of seven to ten eggs is laid during May and June .
These birds get their English name from their ability to turn their heads through almost 180 degrees . When disturbed at the nest , they use this snake @-@ like head twisting and hissing as a threat display . This odd behaviour led to their use in witchcraft , hence to put a " jinx " on someone .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The Eurasian wryneck was first described by Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae in 1758 . The type species came from Sweden .
The genus name Jynx is from the Ancient Greek name for this bird , iunx . The specific torquilla is Medieval Latin derived from torquere , to twist , referring to the strange snake @-@ head movements . The bird was used a a charm to bring back an errant lover , the bird being tied to a piece of string and whirled around . The English " wryneck " refers to the same twisting movement and was first recorded in 1585 .
The Picidae family has four subfamilies , the Picinae ( woodpeckers ) , the Picumninae ( piculets ) , the Jynginae ( wrynecks ) and the monotypic Nesoctitinae ( Antillean piculet ) . Based on morphology and behaviour , the Picumninae was considered to be the sister clade of the Picinae . This has now been confirmed by phylogenetic analysis and the Jynginae are placed basal to the Picinae , Nesoctitinae and Picumninae .
Jynginae includes one genus ( Jynx ) and two species , the Eurasian wryneck and the red @-@ throated wryneck ( Jynx ruficollis ) , resident in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . There are six subspecies of Jynx torquilla :
Jynx torquilla chinensis Hesse , 1911
Jynx torquilla himalayana Vaurie , 1959
Jynx torquilla mauretanica Rothschild , 1909
Jynx torquilla sarudnyi Loudon , 1912
Jynx torquilla torquilla Linnaeus , 1758
Jynx torquilla tschusii O. Kleinschmidt , 1907
= = Description = =
The Eurasian wryneck grows to about 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) in length . The subspecies Jynx torquilla tschusii weighs 26 to 50 g ( 0 @.@ 92 to 1 @.@ 76 oz ) . It is a slim , elongated @-@ looking bird with a body shape more like a thrush than a woodpecker . The upperparts are barred and mottled in shades of pale brown with rufous and blackish bars and wider black streaks . The rump and upper tail coverts are grey with speckles and irregular bands of brown . The rounded tail is grey , speckled with brown , with faint bands of greyish @-@ brown and a few more clearly defined bands of brownish @-@ black . The cheeks and throat are buff barred with brown . The underparts are creamy white with brown markings shaped like arrow @-@ heads which are reduced to spots on the lower breast and belly . The flanks are buff with similar markings and the under @-@ tail coverts are buff with narrow brown bars . The primaries and secondaries are brown with rufous @-@ buff markings . The beak is brown , long and slender with a broad base and sharp tip . The irises are hazel and the slender legs and feet are pale brown . The first and second toes are shorter than the others . The first and fourth toes point backwards and the second and third point forwards , a good arrangement for clinging to vertical surfaces .
The call of the Eurasian wryneck is a series of repeated harsh , shrill notes quee @-@ quee @-@ quee @-@ quee lasting for several seconds and is reminiscent of the voice of the lesser spotted woodpecker . Its alarm call is a short series of staccato " tuck " s and when disturbed on the nest it hisses .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Eurasian wryneck has a palearctic distribution . The breeding range of the nominate subspecies includes all of Europe from Britain to the Urals . In the north it reaches the Arctic Circle and the range includes Spain in the southwest . In the south and east it intergrades with J. t. tschusii ( smaller and more reddish brown ) which is found in Corsica , Italy , Dalmatia and parts of the Balkans . J. t. mauretanica ( also smaller than the nominate form , light , with whitish throat and breast ) is resident in Algeria and Morocco and possibly also the Balearic Islands , Sardinia and parts of Sicily . J. t. sarudnyi ( considerably paler than the nominate with fainter markings ) occurs in the Urals and then in a wide strip of Asia through southern Siberia , Central Asia , including the north @-@ western Himalayas to the Pacific coast . J. t. chinensis breeds in eastern Siberia and northeastern and central China while J. t. himalayana breeds in Pakistan and the northwestern Himalayas . Eurasian wrynecks also inhabit the island of Sakhalin , Japan and the coastal areas of southern China .
The Eurasian wryneck is the only European woodpecker to undertake long distance migrations . The wintering area of European species is located south of the Sahara , in a wide strip across Africa extending from Senegal , Gambia and Sierra Leone in the west to Ethiopia in the east . Its southern limit extends to the Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon . The populations from West Asia use the same wintering areas . The Central and East Asian breeding birds winter in the Indian subcontinent or southern East Asia including southern Japan .
During the summer the bird is found in open countryside , parkland , gardens , orchards , heaths and hedgerows , especially where there are some old trees . It may also inhabit deciduous woodland and in Scandinavia it also occurs in coniferous forests .
= = Behaviour = =
The Eurasian wryneck sometimes forms small groups during migration and in its winter quarters but in the summer is usually found in pairs . It characteristically holds its head high with its beak pointing slightly upwards . A mutual display that occurs at any time of year involves two birds perched facing each other with their heads far back and beaks wide open , bobbing their heads up and down . Sometimes the head is allowed to slump sideways and hang limply . On other occasions , when excited , the head is shaken and twisted about violently . When disturbed on the nest or held in the hand , the neck contorts and twists in all directions . The bird sometimes feigns death and hangs limply with eyes closed .
On returning to the breeding area after migration , the birds set up territories . On farmland in Switzerland it has been found that old pear orchards with large numbers of ant nests are preferentially selected over other habitata . Areas used for vegetable cultivation provided useful habitat when they include areas of bare ground on which the birds can forage . Territories are not chosen at random as arriving birds favoured certain areas over others with the same territories being colonised first year after year . The presence of other Eurasian wrynecks in the vicinity is also a positive influence . Orchards in general , and older ones in particular , provide favoured territories , probably because the dense foliage is more likely to support high numbers of aphids and the ground beneath has scant vegetation cover , both of which factors increase the availability of ants , the birds ' main prey . Despite some territories being consistently chosen over others , reproductive success in these territories was no higher than in others . Limiting factors for such crevice @-@ nesting species as Eurasian wrynecks are both the availability of nesting sites and the number of ants and their ease of discovery . Modern farming practices such as the removal of hedges , forest patches and isolated trees and the increasing use of fertilisers and pesticides are disadvantageous to such birds .
The diet of the Eurasian wryneck consists chiefly of ants but beetles and their larvae , moths , spiders and woodlice are also eaten . Although much time is spent in the upper branches of trees , the bird sometimes perches in low bushes and mostly forages on the ground , moving around with short hops with its tail held in a raised position . It can cling to tree trunks , often moving obliquely , and sometimes pressing its tail against the surface as a prop . It does not make holes in bark with its beak but picks up prey with a rapid extension and retraction of its tongue and it sometimes catches insects while on the wing . Its flight is rather slow and undulating .
= = Breeding = =
The nesting site is variable and may be in a pre @-@ existing hole in a tree trunk , a crevice in a wall , a hole in a bank , a sand martin 's burrow or a nesting box . In its search for a safe , protected site out of reach of predators , it sometimes evicts a previous occupant , its eggs and nestlings . It uses no nesting material and a clutch of normally seven to ten eggs is laid ( occasionally five , six , eleven or twelve ) . The eggs average 20 @.@ 8 by 15 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 82 in × 0 @.@ 61 in ) and weigh about 0 @.@ 2 g ( 0 @.@ 007 oz ) . They are a dull white colour and partially opaque . Both sexes are involved in incubation which takes twelve days , but the female plays the greater part . Both parents feed the chicks for about twenty days before they fledge . There is usually a single brood .
= = Status = =
The IUCN lists the Eurasian wryneck as being of " Least Concern " in its Red List of Threatened Species . This is because it has a world population estimated at up to fifteen million individual birds and a very wide geographical range . The population may be decreasing to a certain extent but not at such a rate as to make the bird reach the threshold for a more threatened category . In continental Europe , the largest populations are in Spain , Italy , Germany , Poland , Romania , Hungary , Belarus and Ukraine , and only in Romania is the population trend believed to be upward . In Russia , where there are believed to be 300 @,@ 000 to 800 @,@ 000 individuals , the population trend is unknown . In the United Kingdom the numbers of bird are on the decrease and it is protected under Schedule 1 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention . It is protected as a migratory species under the Birds Directive in the European Union .
|
= Dream a Little Dream of Me ( Supernatural ) =
" Dream a Little Dream of Me " is the tenth episode of the paranormal drama television series Supernatural 's third season . It was first broadcast on The CW on February 7 , 2008 . The narrative follows series protagonists Sam ( Jared Padalecki ) and Dean Winchester ( Jensen Ackles ) as they enter the dreamscape to rescue the comatose Bobby Singer ( Jim Beaver ) .
Developed by Sera Gamble and Cathryn Humphris , the episode was written by the latter and directed by Steve Boyum . It delves into the backstory of Bobby , and also features a major turning point in Dean 's search for self @-@ worth . Many dream sequences had to be altered due to production issues , though series creator Eric Kripke believes it ultimately benefited the episode .
Critics gave generally positive reviews that praised Ackles for his dual performance and the production staff for their work on the dream sequences . However , they heavily criticized the actions of character Bela Talbot ( Lauren Cohan ) .
= = Plot = =
Within a dreamscape , hunter Bobby Singer ( Beaver ) searches around an old house and is suddenly attacked by a woman ( Elizabeth Marleau ) . A maid tries to no avail to wake him up in his motel room . Meanwhile , Dean Winchester ( Ackles ) finds his brother Sam ( Padalecki ) drinking at a bar in the middle of the afternoon . When Dean questions him about it , a drunken Sam admits that he is upset about not being able to save Dean from his demonic pact , which left him only a year to live . What bothers Sam even more is that Dean , who has little self @-@ worth , is not even concerned about his fate . Their conversation is interrupted by a call from the hospital .
After the brothers visit Bobby , who is in an unexplainable coma , they search his motel room and find a newspaper article about a doctor who suffered a sleep @-@ related death . Dean visits the doctor 's office , and learns that he was conducting secret dream experiments for his study on sleep disorders . Dean tracks down Jeremy , a young man who was part of the sleep study because he could not dream . While they talk , Jeremy offers Dean a beer , and he drinks it . Jeremy ( G. Michael Gray ) reveals that the experiment allowed him to dream by drinking a yellow tea , but the dreams scared him so much that he dropped out of the study . Sam , who has been busy conducting research , later tells Dean that a plant known as " African Dream Root " allegedly allows a person to enter and manipulate others ' dreams ; they believe someone killed the doctor in this manner and is now targeting Bobby . As a terrified Bobby hides in a closet within his dream , Dean suggests to Sam that they themselves use the dream root to save him .
The brothers contact Bela Talbot ( Cohan ) — a thief and frequent thorn in the Winchesters ' sides — to supply them with dream root . She enters the motel room wearing a trench coat , and removes it to reveal the lingerie underneath . She begins to passionately kiss Sam , and they lie on the bed . However , Sam is soon awakened from his dream by Dean , and Bela arrives moments later . She gives them the dream root without argument — she claims Bobby saved her life in Flagstaff — but is then kicked out . The brothers use the root to make tea , and soon find themselves in a clean version of Bobby 's house . Sam goes outside into brightly lit scenery of flowers and singing birds , but becomes locked out of the house . Inside , Dean locates Bobby , who does not believe that he is dreaming . A woman with stab wounds approaches them , and Bobby reveals that she is his wife . Years prior , she became possessed , and Bobby was forced to stab her because he did not know how to exorcise the demon from her ; her death led him to become a hunter . As Sam is attacked outside by an angry Jeremy , Bobby takes control of the dream , and they awaken .
Bobby explains that the man who attacked Sam is Jeremy Frost ; he was unable to dream because his father brutally hit him in the head with a baseball bat . The target 's DNA is a required ingredient for the dream @-@ root tea , and Jeremy acquired Bobby 's by offering him a beer . Dean realizes that he made the same mistake . Vulnerable to Jeremy , they both stay awake for two days while attempting to track him down . Unable to endure it any longer , Dean goes to sleep to face Jeremy , and Sam uses the dream root to enter his dream . The brothers encounter a dream version of Lisa Braeden ( Cindy Sampson ) — Dean 's former love interest — outstide on a blanket with a picnic basket . She invites Dean to join her , and tells him that she loves him before disappearing . Though Dean denies ever having that dream before , it is an obvious lie . Sam then sees Jeremy nearby and chases after him , and Dean finds himself in a long hallway . He enters his motel room , and comes face @-@ to @-@ face with a dream version of him ; he is his own worst nightmare . The Dream Dean comments on the real Dean 's feelings of worthlessness and self @-@ loathing ; he also deems Dean to be as " mindless and obedient as an attack dog " , noting that his possessions , personality , and motives all stem from his father . When the Dream Dean calls him a " good soldier and nothing else " , the real Dean reacts violently and exclaims that he did not deserve the burdens that his father put onto him and that he does not deserve to go to Hell . The real Dean shoots his doppelganger with a shotgun , but he returns to life as a demon . The Dream Dean taunts him that he cannot escape his fate , and reminds him that exposure to Hell will transform him into a demon .
Elsewhere , Sam finds and confronts Jeremy . The latter manipulates the dreamscape to his favor , but Sam retaliates by summoning the form of Jeremy 's father . A terrified Jeremy is distracted , and Sam kills him with a baseball bat . The brothers then awaken from their dreams . When they find that Bela lied about Bobby saving her life , they realize that she stole the Colt — a mystical gun capable of killing anything — from them . As the brothers prepare to leave to hunt her down , Dean admits that he does not want to die . Sam promises him that they will figure out a way to save him .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Deemed by series creator Eric Kripke to be his homage to the film Dreamscape , the episode was the culmination of many previous pitches . Series writer Sera Gamble had been suggesting a dream @-@ based episode since the show 's first season , but it was not until the third season that the writers found the concept feasible . Although Cathryn Humphris was selected to pen " Dream a Little Dream of Me " due to her position on the writers ' rotation , she was teamed with Gamble to develop the story . On this pairing , Humphris commented , " I think that we complement each other well . Sera 's great at the really scary moments , and I think I 'm pretty good at some of the connective tissue and putting stuff together in the larger landscape . "
= = = Writing = = =
" Dream a Little Dream of Me " delves into the backstory of hunter Bobby Singer . The writers always knew his history would be " grounded in family " . Reflecting this , the original teaser depicted the supernatural deaths of Bobby 's children ; while eating dinner with his family , his children 's throats are supernaturally slit , and they would ask him , " Why , daddy , why did you let this happen ? " However , the writers could not determine where to go from there . Following Humphris ' earlier pitch of Bobby being an expert exorcist because of a previous failed exorcism , the focus changed to Bobby 's torment about killing his demonically possessed wife .
Other planned dream sequences were drastically altered due to production issues . One such scene , made to look like 80 's @-@ style film stock , had Dean being confronted by serial killer Jason Voorhees of the Friday the 13th film series . After production cleared the rights to use the character , Kripke made everyone view Friday the 13th : The Final Chapter to help them create the " perfect facsimile " of Jason . However , the film studio that had granted permission realized a few days before filming that it did not actually own the rights . In dire need of a new concept , the writers recalled Sam 's dream sequence with Bela ; since Sam is revealed to be a " horn dog " underneath , the writers wanted Dean to be the opposite . Dean secretly desires a normal family , so they had Cindy Sampson reprise her role as Lisa Braeden — Dean 's love interest from " The Kids are Alright " . On retrospect , Kripke preferred this scene over Jason because it is more illuminating of Dean 's character .
Dean 's other dream is a major turning point in the character 's storyline , after which he starts gaining self @-@ respect and realizes that he truly wants to live . He begins the season with little self @-@ worth , and the writers realized that this outlook stems from his father , John Winchester . Initially , they planned to have Jeffrey Dean Morgan reprise his role as John , who would browbeat Dean within the dreamscape . When they learned that Morgan was busy filming Watchmen , the writers instead found inspiration in the junkyard scene from the film Superman III , in which good and evil versions of Superman confront one another . Kripke noted , however , that the conversation between the two Deans still focuses on John .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal filming took place in Vancouver , British Columbia , with Bobby 's hospital scenes being filmed at Eagle Ridge Hospital in Port Moody , British Columbia . To distinguish the dream sequences , director of photography Serge Ladouceur used full blue lighting in the backgrounds — he normally uses half . The seamless transitions between dream scenes were accomplished by compressing the background with a long lens .
= = Reception = =
On its initial broadcast , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 68 million viewers . It received generally positive reviews from critics . Tina Charles of TV Guide was happy to see Jim Beaver become more involved in the storyline , and praised Ackles for his " amazing job " during the confrontation between the two Deans . She described the latter scenes as " seamless , yet painful to watch " . Although Charles was happy to see the Colt get stolen — she thought the weapon was " too easy " and had lost its mystique — she noted her annoyance that the brothers continue to " look ridiculous " because Bela is able to steal things from them . Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune gave the episode an A- . Despite the " sluggish pacing " of the first half , the " paternal baggage " and monster of the week " built up enough emotional resonance to triumph " . She noted the actors ' performances , such as the " great Winchester moment " in which Sam discusses Dean 's demonic pact ; for Peterson , " ... the dark , wounded look in Jared Padalecki 's eyes totally sells it " . The " brutally good character writing " and " truly impressive work " done for Dean 's dream @-@ encounter with himself was also lauded , with Peterson writing , " Ackles gives two of his best performances in the history of the show . At the same time . " Like Charles , however , she pointed out how " uncharacteristically stupid about Bela " the Winchesters have been . She commented , " Bela appears to have eaten the writers ' brains for breakfast . " The episode received a score of 7 out of 7 from TV Squad 's Brett Love . Bobby 's backstory at first was a " bit of a shock " for him , but he eventually came to realize that it " fits very well " . Love also thought that the dream root aspect " worked out great " , and deemed the dreamscapes " creepy and unsettling " .
|
= W. S. Gilbert =
Sir William Schwenck Gilbert ( 18 November 1836 – 29 May 1911 ) was an English dramatist , librettist , poet and illustrator best known for the fourteen comic operas ( known as the Savoy operas ) produced in collaboration with the composer Sir Arthur Sullivan . The most famous of these include H.M.S. Pinafore , The Pirates of Penzance and one of the most frequently performed works in the history of musical theatre , The Mikado . These , as well as several of the other Savoy operas , continue to be frequently performed in the English @-@ speaking world and beyond by opera companies , repertory companies , schools and community theatre groups . Lines from these works have become part of the English language , such as " short , sharp shock " , " What , never ? Well , hardly ever ! " , and " Let the punishment fit the crime " .
Gilbert also wrote the Bab Ballads , an extensive collection of light verse accompanied by his own comical drawings . His creative output included over 75 plays and libretti , numerous stories , poems , lyrics and various other comic and serious pieces . His plays and realistic style of stage direction inspired other dramatists , including Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw . According to The Cambridge History of English and American Literature , Gilbert 's " lyrical facility and his mastery of metre raised the poetical quality of comic opera to a position that it had never reached before and has not reached since " .
= = Early life and career = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
Gilbert was born at 17 Southampton Street , Strand , London . His father , also named William , was briefly a naval surgeon , who later became a writer of novels and short stories , some of which were illustrated by his son . Gilbert 's mother was the former Anne Mary Bye Morris ( 1812 – 1888 ) , the daughter of Thomas Morris , an apothecary . Gilbert 's parents were distant and stern , and he did not have a particularly close relationship with either of them . They quarrelled increasingly , and following the break @-@ up of their marriage in 1876 , his relationships with them , especially his mother , became even more strained . Gilbert had three younger sisters , two of whom were born outside England because of the family 's travels during these years : Jane Morris ( b . 1838 in Milan , Italy – 1906 ) , who married Alfred Weigall , a miniatures painter ; Anne Maude ( 1845 – 1932 ) and Mary Florence ( b . 1843 in Boulogne , France – 1911 ) , neither of whom married . Gilbert was nicknamed " Bab " as a baby , and then " Schwenck " , after his father 's godparents .
As a child , Gilbert travelled to Italy in 1838 and then France for two years with his parents , who finally returned to settle in London in 1847 . He was educated at Boulogne , France from the age of seven ( he later kept his diary in French so that the servants could not read it ) , then at Western Grammar School , Brompton , London , and then at the Great Ealing School , where he became head boy and wrote plays for school performances and painted scenery . He then attended King 's College London , graduating in 1856 . He intended to take the examinations for a commission in the Royal Artillery , but with the end of the Crimean War , fewer recruits were needed , and the only commission available to Gilbert would have been in a line regiment . Instead he joined the Civil Service : he was an assistant clerk in the Privy Council Office for four years and hated it . In 1859 he joined the Militia , a part @-@ time volunteer force formed for the defence of Britain , with which he served until 1878 ( in between writing and other work ) , reaching the rank of Captain . In 1863 he received a bequest of £ 300 that he used to leave the civil service and take up a brief career as a barrister ( he had already entered the Inner Temple as a student ) , but his legal practice was not successful , averaging just five clients a year .
To supplement his income from 1861 on , Gilbert wrote a variety of stories , comic rants , grotesque illustrations , theatre reviews ( many in the form of a parody of the play being reviewed ) , and , under the pseudonym " Bab " ( his childhood nickname ) , illustrated poems for several comic magazines , primarily Fun , started in 1861 by H. J. Byron . He published stories , articles , and reviews in papers such as the Cornhill Magazine , London Society , Tinsley 's Magazine and Temple Bar . In addition , Gilbert was the London correspondent for L 'Invalide Russe and a drama critic for the Illustrated London Times . In the 1860s he also contributed to Tom Hood 's Christmas annuals , to Saturday Night , the Comic News and the Savage Club Papers . The Observer newspaper in 1870 sent him to France as a war correspondent reporting on the Franco @-@ Prussian War .
The poems , illustrated humorously by Gilbert , proved immensely popular and were reprinted in book form as the Bab Ballads . He would later return to many of these as source material for his plays and comic operas . Gilbert and his colleagues from Fun , including Tom Robertson , Tom Hood , Clement Scott and F. C. Burnand ( who defected to Punch in 1862 ) frequented the Arundel Club , the Savage Club , and especially Evans 's café , where they had a table in competition with the Punch ' Round table ' .
After a relationship in the mid @-@ 1860s with novelist Annie Thomas , Gilbert married Lucy Agnes Turner , whom he called " Kitty " , in 1867 ; she was 11 years his junior . He wrote many affectionate letters to her over the years . Gilbert and Lucy were socially active both in London and later at Grim 's Dyke , often holding dinner parties and being invited to others ' homes for dinner , in contrast to the picture painted by fictionalisations such as the film Topsy @-@ Turvy . The Gilberts had no children , but they had many pets , including some exotic ones .
= = = First plays = = =
Gilbert wrote and directed a number of plays at school , but his first professionally produced play was Uncle Baby , which ran for seven weeks in the autumn of 1863 .
In 1865 – 66 , Gilbert collaborated with Charles Millward on several pantomimes , including one called Hush @-@ a @-@ Bye , Baby , On the Tree Top , or , Harlequin Fortunia , King Frog of Frog Island , and the Magic Toys of Lowther Arcade ( 1866 ) . Gilbert 's first solo success , however , came a few days after Hush @-@ a @-@ Bye Baby premiered . His friend and mentor , Tom Robertson , was asked to write a pantomime but did not think he could do it in the two weeks available , and so he recommended Gilbert instead . Written and rushed to the stage in 10 days , Dulcamara , or the Little Duck and the Great Quack , a burlesque of Gaetano Donizetti 's L 'elisir d 'amore , proved extremely popular . This led to a long series of further Gilbert opera burlesques , pantomimes and farces , full of awful puns ( traditional in burlesques of the period ) , though showing , at times , signs of the satire that would later be a defining part of Gilbert 's work . For instance :
This was followed by Gilbert 's penultimate operatic parody , Robert the Devil , a burlesque of Giacomo Meyerbeer 's opera , Robert le diable , which was part of a triple bill that opened the Gaiety Theatre , London in 1868 . The piece was Gilbert 's biggest success to date , running for over 100 nights and being frequently revived and played continuously in the provinces for three years thereafter .
In Victorian theatre , " [ to degrade ] high and beautiful themes ... had been the regular proceeding in burlesque , and the age almost expected it " However , Gilbert 's burlesques were considered unusually tasteful compared to the others on the London stage . Isaac Goldberg wrote that these pieces " reveal how a playwright may begin by making burlesque of opera and end by making opera of burlesque . " Gilbert would depart even further from the burlesque style from about 1869 with plays containing original plots and fewer puns . His first full @-@ length prose comedy was An Old Score ( 1869 ) .
= = = German Reed entertainments and other plays of the early 1870s = = =
Theatre , at the time Gilbert began writing , had fallen into disrepute . Badly translated and adapted French operettas and poorly written , prurient Victorian burlesques dominated the London stage . As Jessie Bond vividly described it , " stilted tragedy and vulgar farce were all the would @-@ be playgoer had to choose from , and the theatre had become a place of evil repute to the righteous British householder . "
From 1869 to 1875 , Gilbert joined with one of the leading figures in theatrical reform , Thomas German Reed ( and his wife Priscilla ) , whose Gallery of Illustration sought to regain some of theatre 's lost respectability by offering family entertainments in London . So successful were they that by 1885 Gilbert stated that original British plays were appropriate for an innocent 15 @-@ year @-@ old girl in the audience . Three months before the opening of Gilbert 's last burlesque ( The Pretty Druidess ) , the first of his pieces for the Gallery of Illustration , No Cards , was produced . Gilbert created six musical entertainments for the German Reeds , some with music composed by Thomas German Reed himself .
The environment of the German Reeds ' intimate theatre allowed Gilbert quickly to develop a personal style and freedom to control all aspects of production , including set , costumes , direction and stage management . These works were a success , with Gilbert 's first big hit at the Gallery of Illustration , Ages Ago , opening in 1869 . Ages Ago was also the beginning of a collaboration with the composer Frederic Clay that would last seven years and produce four works . It was at a rehearsal for Ages Ago that Clay formally introduced Gilbert to his friend , Arthur Sullivan . The Bab Ballads and Gilbert 's many early musical works gave him much practice as a lyricist even before his collaboration with Sullivan .
Many of the plot elements of the German Reed Entertainments ( as well as some from his earlier plays and Bab Ballads ) would be reused by Gilbert later in the Gilbert and Sullivan operas . These elements include paintings coming to life ( Ages Ago , used again in Ruddigore ) , a deaf nursemaid binding a respectable man 's son to a " pirate " instead of to a " pilot " by mistake ( Our Island Home , 1870 , reused in The Pirates of Penzance ) , and the forceful mature lady who is " an acquired taste " ( Eyes and No Eyes , 1875 , reused in The Mikado ) . During this time , Gilbert perfected the ' topsy @-@ turvy ' style that he had been developing in his Bab Ballads , where the humour was derived by setting up a ridiculous premise and working out its logical consequences , however absurd . Mike Leigh describes the " Gilbertian " style as follows : " With great fluidity and freedom , [ Gilbert ] continually challenges our natural expectations . First , within the framework of the story , he makes bizarre things happen , and turns the world on its head . Thus the Learned Judge marries the Plaintiff , the soldiers metamorphose into aesthetes , and so on , and nearly every opera is resolved by a deft moving of the goalposts ... His genius is to fuse opposites with an imperceptible sleight of hand , to blend the surreal with the real , and the caricature with the natural . In other words , to tell a perfectly outrageous story in a completely deadpan way . "
At the same time , Gilbert created several ' fairy comedies ' at the Haymarket Theatre . This series of plays was founded upon the idea of self @-@ revelation by characters under the influence of some magic or some supernatural interference . The first was The Palace of Truth ( 1870 ) , based partly on a story by Madame de Genlis . In 1871 , with Pygmalion and Galatea , one of seven plays that he produced that year , Gilbert scored his greatest hit to date . Together , these plays and their successors such as The Wicked World ( 1873 ) , Sweethearts ( 1874 ) , and Broken Hearts ( 1875 ) , did for Gilbert on the dramatic stage what the German Reed entertainments had done for him on the musical stage : they established that his capabilities extended far beyond burlesque , won him artistic credentials , and demonstrated that he was a writer of wide range , as comfortable with human drama as with farcical humour . The success of these plays , especially Pygmalion and Galatea , gave Gilbert a prestige that would be crucial to his later collaboration with as respected a musician as Sullivan .
During this period , Gilbert also pushed the boundaries of how far satire could go in the theatre . He collaborated with Gilbert Arthur à Beckett on The Happy Land ( 1873 ) , a political satire ( in part , a parody of his own The Wicked World ) , which was briefly banned because of its unflattering caricatures of Gladstone and his ministers . Similarly , The Realm of Joy ( 1873 ) was set in the lobby of a theatre performing a scandalous play ( implied to be the Happy Land ) , with many jokes at the expense of the Lord Chamberlain ( the " Lord High Disinfectant " , as he 's referred to in the play ) . In Charity ( 1874 ) , however , Gilbert uses the freedom of the stage in a different way : to provide a tightly @-@ written critique of the contrasting ways in which Victorian society treated men and women who had sex outside of marriage , which anticipated the ' problem plays ' of Shaw and Ibsen .
= = = As a director = = =
Once he became established , Gilbert was the stage director for his plays and operas and had strong opinions on how they should best be performed . He was strongly influenced by the innovations in ' stagecraft ' , now called stage direction , by the playwrights James Planché and especially Tom Robertson . Gilbert attended rehearsals directed by Robertson to learn this art firsthand from the older director , and he began to apply it in some of his earliest plays . He sought realism in acting , settings , costumes and movement , if not in content of his plays ( although he did write a romantic comedy in the " naturalist " style , as a tribute to Robertson , Sweethearts ) , shunned self @-@ conscious interaction with the audience , and insisted on a style of portrayal in which the characters were never aware of their own absurdity , but were coherent internal wholes .
In Gilbert 's 1874 burlesque , Rosencrantz and Guildenstern , the character Hamlet , in his speech to the players , sums up Gilbert 's theory of comic acting : " I hold that there is no such antick fellow as your bombastical hero who doth so earnestly spout forth his folly as to make his hearers believe that he is unconscious of all incongruity " . Robertson " introduced Gilbert both to the revolutionary notion of disciplined rehearsals and to mise @-@ en @-@ scène or unity of style in the whole presentation – direction , design , music , acting . " Like Robertson , Gilbert demanded discipline in his actors . He required that his actors know their words perfectly , enunciate them clearly and obey his stage directions , which was something quite new to many actors of the day . A major innovation was the replacement of the star actor with the disciplined ensemble , " raising the director to a new position of dominance " in the theatre . " That Gilbert was a good director is not in doubt . He was able to extract from his actors natural , clear performances , which served the Gilbertian requirements of outrageousness delivered straight . "
Gilbert prepared meticulously for each new work , making models of the stage , actors and set pieces , and designing every action and bit of business in advance . Gilbert would not work with actors who challenged his authority . Even during long runs and revivals , Gilbert closely supervised the performances of his plays , making sure that the actors did not make unauthorised additions , deletions or paraphrases . Gilbert was famous for demonstrating the action himself , even as he grew older . Gilbert himself went on stage in a number of productions throughout his lifetime , including several performances as the Associate in Trial by Jury , as substitute for an ailing actor in his play Broken Hearts , and in charity matinees of his one @-@ act plays , such as King Claudius in Rosencrantz and Guildenstern .
= = Collaboration with Sullivan = =
= = = First collaborations amidst other works = = =
In 1871 , John Hollingshead commissioned Gilbert to work with Sullivan on a holiday piece for Christmas , Thespis , or The Gods Grown Old , at the Gaiety Theatre . Thespis outran five of its nine competitors for the 1871 holiday season , and its run was extended beyond the length of a normal run at the Gaiety , However , nothing more came of it at that point , and Gilbert and Sullivan went their separate ways . Gilbert worked again with Clay on Happy Arcadia ( 1872 ) , and with Alfred Cellier on Topsyturveydom ( 1874 ) , as well as writing several farces , operetta libretti , extravaganzas , fairy comedies , adaptations from novels , translations from the French , and the dramas described above . Also in 1874 , he published his last contribution for Fun magazine ( " Rosencrantz and Guildenstern " ) , after a gap of three years , then resigned due to disapproval of the new owner 's other publishing interests .
It would be nearly four years after Thespis was produced before the two men worked together again . In 1868 , Gilbert had published a short comic sketch libretto in Fun magazine entitled " Trial by Jury : An Operetta " . In 1873 , Gilbert arranged with the theatrical manager and composer , Carl Rosa , to expand the piece into a one @-@ act libretto . Rosa 's wife was to sing the role of the plaintiff . However , Rosa 's wife died in childbirth in 1874 . Later in 1874 Gilbert offered the libretto to Richard D 'Oyly Carte , but Carte could not use the piece at that time . By early 1875 , Carte was managing the Royalty Theatre , and he needed a short opera to be played as an afterpiece to Offenbach 's La Périchole . He contacted Gilbert , asked about the piece , and suggested Sullivan to set the work . Sullivan was enthusiastic , and Trial by Jury was composed in a matter of weeks . The little piece was a runaway hit , outlasting the run of La Périchole and being revived at another theatre .
Gilbert continued his quest to gain respect in and respectability for his profession . One thing that may have been holding dramatists back from respectability was that plays were not published in a form suitable for a " gentleman 's library " , as , at the time , they were generally cheaply and unattractively published for the use of actors rather than the home reader . To help rectify this , at least for himself , Gilbert arranged in late 1875 for publishers Chatto and Windus to print a volume of his plays in a format designed to appeal to the general reader , with an attractive binding and clear type , containing Gilbert 's most respectable plays , including his most serious works , but mischievously capped off with Trial by Jury .
After the success of Trial by Jury , there were discussions towards reviving Thespis , but Gilbert and Sullivan were not able to agree on terms with Carte and his backers . The score to Thespis was never published , and most of the music is now lost . It took some time for Carte to gather funds for another Gilbert and Sullivan opera , and in this gap Gilbert produced several works including Tom Cobb ( 1875 ) , Eyes and No Eyes ( 1875 , his last German Reed Entertainment ) , and Princess Toto ( 1876 ) , his last and most ambitious work with Clay , a three @-@ act comic opera with full orchestra , as opposed to the shorter works for much reduced accompaniment that came before . Gilbert also wrote two serious works during this time , Broken Hearts ( 1875 ) and Dan 'l Druce , Blacksmith ( 1876 ) .
Also during this period , Gilbert wrote his most successful comic play , Engaged ( 1877 ) , which inspired Oscar Wilde 's The Importance of Being Earnest . Engaged is a parody of romantic drama written in the " topsy @-@ turvy " satiric style of many of Gilbert 's Bab Ballads and the Savoy Operas , with one character pledging his love , in the most poetic and romantic language possible , to every single woman in the play ; the " innocent " Scottish rustics being revealed to be making a living through throwing trains off the lines and then charging the passengers for services , and , in general , romance being gladly thrown over in favour of monetary gain . Engaged continues to be performed today by both professional and amateur companies .
= = = Peak collaborative years = = =
Carte finally assembled a syndicate in 1877 and formed the Comedy Opera Company to launch a series of original English comic operas , beginning with a third collaboration between Gilbert and Sullivan , The Sorcerer , in November 1877 . This work was a modest success , and H.M.S. Pinafore followed in May 1878 . Despite a slow start , mainly due to a scorching summer , Pinafore became a red @-@ hot favourite by autumn . After a dispute with Carte over the division of profits , the other Comedy Opera Company partners hired thugs to storm the theatre one night to steal the sets and costumes , intending to mount a rival production . The attempt was repelled by stagehands and others at the theatre loyal to Carte , and Carte continued as sole impresario of the newly renamed D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company . Indeed , Pinafore was so successful that over a hundred unauthorised productions sprang up in America alone . Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte tried for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas , without success .
For the next decade , the Savoy Operas ( as the series came to be known , after the theatre Carte later built to house them ) were Gilbert 's principal activity . The successful comic operas with Sullivan continued to appear every year or two , several of them being among the longest @-@ running productions up to that point in the history of the musical stage . After Pinafore came The Pirates of Penzance ( 1879 ) , Patience ( 1881 ) , Iolanthe ( 1882 ) , Princess Ida ( 1884 , based on Gilbert 's earlier farce , The Princess ) , The Mikado ( 1885 ) , Ruddigore ( 1887 ) , The Yeomen of the Guard ( 1888 ) , and The Gondoliers ( 1889 ) . Gilbert not only directed and oversaw all aspects of production for these works , but he actually designed the costumes himself for Patience , Iolanthe , Princess Ida , and Ruddigore . He insisted on precise and authentic sets and costumes , which provided a foundation to ground and focus his absurd characters and situations .
During this time , Gilbert and Sullivan also collaborated on one other major work , the oratorio The Martyr of Antioch , premiered at the Leeds music festival in October 1880 . Gilbert arranged the original epic poem by Henry Hart Milman into a libretto suitable for the music , and it contains some original work . During this period , also , Gilbert occasionally wrote plays to be performed elsewhere – both serious dramas ( for example The Ne 'er @-@ Do @-@ Weel , 1878 ; and Gretchen , 1879 ) and humorous works ( for example Foggerty 's Fairy , 1881 ) . However , he no longer needed to turn out multiple plays each year , as he had done before . Indeed , during the more than nine years that separated The Pirates of Penzance and The Gondoliers , he wrote just three plays outside of the partnership with Sullivan . Only one of these works , Comedy and Tragedy , proved successful .
In 1878 , Gilbert realised a lifelong dream to play Harlequin , which he did at the Gaiety Theatre as part of an amateur charity production of The Forty Thieves , partly written by himself . Gilbert trained for Harlequin 's stylised dancing with his friend John D 'Auban , who had arranged the dances for some of his plays and would choreograph most of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas . Producer John Hollingshead later remembered , " the gem of the performance was the grimly earnest and determined Harlequin of W. S. Gilbert . It gave me an idea of what Oliver Cromwell would have made of the character . " Another member of the cast recalled that Gilbert was tirelessly enthusiastic about the piece and often invited the cast to his home for dinner extra rehearsals . " A pleasanter , more genial , or agreeable companion than he was it would have been difficult , if not impossible , to find . " In 1882 , Gilbert had a telephone installed in his home and at the prompt desk at the Savoy Theatre , so that he could monitor performances and rehearsals from his home study . Gilbert had referred to the new technology in Pinafore in 1878 , only two years after the device was invented and before London even had telephone service .
= = = Carpet quarrel and end of the collaboration = = =
Gilbert sometimes had a strained working relationship with Sullivan , partly because each man saw himself allowing his work to be subjugated to the other 's , and partly due to their opposing personalities . Gilbert was often confrontational and notoriously thin @-@ skinned , though prone to acts of extraordinary kindness , while Sullivan eschewed conflict . In addition , Gilbert imbued his libretti with " topsy @-@ turvy " situations in which the social order was turned upside down . After a time , these subjects were often at odds with Sullivan 's desire for realism and emotional content . In addition , Gilbert 's political satire often poked fun at those in the circles of privilege , while Sullivan was eager to socialise among the wealthy and titled people who would become his friends and patrons .
Throughout their collaboration , Gilbert and Sullivan disagreed several times over the choice of a subject . After both Princess Ida and Ruddigore , which were less successful than the seven other operas from H.M.S. Pinafore to The Gondoliers , Sullivan asked to leave the partnership , saying that he found Gilbert 's plots repetitive and that the operas were not artistically satisfying to him . While the two artists worked out their differences , Carte kept the Savoy open with revivals of their earlier works . On each occasion , after a few months ' pause , Gilbert responded with a libretto that met Sullivan 's objections , and the partnership continued successfully .
In April 1890 , during the run of The Gondoliers , however , Gilbert challenged Carte over the expenses of the production . Among other items to which Gilbert objected , Carte had charged the cost of a new carpet for the Savoy Theatre lobby to the partnership . Gilbert believed that this was a maintenance expense that should be charged to Carte alone . Gilbert confronted Carte , who refused to reconsider the accounts . Gilbert stormed out and wrote to Sullivan that " I left him with the remark that it was a mistake to kick down the ladder by which he had risen " . Helen Carte wrote that Gilbert had addressed Carte " in a way that I should not have thought you would have used to an offending menial . " As scholar Andrew Crowther has explained :
After all , the carpet was only one of a number of disputed items , and the real issue lay not in the mere money value of these things , but in whether Carte could be trusted with the financial affairs of Gilbert and Sullivan . Gilbert contended that Carte had at best made a series of serious blunders in the accounts , and at worst deliberately attempted to swindle the others . It is not easy to settle the rights and wrongs of the issue at this distance , but it does seem fairly clear that there was something very wrong with the accounts at this time . Gilbert wrote to Sullivan on 28 May 1891 , a year after the end of the " Quarrel " , that Carte had admitted " an unintentional overcharge of nearly £ 1 @,@ 000 in the electric lighting accounts alone . "
Gilbert brought suit , and after The Gondoliers closed in 1891 , he withdrew the performance rights to his libretti , vowing to write no more operas for the Savoy . Gilbert next wrote The Mountebanks with Alfred Cellier and the flop Haste to the Wedding with George Grossmith , and Sullivan wrote Haddon Hall with Sydney Grundy . Gilbert eventually won the lawsuit and felt vindicated , but his actions and statements had been hurtful to his partners . Nevertheless , the partnership had been so profitable that , after the financial failure of the Royal English Opera House , Carte and his wife sought to reunite the author and composer .
In 1891 , after many failed attempts at reconciliation by the pair , Tom Chappell , the music publisher responsible for printing the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , stepped in to mediate between two of his most profitable artists , and within two weeks had succeeded . Two more operas resulted : Utopia , Limited ( 1893 ) and The Grand Duke ( 1896 ) . Gilbert also offered a third libretto to Sullivan ( His Excellency , 1894 ) , but Gilbert 's insistence on casting Nancy McIntosh , his protegée from Utopia , led to Sullivan 's refusal . Utopia , concerning an attempt to " anglicise " a south Pacific island kingdom , was only a modest success , and The Grand Duke , in which a theatrical troupe , by means of a " statutory duel " and a conspiracy , takes political control of a grand duchy , was an outright failure . After that , the partnership ended for good . Sullivan continued to compose comic opera with other librettists but died four years later . In 1904 , Gilbert would write , " ... Savoy opera was snuffed out by the deplorable death of my distinguished collaborator , Sir Arthur Sullivan . When that event occurred , I saw no one with whom I felt that I could work with satisfaction and success , and so I discontinued to write libretti . "
= = Later years = =
Gilbert built the Garrick Theatre in 1889 . The Gilberts moved to Grim 's Dyke in Harrow in 1890 , which he purchased from Robert Heriot , to whom the artist Frederick Goodall had sold the property in 1880 . In 1891 , Gilbert was appointed Justice of the Peace for Middlesex . After casting Nancy McIntosh in Utopia , Limited , he and Lady Gilbert developed an affection for her , and she eventually gained the status of an unofficially adopted daughter , moving to Grim 's Dyke to live with them . She continued living there , even after Gilbert 's death , until Lady Gilbert 's death in 1936 . A statue of Charles II , carved by Danish sculptor Caius Gabriel Cibber in 1681 , was moved in 1875 from Soho Square to an island in the lake at Grim 's Dyke , where it remained when Gilbert purchased the property . On Lady Gilbert 's direction , it was restored to Soho Square in 1938 .
Although Gilbert announced a retirement from the theatre after the poor initial run of his last work with Sullivan , The Grand Duke ( 1896 ) and the poor reception of his 1897 play The Fortune Hunter , he produced at least three more plays over the last dozen years of his life , including an unsuccessful opera , Fallen Fairies ( 1909 ) , with Edward German . Gilbert also continued to supervise the various revivals of his works by the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , including its London Repertory seasons in 1906 – 09 . His last play , The Hooligan , produced just four months before his death , is a study of a young condemned thug in a prison cell . Gilbert shows sympathy for his protagonist , the son of a thief who , brought up among thieves , kills his girlfriend . As in some earlier work , the playwright displays " his conviction that nurture rather than nature often accounted for criminal behaviour " . The grim and powerful piece became one of Gilbert 's most successful serious dramas , and experts conclude that , in those last months of Gilbert 's life , he was developing a new style , a " mixture of irony , of social theme , and of grubby realism , " to replace the old " Gilbertianism " of which he had grown weary . In these last years , Gilbert also wrote children 's book versions of H.M.S. Pinafore and The Mikado giving , in some cases , backstory that is not found in the librettos .
Gilbert was knighted on 15 July 1907 in recognition of his contributions to drama . Sullivan had been knighted for his contributions to music almost a quarter of a century earlier , in 1883 . Gilbert was , however , the first British writer ever to receive a knighthood for his plays alone — earlier dramatist knights , such as Sir William Davenant and Sir John Vanbrugh , were knighted for political and other services .
On 29 May 1911 , Gilbert was about to give a swimming lesson to two young women , Winifred Isabel Emery ( 1890 – 1972 ) , and 17 @-@ year @-@ old Ruby Preece in the lake of his home , Grim 's Dyke , when Preece lost her footing and called for help . Gilbert dived in to save her but suffered a heart attack in the middle of the lake and died . He was cremated at Golders Green and his ashes buried at the Church of St. John the Evangelist , Stanmore . The inscription on Gilbert 's memorial on the south wall of the Thames Embankment in London reads : " His Foe was Folly , and his Weapon Wit " . There is also a memorial plaque at All Saints ' Church , Harrow Weald .
= = Personality = =
Gilbert was known for being prickly . Aware of this general impression , he claimed that " If you give me your attention " , the misanthrope 's song from Princess Ida , was a satiric self @-@ reference , saying : " I thought it my duty to live up to my reputation . " However , many people have defended him , often citing his generosity . Actress May Fortescue recalled , " His kindness was extraordinary . On wet nights and when rehearsals were late and the last buses were gone , he would pay the cab @-@ fares of the girls whether they were pretty or not , instead of letting them trudge home on foot ... He was just as large @-@ hearted when he was poor as when he was rich and successful . For money as money he cared less than nothing . Gilbert was no plaster saint , but he was an ideal friend . " Journalist Frank M. Boyd wrote :
I fancy that seldom was a man more generally given credit for a personality quite other than his own , than was the case with Sir W. S. Gilbert ... Till one actually came to know the man , one shared the opinion held by so many , that he was a gruff , disagreeable person ; but nothing could be less true of the really great humorist . He had rather a severe appearance ... and like many other clever people , he had precious little use for fools of either sex , but he was at heart as kindly and lovable a man as you could wish to meet .
Jessie Bond wrote that Gilbert " was quick @-@ tempered , often unreasonable , and he could not bear to be thwarted , but how anyone could call him unamiable I cannot understand . " George Grossmith wrote to The Daily Telegraph that , although Gilbert had been described as an autocrat at rehearsals , " That was really only his manner when he was playing the part of stage director at rehearsals . As a matter of fact , he was a generous , kind true gentleman , and I use the word in the purest and original sense . "
Aside from his occasional creative disagreements with , and eventual rift from , Sullivan , Gilbert 's temper led to the loss of friendships with a number of people . For instance , he quarrelled with his old associate C. H. Workman , over the firing of Nancy McIntosh from the production of Fallen Fairies , and with actress Henrietta Hodson . He also saw his friendship with theatre critic Clement Scott turn bitter . However , Gilbert could be extraordinarily kind . During Scott 's final illness in 1904 , for instance , Gilbert donated to a fund for him , visited nearly every day , and assisted Scott 's wife , despite having not been on friendly terms with him for the previous sixteen years . Similarly , Gilbert had written several plays at the behest of comic actor Ned Sothern . However , Sothern died before he could perform the last of these , Foggerty 's Fairy . Gilbert purchased the play back from his grateful widow . According to one London society lady :
[ Gilbert ] ' s wit was innate , and his rapier @-@ like retorts slipped out with instantaneous ease . His mind was naturally fastidious and clean ; he never asserted himself , never tried to make an effect . He was great @-@ hearted and most understanding , with an underlying poetry of fancy that made him the most delicious companion . They spoke of his quick temper , but that was entirely free from malice or guile . He was soft @-@ hearted as a babe , but there was nothing of the hypocrite about him . What he thought he said on the instant , and though by people of sensitive vanity this might on occasion be resented , to a sensitiveness of a finer kind it was an added link , binding one to a faithful , valued friend .
As the writings about Gilbert by husband and wife Seymour Hicks and Ellaline Terriss ( frequent guests at his home ) vividly illustrate , Gilbert 's relationships with women were generally more successful than his relationships with men . According to George Grossmith , Gilbert " was to those who knew him a courteous and amiable gentleman – a gentleman without veneer . " Grossmith and many others wrote of how Gilbert loved to amuse children :
During my dangerous illness , Mr. Gilbert never failed a day to come up and enquire after me ... and kept me in roars of laughter the whole time ... But to see Gilbert at his best , is to see him at one of his juvenile parties . Though he has no children of his own , he loves them , and there is nothing he would not do to please them . I was never so astonished as when on one occasion he put off some of his own friends to come with Mrs. Gilbert to a juvenile party at my own house .
Gilbert 's niece Mary Carter confirmed , " ... he loved children very much and lost no opportunity of making them happy ... [ He was ] the kindest and most human of uncles . " Grossmith quoted Gilbert as saying , " Deer @-@ stalking would be a very fine sport if only the deer had guns . "
= = Legacy = =
In 1957 , a review in The Times explained " the continued vitality of the Savoy operas " as follows :
[ T ] hey were never really contemporary in their idiom ... Gilbert and Sullivan 's [ world ] , from the first moment was obviously not the audience 's world , [ it was ] an artificial world , with a neatly controlled and shapely precision which has not gone out of fashion – because it was never in fashion in the sense of using the fleeting conventions and ways of thought of contemporary human society ... The neat articulation of incredibilities in Gilbert 's plots is perfectly matched by his language ... His dialogue , with its primly mocking formality , satisfies both the ear and the intelligence . His verses show an unequalled and very delicate gift for creating a comic effect by the contrast between poetic form and prosaic thought and wording ... How deliciously [ his lines ] prick the bubble of sentiment . Gilbert had many imitators , but no equals , at this sort of thing ... [ Of ] equal importance ... Gilbert 's lyrics almost invariably take on extra point and sparkle when set to Sullivan 's music ... The two men together remain endlessly and incomparably delightful ... Light , and even trifling , though [ the operas ] may seem upon grave consideration , they yet have the shapeliness and elegance that can make a trifle into a work of art .
Gilbert 's legacy , aside from building the Garrick Theatre and writing the Savoy Operas and other works that are still being performed or in print over a hundred and twenty @-@ five years after their creation , is felt perhaps most strongly today through his influence on the American and British musical theatre . The innovations in content and form of the works that he and Sullivan developed , and in Gilbert 's theories of acting and stage direction , directly influenced the development of the modern musical throughout the 20th century . Gilbert 's lyrics employ punning , as well as complex internal and two and three @-@ syllable rhyme schemes , and served as a model for such 20th century Broadway lyricists as P.G. Wodehouse , Cole Porter , Ira Gershwin , and Lorenz Hart .
Gilbert 's influence on the English language has also been marked , with well @-@ known phrases such as " A policeman 's lot is not a happy one " , " short , sharp shock " , " What never ? Well , hardly ever ! " , and " let the punishment fit the crime " arising from his pen . In addition , biographies continue to be written about Gilbert 's life and career , and his work is not only performed , but frequently parodied , pastiched , quoted and imitated in comedy routines , film , television and other popular media .
Ian Bradley , in connection with the 100th anniversary of Gilbert 's death in 2011 wrote :
There has been much discussion about Gilbert 's proper place in British literary and dramatic history . Was he essentially a writer of burlesque , a satirist , or , as some have argued , the forerunner of the theatre of the absurd ? ... Perhaps he stands most clearly in that distinctively English satirical tradition which stretches back to Jonathan Swift . ... Its leading exponents lampoon and send up the major institutions and public figures of the day , wielding the weapon of grave and temperate irony with devastating effect , while themselves remaining firmly within the Establishment and displaying a deep underlying affection for the objects of their often merciless attacks . It is a combination that remains a continuing enigma .
|
= Ned Manning =
Ned Manning is an Australian playwright , actor and teacher , whose film credits include the lead role in Dead End Drive @-@ In ( 1986 ) and an appearance in the teen film Looking for Alibrandi ( 2000 ) . Manning 's television credits include Bodyline , The Shiralee , " Prisoner " " , and Brides of Christ . His first major play was Us or Them , and its production by Griffin Theatre Company marked the company 's transition to being staffed by professional actors . Other plays have included Milo , Kenny 's Coming Home and Close to the Bone ; in 2007 Manning played the lead in his own play Last One Standing at the Old Fitzroy theatre in Sydney . The plays have received mixed reviews , with Last One Standing in particular being criticised for its formulaic and predictable narrative . Manning has written for the Bell Shakespeare Company 's Actors at Work program , a travelling community and schools theatrical education initiative .
At one time the husband of Indigenous Australian artist Bronwyn Bancroft , Manning has since remarried , to theatre director Marion Potts . His children include New South Wales Young Australian of the Year for 2010 , Jack Manning Bancroft .
= = Life = =
Ned Manning was born in 1950 and grew up on a property in Coonabarabran , New South Wales . He married Bronwyn Bancroft , an Indigenous Australian artist , with whom he had two children , including New South Wales Young Australian of the Year for 2010 , Jack Manning Bancroft . Manning remarried to theatre director Marion Potts , with whom he had two children . In 2010 , they relocated from Sydney to Melbourne when she was appointed director of the Malthouse Theatre .
= = Playwright and author = =
Manning 's first play , Us or Them , was initially produced at the Childers Street Hall in Canberra on 1 November 1977 . It was then re @-@ written and performed in 1984 at the Stables Theatre for the Griffin Theatre Company , where it marked a turning point in Griffin 's history as the play 's success led to the cast and creatives being paid full professional rates . The play then transferred to the Philip St Theatre and on to the Q Theatre in Penrith .
Milo premiered at the Sydney Theatre Company 's Wharf 2 Theatre in October 1984 before productions at the Q Theatre , Theatre Up North in Townsville , Theatre South in Wollongong and regional performances . Milo has been recorded for Radio National , had numerous other productions , and also been published by Currency Press . However a 2001 production in Sydney was panned by the reviewer , who described it as " formulaic and obvious , complete with clunky and unconvincing pat ending " , and thought the play should be " put out to pasture " . The same year , The Australian 's reviewer was more positive , considering the performance to be " passionate and funny . Seven years after it first appeared , it remains one of the best plays written about the bush @-@ city divide " .
Manning 's next play , Kenny 's Coming Home ( 1991 ) , was performed at the Q Theatre , Penrith and was subsequently recorded for radio on ABC Radio National . The play is centred on a Rugby league footballer , Kenny , who gets caught up in a preselection battle between two of his family members . Kenny 's Coming Home included songs by Shane McNamara .
Close to the Bone was written in collaboration with the Indigenous students at the EORA Centre for Performing and Visual Arts in Redfern , and first produced there in September 1991 . Luck of the Draw was produced by the Darwin Theatre Company in May 1999 and was the first play written by a non @-@ Indigenous writer to be produced by Kooemba Jdarra theatre company in Brisbane . Last One Standing was performed at Sydney theatre the Old Fitzroy in 2007 . Manning played lead character Joe in the Old Fitzroy production ; The Sydney Morning Herald 's reviewer Bryce Hallett described his performance as " terrific " , providing the play " with an emotional anchor " , but considered the play itself to be predictable , lacking in depth and with " nothing revelatory on offer " ; The Sun @-@ Herald reviewer was of a similar view .
Manning has created many works for young audiences . He has prepared scripts for ten works for The Bell Shakespeare Company 's Actors at Work program , a travelling community and schools theatrical education initiative . Other plays for young people have included Alice Dreaming , which is one of the Australian Script Centre 's anthology of large cast plays . In 2012 he contributed to a Federation Press anthology of monologues for drama students , No Nudity , Weapons or Naked Flames . His play Romeo and Juliet Intensive was nominated for a 2011 AWGIE Award .
In 2012 , NewSouth Books published Manning 's memoir of a life of school teaching , Playground Duty . Reviewed by the New South Wales Writers ' Centre 's Amanda Calwell , it was described as showing " the value that one person with drive , ambition and compassion can offer by applying themselves to teaching " .
= = Television , film and directing = =
Manning 's film credits include the lead role in the 1986 Ozploitation film Dead End Drive @-@ In . Based on a Peter Carey short story called " Crabs " , Dead End Drive @-@ In is a post @-@ apocalyptic tale about a young man stranded in a small town 's drive @-@ in theater when the wheels are stolen off his car . He finds himself amongst a community of misfits trapped at the site , and seeks to break out . The film , directed by Brian Trenchard @-@ Smith , received mixed reviews : Tim Kroenert writing for Eureka Street described it as " Mad Max @-@ lite " and said that the film " is an example of how literality of translation can result in the sacrifice of the story ’ s essence . The film is fun on its own terms , but much of the nuance and irony that lend ‘ Crabs ’ its magic are simply lost " . Philippa Hawker writing for The Age said the film was " an energetic , inventively designed , cheerfully satirical and entertaining film " , and it is one of American film director Quentin Tarantino 's favourites . The film received only a short box @-@ office season ; Manning was critical of the distributor Greater Union and worked with the film 's other actors to secure separate release in independent cinemas . Manning 's other film credits include an appearance in the teen film Looking for Alibrandi . He has also made a short film , Love Bites . Manning 's television credits include Bodyline , The Shiralee and Brides of Christ .
In 1989 Manning directed the Belvoir St Theatre production of a play , Black Cockatoos , about the relationship between a white woman and an Aboriginal man . The script ( not by Manning ) was criticised by reviewer Angela Bennie , who nevertheless described Manning 's direction as delicate and perceptive in places , if also naive and self @-@ conscious .
|
= Burnside Burn =
The " Burnside Burn " was an event held on the Burnside Bridge in Portland , Oregon , starting at midnight on July 1 , 2015 , the day recreational marijuana became legal in the U.S. state of Oregon . It was organized by Portland NORML , the local chapter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws , having originated from its executive director , who wanted to photograph himself in front of the White Stag sign in the moments after Oregon Ballot Measure 91 took effect . The crowd , larger than anticipated , numbered in the thousands and at times blocked traffic lanes on the bridge . Some attendees wanted to commemorate the moment , while others were motivated by announcements of free marijuana and seeds . No fines were issued for consumption in public . The event was covered by cannabis publications , local and national news outlets , and the HBO television series Vice .
= = Description = =
The " Burnside Burn " was organized by Portland NORML , the local chapter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws , in celebration of the legalization of recreational marijuana use in Oregon and to circumnavigate a temporary limit on recreational sales . According to Russ Belville , the chapter 's executive director , the event began with the idea of taking a photograph in front of the White Stag sign . He recalled : " It evolved from me saying that when legalization happens , I want to take a photo under the Portland , Oregon sign . Other people said , ' Can we give marijuana away ? ' [ and ] I said , ' I can 't stop you ! ' "
On the evening of June 30 , beginning as early as 8pm , and into the morning of July 1 , 2015 , between a few hundred and a few thousand people gathered on the Burnside Bridge 's north sidewalk for the free event . The crowd sometimes spilled into the road and blocked multiple traffic lanes , resulting at one point in the complete blockage of west @-@ bound traffic . Activists chanted " Free the weed " and " Fuck the DEA " . Cannabis was shared and consumed openly .
The crowd was larger than anticipated and spanned the entire length of the 1 @,@ 400 @-@ foot ( 430 m ) Burnside Bridge . Belville had initially expected " between 50 and 5 @,@ 000 people " , but details of the event spread online and through word of mouth , and ultimately it was estimated that " thousands " had turned out . Some attendees said they were there to commemorate an historic moment , while others admitted having come for free marijuana and cannabis seeds . One man , known as " Pork Chop " ( or " Porkchop " ) , reportedly announced over a megaphone that he had 420 pounds of marijuana to distribute , though his claim was not supported by news outlets . Two women with Ideal Farms , who wished to " share the love " , distributed joints to attendees who could prove that they were of legal age . One man distributed drops of hash oil , and Belville himself shared an ounce of marijuana ( the maximum allowed under Oregon Ballot Measure 91 ) . Some participants did receive free marijuana , seeds , and / or starter plants , but many did not , due to the larger than expected crowd . Coupons were also distributed for later redemption .
Participants smoked openly and without fear . No fines were issued for consumption in public . Patrol vehicles drove by the scene a few times but did not stop . Prior to the event , police urged residents to avoid calling 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 to report public consumption , which they did not consider an emergency .
= = Commentary = =
The event was covered by cannabis publications , local and national media outlets , and the HBO documentary television series Vice . The Oregonian described the event as " loud and energetic " , attracting a diverse and " eclectic " crowd of activists , marijuana enthusiasts , and first @-@ time consumers , some from as far away as Canada and San Diego . According to Willamette Week , attendees ranged from octogenarians to " tweens with rainbow hair " and the crowd was " generally happy " . The newspaper summarized , " All and all , the mood was celebratory as befit such an historic occasion . "
NORML 's Kaliko Castille told The Huffington Post he was " happy to see a community able to come together — peacefully — over something positive . It 's great to see people from all walks of life out here , handing out joints to each other and getting to know their neighbors . " The Huffington Post 's Andy Campbell called the event a " smoke @-@ out with a message " and opined , " Legalization is so much more than being able to smoke a joint in your home without being a criminal . It 's a health care issue ; it 's a tax revenue issue ; it saves states millions in the court system ; and it ends the hidden costs of prosecution , which emerge when someone can 't get a job because there 's a possession charge on their record . " The Washington Post called the " Burnside Burn " an opportunity for marijuana enthusiasts to " celebrate their new freedom together " .
|
= Interstate 295 ( Delaware – New Jersey ) =
Interstate 295 ( abbreviated I @-@ 295 ) in New Jersey and Delaware is an auxiliary Interstate Highway , designated as a bypass around Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . The route begins at a junction with I @-@ 95 south of Wilmington , Delaware , and runs to another junction with I @-@ 95 north of Trenton , New Jersey . The highway heads east from I @-@ 95 and crosses the Delaware River from Delaware to New Jersey on the Delaware Memorial Bridge concurrent with U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 ) . Upon entering New Jersey , the two routes split and I @-@ 295 runs parallel to the New Jersey Turnpike for most of its course in the state . After a concurrency with US 130 in Gloucester County , I @-@ 295 has an interchange with I @-@ 76 and Route 42 in Camden County . The freeway continues northeast toward Trenton , where it intersects I @-@ 195 and Route 29 before bypassing the city to the east and ending at US 1 in Lawrence Township , where the road becomes I @-@ 95 southbound .
Three portions of I @-@ 295 predate the Interstate Highway System : the Delaware Memorial Bridge and its approach , built in 1951 , a section in Salem County built in 1953 , and the part concurrent with US 130 , built in two sections that opened in 1948 and 1954 . The route was designated on these sections in New Jersey in 1958 and in Delaware in 1959 . The portion of I @-@ 295 connecting to I @-@ 95 in Delaware opened in 1963 while most of the route in New Jersey was finished by the 1980s . The last part of I @-@ 295 to be completed , near the interchange with I @-@ 195 and Route 29 , was finished in 1994 . I @-@ 95 was originally supposed to continue northeast from the routes ' junction near Trenton on the proposed Somerset Freeway , but this plan was canceled . I @-@ 295 previously extended a few miles past US 1 to where it would have met the Somerset Freeway ; in the 1990s , the section past US 1 became part of I @-@ 95 . As a result of the Pennsylvania Turnpike / Interstate 95 Interchange Project in Bristol Township , Pennsylvania , I @-@ 295 will be extended along the existing I @-@ 95 freeway and connect to the Pennsylvania Turnpike at Bristol .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 295 begins at I @-@ 95 , I @-@ 495 , US 202 , and Delaware Route 141 ( DE 141 ) near Newport , Delaware and heads east over the Delaware River on the Delaware Memorial Bridge into New Jersey . The highway intersects the southern terminus of the New Jersey Turnpike and runs northeast through suburban areas of South Jersey parallel to the turnpike , providing a bypass of Philadelphia and Camden . I @-@ 295 turns north and bypasses Trenton to the east and turns west as I @-@ 95 at the US 1 junction in Lawrence Township . The portion of I @-@ 295 running through New Jersey is sometimes referred to as the Camden Freeway by the New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the entire length of I @-@ 295 is a part of the National Highway System .
= = = Delaware = = =
I @-@ 295 begins at an interchange with I @-@ 95 ( Delaware Turnpike ) , I @-@ 495 , US 202 , and DE 141 south of Newport in New Castle County , Delaware . The northbound beginning of I @-@ 295 has direct ramps from both directions of I @-@ 95 , southbound I @-@ 495 , and southbound DE 141 , while the southern end of I @-@ 295 had direct ramps to both directions of I @-@ 95 , northbound I @-@ 495 , and northbound DE 141 . From this junction , the highway heads southeast on the Delaware Turnpike , an eight @-@ lane freeway maintained by the Delaware River and Bay Authority ( DRBA ) that passes to the northeast of suburban neighborhoods in Wilmington Manor . I @-@ 295 reaches an interchange with US 13 / US 40 . Here , the Delaware Turnpike ends and US 40 splits from US 13 by heading east concurrent with I @-@ 295 . The road has an eastbound ramp to Landers Lane before it passes between residential neighborhoods and has an interchange with DE 9 north of New Castle . This interchange provides access to Veterans Memorial Park , where a war memorial honoring veterans from Delaware and New Jersey is located . Past DE 9 , the median of the freeway widens to include the DRBA headquarters , with direct access to and from the southbound lanes while northbound access is provided by way of DE 9 . After this , the southbound direction comes to a toll plaza for the Delaware Memorial Bridge . I @-@ 295 / US 40 continues east and passes over Norfolk Southern 's New Castle Secondary before crossing the Delaware River on the twin @-@ span Delaware Memorial Bridge .
= = = Pennsville to Westville = = =
Upon reaching the east bank of the Delaware River , I @-@ 295 / US 40 enters Pennsville Township in Salem County , New Jersey and heads east @-@ southeast through industrial areas . The freeway comes to an interchange with the southern terminus of US 130 and the western terminus of Route 49 , at which point it also meets the southern terminus of the New Jersey Turnpike . Here , I @-@ 295 splits onto its own freeway maintained by NJDOT while US 40 continues along the New Jersey Turnpike for a short distance before it splits to the southeast . A short distance later , the roadway enters Carneys Point Township and CR 551 merges onto I @-@ 295 , with the four @-@ lane freeway heading northeast . The highway comes to a junction with Route 140 , where CR 551 splits from I @-@ 295 by continuing east along Route 140 . I @-@ 295 heads into wooded areas and features a rest area in the northbound direction . The freeway continues northeast and comes to a northbound weigh station before it reaches the Route 48 exit . The highway runs through a mix of farmland and woodland and enters Oldmans Township , where it comes to an interchange providing access to CR 643 .
I @-@ 295 crosses Oldmans Creek into Logan Township in Gloucester County and passes near some residential development and warehouses as it comes to the Center Square Road ( CR 620 ) exit . The road crosses Raccoon Creek and reaches an interchange serving US 322 / CR 536 . Following this , the highway runs through agricultural and wooded areas before northbound US 130 merges into the freeway . At this point , I @-@ 295 and US 130 head east as a six @-@ lane freeway with a narrow median and soon comes to the CR 684 exit . Continuing east , the freeway crosses into Greenwich Township and has a junction with CR 607 . After passing near Greenwich Lake , there are exits for CR 653 and CR 673 within a short distance of each other . I @-@ 295 / US 130 reaches an interchange with CR 680 on the border of Greenwich Township and East Greenwich Township . The road runs through a portion of East Greenwich Township before crossing back into Greenwich Township and coming to a junction with CR 678 and CR 667 on the border of Greenwich Township and Paulsboro .
Past this point , the freeway runs through marshy areas of Mantua Creek and continues into West Deptford Township . Here , there is an exit for CR 656 . Passing near more industrial areas , I @-@ 295 / US 130 has an interchange with the Mid @-@ Atlantic Parkway , which provides access to Route 44 as well as to CR 643 and CR 660 . Continuing northeast , the freeway reaches an interchange with Route 44 and CR 640 . At this point , Route 44 begins to parallel I @-@ 295 / US 130 on its northwest side as the two roads cross the Woodbury Creek . Route 44 ends at a cul @-@ de @-@ sac that has a ramp from the southbound direction of I @-@ 295 / US 130 prior to another exit that provides access to CR 644 . The freeway passes near some homes before US 130 splits from I @-@ 295 at an interchange that also has access to CR 642 . The median of I @-@ 295 becomes wider again and it continues east through woods , coming to a southbound exit and northbound entrance with Route 45 . The roadway passes over Conrail Shared Assets Operations 's Vineland Secondary and passes through a small strip of Deptford Township before it has a partial interchange with CR 551 , with a southbound exit and northbound entrance . The highway enters Westville and skirts near residential and commercial development , with another southbound exit and northbound entrance serving Route 47 .
= = = Bellmawr to Lawrence Township = = =
I @-@ 295 crosses the Big Timber Creek into Bellmawr in Camden County and runs northeast before it comes to the junction with the North @-@ South Freeway , which serves as the northern terminus of Route 42 and the eastern terminus of I @-@ 76 . At this point , the travel lanes of I @-@ 295 head north for a short distance along the outside of the North @-@ South Freeway , with the northbound lanes of I @-@ 295 having access from northbound Route 42 and eastbound I @-@ 76 and access to westbound I @-@ 76 while the southbound lanes of I @-@ 295 having access from eastbound I @-@ 76 and access to southbound Route 42 . Past this , I @-@ 295 continues east as a six @-@ lane freeway through wooded areas near suburban development , passing under Conrail Shared Assets Operations 's Grenloch Industrial Track before reaching an interchange with Route 168 . The highway heads east along the border between Haddon Heights to the north and Barrington to the south and passes over Conrail Shared Assets Operations 's Beesleys Point Secondary before reaching the junction with US 30 near its junction with Route 41 / CR 573 .
The road fully enters Barrington before crossing into Lawnside , where it comes to a southbound exit and northbound entrance serving Warwick Road ( CR 669 ) . After this , I @-@ 295 curves northeast and passes through a corner of Tavistock before entering a part of Haddonfield and coming to a trumpet interchange providing access to the Woodcrest Station along the PATCO Speedline . At this point , the road becomes closely parallel to the New Jersey Turnpike to the southeast . The highway crosses into Cherry Hill and passes over the tracks carrying the PATCO Speedline and New Jersey Transit 's Atlantic City Line before it reaches the CR 561 exit . The roadway runs through wooded areas with suburban neighborhoods to the west and the New Jersey Turnpike to the east as it comes to a cloverleaf interchange at Route 70 . Past this , the highway curves north farther west from the turnpike .
I @-@ 295 enters Mount Laurel in Burlington County upon crossing Pennsauken Creek and runs northeast through woods near development , reaching a cloverleaf interchange with Route 73 that provides access to the New Jersey Turnpike to the east . Past this , the road passes east @-@ northeast near commercial areas to the southeast of Moorestown Mall before curving northeast to closely follow the turnpike . The highway runs through wooded areas and encounters the Route 38 junction . The roadway passes over Conrail Shared Assets Operations 's Pemberton Branch and CR 537 and runs through a mix of fields and trees with occasional development , with an exit serving CR 635 . I @-@ 295 crosses the Rancocas Creek into Westampton Township and runs through an area of warehouses , where it has a cloverleaf interchange at CR 626 . The highway runs north through rural land with nearby buildings and enters Burlington Township . Here , the road curves northeast and comes to a cloverleaf junction at CR 541 that provides access to a commercial area that includes the Burlington Center Mall along with the New Jersey Turnpike . The freeway runs through woodland and heads into Springfield Township , where it passes a pair of closed rest areas in each direction . I @-@ 295 crosses Assiscunk Creek into Florence Township and heads through a mix of farm fields and trees before it enters Mansfield Township and comes to a cloverleaf interchange at CR 656 that provides access to nearby CR 543 . The highway passes over the Pearl Harbor Memorial Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike and continues through rural land into Bordentown Township , where a northbound exit and southbound entrance serves Rising Sun Road that provides access to US 206 and the New Jersey Turnpike . Past this , the road curves north and reaches the exit for US 130 west of Bordentown before passing through woodland and crossing over New Jersey Transit 's River Line .
I @-@ 295 crosses Crosswicks Creek into Hamilton Township in Mercer County and runs through woods and marshland a short distance east of the Delaware River . A scenic overlook of the river is located along the southbound side of the road ; access from the northbound lanes is provided by a pedestrian bridge over the highway . The freeway heads farther from the river and passes over the River Line again before it reaches a modified cloverleaf interchange serving the western terminus of I @-@ 195 and the southern terminus of the Route 29 freeway to Trenton . Following this junction , the road heads northeast near residential neighborhoods and comes to an interchange at Arena Drive ( CR 620 ) that provides access to nearby White Horse Avenue ( CR 533 ) . A short distance later , a southbound exit and northbound entrance provides access to northbound Olden Avenue ( CR 622 ) . I @-@ 295 continues through wooded areas with nearby development and curves north to come to an interchange at Route 33 and CR 606 . The next junction is a southbound exit and northbound entrance at CR 535 . The highway continues through woods and reaches a cloverleaf junction serving Sloan Avenue ( CR 649 ) . The roadway comes to a bridge over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor and crosses into Lawrence Township , where it curves northwest and comes to a modified interchange with US 1 . At this point , I @-@ 295 ends and the freeway continues west as southbound I @-@ 95 .
= = History = =
In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 39 was legislated to begin at the Yardley – Wilburtha Bridge and bypass Trenton to the north and east before continuing south to Hammonton along present @-@ day US 206 . Route 39 , which was not built around Trenton , was decommissioned in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering .
Portions of I @-@ 295 in Salem and Gloucester counties predate the Interstate Highway System as part of freeway bypasses for the surface section of US 130 / Route 44 through Carneys Point and between Bridgeport and Westville . In 1948 , the first section of the US 130 / Route 44 bypass in Gloucester County between current exits 21 and 24 opened , with a second section between exits 14 and 21 opening in 1954 . The section of the present highway between the southern terminus of the New Jersey Turnpike and the present @-@ day CR 618 bridge was built as part of the US 130 bypass of Carneys Point in 1953 . The concurrent Route 44 designation was removed from US 130 in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , and was later assigned to the former surface alignment of US 130 through Carneys Point and between Bridgeport and Westville . In 1958 , the US 130 bypass of Carneys Point and the freeway in Gloucester County was designated as part of I @-@ 295 .
Construction on the Delaware Memorial Bridge began in 1949 . At the same time , work was underway on the Delaware Memorial Bridge approach in Delaware , a divided highway which would begin at a directional @-@ T interchange with US 13 in Farnhurst and head east to a cloverleaf interchange at New Castle Avenue ( present DE 9 ) before leading to the bridge . Construction on the US 13 interchange at Farnhurst began on July 12 , 1950 . On August 16 , 1951 , the Delaware Memorial Bridge opened to traffic . The Delaware Memorial Bridge and the approach road to US 13 became a part of US 40 following the opening of the bridge . I @-@ 295 was designated onto the New Jersey approach of the bridge in 1958 . That same year , construction began for a bridge at the Farnhurst interchange that would link the US 40 approach to the Delaware Memorial Bridge to the Delaware Turnpike that was proposed to run west to the Maryland border . A year later , the Farnhurst interchange and the bridge approach were upgraded to Interstate Highway standards , and it was designated as part of I @-@ 295 . Construction at the interchange connecting to the Delaware Turnpike at Farnhurst was completed in July 1961 . On November 14 , 1963 , the Delaware Turnpike opened to traffic , with I @-@ 295 extended west along that road to I @-@ 95 , which continued along the Delaware Turnpike towards Maryland . In the middle of 1964 , work began on a second span at the Delaware Memorial Bridge due to increasing traffic volumes . The second span of the bridge was opened to traffic in fall 1968 .
The remainder of I @-@ 295 through New Jersey was planned as Federal Aid Interstate Route 108 , which was created by NJDOT in 1956 . I @-@ 295 was built between the Big Timber Creek and Route 42 in 1958 . In 1960 , the section of the interstate between Route 42 and Warwick Road was finished . The highway was built between US 130 and Route 45 in 1960 and was extended east to the Big Timber Creek a year later . In 1963 , I @-@ 295 was completed between Warwick Road and just south of Route 70 . A year later , the roadway was extended north to Route 73 . The freeway was built between Route 73 and Route 38 in 1966 . In 1968 , the section of I @-@ 295 between Carneys Point and Bridgeport was finished . Following the completion of this section , US 130 reverted to its previous surface alignment through Carneys Point , replacing that portion of Route 44 . In 1972 , the highway was finished between Route 38 and CR 541 . I @-@ 295 was extended from CR 541 northward to US 130 near Bordentown a year later . I @-@ 295 was completed from US 1 west to a proposed interchange with I @-@ 95 in Hopewell Township in 1974 . In 1975 , the roadway was constructed from south of the Route 33 interchange north to US 1 . The section of I @-@ 295 between Arena Drive and south of Route 33 was finished in 1984 . In 1987 , I @-@ 295 was built between I @-@ 195 / Route 29 and Arena Drive , with the highway between I @-@ 195 / Route 29 and Route 33 opened to traffic on August 16 of that year . The final section of I @-@ 295 between US 130 in Bordentown and I @-@ 195 / Route 29 was finished in 1994 .
At its original northern terminus , the freeway continued west as I @-@ 95 toward the Scudder Falls Bridge while I @-@ 95 was proposed to head north along the Somerset Freeway . In 1983 , the Somerset Freeway portion of I @-@ 95 was cancelled as a result of community opposition . In the 1990s , the northern terminus of I @-@ 295 was moved to its current location at the US 1 interchange , with the route west of there replaced by an extended I @-@ 95 . Due to the cancellation of the Somerset Freeway , a gap exists along I @-@ 95 in New Jersey . To bridge the gap , motorists from northbound I @-@ 95 are directed to follow I @-@ 295 southbound and I @-@ 195 eastbound to reach the New Jersey Turnpike to continue north along I @-@ 95 , and vice versa .
In 1995 , the southbound rest area along I @-@ 295 in Burlington County was named for radio personality Howard Stern . Governor Christine Todd Whitman named the rest area after Stern as payback for him granting Whitman airtime during her 1993 gubernatorial campaign . A plaque proclaiming the rest area as the " Howard Stern Rest Stop " was installed , with an image of Stern poking his head from an outhouse . Days after the plaque was installed , it was stolen and later mailed to Stern . In 2003 , the rest areas along I @-@ 295 in Burlington County were closed as part of funding cuts in Governor Jim McGreevey 's budget , saving the state $ 1 million a year .
I @-@ 295 , like many other highways in New Jersey , once had solar @-@ powered emergency call boxes every mile ( about 1 @.@ 6 km ) ; the use of the call boxes became limited due to the increasing popularity of cell phones . To save on maintenance costs , NJDOT removed these call boxes in 2005 .
NJDOT has broken ground on the missing express connection between I @-@ 295 and Route 42 to provide an easier connection between the Baltimore @-@ Washington Metropolitan Area and points south to Atlantic City and vice versa . This project , dubbed the I @-@ 295 / I @-@ 76 / Route 42 Direct Connection , will reconstruct the dangerous and congested Route 42 / I @-@ 295 / I @-@ 76 interchange , which currently requires traffic on I @-@ 295 to use 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) ramps that merge onto the North – South Freeway for a short distance , among a series of other indirect connections . In 2007 , " Alternative D " for the reconstructed interchange was selected , calling for I @-@ 295 to cross over the North – South Freeway . This interchange is projected to cost $ 900 million . Construction began in 2013 and is scheduled to be complete in 2021 .
NJDOT has also announced another project to address the missing connections between I @-@ 295 and Route 42 . This project , dubbed the I @-@ 295 / Route 42 Missing Moves , will provide connections from I @-@ 295 northbound to Route 42 southbound and Route 42 northbound to I @-@ 295 southbound by constructing two ramps just south of the I @-@ 295 / I @-@ 76 / Route 42 interchange . The project is slated to begin in 2017 and is scheduled to be completed by 2020 .
= = Future = =
With the completion of the Pennsylvania Turnpike / Interstate 95 Interchange Project in Bristol Township , Pennsylvania , I @-@ 95 will be redesignated along the Pennsylvania Turnpike ( I @-@ 276 ) to connect with the New Jersey Turnpike ( currently the northern section of I @-@ 95 ) at exit 6 , and the I @-@ 95 designation will be removed from the section north of the interchange in Pennsylvania . I @-@ 295 will be extended past its current terminus at US 1 along current I @-@ 95 , across the Scudder Falls Bridge , and into Pennsylvania to the new interchange .
Between September 2005 and May 2015 , the states of New Jersey and Pennsylvania had an agreement that , instead , I @-@ 195 would be extended along this section of I @-@ 95 . This means that the extended I @-@ 195 would have replaced the portion of I @-@ 95 between the Pennsylvania Turnpike in Bristol Township , Pennsylvania , and US 1 in Lawrence Township , New Jersey . It would have also replaced I @-@ 295 north of exit 60 in Hamilton Township , New Jersey ( its exit with I @-@ 195 ) , truncating I @-@ 295 at that junction . This option would have reduced the confusion of having I @-@ 295 parallel itself in New Jersey and Pennsylvania . Interchange renumbering would have also taken place that will coordinate with the future I @-@ 195 designation in Pennsylvania , as well as the new and current I @-@ 195 designation , from Ewing to Belmar in New Jersey . This proposal had received conditional approval from AASHTO . On May 20 , 2015 , it was decided to revert to the original decision to extend I @-@ 295 to the interchange .
= = Exit list = =
In Delaware , the exits are not numbered .
|
= Blockhaus d 'Éperlecques =
The Blockhaus d 'Éperlecques ( English : Bunker of Éperlecques , also referred to as " the Watten bunker " or simply " Watten " ) is a Second World War bunker , now part of a museum , near Saint @-@ Omer in the northern Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais département of France , and only some 14 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 8 @.@ 9 miles ) north @-@ northwest from the more developed La Coupole V @-@ 2 launch facility , in the same general area . The bunker , built by Nazi Germany under the codename Kraftwerk Nord West ( Powerplant Northwest ) between March 1943 and July 1944 , was originally intended to be a launching facility for the V @-@ 2 ( A @-@ 4 ) ballistic missile . It was designed to accommodate over 100 missiles at a time and to launch up to 36 daily . The facility would have incorporated a liquid oxygen factory and a bomb @-@ proof train station to allow missiles and supplies to be delivered from production facilities in Germany . It was constructed using the labour of thousands of prisoners of war and forcibly conscripted workers used as slave labourers .
The bunker was never completed as a result of the repeated bombing by the British and United States air forces as part of Operation Crossbow against the German V @-@ weapons programme . The attacks caused substantial damage and rendered the bunker unusable for its original purpose . Part of the bunker was subsequently completed for use as a liquid oxygen factory . It was captured by Allied forces at the start of September 1944 , though its true purpose was not discovered by the Allies until after the war . V @-@ 2s were instead launched from Meillerwagen @-@ based mobile batteries which were far less vulnerable to aerial attacks . Today , the bunker is preserved as part of a privately owned museum that presents the history of the site and the German V @-@ weapons programme . It has been protected by the French state as a monument historique since 1986 .
= = Background = =
The A @-@ 4 ballistic missile ( referred to as the V @-@ 2 from September 1944 ) was developed by the Germans between 1939 and 1944 . It was regarded by Adolf Hitler as a Wunderwaffe ( wonder weapon ) that he believed to be capable of turning the tide of the war . Its operational deployment was restricted by several factors . Large supplies of cryogenic liquid oxygen ( LOX ) were required as the oxidizer to fuel the missiles . LOX evaporates rapidly , necessitating a source reasonably close to the firing site in order to minimise loss through evaporation . Germany and the occupied countries did not at that time have sufficient manufacturing capacity for the amount of LOX required for a full @-@ scale A @-@ 4 campaign ; the total production capacity in 1941 and 1942 was about 215 tons daily , but each A @-@ 4 launch required about 15 tons . As the missile was intended for use against London and southern England , its operational range of 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) meant that the launch sites had to be located fairly close to the English Channel or southern North Sea coasts , in northern France , Belgium or the western Netherlands . This was within easy reach of the Allied air forces , so any site would have to be able to resist or evade the expected aerial bombardments .
Various concepts were mooted for the A @-@ 4 's deployment in a March 1942 study by Walter Dornberger , the head of the A @-@ 4 development project at the Peenemünde Army Research Center . He suggested that the missiles should be based in heavily defended fixed sites of a bunker @-@ style design similar to the massive submarine pens then under construction in occupied France and Norway . The rockets could be stored in such sites , armed , fuelled from an on @-@ site LOX production plant , and launched . This offered significant technical advantages ; not only would the LOX loss be minimised , but the complex process of pre @-@ launch testing would be simplified . A high rate of fire could be sustained as the facility could effectively operate like a production line , sending a steady flow of missiles to the launch pads .
The submarine pens and other Atlantic Wall fortifications had been built in 1940 and 1941 , when the Germans had air superiority and could deter Allied air attacks . By 1942 this advantage had been lost to the United States Army Air Forces , which had begun deploying to England in May 1942 , and a greatly expanded Royal Air Force . The German Army preferred an alternative approach which would use trailer @-@ style mobile launch platforms called Meillerwagen accompanied by testing and fuelling equipment mounted on railway cars or trucks . Although this configuration was far less efficient and would have a much lower rate of fire , it would have the great advantage of presenting a much smaller target for the Allied air forces . The Army was not convinced that fixed bunkers could resist repeated air attacks and was particularly concerned about the vulnerability of the launch sites ' road and rail links , which were essential for resupplying them with missiles and fuel .
In November 1942 , Hitler and Minister of Munitions Albert Speer discussed possible launch configurations and examined models and plans of the proposed bunkers and mobile launchers . Hitler strongly preferred the bunker option , though he also gave the go @-@ ahead for the production of mobile launchers . Two different bunker designs had been prepared : the B.III @-@ 2a design envisaged preparing the missile for launch inside the bunker , then transporting it outside to a launch pad , while the B.III @-@ 2b design would see the missile being elevated from within the bunker to a launch pad on the roof . Speer gave orders that two bunkers were to be constructed by the Organisation Todt construction group to a " special fortification standard " ( Sonderbaustärke ) , requiring a steel @-@ reinforced concrete ceiling 5 metres ( 16 ft ) thick and walls 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) thick . They would be built near the coasts opposite England , one on the Côte d 'Opale near Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer and the other on the Cotentin Peninsula near Cherbourg . Each would be capable of launching 36 missiles a day , would hold sufficient supplies of missiles and fuel to last three days , and would be manned by 250 troops .
= = Design and location = =
In December 1942 , Speer ordered Peenemünde officers and engineers ( including Colonel Gerhard Stegmair , Dr Ernst Steinhoff and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Georg Thom ) to tour the Artois region in northwest France and locate a suitable site for an A @-@ 4 launch facility . The site chosen was just to the west of the small town of Watten , in the Forest of Éperlecques , near Saint @-@ Omer in the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais department . It was given the cover name of Kraftwerk Nord West ( Northwest Power Plant ) .
The location was conveniently close to the main railway line between Calais and Saint @-@ Omer , the canalised River Aa , main roads and electric grid lines . Situated 177 kilometres ( 110 mi ) from London , it was far enough inland to be safe from naval guns and it was sheltered to an extent by a ridge that rises to a height of 90 metres ( 300 ft ) to the north . At nearby Saint @-@ Omer , there was a major Luftwaffe base which was capable of providing air defence for the area . There were existing gravel and sand quarries as well as cement works in the vicinity , which would help with the enormous amount of material that would be needed for the construction works . The quantities required were very substantial indeed ; 200 @,@ 000 tons of concrete and 20 @,@ 000 tons of steel would be required to build the facility . When US Army Major General Lewis H. Brereton inspected the site after it had been captured by the Allies , he described the bunker as " more extensive than any concrete constructions we have in the United States , with the possible exception of Boulder Dam . "
The Watten bunker was to be built to a design based on the B.III @-@ 2a bunker , though substantially larger . The Germans had originally planned to build a separate LOX plant at Stenay but this option was abandoned in favour of installing a LOX production facility within the Watten bunker .
The bunker consisted of three main elements . The main part of the building was a giant structure some 92 metres ( 302 ft ) wide and 28 metres ( 92 ft ) high , housing the LOX plant and a vault where missiles would be assembled and prepared . Its walls were up to 7 metres ( 23 ft ) thick and the bunker 's working levels descended 6 metres ( 20 ft ) below ground . The plant would house five Heylandt compressors , each capable of producing about 10 tons of LOX per day . About 150 tons of LOX were to be stored in insulated tanks on @-@ site . The facility was intended to store up to 108 missiles and enough fuel to supply three days ' worth of launches . The Germans planned to fire up to 36 rockets a day from the site .
On the north side of the building was a fortified standard gauge railway station , linked to the main Calais @-@ Saint @-@ Omer line at Watten via a 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) spur line . Missiles , warheads and other components would be shipped to the station and transported on trucks into the main area of the bunker . Here the rockets were to be assembled , raised into a vertical position and fuelled and armed . From the arming halls , they would be moved to either end of the building through pivoting doors 18 metres ( 59 ft ) high . They would exit through the south face of the building and would be moved on tracks to the launch pads . There were no doors on the exit portals so chicanes were installed in the exit passage to deflect the blast of rockets being launched from outside . Launches would be overseen from a command tower located in the centre of the south side of the bunker , overlooking the launch pads .
To the north of the bunker , the Germans erected a bomb @-@ proof power station with a 2 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 1 @.@ 5 MW ) generating capacity . The site was initially powered from the main electricity grid , but it was intended that it would have its own independent power source to minimise the likelihood of disruption . Also associated with the Watten complex was a radar tracking site at Prédefin , 29 kilometres ( 18 mi ) south of Saint @-@ Omer . A Giant Würzburg radar system was installed there to follow the trajectories of V @-@ 2s being launched from Watten . The intention was to follow the trajectory for as long as possible so that the accuracy of the missile launches could be determined .
= = Construction = =
The site was designed in January and February 1943 by engineers from the Peenemünde research facility and the Organisation Todt . On 25 March 1943 the construction plans were presented to Hitler , who immediately gave the go @-@ ahead for the project to begin . The construction firm Holzman & Polanski was awarded the contract and 6 @,@ 000 workers from Building Battalion 434 started construction that same month using plans by Franz Xaver Dorsch , Construction Director at the Organisation Todt . It was envisaged that the structure would be ready by the end of July 1943 , though not its wiring and plant , and it was intended that it would be fully operational by 1 November 1943 .
The workforce consisted of a mixture of German specialists and forcibly conscripted Frenchmen from the Service du Travail Obligatoire ( STO ) . They were supplemented by Belgian , Dutch , French , Polish , Czech and Soviet prisoners of war and civilian conscripts , who were used as slave labour . The labour force also included many French political prisoners and Spanish Republicans who had fled to France after General Franco 's victory in the Spanish Civil War but had then been interned by the invading Germans . The non @-@ German workers lived in two camps officially known as Organisation Todt Watten Zwangsarbeitslager 62 ( Forced Labour Camp 62 ) about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) distant from the site , near the village of Éperlecques . The camps were guarded by the French civil police with the assistance of Belgian and Dutch Nazis and Russian POWs who had volunteered for guard duty . Although escape attempts were punished by immediate execution , there were up to three escapes daily with external assistance . The commandant of the camp is said to have complained that it would have been easier to " guard a sack of fleas " . Over 35 @,@ 000 foreign workers passed through the camps during the period in which they were operational .
The labourers worked in 12 @-@ hour shifts of 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 men , with three 20 @-@ minute breaks during each shift . The work continued around the clock , seven days a week , under giant floodlights during the night . The living and working conditions were extremely harsh , especially for the political prisoners and the eastern Europeans , who were given especially punitive treatment due to their status as the most expendable members of the workforce . For the non @-@ German workers , falling ill or being unable to work through injury was the equivalent of a death sentence , as they would either be left to die or be transported back to the concentration camps from which they had been brought . A German commission that inspected the labour camps in the area in late 1943 commented : " The Eastern [ European ] worker is very tough . He works at his job until he falls flat on his face in the mire , and all that is left for the doctor to do is to issue the death certificate . "
A large supply dump was established at Watten next to the River Aa . This site was eventually used to store material required for all the V @-@ weapon sites in the Saint @-@ Omer area . Building materials were brought there by barges and trains where they were unloaded onto a Decauville narrow @-@ gauge railway for transportation to the construction site , where concrete mixers operated day and night . A 90 kV power line running to a transformer at Holque north of Watten provided electricity . An old quarry at Wizernes codenamed Schotterwerk Nordwest ( Gravel Quarry Northwest ) , some 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) south of Watten , was also converted into a storage dump to supply the Watten facility .
= = Discovery , destruction and abandonment = =
In early April 1943 , an Allied agent reported " enormous trenches " being excavated at the Watten site , and on 16 May 1943 an RAF reconnaissance mission led to Allied photographic interpreters noticing unidentified activity there . Other large facilities were observed to be under construction elsewhere in the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais . The purpose of the construction works was very unclear ; Lord Cherwell , Winston Churchill 's scientific adviser , admitted that he had little idea what " these very large structures similar to gun emplacements " were but he believed that " if it is worth the enemy 's while to go to all the trouble of building them it would seem worth ours to destroy them " .
At the end of May , the British Chiefs of Staff ordered that aerial attacks be carried out against the so @-@ called " heavy sites " being built by the Germans . On 6 August , Duncan Sandys , who headed a high @-@ level Cabinet committee to coordinate the British defence against the German V @-@ weapons , recommended that the Watten site should also be attacked because of the progress being made in its construction . The British Chiefs of Staff noted that a daylight attack by US bombers was under consideration but they raised objections to the proposal , as the Air Staff thought that Watten had nothing to do with rockets , suggesting that instead it might be merely a " protected operations room " .
The timing of the first raid was influenced by advice given by Sir Malcolm McAlpine , the chairman of the construction company Sir Robert McAlpine , who suggested that the Watten site should be attacked while the concrete was still setting . On 27 August 1943 , 187 B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses of the US 8th Air Force attacked the site with devastating effect . The fortified train station on the north side of the bunker was especially badly damaged , as concrete had just been poured there . Dornberger later wrote that following the attack the site was " a desolate heap of concrete , steel , props and planking . The concrete hardened . After a few days the shelter was beyond saving . All we could do was roof in a part and use it for other work . " The bombing killed and injured hundreds of the slave workers on site ; although the Allies had sought to avoid casualties by timing the raid with what they thought was a change of shifts , the shift pattern had been changed by the Germans at the last minute to achieve the day 's work quota .
Only 35 % of the Watten bunker had been completed by this time . It was clearly no longer possible to use it as a launch site , but the Germans still needed LOX production facilities to supply V @-@ 2 sites elsewhere . After surveying the site in September and October 1943 , Organisation Todt engineers determined that the northern part of the facility was irretrievably damaged but decided to focus on completing the southern part to serve as a LOX factory . One of the OT 's engineers , Werner Flos , came up with an idea to protect the bunker from bombardment by building it up from the roof first . This was done by initially constructing a concrete plate , flat on the ground , which was 5 metres ( 16 ft ) thick and weighed 37 @,@ 000 tons . It was incrementally raised by hydraulic jacks and then supported by walls which were built underneath it as it was raised , becoming the roof . The resulting concrete cavern was intended to be used by the Germans as a bombproof liquid oxygen factory . The thickness of the roof was chosen on the assumption that Allied bombs were incapable of penetrating such a depth of concrete ; the Germans , however , were unaware of the British development of earthquake bombs .
The Germans ' main focus of attention switched instead to Schotterwerk Nordwest , the former quarry at nearby Wizernes , where work had been ongoing to build a bombproof V @-@ 2 storage facility . This project was expanded to turn the quarry into a fixed launch facility . Plans were put into effect to build a huge concrete dome – now open to the public as the museum of La Coupole – under which missiles would be fuelled and armed in a network of tunnels before being transported outside for launching . The Allies carried out further heavy bombing against both the Watten and Wizernes sites with little initial effect on the buildings themselves , although the rail and road network around them was systematically destroyed . On 3 July 1944 , Oberkommando West gave permission to stop construction at both sites , which had been so disrupted by bombing that work could no longer proceed . Three days later an Allied raid succeeded in wrecking the interior of the Watten bunker with a Tallboy bomb that brought down part of the roof . Finally , on 18 July 1944 , Hitler decreed that plans for launching missiles from bunkers need no longer be pursued . Dornberger 's staff subsequently decided to continue minor construction at Watten " for deception purposes " . The site itself was now useless , as the Germans recognised when they wryly codenamed it Concrete Lump , and the liquid oxygen generators and machinery were transferred to the Mittelwerk V @-@ 2 factory in central Germany , well away from Allied bombers .
The Watten site was captured on 4 September 1944 by Canadian forces . The Germans had evacuated it a few days earlier and removed the pumps which kept the cavernous basement free from water ; not long afterwards it began to flood . This made a substantial amount of the bunker inaccessible to the Allies .
= = Subsequent investigations and utilisation = =
The bunker was inspected on 10 September 1944 by the French atomic scientist Frédéric Joliot @-@ Curie , accompanied by Sandys . Following the visit , Sandys ordered a Technical Inter @-@ Services Mission under Colonel T.R.B. Sanders to investigate the sites at Mimoyecques , Siracourt , Watten , and Wizernes , collectively known to the Allies as the " Heavy Crossbow " sites . Sanders ' report was submitted to the War Cabinet on 19 March 1945 .
Despite the capture of Watten , it was still not known at this time what the site had been intended for . Sanders noted that " the purpose of the structures was never known throughout the period of intensive reconnaissance and attack " . Based on the discovery of large aluminium tanks installed in the main part of the bunker , he opined that the Germans had intended to use it as a factory for the production of hydrogen peroxide for use in the fuelling of V @-@ 1 and V @-@ 2 missiles . He ruled out the possibility that it could have been used for LOX production and concluded , erroneously , that " the site had no offensive role . " He recommended that ( unlike the Mimoyecques and Wizernes sites ) the Watten bunker presented no threat to the UK 's security and " there is thus no imperative need , on that account , to ensure the destruction of the workings . "
The bunker was targeted again by the Allies in February 1945 , this time to test the newly developed CP / RA Disney bomb – a 4 @,@ 500 lb ( 2 @,@ 000 kg ) concrete @-@ piercing rocket @-@ assisted bomb designed to double the normal impact velocity , and thereby increase the penetration , of the projectile . The site had been chosen for testing purposes in October 1944 as it had the largest accessible interior area of the targets under consideration and was furthest from an inhabited town . On 3 February 1945 , a B @-@ 17 of the US Eighth Air Force dropped a Disney bomb on the Watten bunker and scored a hit over the wall section , but the results were inconclusive and the Air Force was not able to determine how well the bomb had penetrated the concrete . Although Disney bombs were used operationally on a number of occasions , the weapon 's introduction came too late to be of any significance in the war effort . In January 2009 the body of the Disney bomb was extracted from the roof , where it had embedded itself .
The Watten bunker was inspected again on 20 June 1951 by an Anglo @-@ French commission to determine whether it was capable of being reused for military purposes . The British Assistant Military Attaché , Major W.C. Morgan , reported to the Director of Military Intelligence at the War Office that the main part of the bunker had not been significantly damaged by bombing and that although it was flooded , if it was patched and drained " the building could be quickly made ready to receive oxygen liquifying plant machinery , or for any other purpose requiring a large and practically bomb @-@ proof building . "
No further military use was made of the bunker and the land on which it stands reverted to private ownership . It was left abandoned for many years before the owners decided to redevelop the site . In 1973 , the bunker was opened to the public for the first time under the name of Le Blockhaus d 'Éperlecques . The ownership was taken over by Hubert de Mégille in the mid @-@ 1980s and on 3 September 1986 the French state declared it a monument historique . The area around the bunker has been re @-@ forested , though it is still heavily scarred by bomb craters , and various items of Second World War military equipment ( including a V @-@ 1 on a launch ramp ) are on display alongside paths around the site . An open @-@ air trail leads to and around the bunker with interpretative signs posted at various points to tell the story of the site and the German V @-@ weapons programme . In 2009 , the museum welcomed 45 @,@ 000 visitors .
= = Air raids on the Watten site = =
|
= Agreement on Friendship and Cooperation between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia =
The Agreement on Friendship and Cooperation between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia was signed by Alija Izetbegović , President of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina , and Franjo Tuđman , President of the Republic of Croatia , in Zagreb on 21 July 1992 during the Bosnian and Croatian wars for independence from Yugoslavia . It established cooperation , albeit inharmonious , between the two and served as a basis for joint defense against Serb forces . It also placed the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) under the command of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) .
Izetbegović , who had hoped to prevent Bosnia Herzegovina from falling under the influence of Croatia or Serbia , signed the agreement after Stjepan Kljuić , president of the Croatian Democratic Union 's ( HDZ ) branch in Bosnia and Herzegovina , was replaced by Tuđman with Mate Boban , who blocked the delivery of supplies to Sarajevo where a siege was under way and had proclaimed an independent Croatian Republic of Herzeg @-@ Bosnia ( HR @-@ HB ) . The agreement fell apart in October after a number of events including the assassination of Blaž Kraljević , leader of Croatian Defence Forces ( HOS ) in Bosnia and Herzegovina , the fall of the areas of Posavina , Bosanski Brod , and Jajce into the hands of the Army of Republika Srpska ( VRS ) , and after a major battle broke out between the HVO and the ARBiH in Prozor .
= = Preparation for war = =
In 1990 and 1991 , Serbs in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina had proclaimed a number of " Serbian Autonomous Regions " with the intent of later unifying them to create a Greater Serbia . Serbs used the well equipped Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) in defending these territories . As early as September or October 1990 , the JNA had begun arming Bosnian Serbs and organizing them into militias . By March 1991 , the JNA had distributed an estimated 51 @,@ 900 firearms to Serb paramilitaries and 23 @,@ 298 firearms to Serbian Democratic Party ( SDS ) . The Croatian government began arming Croats in the Herzegovina region in 1991 and in the start of 1992 , expecting that the Serbs would spread the war into Bosnia and Herzegovina . It also helped arm the Bosniak community . From July 1991 to January 1992 , the JNA and Serb paramilitaries used Bosnian territory to wage attacks on Croatia .
On 25 March 1991 , Franjo Tuđman met with Serbian president Slobodan Milošević in Karađorđevo , reportedly to discuss partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina . In November , the autonomous Croatian Community of Herzeg @-@ Bosnia ( HZ @-@ HB ) was established , it claimed it had no secessionary goal and that it would serve a " legal basis for local self @-@ administration " . It vowed to respect the Bosnian government under the condition that Bosnia and Herzegovina was independent of " the former and every kind of future Yugoslavia . " In December , Tuđman , in a conversation with Bosnian Croat leaders , said that " from the perspective of sovereignty , Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina has no prospects " and recommended that Croatian policy " support for the sovereignty [ of Bosnia and Herzegovina ] until such time as it no longer suits Croatia . "
In April 1992 , the siege of Sarajevo began , by which time the Bosnian Serb @-@ formed Army of Republika Srpska ( VRS ) controlled 70 % of Bosnia and Herzegovina . On 8 April , Bosnian Croats were organized into the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) . A sizable number of Bosniaks also joined . The Croatian Defence Forces ( HOS ) , led by Blaž Kraljević in Bosnia and Herzegovina , which " supported Bosnian territorial integrity much more consistently and sincerely than the HVO " was also created . On 15 April 1992 , the multi @-@ ethnic Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) was formed , with slightly over two @-@ thirds of troops consisting of Bosniaks and almost one @-@ third of Croats and Serbs . In the winter Bosniaks began leaving the HVO and joining the ARBiH which also began receiving supplies from Croatia . In May , HVO Major General Ante Roso declared that the only " legal military force " in HZ @-@ HB was the HVO and that " all orders from the TO [ Territorial Defense ] command [ of Bosnia and Herzegovina ] are invalid , and are to be considered illegal on this territory " .
= = Pressure and agreement = =
The Croatian government played a " double game " in Bosnia and Herzegovina and " a military solution required Bosnia as an ally , but a diplomatic solution required Bosnia as a victim " . Tuđman 's Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) party held important positions in the Bosnian government including the premiership and the ministry of defence , but despite this carried out a separate policy and refused for the HVO to be integrated into ARBiH . Jerko Doko , the Bosnian defence minister , gave the HVO priority in the acquisition of military weapons . In January 1992 , Tuđman had arranged for Stjepan Kljuić , president of the Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( HDZ BiH ) who favored cooperating with the Bosniaks towards a unified Bosnian state , to be ousted and replaced by Mate Boban , who favored Croatia to annex Croat @-@ inhabited parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina . A rift existed in the party between Croats from ethnically mixed areas of central and northern Bosnia and those from Herzegovina . Milivoj Gagro , prewar Croat mayor of Mostar and ally of Kljuić said : " The secessionist policy [ union with Croatia ] was consistently supported by the Herzegovina side , not by Sarajevo , Posavina , or Central Bosnia Croats . [ ... ] Croats from Central Bosnia and Posavina , as well as those from urban centers who lived with Muslims and Serbs , thought differently . But when the war picked up , Posavina Croats were attacked , Sarajevo was surrounded [ ... ] Kljuić was sidelined and Boban came in with idea [ the Croat separatist idea ] in this area . [ ... ] When they [ Croats in Sarajevo as well as Northern and Central Bosnia ] felt they could not survive any more they lifted their hands and accepted their fate . And the Herzegovina Croats promised them the stars in the sky and told them " come here and we will give you a place . " And what happened ? It resulted in an exodus . And all these miserable Croat refugee communities that look absolutely ugly . "
Izetbegović came under intense pressure from Tuđman to agree for Bosnia and Herzegovina to be in a confederation with Croatia ; however , Izetbegović wanted to prevent Bosnia and Herzegovina from coming under the influence of Croatia or Serbia . Because doing so would cripple reconciliation between Bosniaks and Serbs , make the return of Bosniak refugees to eastern Bosnia impossible and for other reasons , Izetbegović opposed . He received an ultimatum from Boban warning that if he did not proclaim a confederation with Tuđman that Croatian forces would not help defend Sarajevo from strongholds as close as 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) away . On 9 May , Boban , Josip Manolić , Tuđman 's aide and previously the Croatian Prime Minister , and Radovan Karadžić , president of the self @-@ proclaimed Republika Srpska , secretly met in Graz and formed an agreement on the division of Bosnia and Herzegovina , the Graz agreement . Beginning in June , discussions between Bosniaks and Croats over military cooperation and possible merger of their armies started to take place . The Croatian government recommended moving ARBiH headquarters out of Sarajevo and closer to Croatia and pushed for its reorganization in an effort to heavily add Croatian influence .
In June and July , Boban increased pressure " by blocking delivery of arms that the Sarajevo government , working around a United Nations embargo on all shipments to the former Yugoslavia , has secretly bought . " On 3 July , Boban declared the independence of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg @-@ Bosnia ( HR @-@ HB ) . He was established as its president . It claimed power over its own police , army , currency , and education and extended its grasp to many districts where Bosniaks were the majority . It only allowed a Croat flag to be used , the only currency allowed was the Croatian kuna , its only official language was Croatian , and a Croat school curriculum was enacted . Mostar , a town where Bosniaks constituted a slight majority , was set as the capital . There was no mention on the defense of Bosnia and Herzegovina 's territorial integrity .
On 21 July , Izetbegović and Tuđman signed the " Agreement on Friendship and Cooperation between the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic of Croatia " in Zagreb , Croatia . The agreement allowed them to " cooperate in opposing [ the Serb ] aggression " and coordinate military efforts . It placed the HVO under the command of the ARBiH . Cooperation was inharmonious , but enabled the transportation of weapons to ARBiH through Croatia in spite of the UN sanctioned arms embargo , reopening channels blocked by Boban . It established " economic , financial , cultural , educational , scientific and religious cooperation " between the signatories . It also stipulated that Bosnian Croats hold dual citizenship for both Bosnia and Herzegovina and for Croatia . This was criticized as Croatian attempts at " claiming broader political and territorial rights in the parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina where large numbers of Croats live " . After its signature Boban vowed to Izetbegović that HR @-@ HB would remain an integral part of Bosnia and Herzegovina when the war ended .
= = Aftermath = =
In the summer of 1992 , the HVO started to purge its Bosniak members . At the same time armed incidents started to occur among Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina between the HVO and the HOS . The HOS was loyal to the Bosnian government and accepted subordination to the Staff of the ARBiH of which Kraljević was appointed a member . On 9 August , Kraljević and eight of his staff were assassinated by HVO soldiers under the command of Mladen Naletilić , who supported a split between Croat and Bosniaks , after Kraljević 's HOS attacked the VRS near Trebinje . The HOS 's advance into eastern Herzegovina and occupation of Trebinje angered Boban who had affirmed to Karadžić that Croat forces were uninterested in the region . The HOS was disbanded , leaving the HVO as the only Croat force . Bosnian officials suspected that Tuđman 's government was involved . According to Manolić the order to kill Kraljević was given by Šušak and approved by Tuđman . Božidar Vučurević , the war @-@ time mayor of Trebinje , stated he safeguarded records showing that SDS and HDZ figures considered it a " task " that need to be carried out .
In late September , Izetbegović and Tuđman met again and attempted to create military coordination against the VRS , but to no avail . By October , the agreement had collapsed and afterwards Croatia diverted delivery of weaponry to Bosnia and Herzegovina by seizing a significant amount for itself . Boban had abandoned a Bosnian government alliance and ceased all hostilities with Karadžić . The dominant Croatian – Bosnian defense of Posavina fell apart after Tuđman and / or Gojko Šušak ordered the withdrawal of the Croatian Army ( HV ) , enabling the Serbs to gain control of the corridor and connect their captured territories in western and eastern Bosnia . On 8 October , the town of Bosanski Brod was abandoned by the HVO and left to the VRS . By that time , the HV and the HVO had sustained approximately 7 @,@ 500 casualties , out of 20 @,@ 000 troops committed to the battle to control Posavina . The pullout appeared to be a quid pro quo for the JNA withdrawal from Dubrovnik 's hinterland that took place in July . Still , a Central Intelligence Agency analysis concluded that there is no direct evidence of such arrangements . On 9 October , the HVO signed a cease @-@ fire with the VRS in Jajce in exchange for providing electricity .
The strained relations escalated rapidly and led to an armed clash between the two forces in Novi Travnik on 18 October . Low @-@ scale conflicts spread in the region , and the two forces engaged each other along the supply route to Jajce three days later , on 21 October , as a result of an ARBiH roadblock set up the previous day on authority of the " Coordinating Committee for the Protection of Muslims " rather than the ARBiH command . Just as the roadblock was dismantled , a new skirmish occurred in the town of Vitez the following day . On 29 October , the VRS captured Jajce due to the inability of ARBiH and HVO forces to construct a cooperative defense , against the VRS which held the advantage in troop size and firepower , staff work and planning was significantly superior to the defenders of Jajce . Six days prior the first major battle in the impending Croat – Bosniak war broke out when the HVO pushed ARBiH from Prozor and expelled the Bosniak population after carrying out rapes , attacking the local mosque , and torching the property of Bosniaks . Initial reports indicated about 300 Bosniaks were killed or wounded in the attack , but subsequent reports by the ARBiH made in November 1992 indicated eleven soldiers and three civilians were killed . Another ARBiH report , prepared in March 1993 , revised the numbers saying eight civilians and three ARBiH soldiers were killed , while 13 troops and 10 civilians were wounded .
|
= Wizards & Warriors =
Wizards & Warriors is a platforming video game developed by Rare Ltd. for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) . It was published by Acclaim and released in North America in December 1987 and in Europe on January 7 , 1990 . It was also released in Japan by Jaleco on July 15 , 1988 , under the title Densetsu no Kishi Elrond ( 伝説の騎士エルロンド ) . In the game , players control Kuros , the " Knight Warrior of the Books of Excalibur " , as he sets out in the Kingdom of Elrond to defeat the evil wizard Malkil , who holds the princess captive in Castle IronSpire , located deep within Elrond 's forests . During the game , players make their way through forests , tunnels , and caves , battling hordes of enemies and collecting treasure , magical items , and additional weaponry to get past the obstacles and hazards that lie in their path . It was Rare 's second game released for the NES , after Slalom .
Wizards & Warriors was featured in early video gaming magazines such as Nintendo Fun Club News , Nintendo Power , and VideoGames & Computer Entertainment in 1988 and 1989 . The main characters Kuros and Malkil would make appearances in the animated series The Power Team ( part of the TV video game reviewing show Video Power ) and Captain N : The Game Master . The game would also be novelized for the Worlds of Power series of NES game adaptations , created by Seth Godin . It received general praise for its graphics , sound , difficulty , and arcade @-@ style gameplay . Criticisms include the presence of unlimited continues , which allow players to restart the game right where they previously left off while retaining all items that were collected before . Retro Gamer called Wizards & Warriors " a unique experience for NES gamers in 1987 , and technically well ahead of other games for the console at the time " . The game also spawned three sequels : Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II , Wizards & Warriors III : Kuros : Visions of Power and Wizards & Warriors X : The Fortress of Fear .
= = Plot = =
Wizards & Warriors pits the story 's hero Kuros , the " Knight Warrior of the Books of Excalibur " , against the main antagonist , the evil wizard Malkil . He was considered one of the greatest wizards in the land , such that Merlin was one of his students . However , the aging Malkil has gone mad and has started using his magic for evil . As a result , Malkil has captured the princess and holds her prisoner in Castle IronSpire , deep within the forests of Elrond . The game 's protagonist , the brave knight Kuros , is summoned to venture through the forests of Elrond . He is armed with the legendary Brightsword , a sword that is powerful enough to beat demons , insects , undead , and the other creatures which have fallen under Malkil 's spell . With the sword , he ventures out through the forests of Elrond and the various caves and underground tunnels and to Castle IronSpire , where he must defeat Malkil and rescue the princess .
= = Gameplay = =
Wizards & Warriors is a platformer in which players control Kuros as he makes his way through the forests of Elrond to Castle IronSpire , where he must defeat Malkil and rescue the princess . After starting the game , the map is briefly shown for players to look at ; afterwards , gameplay starts . Starting in the Elrond forest , players must explore the trees – both on top and inside – to find items and to make it into the caves and tunnels . There , players start collecting the various magical items and treasure ; they must make their way through caves filled with ice as well as lava . Afterwards , players fight through a second set of forests before arriving at Castle IronSpire , in which the player must go over the castle in order to enter it . The castle consists of a series of mazes in which players must use keys to open doors and possibly find other damsels which can be rescued . At the end lies the final confrontation with the wizard Malkil .
Players use the control pad to move horizontally and to crouch . Kuros can attack enemies by using his Brightsword or with other weapons and magic . He can also attack enemies while in the air or while standing by simply holding the sword in position . The objective of the game is to collect the various weapons and magic as well as the gems and treasure along the way ; players use these items to make it past the enemies and other obstacles and hazards . Players collect gems in order to " bribe " the creature who guards the entrance to the next level ; if players do not have enough gems , they cannot progress to the next level . At the end of each level is a boss creature which has been empowered by Malkil 's black magic . Bosses have an " Enemy 's Black Magic Power " meter which shows how difficult the boss is , how many hits are required to defeat it , and what type of weaponry needs to be used . Kuros has a life meter which decreases as time passes and when he sustains damage from enemies . Players loses a life when Kuros ' life meter runs out , but upon restarting they keep all the items they have obtained up to that point . The game ends when all three lives have been lost , but players have the choice to continue and restart at the level in which they lost their last life ; upon continuing , players keep all their items obtained up to that point , but their score goes back to zero . Along the way , players can replenish Kuros ' life meter by collecting pieces of meat scattered throughout the levels .
Along the way , players pick up many items which will help Kuros along his way . Acorns , torches , and treasure chests contain objects for players to collect . Chests are color @-@ coded and require a key of that matching color to open the chest ; the same color @-@ coded keys are used to open doors of matching colors . Some weapons and magic items are replaced once the player collects a new item , but others remain throughout the course of the game . Items include the following : " Boots of Force " which can kick open chests and doors ; magical potions which temporarily grant Kuros invulnerability , extra speed , or extra jumping ability ; gems to help bribe the end @-@ of @-@ level guardian ; a shield to protect from enemy attacks ; the " Potion of Levitation " which allows Kuros to float upwards ; the " Dagger of Throwing " and the " Battle Axe of Agor " which are thrown at enemies and return like a boomerang ; the " Feather of Feather Fall " which slows Kuros ' falling speed ; the " Wand of Wonder " and " Staff of Power " which shoot out balls of ice and fire , respectively ; the " Cloak of Darkness " which makes Kuros invisible to enemies ; the " Boots of Lava Walk " which allows Kuros to walk on the lava ; " Exploding Eggs " which destroys all on @-@ screen enemies ; " Alarm Clocks " which stops all enemies for a brief period ; knife and axe upgrades and an item simply called a " horn " ( trumpet ) which had many players confused as it appeared to be useless , its purpose was to reveal hidden doors to gem caves in some places . Other valuable treasures increase the player 's score and include coins , orbs , chalices , and entire hoards of treasure . Rescuing the damsels in the levels also increase the player 's score .
= = Development and reception = =
Wizards & Warriors was developed by UK @-@ based video game company Rare for the Nintendo Entertainment System . It was released by Acclaim in North American in December 1987 ; it would later be released by the same company in Europe on January 7 , 1990 . It was released in Japan by Jaleco under the title Densetsu no Kishi Elrond on July 15 , 1988 . The game would be Rare 's second NES release , after Slalom . The game 's soundtrack was composed by video game composer David Wise .
Wizards & Warriors was reviewed in Nintendo Fun Club News – the precursor to Nintendo Power – in which a brief overview of the gameplay was given . The game would be featured again in Nintendo Power 's November – December 1989 issue , where it was chosen as the best game to use with the NES Advantage controller , saying that the joystick would allow players to concentrate on other strategic gameplay elements . In 1989 , Wizards & Warriors was nominated by the magazine for " Best Graphics & Sound " and " Best Character " ( Kuros ) for its " Nintendo Power Awards ' 88 " , but it did not win in either category . It also received coverage in a 1989 issue of VideoGames & Computer Entertainment . The reviewer lauded the game 's challenge and need for problem solving – more particular the need to use different items aside from the Brightsword in order to defeat some enemies and progress in the game , and the need to find hidden rooms where required items are located . However , he noted that the high level of difficulty is offset by the ability to continue at exactly the same spot in which the player left off . Overall , the reviewer praised Wizards & Warriors for its " excellent graphics and sound " , arcade @-@ style gameplay , and overall challenge . German magazine Power Play praised the game 's good graphics , sound and extras , but criticized its " stale gameplay " .
In a retrospective of the entire Wizards & Warriors series , UK @-@ based magazine Retro Gamer gave a positive review of the first title , saying that " Kuros 's first adventure was a unique experience for NES gamers in 1987 , and technically well ahead of other games for the console at the time . " The review said that the game , while a platformer , placed much emphasis on finding treasure and items . The review said that most gamers found fault in relatively easy difficulty level , most symbolized by its unlimited continues in which players can continue at the point right where they left off . According to the retrospective , in 1988 , Rare showed Wizards & Warriors to Zippo Games , who was touring Rare and their NES library . Rare asked them to develop a sequel to the game , which would become Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II . In another retrospective of Rare as part of the company 's 25th anniversary , GamePro looked back on the game , calling it " unique at the time " due to the unlimited amount of continues players received .
Wizards & Warriors has received scant coverage from modern video gaming websites . Video gaming website GamesRadar named the opening theme for the game as " Game music of the day " , noting that the theme " suggests , from the moment you turn on the game , that knights , wizards , goblins and who knows what else are about to collide in a battle so epic it 's destined for a Frazetta painting . " JC Fletcher from Joystiq called the game " a simple action @-@ platformer about a guy in thick armor who kicks open treasure chests in order to bribe knights " . He also notes the variety of good and bad items such as the " Staff of Power " which inflicts much damage to enemies and conversely the " Cloak of Darkness " , which he says " makes Kuros invisible to you but not to enemies " . He said that the game has an arcade feel , with unlimited continues , a high @-@ score list , name entry for high scores , and good music . Houston Press ' Jef Rouner lauded the game 's music and animation , and noted its high difficulty level , especially during boss battles . IGN listed Wizards & Warriors at # 56 on its " Top 100 NES Games " list , reviewer Sam Claiborn said that the game was inspired by Dungeons & Dragons @-@ type RPGs , but it went further in incorporating action platforming elements along with more traditional RPG elements . Columnist and comedy writer Seanbaby humorously criticized the game for items that did not work as intended , including the " Cloak of Darkness " and the " Boots of Lava Walk " .
= = Other media = =
Wizards & Warriors was ported as a standalone handheld game by Acclaim in September 1989 , as part of a series of handheld ports by the company which also included WWF WrestleMania Challenge , Knight Rider , 1943 : The Battle of Midway , and Rocky . Kuros and his nemesis Malkil were featured – along with the title characters from Kwirk and BigFoot , Tyrone from Arch Rivals , and characters from NARC – in the 1990 animated series The Power Team , part of the video game reviewing show Video Power . Malkil appeared in an episode of Captain N : The Game Master called " Nightmare on Mother Brain 's Street " where the world of the game was referred to as " Excalibur " and not Elrond .
Wizards & Warriors was one of the eight games that were novelized for the Worlds of Power series of NES game adaptations , published by Scholastic Corporation ; the novelization was written by the series ' creator Seth Godin , under the pseudonym " F. X. Nine " . The book was the only one in the series in which no effort was made to edit out the protagonist 's weapons on the cover . However , on the cover , Kuros ' loincloth was airbrushed on both sides in order to more completely conceal his underside – which is more visible on the cover of the game itself . The novelization is about a boy named Matthew who is having trouble using his imagination for a creative writing class , when he accidentally brings his father 's knight figurine to life . He is then spirited away to the land of Elrond to help Kuros defeat Malkil . As with the other books in the series in which nobody actually " died " , all of the creatures that they killed were made from the lives of the people of Elrond , and whenever a creature was slain , a person was returned to their normal state . Further in the novel , the two save Kuros sister in the pink caves . While Matthew was invulnerable at the start of the mission , as the two drew closer to the evil wizard , he becomes more vulnerable to the attacks of Malkil 's villains .
|
= Disasterpieces =
Disasterpieces is the second video album by American metal band Slipknot . Released on November 26 , 2002 , a 2 @-@ disc case DVD features Slipknot performing a concert at London Dockland Arena , as well all of the band 's music videos until its release including songs from Slipknot and Iowa .
The concert was filmed by 26 cameras , including a camera on the headstock of Mick Thomson 's guitar and a " first person " point of view of several band @-@ members . The show was edited in part by band member Shawn Crahan who watched all of the footage recorded from the show . Disasterpieces was met with positive critical reception , with many citing the quick editing and high sound quality as strong points . In 2005 the DVD was certified quadruple platinum by the RIAA and is the band 's highest selling DVD to date shipping at least 400 @,@ 000 units as a longform video .
= = Recording and production = =
Disasterpieces was recorded at the now defunct London Dockland Arena in England on February 16 , 2002 , it was one of the final dates on the band 's European tour which was subsequently their final tour until 2004 . The concert was shot with 26 different cameras under the direction of Matthew Amos and documents the show , backstage action and an in @-@ store signing in Paris , France . In addition to operated cameras each band member had an individual camera which was attached to the side of their masks , apart from Mick Thomson whose camera was attached to the headstock of his guitar . The concept behind these cameras was to allow the viewer to see the show from the band member 's point of view . However they did cause some discomfort and problems for some band members . Bassist Paul Gray removed his after four songs , explaining that " they gave us this big [ camera ] pack to wear around our waist . So when I was jumping around , the thing started sliding down my leg " . Also during the song " Spit It Out " DJ Sid Wilson had his camera stolen when he was in the crowd , however it was returned at the end of the show , all of this is documented on the DVD .
The performance was edited by percussionist Shawn Crahan and Paul Richardson . Crahan later explained that he didn 't have an outline when he began editing , to the disbelief of others closest to him he watched all the footage in order to find the most appropriate footage to help immerse the viewer in the show . Additional content on the two @-@ disc set includes all music videos by the band at the time of release and the track " Purity " , which was removed from Slipknot due to legal reasons , in audio form . The DVD also gives the ability to the viewer to use the remote to change the viewing angle during " Disasterpiece " and also to view the individual band member mask cameras during " People = Shit " and " The Heretic Anthem " . The DVD was unveiled at an advance screening in New York City on November 1 , 2002 and was released on November 22 .
= = Reception = =
Disasterpieces was generally well received by critics . Kirk Miller of Rolling Stone complimented the multitude of camera angles and quick edits , writing that they helped to " [ take ] advantage of the masked metal giants ' sprawling live show " . Ottawa XPress reviewer Mitch Joel wrote that the sound was " mixed perfectly ... [ making ] songs like ' People = Shit ' , ' Spit It Out ' and ' Surfacing ' rocket " . Overall , he concluded , " Disasterpieces is an awesome and all @-@ embracing package . "
Disasterpieces peaked at number 3 in the Billboard Top Music Videos chart and rose to number 1 in Finland . On January 6 , 2003 the RIAA certified Disasterpieces platinum in the United States , and it was declared quadruple platinum on November 18 , 2005 .
It was honored with a 2002 Metal Edge Readers ' Choice Award for DVD / Home Video of the Year .
= = Contents = =
= = Personnel = =
Aside from their real names , members of the band are referred to by numbers zero through eight .
= = = Certifications = = =
|
= Spike Spiegel =
Spike Spiegel ( Japanese : スパイク ・ スピーゲル , Hepburn : Supaiku Supīgeru ) is the central protagonist of the 1998 anime series Cowboy Bebop . Spike is a former member of the criminal Red Dragon Syndicate , who left by faking his death after falling in love with a woman called Julia . He is first introduced as the partner of Jet Black , captain of the spaceship Bebop : the two are legalized bounty hunters pursuing criminals across the populated worlds . During his adventures on board the Bebop , he is drawn back into a bitter feud with Vicious , a rival from the Syndicate who seeks to kill him .
Spike was created by Shinichirō Watanabe and Toshihiro Kawamoto as part of the production entity Hajime Yatate . Created as a mirror image of Watanabe and based on Yusaku Matsuda 's character in Tantei Monogatari , he was designed as someone who would expect others to follow his lead . Kawamoto deliberately designed him to appear " uncool " to create the opposite effect for viewers . His final confrontation with Vicious was planned well in advance . His portrayal in the later movie adaptation displayed the character 's softer side and inner thoughts . Spike is voiced in Japanese by Kōichi Yamadera . In the English dub , he is voiced by Steven Blum .
In addition to the series , Spike has been featured in two manga adaptations , and been the main protagonist of two video game adaptations . Reception of Spike has been positive in Japan and the West , with multiple reviewers praising his portrayal . He has appeared on multiple reader and critic lists of the best anime characters . In addition to the series , many reviewers of the movie positively noted his expanded portrayal in The Movie . Both actors have been praised for their performances , with Blum commenting that it boosted his voice acting career .
= = Characteristics = =
Spike is a fictional bounty hunter who was born on Mars on June 26 , 2044 : he is 27 years old , has fluffy dark @-@ green hair and brown eyes . His right eye is artificial , and consequently lighter than the other . He stands 6 ' 1 " and weighs 155 lbs . Spike is a heavy smoker , and is frequently seen smoking despite rain or " no smoking " signs . A skilled martial artist who practices Jeet Kune Do , he is a devote follower of the philosophies of Bruce Lee . He also owns a converted antique Asteroid racer called the Swordfish II . During gunfights , he most often uses a Jericho 941 . In his younger days before joining the Bebop , Spike was part of the Red Dragon Syndicate , a Chinese criminal organization : during his time there , he was impetuous and volatile , but after leaving he became a calm and collected character with a love for combat . While holding little value in money or justice , he always holds true to his own values and fulfills his obligations . He also generally does this his way rather than following orders , which generally gets him into trouble . Watanabe has said that Spike has a habit of being very indirect with his emotions ; for example , he may behave antagonistically towards someone he actually likes . He says that this could apply to Spike 's relationship with Faye Valentine .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Cowboy Bebop = = =
Years before the beginning of the series , Spike is a rising member of the Red Dragon crime syndicate . While there , he becomes a partner and friend of Vicious , another member of the Syndicate . Wounded from a gun battle , Spike is nursed back to health by Vicious ' girlfriend Julia , and the two fall in love . They plan to elope and escape the Syndicate , but Vicious finds out and attempts to force Julia to kill Spike or risk her own death . After Spike fakes his death to escape the Syndicate , Julia goes into hiding and does not meet up with him . Spike eventually met and teamed up with former Inter Solar System Police officer Jet Black . As legalized bounty hunters , they travel the Solar System 's inhabited worlds hunting criminals .
During his time on the Bebop , he and Jet are joined by Ein , an intelligent Welsh corgi ; Faye Valentine , a gambler and original resident of Earth woken from cryogenic sleep ; and Edward " Ed " Wong Hau Pepelu Tivruski IV , an eccentric girl from Earth who is a master hacker . Spike also has run @-@ ins with Vicious on two occasions : in " Ballad of Fallen Angels " , while pursuing a Red Dragon executive , Spike and Vicious battle in a derelict church and Spike is nearly killed . Later , in " Jupiter Jazz " , Spike hears that Julia was seen on Callisto and abandons the Bebop to look for her . Once there , he stumbles into a drug deal orchestrated by Gren , a man Vicious betrayed who is seeking revenge . During their confrontation , a three @-@ way battle ensues : Vicious escapes , and Gren is fatally injured , but he succeeds in telling Spike that Julia is alive and in hiding .
During the final story of the series , " The Real Folk Blues " , Julia comes out of hiding and sends a message to Spike through Faye : the two meet and resolve to flee as originally planned . Vicious , having staged a coup d 'état and taken over the Red Dragon Syndicate , sends assassins after the two . During a battle , Julia is shot and killed . After saying his goodbyes to Jet and Faye , Spike storms the headquarters of the Syndicate and has a final confrontation with Vicious : Spike is severely wounded and Vicious is killed . Shortly after this , Spike walks into and collapses in the entrance hall . Spike 's ultimate fate was deliberately left ambiguous , with Watanabe eventually unable to say whether he lived or died .
= = = In other media = = =
Spike is the main protagonist of Cowboy Bebop : The Movie , a story set between Episodes 22 and 23 of the original series while the Bebop crew are still working together . The crew of the Bebop take on a massive bounty for Vincent Volaju , who releases a cloud of deadly protean @-@ based nanomachines in Mars ' capital city . During his pursuit , Spike initially fights then allies with Elektra Ovirowa , a former comrade of Vincent 's .
Spike appears along with the other main characters in the manga adaptation of Cowboy Bebop and the alternate manga Cowboy Bebop : Shooting Star . In the PlayStation Cowboy Bebop , players control Spike as he pilots the Swordfish II during aerial battles through pre @-@ set courses . Spike appears as one of the playable characters in the PlayStation 2 action / beat ' em up video game Cowboy Bebop : Tsuioku no Serenade , a game set within the continuity of the series .
= = Creation and conception = =
During the first work by Shinichirō Watanabe on Cowboy Bebop , the first image that came to him was of Spike . Prior to that , Watanabe had the character of Spike in mind for a long time beforehand . From that point on , Watanabe " tried to build a story around him , trying to make him cool . " Watanabe created Spike as a mirror image of himself : in Watanabe 's words , " I don 't smoke or drink or fight , but I want to – so Spike does . " Spike forms the main focus on the series , with the central theme being his past and its karmic effect on him . Spike was portrayed as a very old @-@ fashioned type of man , who would simply do what he wanted and expect others to follow his lead and watch him from the sidelines . Spike 's artificial eye was included as Watanabe wanted his characters to have flaws . He was originally going to give Spike an eye patch , but the producers vetoed it . In order to portray him as cool , Toshihiro Kawamoto designed Spike to look " uncool " : when he stands still , he has a hunched appearance . This meant that when the character was moving vigorously , he came across as " extra cool " . Spike 's appearance was primarily based on the main protagonist of Tantei Monogatari , portrayed by famous Japanese actor Yusaku Matsuda . Spike 's Swordfish II spaceship was created by mecha designer Kimitoshi Yamane . Yamane liked the English biplane torpedo @-@ bomber Fairey Swordfish , which led him to name the Swordfish II after the bomber . The conclusion of Spike 's story and his final battle with Vicious were planned by Watanabe well in advance , with each episode featuring them meant to shadow their final confrontation . Some of the staff were unhappy about this approach as a continuation of the series would be difficult . While he considered altering the ending , he eventually settled with his original idea .
Spike 's Japanese voice actor , Kōichi Yamadera , was pleased to have gotten the part , but Unshō Ishizuka , Jet 's voice actor , was surprised that Yamadera was not cast as Jet . Spike and Jet were designed to be opposites , with Spike being thin and wearing smart attire , while Jet was bulky and wore more casual clothing . His English voice actor , Steven Blum , used film noir imagery to get himself in the right frame of mind to voice the character convincingly . Blum had some difficulty portraying the character in scenes where he was showing vulnerability . He called Spike an " example of a character [ he ] didn 't fully appreciate until the series was over " , also adding that he would like to reprise his role as the character if given the chance . Spike 's portrayal was expanded in Cowboy Bebop : The Movie . Specifically , according to Yamadera , the character displayed more of his inner thoughts and showed a gentler side than he did in the series . This was because the team had more time available to express such details . Blum found his performance in the movie one of his most difficult from an emotional standpoint , as there were scenes where Spike was portrayed quite differently from the version he had been playing in the series .
= = Reception = =
Spike 's character has been well received in Japan . He won first place in the Best Male Character category at Animage 's annual Anime Grand Prix awards two consecutive times in 1998 and 1999 . In the August 2001 issue of Newtype , Spike was ranked first on the magazine 's list of " Top 10 Most Popular Male Anime Characters in Japan " . The next year in July 2002 , Spike was again placed at number one on Newtype 's anime list of " Favorite Male Character " . In a Newtype poll from March 2010 , Spike was voted by readers as the eighteenth most popular male anime character from the 1990s . In 2014 , Kōichi Yamadera was voted by fans as the third coolest " old guy " voice actor in a Goo Ranking poll , with his portrayal of Spike cited as one of the contributing factors .
Western critics have also directed significant praise towards Spike . In his review of Cowboy Bebop , Anime News Network 's Mike Crandol praised the character portrayals , especially Spike 's , stating that " Spike 's character in particular runs the gamut from goofy to blasé to teeth @-@ gnashing tough ; he is one of most three @-@ dimensional anime leads in recent memory . " Christi of THEM Anime Review 4 @.@ 0 complimented Spike 's story arc in the series , saying that " the underlying theme of Spike Spiegel and his motivations for what he does is absolutely intriguing . " DVDTalk 's Kyle Mills called Spike the epitome of a good lead protagonist , referring to him as " composed , always cool , and is essentially the ultimate badass " , although his true nature is gradually shown throughout the series . In an article in The Atlantic , writer Alex Suskind was positive about Spike 's portrayal and development , saying that the word " cool " was the most apt way of describing him and referring to him as " a space @-@ age samurai @-@ cum @-@ Marlboro Man " . Richard Eisenbeis of Kotaku , writing a retrospective on the series , praised the relationship between Spike and Faye , especially the way it evolved through the series without overt verbal expressions of affection .
His portrayal in The Movie has also received praise : IGN 's Andy Patrizio said that Spike " opens up his soul a little " during the film , while Chris Beveridge of Mania.com found Spike more likable in the film than in some parts of the series , comparing him to Lupin III and praising the moments where he could be himself and show more of his inner self . Carlos Ross of THEM Anime Review said that Spike 's portrayal was one of the things that worked in the film , and DVD Talk 's Neil Lumbard , alongside general praise of the characters , positively noted the further exploration of his personality . Anime News Network 's Mike Crandol was less enthusiastic , saying that while Spike was the only one who got much attention during the film , some sequences felt like they could work without him .
Blum 's portrayal as Spike has also drawn praise . Isler stated that " Steve Blum launched his career into new heights when he gave the performance of a lifetime in the English dub of the series , giving Spike a sense of smooth , effortless cool that many argue surpassed the original Japanese version . " While praising the whole principal cast of the series as one of the best English dubs , Serdar Yegulalp of About.com highlighted Blum as Spike as the standout performance of the series , stating that " Cynicism never sounded this suave or self @-@ assured " . Blum himself has called Spike a " gigantic benchmark " in his career and life , saying that " Spike changed everything " for him . He stated that his role as Spike opened up new opportunities for voicing characters , including T.O.M. on Toonami and Jamie on Megas XLR .
In 2009 and 2014 , IGN ranked Spike among the best anime characters of all time . In 2009 , Chris Mackenzie ranked Spike as the fourth greatest anime character behind Goku , Astro Boy , and Speed Racer . In 2014 , Ramsey Isler ranked him as second greatest behind Shinji Ikari of Neon Genesis Evangelion . At the 2005 Anime Awards from About.com , Spike was nominated in the category " Best Lead Male Character " , though he lost to Goku . In 2010 , Wired included Spike on its list of the " 6 Genre @-@ Tripping Gunfighters Jonah Hex Must Duel FTW ! " , with writer Scott Thill complimenting his abilities , while also commenting on his presence of heart compared to other equivalent protagonists . In 2013 , Complex ranked Spike the fourth most stylish anime character ever , with writer Jian DeLeon commenting that " The Mars @-@ born bounty hunter knows the benefit of a good uniform " . In 2014 , WatchMojo.com named Spike an honorable mention on its list of the " Top 10 Anime Anti @-@ Heroes " , and also ranked him at number nine on its list of the " Top 10 Anime Heroes " .
|
= No. 1 Squadron RAAF =
No. 1 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) squadron headquartered at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . Controlled by No. 82 Wing , it is equipped with Boeing F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornet multi @-@ role fighters . The squadron was formed under the Australian Flying Corps in 1916 and saw action in the Sinai and Palestine Campaigns during World War I. It flew obsolete Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2s , B.E.12s , Martinsyde G.100s and G.102s , as well as Airco DH.6s , Bristol Scouts and Nieuport 17s , before re @-@ equipping with the R.E.8 in October 1917 and finally the Bristol Fighter in December . Its commanding officer in 1917 – 18 was Major Richard Williams , later known as the " Father of the RAAF " . Disbanded in 1919 , No. 1 Squadron was re @-@ formed on paper as part of the RAAF in 1922 , and re @-@ established as an operational unit three years later .
During World War II , the squadron flew Lockheed Hudson bombers in the Malayan and Dutch East Indies campaigns , suffering severe losses before being reduced to cadre in 1942 . It was re @-@ formed with Bristol Beauforts the following year , and re @-@ equipped with de Havilland Mosquitos in 1945 for further operations in the Dutch East Indies . Reduced to cadre once more after the war ended , No. 1 Squadron was re @-@ established at Amberley in 1948 as an Avro Lincoln heavy bomber unit . From 1950 to 1958 it was based in Singapore , flying missions during the Malayan Emergency , where it bore the brunt of the Commonwealth air campaign against communist guerillas . When it returned to Australia it re @-@ equipped with English Electric Canberra jet bombers . It operated McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4E Phantoms from 1970 to 1973 , as a stop @-@ gap pending delivery of the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber . The F @-@ 111 remained in service for 37 years until replaced by the Super Hornet in 2010 . From September 2014 to March 2015 , a detachment of Super Hornets was deployed to the Middle East as part of Australia 's contribution to the military intervention against ISIL .
= = Role and equipment = =
No. 1 Squadron is located at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , and controlled by No. 82 Wing , which is part of Air Combat Group . Its mission responsibilities include air @-@ to @-@ air and air @-@ to @-@ surface combat . The squadron is nicknamed the " Fighting First " . The blazon of its crest is " the Australian Kookaburra in a diving position superimposed on the cross of Jerusalem " , which symbolises the Victoria Cross @-@ winning action of No. 1 Squadron pilot Frank McNamara in Palestine during World War I. The unit motto is Videmus Agamus ( " We see and we strike " ) .
The squadron operates Boeing F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornet multi @-@ role fighters , the first of which entered service in March 2010 . Nicknamed the " Rhino " , its missions include air superiority , fighter escort , land strike , maritime strike , close air support , and reconnaissance . The Super Hornet is larger than the " classic " McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet operated by the RAAF , carries more ordnance , and has a greater fuel capacity . It is fitted with a 20 mm cannon and can be armed with air @-@ to @-@ air and anti @-@ shipping missiles , as well as a variety of air @-@ to @-@ ground bombs and missiles . Flown by a crew of two , a pilot and an air combat officer ( ACO ) , it is capable of engaging targets in the air and on the surface simultaneously . It can be refuelled in flight by the RAAF 's Airbus KC @-@ 30A Multi Role Tanker Transports . The Super Hornets are serviced at the operating level by No. 1 Squadron technical staff ; heavier maintenance is conducted by Boeing Defence Australia and other contractors .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
No. 1 Squadron was established as a unit of the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) at Point Cook , Victoria , in January 1916 under the command of Lieutenant Colonel E.H. Reynolds . With a complement of 28 officers , 195 airmen , no aircraft and little training , it sailed for Egypt in mid @-@ March 1916 , arriving at Suez a month later . There it came under the control of the 5th Wing of the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) . After training in England and Egypt , the unit was declared operational at its new headquarters in Heliopolis on 12 June , when it took over aircraft belonging to No. 17 Squadron RFC . Its three flights were , however , operating in isolation at different bases in the Sinai Desert , and the squadron did not reunite until December . Flying primitive and poorly armed Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2 two @-@ seat biplanes , its primary roles during this period of the Sinai Campaign were reconnaissance — including aerial photography — and artillery spotting for the British Army . No. 1 Squadron pilots attached to No. 14 Squadron RFC took part in the Battle of Romani in July and August . In September and October , B and C Flights , led by Captains Oswald Watt and Richard Williams respectively , undertook bombing and reconnaissance missions in support of the Australian Light Horse in northern Sinai .
On 12 September 1916 , the British began to refer to No. 1 Squadron as No. 67 ( Australian ) Squadron RFC . This practice continued until January 1918 , when the unit officially became known as No. 1 Squadron AFC . The relationship between airmen and ground crew was less formal than in British units ; squadron members recalled that " The CO is the only one who is ever called ' sir ' " and that officers did not demand " saluting and standing to attention and all that rot " . The unit received the first of several Martinsyde G.100 single @-@ seat fighters to augment the B.E.2s on 16 October ; although considered obsolete , the " Tinsyde " was substantially faster than the B.E.2 , and armed with forward @-@ firing machine guns . Shortly before the squadron took part in a bombing raid against Beersheba on 11 November , Lieutenant Lawrence Wackett managed to fix a machine gun to the top plane of one of the B.E.2s , using a mount he designed himself . Each flight was also assigned a Bristol Scout beginning in December , but it too was obsolete and under @-@ powered , and the squadron ceased operating the type within three months . Other older models issued to the unit included the Airco DH.6 , Martinsyde G.102 and Nieuport 17 . On 17 December , the squadron 's flights were finally brought together at one base , Mustabig .
Early March 1917 saw the heaviest bombing campaign carried out by the squadron to date ; short of its regular 20 @-@ pound ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) ordnance , the pilots improvised by dropping 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) howitzer shells on Turkish forces along the Gaza – Beersheba line . During one such mission on 20 March , Lieutenant Frank McNamara earned the Victoria Cross for landing his Martinsyde in the desert under enemy fire and rescuing a fellow pilot whose B.E.2 had been forced down . On 26 March , No. 1 Squadron took part in the First Battle of Gaza ; it suffered its first combat death the next day , when one of its B.E.2s was attacked by a German Rumpler . The unit participated in the Second Battle of Gaza on 19 April ; like its predecessor , the attack was a failure for the Allies . Williams , later to become known as the " Father of the RAAF " , assumed command of the squadron in May . Two B.E.12s were delivered the same month ; like the Martinsydes , they were armed with a forward @-@ firing machine gun and employed as escorts for the B.E.2s. By June , mechanical issues caused by hot summer weather and the threat from new German Albatros scouts were rendering the B.E.2s largely ineffective , and Williams urgently requested newer models . Modern aircraft were eventually delivered , first the Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 in October , and then the Bristol F.2 Fighter in December . " Now for the first time , " wrote Williams , " after 17 months in the field we had aircraft with which we could deal with our enemy in the air . "
No. 1 Squadron joined the 40th ( Army ) Wing of the RFC 's Palestine Brigade on 5 October 1917 . On 22 and 24 November , the squadron bombed Bireh village during the Battle of Jerusalem . The first of its 29 confirmed aerial victories , over an Albatros , occurred on 3 January 1918 . By month 's end , its complement of aircraft included five B.E.2s , five Martinsydes , two R.E.8s , and nine Bristol Fighters . The squadron supported the Capture of Jericho in February 1918 . It carried out air raids and reconnoitred prior to the First Transjordan attack on Amman in March and prior to the Second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt a month later ; it also flew reconnaissance missions during the advance to and fighting near Es Salt and Jisr ed Damieh . By the end of March , it was equipped with 18 Bristol Fighters , which had replaced all the other types . As well as undertaking offensive operations , the Bristol Fighters served in the photo @-@ reconnaissance role . During the last week of April 1918 , the squadron moved its base forward from Mejdel to a new aerodrome outside Ramleh . Williams relinquished command in June to take over 40th Wing .
Beginning in August 1918 , members of No. 1 Squadron , including one of its aces , Lieutenant Ross Smith , were attached to Colonel T.E. Lawrence 's Arab army to protect it against German bombing . In September , the squadron began operating a Handley Page 0 / 100 , the only Allied heavy bomber in the Middle East and the only twin @-@ engined aircraft flown by the AFC . That month it joined the Bristol Fighters in the final offensive of the Palestinian Campaign , the Battle of Armageddon , inflicting what the Australian official history described as " wholesale destruction " on the Turkish Seventh Army . By October , the Bristol Fighters had moved forward from Ramleh to Haifa and by the middle of the month were required to patrol and reconnoitre an exceptionally wide area of country , sometimes between 500 and 600 miles ( 800 and 970 km ) , flying over Rayak , Homs , Beirut , Tripoli , Hama , Aleppo , Killis and Alexandretta . They bombed the German aerodromes at Rayak , where 32 German machines had been either abandoned or burnt , on 2 October . On 19 October , the first German aircraft was seen in the air since fighting over Deraa in mid @-@ September , just prior to the Battle of Sharon . Smith and another pilot forced a DFW two @-@ seater to land , and destroyed it on the ground by firing a Very light into the aircraft after the German pilot and observer had moved to safety . In the wake of the 31 October armistice with Turkey , the squadron relocated to Ramleh in December , and then in February 1919 to Kantara . There its members were personally farewelled by General Sir Edmund Allenby , who congratulated them for achieving " absolute supremacy of the air ... a factor of paramount importance " to the Allied campaign .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
No. 1 Squadron returned to Australia on 5 March 1919 , and was disbanded . In 1921 , the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) was established as a separate branch of the military , and on 1 January 1922 , the squadron was re @-@ formed on paper . Its planned strength , approved by the Air Board in December 1921 , was three officers and five airmen , operating four Airco DH.9s. Funding problems for the fledgling Air Force resulted in the disbandment on 1 July of No. 1 Squadron and other units established at the same time , their aircraft and personnel instead forming a single squadron of six flights under the control of No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) at Point Cook . No. 1 Squadron was reactivated as an operational unit of the RAAF reserve , known as the Citizen Air Force ( CAF ) , at Point Cook on 1 July 1925 . Its commanding officer was Flight Lieutenant Harry Cobby .
Like No. 3 Squadron , formed the same day at Point Cook but transferred to RAAF Richmond , New South Wales , three weeks later , No. 1 Squadron was a multi @-@ purpose or " composite " unit made up of three flights , each of which had a different role and comprised four aircraft : A Flight operated DH.9s for army cooperation , B Flight operated Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 fighters , and C Flight operated DH.9A bombers . A third of the squadron 's complement of 27 officers and 169 airmen was Permanent Air Force ( PAF ) , and the rest CAF . No. 1 Squadron relocated from Point Cook to nearby RAAF Laverton on 1 January 1928 . The RAAF retired its S.E.5s the same year , and in 1929 took delivery of Westland Wapiti general @-@ purpose aircraft to replace its DH.9s and DH.9As. Through the inter @-@ war years , No. 1 Squadron undertook various tasks including civil aid , flood and bushfire relief , search and rescue , aerial surveys , and air show demonstrations . In October 1930 , a de Havilland DH.60 Moth attached to the unit conducted Australia 's first crop @-@ dusting operation , at the behest of the Victorian Forestry Commission .
RAAF squadrons began adopting specialised roles in the early 1930s , No. 1 Squadron becoming No. 1 Single @-@ Engined Bomber Squadron . By November 1935 it was made up of two flights of newly delivered Hawker Demon fighter @-@ bombers , and one of Wapitis . In December 1935 it was augmented by No. 1 FTS 's Fighter Squadron and its six Bristol Bulldogs , which were redesignated fighter @-@ bombers . Nos. 21 and 22 ( Cadre ) Squadrons were formed on 20 April 1936 at Laverton and Richmond , respectively , absorbing the CAF personnel of Nos. 1 and 3 Squadrons , which became PAF units . The same day , No. 1 Squadron was renamed No. 1 ( Fighter Bomber ) Squadron . This reorganisation temporarily denuded No. 1 Squadron of most of its aircraft , leaving only A Flight , with four Bulldogs and a Wapiti , in operation . The Wapiti was transferred to No. 1 FTS in July , and by the end of the month the squadron 's complement of aircraft stood at four Bulldogs and one Moth .
No. 1 Squadron began receiving new Demons in November 1936 . In January 1937 , it relinquished its Bulldogs to No. 21 Squadron , which was to hold them until they could be transferred to the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ formed No. 2 Squadron . By the end of February , No. 1 Squadron 's strength was 12 Demons and one Moth , 11 officers and 108 airmen . The unit was redesignated No. 1 ( Bomber ) Squadron in August 1937 . Towards the end of the year , it was plagued by several Demon accidents , resulting in a series of inquiries and a review of RAAF procedures in 1938 by Marshal of the RAF Sir Edward Ellington ; the so @-@ called Ellington Report and its criticism of air safety standards led to the removal of Air Vice @-@ Marshal Richard Williams from his position as Chief of the Air Staff , which he had held since the formation of the Air Force . No. 1 Squadron received the RAAF 's first three CAC Wirraways on 10 July 1939 . As the likelihood of war increased , the squadron 's role was altered to incorporate reconnaissance as well as bombing , resulting in the transfer out of all Demons and Wirraways and the transfer in from other units of nine Avro Ansons on 28 – 29 August 1939 ; at the end of the month its personnel comprised nine officers and 122 airmen .
= = = World War II = = =
Following the outbreak of World War II , No. 1 Squadron 's Ansons were tasked with maritime patrol and convoy escort duties . In 1940 , the squadron became the RAAF 's inaugural Lockheed Hudson unit ; it received its first Hudson on 30 March , and by the end of May had transferred out the last of its Ansons and was operating 11 of the new aircraft . Deployed to Malaya to conduct maritime reconnaissance , No. 1 Squadron arrived at Sembawang , Singapore , on 4 July 1940 . It relocated to Kota Bharu , near the Malaya – Thailand border , in August 1941 . Two days before the attack on Malaya , its Hudsons spotted the Japanese invasion fleet but , given uncertainty about the ships ' destination and instructions to avoid offensive operations until attacks were made against friendly territory , Air Chief Marshal Sir Robert Brooke @-@ Popham did not allow the convoy to be bombed . Shortly after midnight , local time , on the night of 7 / 8 December , the Japanese force started landing on the beaches at Kota Bharu , close to the airfield , and from about 02 : 00 , No. 1 Squadron launched a series of assaults on the Japanese forces , becoming the first aircraft to make an attack in the Pacific War . The Hudsons sank a Japanese transport ship , the IJN Awazisan Maru , and damaged two more transports , the Ayatosan Maru and Sakura Maru , for the loss of two Hudsons , an hour before the attack on Pearl Harbor . By the end of the day , Japanese ground forces had advanced to the outskirts of the airfield , forcing the squadron 's remaining airworthy aircraft to be evacuated to Kuantan , and from there back to Singapore .
By Christmas Eve 1941 , No. 1 Squadron had five serviceable aircraft . Together with No. 8 Squadron RAAF , also equipped with Hudsons , it was tasked with maritime patrols to the east of Singapore . On 26 January 1942 , two of the squadron 's Hudsons spotted a Japanese convoy heading for Endau , on the east coast of Malaya . It was decided to attack the convoy with all possible strength , including four Hudsons from No. 1 Squadron and five from No. 8 Squadron , together with obsolete Vickers Vildebeest and Fairey Albacore biplanes of Nos. 36 and 100 Squadrons RAF , and with what little fighter escort could be found . The convoy was strongly defended by Japanese fighters , and although all nine Hudsons returned to Singapore , several were badly shot up . The rest of the strike force did not fare as well ; 11 Vildebeests , two Albacores , two Hudsons ( of No. 62 Squadron RAF ) and three fighters were lost . By the end of the month , No. 1 Squadron had withdrawn to airfield P.2 on Sumatra , along with several other Commonwealth units including No. 8 Squadron . It continued to attack Japanese bases in Malaya and convoys in the Dutch East Indies , relocating to Semplak , Java , in mid @-@ February . At Semplak it took over the Hudsons of No. 8 Squadron and No. 65 Squadron RAF , giving it a strength of 25 aircraft ; at one stage it was to be renumbered as an RAF squadron , but this never occurred . Heavily outnumbered by Japanese air units , which raided Allied bases with impunity , No. 1 Squadron suffered heavy losses and was ordered to withdraw its four remaining Hudsons to Australia on 2 March 1942 , disbanding soon after . Although 120 of the squadron 's personnel were evacuated from Java , 160 men including the commanding officer , Wing Commander Davis , were unable to escape and were taken prisoner by the Japanese ; less than half survived captivity .
No. 1 Squadron was re @-@ formed with Bristol Beauforts on 1 December 1943 at Menangle , New South Wales . By March 1944 it had deployed to Gould , Northern Territory , where it was controlled by No. 79 Wing under North @-@ Western Area Command . Its strength at the beginning of the month was some 350 officers and men , and 19 Beauforts . The squadron commenced reconnaissance operations on 20 March , and undertook its first bombing mission on 4 April against Lautem , East Timor . It attacked other targets in Timor during May , losing two aircraft . Having undertaken 82 sorties in July , the Beauforts concentrated on maritime reconnaissance from August , using air @-@ to @-@ surface radar during operations from Gould and Gove . After re @-@ equipping with Mosquito fighter @-@ bombers at Kingaroy , Queensland , in January 1945 , the squadron deployed to Morotai in May and then Labuan Island in June – July . Now part of No. 86 ( Attack ) Wing , it flew only a few missions before the end of the war , losing one Mosquito . No. 1 Squadron returned to Australia in December 1945 and was disbanded at Narromine , New South Wales , on 7 August 1946 .
= = = Malayan Emergency = = =
No. 1 Squadron was re @-@ formed as a heavy bomber unit on 23 February 1948 , when No. 12 Squadron was re @-@ designated . Operating Avro Lincolns , it was based at RAAF Station Amberley , Queensland , where it formed part of No. 82 ( Bomber ) Wing . The wing 's aircraft were serviced by No. 482 ( Maintenance ) Squadron . From July 1950 to July 1958 — for the first two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years under the auspices of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing — it was based in Singapore , flying missions against communist guerrillas during the Malayan Emergency . Tasked by RAF Air Headquarters Malaya , the Lincolns generally conducted area bombing missions , as well as strikes against pinpoint targets . They operated singly and in formations , sometimes in concert with RAF bombers , and often strafed targets with their machine guns and 20 mm cannon after dropping ordnance . The Lincolns were considered well suited to the campaign , owing to their range and ability to fly at low speeds to search for targets , as well as their firepower and heavy bomb load . Not having to contend with anti @-@ aircraft fire , they flew mainly by day , but No. 1 Squadron also operated by night , the only Commonwealth unit to do so .
The squadron carried out its own day @-@ to @-@ day maintenance in Malaya ; the Lincolns were rotated back to Australia for major work . Its original complement of six aircraft was increased to eight after the British Air Ministry requested in February 1951 that Australia augment its bomber force to partly offset the imminent withdrawal of the RAF 's Lincolns to Bomber Command in Europe . The squadron was awarded the Gloucester Cup for proficiency in 1950 – 51 and 1954 – 55 . It suffered no casualties during the campaign but two of its aircraft were written off : one that overshot the landing strip at Tengah in November 1951 , and another that crashed into the sea off Johore after striking trees on takeoff in January 1957 .
Although the original purpose of the bombing campaign in Malaya was to kill as many insurgents as possible , the impracticality of achieving this in operations over dense jungle resulted in a shift towards harassing and demoralising the communists , driving them out of their bases and into areas held by Commonwealth ground troops . Operation Kingly Pile , which involved two sorties by No. 1 Squadron and one by English Electric Canberra jet bombers of No. 12 Squadron RAF on 21 February 1956 , was considered the most successful of the more than 4 @,@ 000 missions conducted by the Lincolns , killing at least 14 communist troops . By the time it was withdrawn to Australia in July 1958 , the squadron had dropped over 14 @,@ 000 tonnes of bombs — 85 per cent of the total delivered by Commonwealth forces during the Emergency . Its service was recognised with the presentation of a Squadron Standard by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Far East Air Force , Air Marshal The Earl of Brandon . Until 2014 , the Malayan Emergency had marked the last occasion that the unit took part in combat operations .
= = = Jet era = = =
No. 1 Squadron re @-@ equipped with Canberra Mk.20s after returning to Australia . The RAAF 's first jet bomber , the Canberra was subsonic but had long range and was highly manoeuvrable . It had been procured partly for its capacity to deliver nuclear weapons , an ordnance option the government seriously contemplated but never acquired . Initially the Canberra 's envisaged mission profile was medium @-@ to @-@ high @-@ altitude area bombing but its primitive bombsight and light load made this a dubious proposition , and by mid @-@ 1961 crews were training in low @-@ level army cooperation tactics . No. 1 Squadron was awarded successive Gloucester Cups for its proficiency in 1959 – 60 and 1960 – 61 . As of January 1962 , its strength was eight aircraft and 53 personnel , including 18 officers . The unit effectively ceased operations in 1968 , to begin converting to the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C supersonic bomber , which was expected to enter service soon afterwards . Already controversial owing to its escalating cost , the F @-@ 111 program was heavily delayed by airworthiness concerns related to its swing @-@ wing technology . In September 1970 , as an interim measure while awaiting delivery of the F @-@ 111 , No. 1 Squadron relinquished its Canberras for leased McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4E Phantoms , which it operated until June 1973 . Although the Phantom had a multi @-@ role capability , the RAAF employed it as a strike aircraft to maintain compatibility with the proposed F @-@ 111 mission profile . One of No. 1 Squadron 's Phantoms was lost with its crew of two in June 1971 , the only fatalities and hull loss of the 24 aircraft leased to the RAAF . Though not as sophisticated an aircraft as the F @-@ 111 , the Phantom was a significant advance over the Canberra , and well regarded by its Australian crews .
No. 82 Wing accepted its first F @-@ 111Cs in June 1973 . The Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal Charles Read , ordered that the new aircraft be flown with great caution initially , well within operational limits , to minimise the possibility of further damage to its reputation through early attrition . No. 1 Squadron was assigned 12 of the initial 24 aircraft delivered . It was No. 82 Wing 's lead strike force , while No. 6 Squadron was primarily tasked with crew conversion training . The wing employed a centralised servicing regime , whereby all aircraft and maintenance personnel were held by No. 482 Squadron , which released the F @-@ 111s in line with Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons ' joint flying program . In February 1981 , responsibility for operating @-@ level servicing of the F @-@ 111s was transferred to the flying squadrons , which for the first time took direct control of their F @-@ 111s . No. 482 Squadron continued to provide intermediate @-@ level servicing , while major upgrades and complex maintenance were carried out by No. 3 Aircraft Depot . These two organisations merged in 1992 to form No. 501 Wing , which handed over heavy maintenance of the F @-@ 111 to Boeing Australia in 2001 . Between 1977 and 1993 , the RAAF lost seven F @-@ 111Cs in crashes . Three of the accidents involved aircraft flown by No. 1 Squadron : in August 1979 , January 1986 and September 1993 , the last two killing both crew members . In July 1996 , No. 1 Squadron took responsibility for aerial reconnaissance using specially modified RF @-@ 111Cs previously operated by No. 6 Squadron . This gave No. 1 Squadron five mission types : land strike , maritime strike , close air support , long @-@ range air defence , and reconnaissance . In May 1999 the unit was again awarded the Gloucester Cup for proficiency .
Along with its revolutionary variable @-@ sweep wings , the F @-@ 111 was equipped with terrain @-@ following radar and an escape module that allowed the entire cockpit to be jettisoned in an emergency , instead of individual ejection seats . Its top speed was Mach 2 @.@ 5 and its combat radius gave it the capability of reaching targets in Indonesia from bases in northern Australia . Upon delivery in 1973 it was fitted with analogue avionics and could only drop unguided ( " dumb " ) bombs . In its 37 years of service with the RAAF the type went through several upgrades , including the Pave Tack infra @-@ red and laser @-@ guided precision weapons targeting system , Harpoon anti @-@ shipping missiles , and advanced digital avionics . Alan Stephens , in the official history of the post @-@ war Air Force , described the F @-@ 111 as " the region 's pre @-@ eminent strike aircraft " and the RAAF 's most important acquisition . The closest they came to being used in anger , however , was during Australian @-@ led INTERFET operations in East Timor commencing in September 1999 . Both F @-@ 111 squadrons were deployed to RAAF Base Tindal , Northern Territory , to support the international forces in case of action by the Indonesian military , and remained there until December ; six of No. 1 Squadron 's aircraft and approximately 100 personnel were involved . From 20 September , when INTERFET forces began to arrive in East Timor , the F @-@ 111s were maintained at a high level of readiness to conduct reconnaissance flights or air strikes if the situation deteriorated . As it happened , INTERFET did not encounter significant resistance , and F @-@ 111 operations were limited to reconnaissance by RF @-@ 111Cs from 5 November through 9 December .
In 2007 , the Australian government decided to retire the F @-@ 111s by 2010 , and acquire 24 Boeing F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets as an interim replacement , pending the arrival of the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning then being developed . The F @-@ 111 fleet was considered to be at risk due to fatigue , and too expensive to operate as each aircraft required 180 hours of maintenance for every hour of flying time . No. 1 Squadron ceased operating the F @-@ 111 in January 2009 , in preparation for converting to the Super Hornet . Former F @-@ 111 aircrew , familiar with side @-@ by @-@ side seating and a different performance envelope , found conversion more challenging than pilots experienced in the RAAF 's McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet fighters , which shared many characteristics with the newer model . No. 1 Squadron re @-@ equipped between 26 March 2010 and 21 October 2011 , making it the first Australian unit , and the first squadron outside the United States , to fly the Super Hornet . It became operational with its new aircraft on 8 December 2011 . The multi @-@ role Super Hornet allowed No. 1 Squadron to augment its previous offensive strike role with an air @-@ to @-@ air combat function . The RAAF attained full operational capability with the Super Hornet in December 2012 .
On 14 September 2014 , the Federal government committed to deploying up to eight Super Hornets of No. 1 Squadron to Al Minhad Air Base in the United Arab Emirates , as part of the Australian Air Task Group joining the coalition against Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ) forces in Iraq . Aircraft from the squadron conducted their first mission over Iraq on 5 October , and their first strike four days later . According to the Department of Defence , as of 20 December 2014 the Super Hornets had flown over 180 sorties , dropped 113 weapons , and destroyed 36 ISIL targets , damaging another six . In March 2015 , having flown almost 3 @,@ 000 hours in over 400 missions , the detachment was replaced by six F / A @-@ 18As from No. 75 Squadron .
= = Future = =
In May 2013 , the Federal government announced plans to purchase 12 Boeing EA @-@ 18G Growlers to supplement the Super Hornet fleet . No. 6 Squadron is expected to begin taking delivery of the Growlers in 2017 , at which point its Super Hornets will be transferred to No. 1 Squadron . In April 2014 , the government announced the purchase of 58 F @-@ 35s in addition to 14 already ordered , for the express purpose of replacing the 71 " classic " Hornets of Nos. 3 , 75 and 77 Squadrons and No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit . A government decision on whether to purchase a further 28 F @-@ 35s , to be based at Amberley , will depend on how long the Super Hornets are to be retained . According to Australian Aviation , continuing delays to the F @-@ 35 program have increased the likelihood that the Super Hornets of Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons will , rather than being disposed of early as originally planned , continue to be operated by the RAAF for their full service life of over 20 years .
= = Aircraft operated = =
|
= Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics =
The 2012 Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , was a wheelchair basketball team that played in the 2012 Summer Paralympics . The team of twelve included nine Paralympic veterans with fifteen Paralympic Games between them : Bridie Kean , Amanda Carter , Sarah Stewart , Tina McKenzie , Kylie Gauci , Katie Hill , Cobi Crispin , Clare Nott and Shelley Chaplin . There were three newcomers playing in their first Paralympics : Amber Merritt , Sarah Vinci and Leanne Del Toso . The Gliders had won silver at the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney and the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens , but had never won gold .
The first stage of the Paralympic competition was the group stage , a round robin tournament . The Gliders faced a formidable task just to make the finals , as their pool included Brazil , Great Britain , Canada and the Netherlands , the last two of which had recently beaten them . After a narrow victory over Brazil and an easier one against Great Britain , the Gliders were again defeated by Canada , but they won their final match against the Netherlands to finish at the top of their pool . The Gliders went on to win in the quarterfinal against Mexico and the semifinal against the United States , but lost to Germany in the final , winning silver .
= = Background = =
Prior to 2012 , the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , had won silver in the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney and the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens , and bronze at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , but had never won gold . The official announcement of the membership of the Paralympic team was made on 5 July 2012 . The team of twelve included nine veterans with 15 Paralympic Games between them : Bridie Kean , Amanda Carter , Sarah Stewart , Tina McKenzie , Kylie Gauci , Katie Hill , Cobi Crispin , Clare Nott and Shelley Chaplin . Amber Merritt , Sarah Vinci and Leanne Del Toso were newcomers competing at their first Paralympics . Kean was selected as captain .
The oldest team member was Amanda Carter , aged 48 , who was coming back for a fourth Paralympic games having competed in the 1992 Summer Paralympics in Barcelona , the 1996 Summer Paralympics in Atlanta and the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney , at which she had been sidelined by a crippling elbow injury . She returned to the Gliders ' lineup in 2009 . The youngest , who had not even been born when Carter had played in Barcelona , was her 19 @-@ year @-@ old teammate Amber Merritt . British @-@ born Merritt was originally a swimmer , but had been recruited into basketball by the Paralympic Hall of Fame coach Frank Ponta . Merritt had averaged 20 points and 8 @.@ 4 rebounds per game in the Gliders World Challenge series against Japan , Germany and China in Sydney in July 2012 , including a game against Germany in which she scored 21 points and eight rebounds . Another young player from whom much was hoped was Cobi Crispin , whose performances in the Paralympic World Cup in Manchester and the Gliders World Challenge led to her being named Australian Women ’ s Wheelchair Basketball International Player of the Year .
Source : Basketball Australia ; International Games as at 29 August 2012 from Official Results Book , p . 4152 .
= = Group stage = =
The first part of the competition was the group stage . The Gliders ' pool included Brazil , Great Britain , Canada and the Netherlands . Canada had beaten them in the bronze medal game at the 2010 Wheelchair Basketball World Championship in Birmingham in July 2010 , and the Netherlands had also beaten them recently . Australian Gliders head coach , John Triscari admitted that Canada would be hard to beat . He added :
We ’ ve worked really hard to improve the team ’ s shooting percentage , we ’ ve had strength and conditioning coaches working with the girls to up their fitness and we ’ ve increased the volume of shooting during training . Hopefully all the hard work the girls are putting in now , will pay off in London .
Qualified for quarterfinals
Eliminated
Key : Pld |
= played , W =
won , L |
= lost , PF =
points for , PA |
= points against , PD =
points difference , Pts = competition points
= = = Brazil = = =
Key : Pts |
= points , Rebs =
rebounds , Asts = assists
The Gliders ' first game was on 30 August in front of a crowd of 3 @,@ 288 at the Basketball Arena in Olympic Park in Stratford , London , also known as " the Marshmallow " . The Gliders had not played Brazil in four years , and what little they knew about them came from watching video tapes .
The scores were tied fifteen times , and at no point were the Australians more than five points in front . With six minutes to go in the final quarter , the Gliders were up by only two points , with the score 45 – 43 . Crispin was sent to the free throw line where she extended her team 's lead to 47 – 43 . A technical foul saw her straight back to the free throw line to make it 48 – 43 , the Glider 's biggest lead of the game . Brazil then struck back , scoring five unanswered points to tie the score again at 48 – 48 , but Merritt scored one from the paint to put the Gliders back in front . She followed by taking a defensive rebound and then another shot to make it 52 – 48 . Brazil scored once more , but time ran out , and the Gliders won , 52 – 50 . Leading scorers for the Gliders were Crispin with 18 points and Merritt with 16 .
Triscari said that they could have played better . " The chemistry in our team " , he said , " is fantastic . It 's good to get a win under your belt and then we 'll take it from there . But we didn 't play to our maximum today I don 't think . We made some mistakes passing the ball , turning the ball over so we 've got some improvement to do . We can work on a few things . "
= = = Great Britain = = =
The Gliders ' next match was against Great Britain , and was held at the North Greenwich Arena , which could accommodate a larger crowd than the Marshmallow . A crowd of 5 @,@ 331 saw a low @-@ scoring affair . The Gliders concentrated on defence , and led by only 11 – 5 at quarter time . By half time , they had extended their lead to 25 – 11 . The third quarter went badly for Team Great Britain , which only scored three more points to Australia 's 14 , making the score 39 – 14 at three @-@ quarter time . The final quarter was Great Britain 's best , but the score was still 51 – 24 . Merritt and Crispin were again the Gliders ' top scorers , with 10 and 8 points respectively , but they shared the ball around , and every Glider except McKenzie scored at least two points . The British coach was scathing about his team 's performance . " They know that 's not the way we play " , he said , " and I 'm disappointed for the crowd and them because they are tons better than that . It was an absolutely disgraceful effort out there . It really was bad . "
= = = Canada = = =
The Gliders returned to the Marshmallow the next day for a match against Canada , another team considered a strong chance for a medal , in front of a capacity crowd of 7 @,@ 200 . The Gliders squandered early opportunities , and Canada won the first quarter 20 – 12 . Strong defensive play by Nott and Gauci helped the Gliders reverse this in the second , and left Canada with only a one @-@ point 33 – 32 lead at half time . The second half saw Canada slowly increase their lead , keeping tied with Australia 4 – 4 in the first half of third , 6 – 4 in the last half of the third 6 – 4 in the first half of the fourth , and 8 – 6 in the last half of the fourth . Australia 's top players were Crispin , who had 13 points and 15 rebounds ; Merritt , who earned 16 points ; and Chaplin , with eight points , five rebounds and seven assists . The loss raised the prospect that Australia might not make the finals at all , but Crispin remained confident that they could .
Triscari identified the Gliders ' poor shooting as their critical problem . " That was a really tough game , " he said , " and full credit to Canada , but we can 't beat top teams in the world when we only shoot at 34 % , that was the key statistic . " Merritt , in her British accent , said that she had " the utmost respect for Canada . They 're a great team , but we 'll refocus on the game tomorrow and go out and play like we know we can , the Australian way . "
= = = Netherlands = = =
The loss to Canada meant that the Gliders needed a win against the Netherlands , considered one of the competition 's best teams , and one which had beaten Canada . Crispin told the media that " We will go out like we have in every other game and stick to our game plan and hopefully we 'll come out on top " .
The Netherlands scored first , but Kean soon equalised , assisted by Stewart . The Dutch team responded , but Gauci took two points with a fast break , and then assisted Crispin in putting Australia in the lead , one which the Gliders would not relinquish . Stewart made the next two scores , from outside the paint , and assisted Crispin to bring the score to 6 – 16 . The Dutch team fought back , but there was a six @-@ point 12 – 18 deficit at quarter time . The Australian defence shut down their opportunities in the second quarter , and the score was 20 – 30 in Australia 's favour at half time , and 29 – 40 by the end of the third quarter . The Dutch team redoubled their efforts in the final quarter , and won the quarter 20 – 18 , but the Gliders won the game , 39 – 58 .
Once again Merritt led Australia 's scoring , with 19 points , with a considerably improved accuracy of 9 shots from 14 attempts , while Crispin had ten points and seven rebounds . The rest of the team performed equally well . Stewart scored six points and five rebounds . Chaplin 's reputation as a play maker was burnished with four rebounds and seven assists . Gauci had eight points and six assists . Nott had played all 40 minutes of the game against Canada the night before , then over 32 minutes in this game , and was particularly active in the final quarter . Triscari praised both the Gliders and their opponents :
We wanted to get on top early and have them chasing us , so , in that respect , I suppose it did . We focused on stopping a lot of their big players , particularly Beijer [ Mariska Beijer ] , from getting into the keyway , and the girls did a sensational job . Gert [ Gertjan van der Linden ] is very hard to coach against because he throws a lot of stuff at you . Tonight , he was the one having to make the changes . Another day , it will probably be me .
= = Finals = =
= = = Quarterfinal – Mexico = = =
The loss to Canada meant that the Gliders had won three out of four games , the same number as Canada and the Netherlands , but they were placed ahead of the Netherlands based on defeating them . Canada failed to defeat Great Britain by a sufficient margin , and therefore finished third . As a result , the Gliders topped their pool , and received a quarterfinal berth against Mexico , which had managed to qualify despite only winning one game . Triscari was confident , but was not taking the match lightly . He warned the media :
No game 's easy , you know . We finished on top , so the crossover with the other side is in our favour . But they are by no means easy . We only beat Brazil by two points and Brazil only beat Mexico by two in the PanAm ( Parapan championships ) play @-@ offs for third and fourth , so it 's going to be tough . "
The Gliders planned to dominate Mexico early , playing as aggressively against them as they had played against the Netherlands . Stewart took the tap , and lost . Australia 's first shots at goal were taken by Kean from the free throw line , but she missed both . Mexico 's Lucia Vazquez Delgadillo then opened the scoring to give Mexico a two @-@ point lead , which turned out to be their biggest of the game . Gauci then put points on the scoreboard for the Gliders . Mexico turned the ball over , and Crispin got her first from the paint , assisted by Gauci , which was repeated on the next play , with Stewart providing the assist this time . Mexico scored , but the Gliders responded with another shot from Crispin . On the next play , Gauci stole the ball and charged down the court , but failed to make the shot . Nott then took a defensive rebound , leading to Crispin scoring again . She was also fouled , but missed the resulting free throw . Shortly thereafter , Stewart drew another foul , and made both shots to bring the score to 14 – 4 .
The Gliders put Mexico under intense defensive pressure . Mexico had six team turnovers to the Gliders ' one , and wound up with 19 turnovers in total to Australia 's 6 . Australia scored 18 points from turnovers , compared to 6 for Mexico . Gauci , a two @-@ point player , took a three @-@ pointer to take the score to 17 – 8 . Mexico was unable to recover from Australia 's high scoring from Merritt , who ultimately scored 14 points with 70 per cent shooting , and Crispin , who scored twelve points with 67 per cent shooting . The two teams went into the quarter time break with the score 21 points to 10 . Mexico fell further behind in the second quarter . Amanda Carter immediately stole the ball from Mexico , which let Merritt score two points . A few minutes later , Carter , assisted by Chaplin , scored a basket from the paint , and was fouled in the process . A successful free throw made the score 36 – 16 . Another steal by Merritt led to a runaway break , bringing her contribution to ten points , and the score to 38 – 16 . At the half @-@ time break , the score was 44 – 20 .
In the third quarter , a team turnover and a series of missed shots by Hill , Kean and Crispin , allowed Mexico to outscore Australia by one point , leaving the score at 50 – 27 at the end of the quarter . The final quarter saw Australia 's Del Toso miss a shot at one end , and Mexico 's Floralia Estrada Bernal miss one at the other . Stewart also missed , before a Mexican turnover led to the first score of the quarter , by Stewart . Mexico 's Rocio Torres Lopez scored in response . Another shot by Stewart missed , but Carter took an offensive rebound , and scored . Turnovers by Kean and Del Toso allowed Mexico put four points on the board , but successive fouls sent Kean to the free throw line to score three points in response .
Merritt brought the score to 59 – 35 with her seventh scoring shot . As the game drew to a close , there were several missed shots by Sarah Vinci and Hill , but Mexico was unable to capitalise on the opportunities , continuing to miss shots and turn over the ball . With nineteen seconds of play remaining , Hill took a two @-@ point shot from inside the paint ; attracting a foul , she scored another point from a free throw . Although Mexico 's Wendy Garcia Amador scored the last two points of the game , her team lost to Australia 62 – 37 .
= = = Semifinal – United States = = =
In the semifinal , the Gliders had to beat the reigning champions , Team USA , in front of a small crowd of 4 @,@ 428 at the North Greenwich Arena . Stewart took the tap , and lost . Team USA had first possession and earned the first points of the game , but Gauci responded quickly . Then Team USA turned the ball over , but Nott lost it . Chaplin stole it back , but Kylie Gauci put the ball out of bounds . Nott stole it back again , but Gauci turned it over again . Team USA took a shot at the basket inside the paint , and missed , but took a rebound and scored . A Team USA free throw extended their lead to 2 – 6 . Thereafter both teams ' shooting was poor , and the score was only 10 – 12 at quarter time .
The second quarter started with Merritt scoring twice to give Australia the lead 14 – 12 . Team USA turned the ball over the Gliders several times , but they were unable to capitalise on their strong defence , leaving the score tied at 26 – 26 at half time . In the third quarter , an early goal by Gauci from outside the paint gave the Gliders the lead . A series of steals gave the Gliders additional shots , most of which they missed , but Team USA gave over a series of turnovers , and their shooting was worse than their rivals , resulting in a 10 – 0 run by the Gliders . Team USA were unable to score at all until the last minute of the quarter . A hurried goal with seconds to go by Hill saw the Gliders leading 38 – 28 . Team USA would ultimately post 28 turnovers to Australia 's 17 , and the Gliders would score 12 points from turnovers to Team USA 's three .
In the fourth quarter , the Australian defence remained strong , but their shooting did not improve . For the entire game , Crispin made only 3 out of 10 attempts , and Merritt just 4 out of 16 . Nott , who played the entire game , ended up being the team 's most accurate player , with four out of five attempts . Meanwhile , Team USA fought back to 40 – 39 . Three timeouts were taken in the last minute . Merritt was fouled twice , which sent her to the free throw line , but she missed both shots . The game went down to the last second , with Team USA 's Rose Hollermann missing one from inside the paint just before the shot clock ran out .
= = = Gold medal match – Germany = = =
The Gliders had to defeat Germany in front of a capacity crowd of 12 @,@ 985 at the North Greenwich Arena to win the gold medal . Australia had narrowly defeated the German team 48 – 46 in the Gliders World Challenge in Sydney a few months earlier , and at that point had beaten them three of the previous four times they had played .
Once again , Stewart took the tap , and lost . A defensive rebound by Kean after Germany missed two free throw shots resulted in the Gliders scoring first , with Gauci assisting Crispin . The Gliders played Germany like they had played against and defeated the United States , with a strong defence against a normally high @-@ scoring team . At first , they were successful ; with three minutes to go in the quarter , despite several missed shots , Australia was ahead 10 – 4 . In the last minutes , Germany scored ten points that gave them a 10 – 14 lead at quarter time .
In the second quarter , Germany extended their lead to ten points , but Kean scored a point from a free throw , and then , with seconds left on the clock , stole the ball , enabling Crispin to score , so the Gliders were only seven points behind at half time . The Gliders won the third quarter in previous games in London , which happened again against Germany , but only by 9 – 8 . The Gliders had six points to make up , with strong defences from both teams . Gauci scored the most in this game , scoring 15 points , including a three @-@ pointer , with five assists and four rebounds . In the end , the Gliders lost by fourteen points , 44 – 58 .
Triscari felt that the Gliders did not put enough pressure on the Germans , and that their shooting was not accurate enough . In Australia , Basketball Australia CEO Kristina Keneally praised the Gliders ' efforts . " The Gliders have been nothing short of brilliant at the Paralympic Games , " she said , " and this Silver Medal is just reward for their outstanding performance . This is the Gliders ' fourth consecutive Paralympic Medal – a remarkable achievement . All of the players , coaches and support staff have done a fantastic job and we can ’ t wait to greet them on their return home . " In 2013 , Keneally announced a four @-@ year development program for the Gliders that included the appointment of a full @-@ time head coach for the first time , based at the National Wheelchair Centre of Excellence at the New South Wales Institute of Sport in Homebush , New South Wales . In May 2013 , Tom Kyle was appointed the Gliders ' new head coach .
" We have had the opportunity to play Germany a fair bit in our preparation so our game plan was to have strong defensive pressure and take it from there " , Kean told the media . " It started off really good for us , unfortunately they just got a couple more runs than us and that 's the way it goes sometimes . They played a great game . We stuck together 12 deep from the second the buzzer started , to that end buzzer and no one gave up . I think that we can hold our heads high because of that . I guess the plan is , next four years , Rio we go one more . "
It was not to be . The Gliders did not qualify for the 2016 Summer Paralympics after finishing second to China at the 2015 Asia Oceania Qualifying Tournament .
|
= 1892 Alabama Cadets football team =
The 1892 Alabama Cadets football team represented the University of Alabama in the 1892 college football season . The team was led by their head coach E. B. Beaumont and played their home games at Lakeview Park in Birmingham , Alabama . In what was the inaugural season of Alabama football , the team finished with a record of two wins and two losses ( 2 – 2 ) .
William Little of Livingston , Alabama is credited with being responsible for the introduction of football at the university . After playing the game in 1891 while in attendance at a northern prep school , Little returned to Alabama where he helped establish the first team at the university for the 1892 season . The first game in Alabama football history was played on November 11 , 1892 , against Birmingham High School and was won by the Cadets 56 – 0 . They then split a pair of games with the Birmingham Athletic Club , and closed out the season with a 32 – 22 loss in the first Iron Bowl against Auburn on February 22 , 1893 . After the season , Beaumont was fired as head coach and replaced by Eli Abbott for the 1893 season .
= = Background = =
The first college football game was played on November 6 , 1869 , between Rutgers and the College of New Jersey . Although the sport continued to grow , it was not introduced for another 23 years at Alabama . The man credited with the introduction of football at Alabama was William G. Little of Livingston . Little attended the Phillips Exeter Academy in New Hampshire for the 1891 – 92 school year . It was there that he first played and became an advocate for football . Originally he intended to attend Yale University . However , after his brother died , Little returned to Livingston in 1892 and enrolled at Alabama . He proposed the university field a football team , which was introduced for the 1892 season . Alabama selected Little as the first team captain for the inaugural 1892 season . The team was called the " Cadets , " as the current " Crimson Tide " moniker was not used until 1907 .
= = Schedule = =
Source : Rolltide.com : 1892 Alabama football schedule
= = Game notes = =
= = = Birmingham High School = = =
In what was the first ever game played by the University of Alabama , a team of Birmingham @-@ area high school players lost to the Cadets 56 – 0 at Birmingham 's Lakeview Park . Played on November 11 , the game served as a practice game for Alabama 's contest against the Birmingham Athletic Club scheduled for the next day . Although details of the second half are unavailable , touchdowns in the first half were scored by David Grayson , G. H. Kyser , Dan Smith ( twice ) , William Little and T. S. Frazer . The play utilized most throughout the game was a rushing formation developed by Harvard earlier in the season called the flying wedge .
= = = Birmingham Athletic Club ( November ) = = =
A day after their victory over Birmingham High School , Alabama suffered their first all @-@ time loss against the Birmingham Athletic Club ( B.A.C. ) 5 – 4 . In a game noted for numerous fumbles by both squads , Alabama scored first and took a 4 – 0 lead on a William G. Little touchdown run late in the first half . However , the B.A.C. won the game 5 – 4 late in the second half when J. P. Ross successfully kicked a 63 @-@ yard field goal on a drop kick . Alabama would not lose another game by a single point until their 1947 game against Tulane .
= = = Birmingham Athletic Club ( December ) = = =
A month after their loss to the B.A.C. , Alabama returned to Lakeview Park and defeated the Athletics 14 – 0 . David Grayson scored first on a 65 @-@ yard touchdown run to give Alabama a 4 – 0 lead after a missed extra point . In the second half , both Robert Cope and Eli Abbott scored touchdowns and one G. H. Kyser extra point gave Alabama the 14 – 0 victory .
= = = Auburn = = =
Before 5 @,@ 000 fans at Birmingham 's Lakeview Park , Alabama lost to the Agricultural & Mechanical College of Alabama ( now known as Auburn University ) 32 – 22 in the first of what was subsequently dubbed the Iron Bowl . Auburn scored first on a 20 @-@ yard Rufus Dorsey touchdown run and again on a one @-@ yard Dorsey run and took an 8 – 0 lead early in the first half . Frank Savage then scored Alabama 's first touchdown on a 10 @-@ yard run and William B. Bankhead converted a successful extra point to cut the Auburn lead to 8 – 6 . After Auburn scored a third touchdown to go up 14 – 6 , Alabama responded with a 20 @-@ yard Dan Smith touchdown run and G. H. Kyser extra point to make the halftime score 14 – 12 in favor of Auburn .
In the second half , Auburn scored first again when Dorsey recovered an Alabama fumble and returned it 65 @-@ yards for a touchdown . After a successful extra point the blue and orange extended their lead to 20 – 12 . Alabama responded on their following possession with a 30 @-@ yard William Little touchdown run and Kyser extra point to cut the lead to 20 – 18 . Thomas Daniels then scored Auburn 's final two touchdowns on runs of one and 25 yards and also converted both extra points to give them a 32 – 18 lead . Smith scored the final points of the game late in the second half for Alabama on a short run that made the final score 32 – 22 .
= = Players = =
The following players were members of the 1892 football team according to the roster published in the 1893 edition of The Corolla , the University of Alabama yearbook .
= = After the season = =
Although they finished with a .500 record , after the completion of the season , E. B. Beaumont was fired as Alabama 's head coach . The 1894 edition of the university yearbook The Corolla stated of the Beaumont firing :
" We were unfortunate in securing a coach . After keeping him for a short time , we found that his knowledge of the game was very limited . We , therefore , ' got rid of ' him . "
After Beaumont 's departure , William G. Little continued the training of the team until Abbott was selected to serve as head coach for the 1893 season . Other notable players from the first Alabama team included William B. Bankhead who served as the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives from 1936 to 1940 and Bibb Graves who served as the 38th Governor of Alabama from 1927 to 1931 and again from 1935 to 1939 .
|
= Dungeons & Dragons =
Dungeons & Dragons ( abbreviated as D & D or DnD ) is a fantasy tabletop role @-@ playing game ( RPG ) originally designed by Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson , and first published in 1974 by Tactical Studies Rules , Inc . ( TSR ) . The game has been published by Wizards of the Coast ( now a subsidiary of Hasbro ) since 1997 . It was derived from miniature wargames with a variation of the Chainmail game serving as the initial rule system . D & D 's publication is commonly recognized as the beginning of modern role @-@ playing games and the role @-@ playing game industry .
D & D departs from traditional wargaming and assigns each player a specific character to play instead of a military formation . These characters embark upon imaginary adventures within a fantasy setting . A Dungeon Master serves as the game 's referee and storyteller , while maintaining the setting in which the adventures occur and playing the role of the inhabitants . The characters form a party that interacts with the setting 's inhabitants ( and each other ) . Together they solve dilemmas , engage in battles and gather treasure and knowledge . In the process the characters earn experience points to become increasingly powerful over a series of sessions .
The early success of Dungeons & Dragons led to a proliferation of similar game systems . Despite this competition , D & D remains the market leader in the role @-@ playing game industry . In 1977 , the game was split into two branches : the relatively rules @-@ light game system of Dungeons & Dragons and the more structured , rules @-@ heavy game system of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( abbreviated as AD & D or ADnD ) . AD & D 2nd Edition was published in 1989 . In 2000 , the original line of the game was discontinued and the AD & D version was renamed Dungeons & Dragons with the release of its 3rd edition with a new system . These rules formed the basis of the d20 System which is available under the Open Game License ( OGL ) for use by other publishers . Dungeons & Dragons version 3 @.@ 5 was released in June 2003 , with a ( non @-@ OGL ) 4th edition in June 2008 . A 5th edition was released during the second half of 2014 .
As of 2004 , Dungeons & Dragons remained the best @-@ known and best @-@ selling role @-@ playing game , with an estimated 20 million people having played the game and more than US $ 1 billion in book and equipment sales . The game has been supplemented by many pre @-@ made adventures as well as commercial campaign settings suitable for use by regular gaming groups . Dungeons & Dragons is known beyond the game for other D & D @-@ branded products , references in popular culture and some of the controversies that have surrounded it , particularly a moral panic in the 1980s falsely linking it to Satanism and suicide . The game has won multiple awards and has been translated into many languages beyond the original English .
= = Play overview = =
Dungeons & Dragons is a structured yet open @-@ ended role @-@ playing game . It is normally played indoors with the participants seated around a tabletop . Typically , each player controls only a single character , which represents an individual in a fictional setting . When working together as a group , these player characters ( PCs ) are often described as a " party " of adventurers , with each member often having their own area of specialty which contributes to the success of the whole . During the course of play , each player directs the actions of their character and their interactions with other characters in the game . This activity is performed through the verbal impersonation of the characters by the players , while employing a variety of social and other useful cognitive skills , such as logic , basic mathematics and imagination . A game often continues over a series of meetings to complete a single adventure , and longer into a series of related gaming adventures , called a " campaign " .
The results of the party 's choices and the overall storyline for the game are determined by the Dungeon Master ( DM ) according to the rules of the game and the DM 's interpretation of those rules . The DM selects and describes the various non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) that the party encounters , the settings in which these interactions occur , and the outcomes of those encounters based on the players ' choices and actions . Encounters often take the form of battles with " monsters " – a generic term used in D & D to describe potentially hostile beings such as animals , aberrant beings , or mythical creatures . The game 's extensive rules – which cover diverse subjects such as social interactions , magic use , combat , and the effect of the environment on PCs – help the DM to make these decisions . The DM may choose to deviate from the published rules or make up new ones if they feel it is necessary .
The most recent versions of the game 's rules are detailed in three core rulebooks : The Player 's Handbook , the Dungeon Master 's Guide and the Monster Manual .
The only items required to play the game are the rulebooks , a character sheet for each player , and a number of polyhedral dice . Many players also use miniature figures on a grid map as a visual aid , particularly during combat . Some editions of the game presume such usage . Many optional accessories are available to enhance the game , such as expansion rulebooks , pre @-@ designed adventures and various campaign settings .
= = = Game mechanics = = =
Before the game begins , each player creates their player character and records the details ( described below ) on a character sheet . First , a player determines their character 's ability scores , which consist of Strength , Constitution , Dexterity , Intelligence , Wisdom , and Charisma . Each edition of the game has offered differing methods of determining these statistics . The player then chooses a race ( species ) such as human or elf , a character class ( occupation ) such as fighter or wizard , an alignment ( a moral and ethical outlook ) , and other features to round out the character 's abilities and backstory , which have varied in nature through differing editions .
During the game , players describe their PC 's intended actions , such as punching an opponent or picking a lock , and converse with the DM , who then describes the result or response . Trivial actions , such as picking up a letter or opening an unlocked door , are usually automatically successful . The outcomes of more complex or risky actions are determined by rolling dice . Factors contributing to the outcome include the character 's ability scores , skills and the difficulty of the task . In circumstances where a character does not have control of an event , such as when a trap or magical effect is triggered or a spell is cast , a saving throw can be used to determine whether the resulting damage is reduced or avoided . In this case the odds of success are influenced by the character 's class , levels and ability scores .
As the game is played , each PC changes over time and generally increases in capability . Characters gain ( or sometimes lose ) experience , skills and wealth , and may even alter their alignment or gain additional character classes . The key way characters progress is by earning experience points ( XP ) , which happens when they defeat an enemy or accomplish a difficult task . Acquiring enough XP allows a PC to advance a level , which grants the character improved class features , abilities and skills . XP can be lost in some circumstances , such as encounters with creatures that drain life energy , or by use of certain magical powers that come with an XP cost .
Hit points ( HP ) are a measure of a character 's vitality and health and are determined by the class , level and constitution of each character . They can be temporarily lost when a character sustains wounds in combat or otherwise comes to harm , and loss of HP is the most common way for a character to die in the game . Death can also result from the loss of key ability scores or character levels . When a PC dies , it is often possible for the dead character to be resurrected through magic , although some penalties may be imposed as a result . If resurrection is not possible or not desired , the player may instead create a new PC to resume playing the game .
= = = Adventures , campaigns , and modules = = =
A typical Dungeons & Dragons game consists of an " adventure " , which is roughly equivalent to a single story . The DM can either design an adventure on their own , or follow one of the many pre @-@ made adventures ( also known as " modules " ) that have been published throughout the history of Dungeons & Dragons . Published adventures typically include a background story , illustrations , maps and goals for PCs to achieve . Some include location descriptions and handouts . Although a small adventure entitled " Temple of the Frog " was included in the Blackmoor rules supplement in 1975 , the first stand @-@ alone D & D module published by TSR was 1978 's Steading of the Hill Giant Chief , written by Gygax .
A linked series of adventures is commonly referred to as a " campaign " . The locations where these adventures occur , such as a city , country , planet or an entire fictional universe , are referred to as " campaign settings " or " world " . D & D settings are based in various fantasy genres and feature different levels and types of magic and technology . Popular commercially published campaign settings for Dungeons & Dragons include Greyhawk , Dragonlance , Forgotten Realms , Mystara , Spelljammer , Ravenloft , Dark Sun , Planescape , Birthright , and Eberron . Alternatively , DMs may develop their own fictional worlds to use as campaign settings .
= = = Miniature figures = = =
The wargames from which Dungeons & Dragons evolved used miniature figures to represent combatants . D & D initially continued the use of miniatures in a fashion similar to its direct precursors . The original D & D set of 1974 required the use of the Chainmail miniatures game for combat resolution . By the publication of the 1977 game editions , combat was mostly resolved verbally . Thus miniatures were no longer required for game play , although some players continued to use them as a visual reference .
In the 1970s , numerous companies began to sell miniature figures specifically for Dungeons & Dragons and similar games . Licensed miniature manufacturers who produced official figures include Grenadier Miniatures ( 1980 – 1983 ) , Citadel Miniatures ( 1984 – 1986 ) , Ral Partha , and TSR itself . Most of these miniatures used the 25 mm scale .
Periodically , Dungeons & Dragons has returned to its wargaming roots with supplementary rules systems for miniatures @-@ based wargaming . Supplements such as Battlesystem ( 1985 & 1989 ) and a new edition of Chainmail ( 2001 ) provided rule systems to handle battles between armies by using miniatures .
= = Game history = =
= = = Edition history = = =
Dungeons & Dragons has gone through several revisions . Parallel versions and inconsistent naming practices can make it difficult to distinguish between the different editions .
= = = = Original game = = = =
The original Dungeons & Dragons , now referred to as OD & D , was a small box set of three booklets published in 1974 . It was amateurish in production and assumed the player was familiar with wargaming . Nevertheless , it grew rapidly in popularity , first among wargamers and then expanding to a more general audience of college and high school students . Roughly 1 @,@ 000 copies of the game were sold in the first year followed by 3 @,@ 000 in 1975 , and much more in the following years . This first set went through many printings and was supplemented with several official additions , such as the original Greyhawk and Blackmoor supplements ( both 1975 ) , as well as magazine articles in TSR 's official publications and many fanzines .
= = = = Two @-@ pronged strategy = = = =
In 1977 , TSR created the first element of a two @-@ pronged strategy that would divide the D & D game for nearly two decades . A Dungeons & Dragons Basic Set boxed edition was introduced that cleaned up the presentation of the essential rules , made the system understandable to the general public , and was sold in a package that could be stocked in toy stores . Also in 1977 , the first part of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D ) was published , which brought together the various published rules , options and corrections , then expanded them into a definitive , unified game for hobbyist gamers . TSR marketed them as an introductory game for new players and a more complex game for experienced ones ; the Basic Set directed players who exhausted the possibilities of that game to switch to the advanced rules .
As a result of this parallel development , the basic game included many rules and concepts which contradicted comparable ones in AD & D. John Eric Holmes , the editor of the basic game , preferred a lighter tone with more room for personal improvisation . AD & D , on the other hand , was designed to create a tighter , more structured game system than the loose framework of the original game . Between 1977 and 1979 , three hardcover rulebooks , commonly referred to as the " core rulebooks " , were released : the Player 's Handbook ( PHB ) , the Dungeon Master 's Guide ( DMG ) , and the Monster Manual ( MM ) . Several supplementary books were published throughout the 1980s , notably Unearthed Arcana ( 1985 ) that included a large number of new rules . Confusing matters further , the original D & D boxed set remained in publication until 1979 , since it remained a healthy seller for TSR .
= = = = Revised editions = = = =
In the 1980s , the rules for Advanced Dungeons & Dragons and " basic " Dungeons & Dragons remained separate , each developing along different paths .
In 1981 , the basic version of Dungeons & Dragons was revised by Tom Moldvay to make it even more novice @-@ friendly . It was promoted as a continuation of the original D & D tone , whereas AD & D was promoted as advancement of the mechanics . An accompanying Expert Set , originally written by David " Zeb " Cook , allowed players to continue using the simpler ruleset beyond the early levels of play . In 1983 , revisions of those sets by Frank Mentzer were released , revising the presentation of the rules to a more tutorial format . These were followed by Companion ( 1983 ) , Master ( 1985 ) , and Immortals ( 1986 ) sets . Each set covered game play for more powerful characters than the previous . The first four sets were later compiled as a single hardcover book , the Dungeons & Dragons Rules Cyclopedia ( 1991 ) , along with a new introductory boxed set .
Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd Edition was published in 1989 , again as three core rulebooks ; the primary designer was David " Zeb " Cook . The Monster Manual was replaced by the Monstrous Compendium , a loose @-@ leaf binder that was subsequently replaced by the hardcover Monstrous Manual in 1993 . In 1995 , the core rulebooks were slightly revised , although still referred to by TSR as the 2nd Edition , and a series of Player 's Option manuals were released as optional rulebooks .
The release of AD & D2 deliberately excluded some aspects of the game that had attracted negative publicity . References to demons and devils , sexually suggestive artwork , and playable , evil @-@ aligned character types – such as assassins and half @-@ orcs – were removed . The edition moved away from a theme of 1960s and 1970s " sword and sorcery " fantasy fiction to a mixture of medieval history and mythology . The rules underwent minor changes , including the addition of non @-@ weapon proficiencies – skill @-@ like abilities that originally appeared in 1st Edition supplements . The game 's magic spells were divided into schools and spheres . A major difference was the promotion of various game settings beyond that of traditional fantasy . This included blending fantasy with other genres , such as horror ( Ravenloft ) , science fiction ( Spelljammer ) , and apocalyptic ( Dark Sun ) , as well as alternative historical and non @-@ European mythological settings .
= = = = Wizards of the Coast = = = =
In 1997 , a near @-@ bankrupt TSR was purchased by Wizards of the Coast . Following three years of development , Dungeons & Dragons 3rd edition was released in 2000 . The new release folded the Basic and Advanced lines back into a single unified game . It was the largest revision of the D & D rules to date , and served as the basis for a multi @-@ genre role @-@ playing system designed around 20 @-@ sided dice , called the d20 System . The 3rd Edition rules were designed to be internally consistent and less restrictive than previous editions of the game , allowing players more flexibility to create the characters they wanted to play . Skills and feats were introduced into the core rules to encourage further customization of characters . The new rules standardized the mechanics of action resolution and combat . In 2003 , Dungeons & Dragons v.3.5 was released as a revision of the 3rd Edition rules . This release incorporated hundreds of rule changes , mostly minor , and expanded the core rulebooks .
In early 2005 , Wizards of the Coast 's R & D team started to develop Dungeons & Dragons 4th Edition , prompted mainly by the feedback obtained from the D & D playing community and a desire to make the game faster , more intuitive , and with a better play experience than under the 3rd Edition . The new game was developed through a number of design phases spanning from May 2005 until its release . Dungeons & Dragons 4th Edition was announced at Gen Con in August 2007 , and the initial three core books were released June 6 , 2008 . 4th Edition streamlined the game into a simplified form and introduced numerous rules changes . Many character abilities were restructured into " Powers " . These altered the spell @-@ using classes by adding abilities that could be used at will , per encounter , or per day . Likewise , non @-@ magic @-@ using classes were provided with parallel sets of options . Software tools , including player character and monster building programs , became a major part of the game .
On January 9 , 2012 , Wizards of the Coast announced that it was working on a 5th edition of the game . The company planned to take suggestions from players and let them playtest the rules . Public playtesting began on May 24 , 2012 . At Gen Con 2012 in August , Mike Mearls , lead developer for 5th Edition , said that Wizards of the Coast had received feedback from more than 75 @,@ 000 playtesters , but that the entire development process would take two years , adding , " I can 't emphasize this enough ... we 're very serious about taking the time we need to get this right . " The release of the 5th Edition , coinciding with D & D 's 40th anniversary , occurred in the second half of 2014 .
= = = Acclaim and influence = = =
The game had more than three million players around the world by 1981 , and copies of the rules were selling at a rate of about 750 @,@ 000 per year by 1984 . Beginning with a French language edition in 1982 , Dungeons & Dragons has been translated into many languages beyond the original English . By 2004 , consumers had spent more than US $ 1 billion on Dungeons & Dragons products and the game had been played by more than 20 million people . As many as six million people played the game in 2007 .
The various editions of Dungeons & Dragons have won many Origins Awards , including All Time Best Roleplaying Rules of 1977 , Best Roleplaying Rules of 1989 , and Best Roleplaying Game of 2000 for the three flagship editions of the game . Both Dungeons & Dragons and Advanced Dungeons & Dragons are Origins Hall of Fame Games inductees as they were deemed sufficiently distinct to merit separate inclusion on different occasions . The independent Games magazine placed Dungeons & Dragons on their Games 100 list from 1980 through 1983 , then entered the game into the magazine 's Hall of Fame in 1984 .
Dungeons & Dragons was the first modern role @-@ playing game and it established many of the conventions that have dominated the genre . Particularly notable are the use of dice as a game mechanic , character record sheets , use of numerical attributes and gamemaster @-@ centered group dynamics . Within months of Dungeons & Dragons 's release , new role @-@ playing game writers and publishers began releasing their own role @-@ playing games , with most of these being in the fantasy genre . Some of the earliest other role @-@ playing games inspired by D & D include Tunnels & Trolls ( 1975 ) , Empire of the Petal Throne ( 1975 ) , and Chivalry & Sorcery ( 1976 ) .
The role @-@ playing movement initiated by D & D would lead to release of the science fiction game Traveller ( 1977 ) , the fantasy game RuneQuest ( 1978 ) , and subsequent game systems such as Chaosium 's Call of Cthulhu ( 1981 ) , Champions ( 1982 ) , GURPS ( 1986 ) , and Vampire : The Masquerade ( 1991 ) . Dungeons & Dragons and the games it influenced fed back into the genre 's origin – miniatures wargames – with combat strategy games like Warhammer Fantasy Battles . D & D also had a large impact on modern video games .
Director Jon Favreau credits Dungeons & Dragons with giving him " ... a really strong background in imagination , storytelling , understanding how to create tone and a sense of balance . "
= = = Licensing = = =
Early in the game 's history , TSR took no action against small publishers ' production of D & D compatible material , and even licensed Judges Guild to produce D & D materials for several years , such as City State of the Invincible Overlord . This attitude changed in the mid @-@ 1980s when TSR took legal action to try to prevent others from publishing compatible material . This angered many fans and led to resentment by the other gaming companies . Although TSR took legal action against several publishers in an attempt to restrict third @-@ party usage , it never brought any court cases to completion , instead settling out of court in every instance . TSR itself ran afoul of intellectual property law in several cases .
With the launch of Dungeons & Dragons 's 3rd Edition , Wizards of the Coast made the d20 System available under the Open Game License ( OGL ) and d20 System trademark license . Under these licenses , authors were free to use the d20 System when writing games and game supplements . The OGL and d20 Trademark License made possible new games , some based on licensed products like Star Wars , and new versions of older games , such as Call of Cthulhu .
With the release of the fourth edition , Wizards of the Coast has introduced its Game System License , which represents a significant restriction compared to the very open policies embodied by the OGL . In part as a response to this , some publishers ( such as Paizo Publishing with its Pathfinder Roleplaying Game ) who previously produced materials in support of the D & D product line , have decided to continue supporting the 3rd Edition rules , thereby competing directly with Wizards of the Coast . Others , such as Kenzer & Company , are returning to the practice of publishing unlicensed supplements and arguing that copyright law does not allow Wizards of the Coast to restrict third @-@ party usage .
During the 2000s , there has been a trend towards reviving and recreating older editions of D & D , known as the Old School Revival . Game systems based on earlier editions of D & D. Castles & Crusades ( 2004 ) , by Troll Lord Games , is a reimagining of early editions by streamlining rules from OGL . This in turn inspired the creation of " retro @-@ clones " , games which more closely recreate the original rule sets , using material placed under the OGL along with non @-@ copyrightable mechanical aspects of the older rules to create a new presentation of the games .
= = = Controversy and notoriety = = =
At various times in its history , Dungeons & Dragons has received negative publicity , in particular from some Christian groups , for alleged promotion of such practices as devil worship , witchcraft , suicide , and murder , and for the presence of naked breasts in drawings of female humanoids in the original AD & D manuals ( mainly monsters such as harpies , succubi , etc . ) . These controversies led TSR to remove many potentially controversial references and artwork when releasing the 2nd Edition of AD & D. Many of these references , including the use of the names " devils " and " demons " , were reintroduced in the 3rd edition . The moral panic over the game led to problems for fans of D & D who faced social ostracism , unfair treatment , and false association with the occult and Satanism , regardless of an individual fan 's actual religious affiliation and beliefs .
Dungeons & Dragons has been the subject of rumors regarding players having difficulty separating fantasy from reality , even leading to psychotic episodes . The most notable of these was the saga of James Dallas Egbert III , the facts of which were fictionalized in the novel Mazes and Monsters and later made into a TV movie . The game was blamed for some of the actions of Chris Pritchard , who was convicted in 1990 of murdering his stepfather . Research by various psychologists , the first being that of Armando Simon , has concluded that no harmful effects are related to the playing of D & D.
The game 's commercial success was a factor that led to lawsuits regarding distribution of royalties between original creators Gygax and Arneson . Gygax later became embroiled in a political struggle for control of TSR which culminated in a court battle and Gygax 's decision to sell his ownership interest in the company in 1985 .
= = Related products = =
D & D 's commercial success has led to many other related products , including Dragon Magazine , Dungeon Magazine , an animated television series , a film series , an official role @-@ playing soundtrack , novels , and computer games such as the MMORPG Dungeons & Dragons Online . Hobby and toy stores sell dice , miniatures , adventures , and other game aids related to D & D and its game offspring .
= = In popular culture = =
D & D grew in popularity through the late 1970s and 1980s . Numerous games , films , and cultural references based on D & D or D & D @-@ like fantasies , characters or adventures have been ubiquitous since the end of the 1970s . D & D players are ( sometimes pejoratively ) portrayed as the epitome of geekdom , and have become the basis of much geek and gamer humor and satire . Famous D & D players include Pulitzer Prize winning author Junot Díaz , professional basketball player Tim Duncan , comedian Stephen Colbert , and actors Vin Diesel and Robin Williams . D & D and its fans have been the subject of spoof films , including Fear of Girls and The Gamers : Dorkness Rising .
|
= Ninja Gaiden ( 2004 video game ) =
Ninja Gaiden is an action @-@ adventure hack and slash video game developed by Team Ninja for the Xbox video game console . It went through five years of development before its release by Tecmo in 2004 , and had a number of expansion packs and two remakes , Ninja Gaiden Black and Ninja Gaiden Sigma . The game follows the fictional story of Ryu Hayabusa , a master ninja , in his quest to recover a stolen sword and avenge the slaughter of his clan .
Tecmo specifically targeted Ninja Gaiden at a western audience , and despite difficulties in obtaining content ratings due to the game 's graphic depictions of violence , it was generally well received , and 362 @,@ 441 copies were sold in North America in the first month after its release . Nevertheless , the game had to be censored for release in some regions , and Japanese sales were poor , with only 60 @,@ 000 in the four months following its release . Making use of the Xbox 's internet connectivity , Ninja Gaiden was the focus of a series of online contests across North America , Europe and Japan . Record @-@ breaking numbers of players took part , competing for places in the live final , which was held during the Tokyo Game Show ( TGS ) 2004 .
Team Ninja continued to update the game after its release : two Hurricane Packs were made available as free downloadable content that added extra content , gameplay challenges , and game engine improvements . These were incorporated into a reworked version , released in 2005 and entitled Ninja Gaiden Black , that was regarded by the game 's creator Tomonobu Itagaki and many players as the definitive version . In 2007 , Ninja Gaiden was graphically enhanced on the PlayStation 3 , with extra content , in the form of Ninja Gaiden Sigma . This version was later released on the PlayStation Vita as Ninja Gaiden Sigma Plus .
= = Gameplay = =
Ninja Gaiden develops its narrative thread through the actions of its player @-@ controlled protagonist , Ryu Hayabusa . Viewed from a third person over @-@ the @-@ shoulder perspective , in typical action @-@ adventure fashion Ryu starts the game with basic , low @-@ level abilities and weapons that can be upgraded as he progresses , by discovering or buying items . In keeping with his ninja persona , his character can interact with the game environment to perform acrobatic feats , such as running along and jumping off walls , swinging from pole to pole , or running across water . The game world is made up of several distinct regions , most of which are connected via the city of Tairon , which functions as a hub . Access to these regions are obtained by fighting enemies , finding keys , or solving puzzles , inspired by the mechanics of the The Legend of Zelda video games . Dragon busts scattered throughout the regions provide the means to save player progress , permitting gameplay to be resumed at a later time .
Ryu 's movements are directed using the console gamepad . The game 's control system , which comprises the left thumbstick , two attack buttons , and a block button , was described as fluid and responsive , and Ninja Gaiden was regarded as having one of the deeper combat engines among Xbox games at the time , comparing well to the PlayStation 2 action @-@ adventures God of War and Devil May Cry . Eric Williams , the designer of the God of War combat engine , explained that Ninja Gaiden prohibits players from stopping or changing attacks in mid @-@ stroke . In contrast , God of War allows players to do so , and Devil May Cry grants this freedom to certain attacks . Williams said that , compared to those two games , the combat system in Ninja Gaiden was harder to master ; however , it lets players fight their computer controlled foes on equal terms .
Ninja Gaiden features a large selection of weapons for Ryu to wield , each with advantages and disadvantages that affect the way the player approaches combat . These include one @-@ handed swords , such as the Dragon Sword and Kitetsu , which grant quick attacks , and a move called the " Flying Swallow " , which allows Ryu to leap and slash through enemies . In addition these light weapons allow Ryu to smash foes into the ground and perform his signature Izuna Drop — a spinning piledriver . Heavy weapons , such as the Dabilahro and the Unlabored Flawlessness , are slow but cause more damage to opponents . With flails and staves , the player can string together long sequences of attacks . To engage distant foes Ryu can throw shuriken and shoot arrows . In addition to using standard melee techniques , Ryu can employ essences — colored globes of energy that are released on the death of enemies and absorbed into Ryu 's body when he comes into proximity with them . Essences have an important role in general gameplay , acting to heal Ryu , restore his magic , or increase his cash . However , in combat the player can cause Ryu to deliberately draw in essences , which can then be used to unleash powerful attacks known as Ultimate Techniques that allow Ryu to damage enemies without taking damage himself . These techniques deal heavy damage and make Ryu immune to injury for a short time .
Ninja Gaiden also provides Ryu with magical spells in the form of ninpo spells . When activated by the player , these make Ryu cast fireballs , ice storms , or bolts of lightning . Functioning in a similar manner to the bombs or grenades of shooter action games , these spells allow Ryu to inflict heavy damage on enemies while potentially avoiding damage himself . But , dissatisfied with their programmed visual effects , the game 's director Tomonobu Itagaki wanted to deter players from using ninpo . He therefore tweaked the game to award bonus points when players cleared stages without employing magic . For Ryu 's defense , the player has two options . First , Ryu can stand still and attempt to block attacks . However , certain enemies can break his guard — either through particularly strong attacks or by grappling him . The second option is to make Ryu dodge , by rolling away from the attack in a maneuver called " reverse wind " .
= = Plot = =
Inspired by the 1990s Ninja Gaiden series for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) , the 2004 version was originally set in a re @-@ imagined game world based on another Team Ninja creation , the Dead or Alive ( DOA ) series of fighting games . However , interviews with Tomonobu Itagaki indicate that the Xbox games are prequels to the NES series and that both possibly share a single continuity .
Ninja Gaiden is set in the game world of the Dead or Alive series . Located mainly in Japan and the fictional Vigoor Empire , the game draws on Heian period structures for its Japanese locales — a ninja fortress and village set in the mountains . In contrast the Vigoor Empire , with its capital city of Tairon , is a blend of architectural types from around the world . European @-@ style buildings display Arabic lettering , and the monastery in Tairon exhibits Gothic influences with a vaulted hall , pointed arches , and large stained glass windows . A hidden underground level features statues with the heads of cats , walls covered with carvings , hieroglyphics , Aztec pyramid and a labyrinth . This mix of styles was the result of Itagaki 's deliberate refusal to constrain the game 's creative process .
= = = Characters = = =
Ryu Hayabusa , the " super ninja " , is the protagonist of Ninja Gaiden , and the only player @-@ controllable character in the game . Itagaki believed that creating extra player characters might distract his team from focusing on Ryu 's development . Ryu has a long history with Tecmo ; he was the star of the 1990s Ninja Gaiden series , and has been part of the DOA roster since 1996 . His roles in these games played a part in his popularity among fans and the video game industry . Ninja Gaiden provides a backstory to Ryu 's appearance and character as seen in the Dead or Alive series , being set two years before the first DOA game .
Rachel is the leading female character , and tragic heroine of the game . She and her twin sister , Alma , are afflicted with a blood curse that turns humans into fiends . Believing that there is no cure for their condition , Rachel seeks to kill Alma to redeem her sister 's soul . The relationship between the sisters and the Greater Fiend Doku , who cursed them , serves as a plot device to drive the game forward , with Rachel occasionally needing to be rescued by Ryu . Although not a player @-@ controlled character in Ninja Gaiden , in a few sections of the Ninja Gaiden Sigma remake she is controllable . Two other characters assist the player in the game . Ayane , a young female ninja and one of the DOA regular cast members , acts as a guide throughout Ninja Gaiden by supplying advice and objectives to the player . Muramasa , a bladesmith , has shops scattered throughout the game world where players can purchase useful items and upgrades for Ryu 's weapons . Muramasa also gives quests and relates back @-@ stories and other crucial information ; for example , he tells Ryu how he can obtain the item required to upgrade his Dragon Sword to its full potential . Players have the option to customize the appearance of player characters , with selectable costumes for Ryu and hairstyles for Rachel .
Most of the enemies are fiends — humans changed into monsters by their blood curse . Three Greater Fiends lead their lesser brethren against Ryu , playing major roles in the game 's plot : Alma , Rachel 's sister , whose story forms a significant part of the game ; Doku , Ryu 's main antagonist , whose raid on Hayabusa village and theft of the Dark Dragon Blade comprise the main plot thread ; and Marbus , lord of the fiend underworld who is responsible for the final set of challenges Ryu faces in the realm of the fiends before encountering the Vigoor Emperor .
= = = Story = = =
Ninja Gaiden 's story spans 16 chapters , each beginning and ending with a cutscene . At the start of the game , the player takes control of Ryu as he infiltrates the Shadow clan fortress . Ryu is there to visit his uncle , the clan leader Murai . During their chat , Ayane delivers news of a raid on the Hayabusa village . Fighting his way back to his village , Ryu encounters Doku , who has killed the Hayabusa shrine maiden Kureha and has taken the Dark Dragon Blade . Ryu is cut down by Doku with the stolen Blade , but he is brought back to life as a " soldier of revenge " by a falcon , the spiritual animal of the Hayabusa clan .
Seeking vengeance for Kureha 's death , Ryu learns from Murai that the raiders were from Vigoor , so he stows away on an airship bound for the empire . Fighting his way through the streets of its capital city , Tairon , Ryu faces several bosses including the three Greater Fiends . He defeats Alma in a battle that wrecks the city , but leaves her to Rachel 's mercy . Conversely , Rachel cannot bring herself to kill her sister , and instead is taken by Doku , who prepares to sacrifice her in a ritual to enhance Alma 's power . With Alma 's help Ryu rescues Rachel and destroys Doku 's spirit , but with his dying breath Doku casts the blood curse on Ryu . The only way for Ryu to lift the curse is to kill the emperor , so he storms the palace , defeating Marbus who bars his way to the emperor 's personal realm . Two successive boss fights must be completed to destroy the Emperor and reclaim the Dark Dragon Blade — once this is accomplished his realm starts to destruct . Ryu must then be maneuvered up a series of ledges to escape , but in the process he loses his grip on the Dark Dragon Blade .
The fallen Blade lands at the feet of a figure , the Dark Disciple , who has been shadowing Ryu throughout the game . Taking the Blade , the Disciple reveals himself to be the clan leader Murai . He admits that the raid on Hayabusa village was part of his plan to restore the Blade 's evil power , using souls harvested by Ryu . Drawing on the Blade , Murai transforms himself , setting the stage for the final boss fight . Ryu defeats Murai and shatters the Blade with the True Dragon Sword . Victorious , Ryu turns himself into a falcon and flies to the Hayabusa village . In the game 's final scene he places the Dragon Eye , used to enhance his sword , on Kureha 's tombstone and disappears into the night . The story of Ninja Gaiden is continued in the sequels Ninja Gaiden : Dragon Sword , Ninja Gaiden II and Ninja Gaiden 3 .
= = Development = =
In 1999 , Team Ninja started work on the " Next @-@ Generation Ninja Gaiden Project " . The first stage of development was to create the game on the Sega NAOMI arcade system board . They then planned to move the project to the Dreamcast console for further development and release , but this was abandoned when Sega announced the end of Dreamcast product line in 2001 . At this point , Tecmo decided to release Ninja Gaiden as a launch title for the Sony PlayStation 2 in the United States . Itagaki , however , had other plans ; the Team Ninja Leader was impressed with the software development kits for the Xbox and pushed for his team to develop for the Microsoft console . The company kept silent on this change in direction , and surprised both the games industry and fans when they announced at E3 2002 that Ninja Gaiden would be released exclusively on the Xbox gaming console . Most fans who voted on Tecmo 's poll wanted the game on the Nintendo GameCube .
Ninja Gaiden was Team Ninja 's first action title . Its initial concept had nothing in common with the original Ninja Gaiden series that was released for the NES . However , for retail reasons Tecmo wanted to retain a link with the previous games , which had many adherents in the West , so Itagaki was asked to rethink his ideas to target the foreign market . Analysing the earlier games , he concluded that their violence appealed to players , and included gory content , such as beheadings , in the Xbox game to retain that spirit . He also aimed to make his new game hard but alluring ; it would challenge players on their reflexes rather than on their memories of layouts and timings . His team made a point of designing smoothly @-@ flowing gameplay with high @-@ quality animations that reacted quickly to the player 's input . Itagaki paid homage to the earlier Ninja Gaiden series by including updated versions of foes and special attacks . Team Ninja based their 3D computer models , from the pistols of the henchman upwards , on real world material . Character models were taken from studies of human anatomy , and the team hired martial artists in order to digitally capture their movement . Rather than import the motion captures directly into the game , however , the animators used them as templates to give a sense of realism to the game characters ' exaggerated movements . Itagaki found it more interesting to design nonhuman creatures than human enemies .
= = Release = =
In 2004 , Tecmo released a demo disc of Ninja Gaiden in Japan , bundled with the February 26 issue of Famitsu Xbox magazine . The demo let players try the first chapter of the game on two difficulty settings with a few fully upgraded weapons and ninpos . On March 2 , 2004 , a year later than originally planned , Tecmo released Ninja Gaiden in the United States .
= = = Regional censorship = = =
As released , Ninja Gaiden contained bloody acts of violence , decapitations and grotesque monsters . The North American games rating body , the Entertainment Software Rating Board ( ESRB ) , rated it as a " Mature " game , which prohibits sale to anyone under the age of 17 . The depiction of beheadings , though , attracts stricter ratings in other parts of the world . In Germany , the Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle ( USK ) deemed these excessive , and refused to rate the game at all . Since this had the potential to place Ninja Gaiden in Germany 's " List of Media Harmful to Young People " , which would have meant that shops could neither advertise the game nor sell it unless by request to customers of 18 years or older , Tecmo censored the European PAL version to obtain a USK rating . A year later , Tecmo managed to obtain a USK 18 + rating for the uncensored release of Ninja Gaiden Black .
Japan 's Computer Entertainment Rating Organization ( CERO ) rated Ninja Gaiden and Black , on their release , as 18 + games . At the time , CERO ratings acted as guidelines for consumers . However , on March 1 , 2006 , the Japanese rating system changed . A scale from A to D was introduced , with an additional Z rating for games with large amounts of gore and sexual content . The Z rating is legally enforced , it being illegal to sell such games to anyone under the age of 18 . As a result , Tecmo removed the human beheadings in Sigma to obtain a D rating for the East Asian market . However , CERO reclassified the two previous games as D , despite them also depicting human decapitations .
= = = Post @-@ release = = =
Team Ninja kept working on the Ninja Gaiden project after its release , with the aim of pushing the action genre and their first such title as far as they could . To this end , they released downloadable expansions , known as Hurricane Packs , free of charge . Itagaki said that since the packs were born out of his team 's interest , they did not care to charge players for their efforts . The two packs were available over Xbox Live in the third quarter of 2004 .
Hurricane Pack 1 was a revamped version of Story Mode ; Team Ninja tweaked the encounters and artificial intelligence ( AI ) of Ryu 's foes to increase the difficulty of the game . The pack introduced additional foes such as humanoid cats , giants wearing dinosaur skulls , and cyborgs , and Team Ninja made a key change to the camera system by which the on @-@ screen action is displayed ; players could now control the camera and change its viewing angle . Another feature of the pack was to enhance the combat engine ; the new " Intercept " skill let players counter any enemy attack with the proper timing .
Hurricane Pack 2 kept the enhancements of the first , but took place in an alternative world comprising only two regions , where players have to fight through several encounters to rescue Rachel from two new bosses ( Nicchae and Ishtaros ) . This expansion introduced fiends who wield giant swords and cast fireballs .
Team Ninja later compiled both expansion packs , and added new features , to create Ninja Gaiden Black . This game , which Itagaki viewed as the final version of Ninja Gaiden , went on sale on September 20 , 2005 . A few years later , Team Ninja upgraded the graphics of the game and ported it to the PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) . This version was released as Ninja Gaiden Sigma on June 14 , 2007 . Black became an Xbox Original game on February 11 , 2008 .
= = = Online competition = = =
The Master Ninja Tournaments were a series of three online contests held by Microsoft and Tecmo in 2004 . They took place over Xbox Live , and were open to participants in Europe , Japan , and North America . Winner selection was based on the scores achieved through playing Ninja Gaiden or its Hurricane Packs . Players had 14 to 24 days to complete the required games and submit their scores to an online scoreboard .
The first two tournaments formed regional qualification stages for a live Ninja Gaiden Master Tournament World Championship , held on September 25 at the TGS 2004 . Competition for places was intense , with both tournaments breaking records for online participation in Xbox Live events . Six of the highest scoring players from Europe and North America won bokkens bearing Itagaki 's signature , and five regional winners were selected to proceed to the final . Here , the finalists simultaneously played a custom game drawn from Hurricane Pack 2 while commentators called out the action . They had 15 minutes to complete the game and post the highest score ; the winner emerged only in the last 20 seconds , when Yasunori Otsuka cleared the game and outscored his rivals . At the award ceremony , the finalists received their prize plaques from Itagaki .
The tournaments were not without controversy . Players complained about Microsoft 's tardiness in posting the official rules for the first playoff , and it was believed that the top posted score was not achievable by fair means . Officials , however , stated that the score was possible , and allowed the results to stand . In the second playoff , Microsoft initially named the runner up as the North American finalist , after disqualifying the winner for no publicly stated reason , but eventually had to send the second runner up to Tokyo when the first was unable to produce a passport in time .
Master Ninja Tournament 3 started on September 27 and lasted 26 days . Rankings were decided by scores obtained while playing Hurricane Pack 2 , and the prizes were Tecmo apparel and Team Ninja games . This marked the end of official tournaments for Ninja Gaiden , although Microsoft have retained the ranking boards for players to upload their scores .
= = = Merchandise = = =
Tecmo has built up a line of merchandise around the Ninja Gaiden name . Its online shop carries apparel and accessories such as caps , wristbands , T @-@ shirts , key holders , and mugs . Most of the merchandise is based on that associated with the various Ninja Gaiden game launches or given as prizes in the Master Ninja Tournaments . Tecmo also published the original soundtrack of the game under their record label Wake Up on March 20 , 2004 . Kotobukiya , a figurine maker , includes 1 / 6 scale plastic figurines of Ninja Gaiden characters in their range of products . As of 2007 , they have produced figures of Ryu , Ayane , Kureha and Rachel .
= = Other versions = =
Tecmo published two versions of Ninja Gaiden : Ninja Gaiden Black for Xbox and Ninja Gaiden Sigma for PS3 . Essentially the same game as the original , they tell the same story of Ryu and the Dark Dragon Blade , but include additional content and updated game mechanics . Itagaki deemed Black to be the final version of Ninja Gaiden , but with the release of the PS3 , Tecmo ported the game to this platform as Sigma .
In addition to the narrative Story Mode , Black and Sigma introduced a gameplay variation called Mission Mode . Focused on action rather than character development , this provides combat @-@ based missions set mainly in small areas , where the player 's goal is to " destroy all enemies " . In both Story and Mission modes , game scoring is based on the player 's speed in clearing encounters , the number of kills achieved , the number of unused ninpo spells remaining at the end , and the amount of cash collected . Players can compare their scores on online ranking boards .
= = = Ninja Gaiden Black = = =
Tecmo announced at E3 2005 that Team Ninja was working on Ninja Gaiden Black , and later exhibited a working version of the game at the TGS 2005 . Black is a reworked compilation of the original Ninja Gaiden and the two Hurricane Packs . The game features new foes , such as exploding bats and doppelgänger fiends who can imitate Ryu . It contains more costumes than the original , and swaps Ninja Gaiden 's unlockable NES games for an arcade version .
One key feature of this version is its two new difficulty settings — the easy Ninja Dog and the very hard Master Ninja . Itagaki added Ninja Dog after receiving complaints of Ninja Gaiden being too hard in its default incarnation , although he believed that , with persistence , any player was capable of completing the game . Hence he ensured that those players selecting Ninja Dog would be subjected to gentle mockery by the game — players on this difficulty setting receive colored ribbons as accessories , and Ayane treats Ryu as an inferior . In compensation , Itagaki made the other difficulty settings harder than in Ninja Gaiden . Another feature of Black is its Mission Mode , which comprises 50 combat missions , one of which is adapted from the custom game designed for the Ninja Gaiden Master Tournament World Championship final . The last five missions are based on those in Hurricane Pack 2 and form a linked series known as " Eternal Legend " . While most of the improvements made in the Hurricane Packs carried forward through this game , including the camera system tweaks and new boss battles , the Intercept maneuver , introduced in Hurricane Pack 1 , was not included in Black , adding to its increased challenge .
= = = Ninja Gaiden Sigma = = =
In 2006 , Tecmo and Sony announced the development of Ninja Gaiden Sigma for the PS3 . Eidos obtained the European publishing rights for this game . Itagaki had no direct role in Sigma and judged it a flawed game , although he acknowledged that Sigma gave PlayStation owners a taste of Ninja Gaiden . A version for PlayStation Vita , titled Ninja Gaiden Sigma Plus , was released in North America and Europe on February 22 , 2012 .
= = Reception = =
Ninja Gaiden was released to much critical acclaim . Greg Kasavin of GameSpot called it " one of the best most challenging action adventure games ever made " , and IGN 's Erik Brudvig said that it " sets a new standard for third @-@ person action games in terms of length , depth , speed , and gore . " Electronic Gaming Monthly ( EGM ) called it " an unmissable instant classic " , and declared that " no Xbox should go without [ Ninja ] Gaiden . " Critics also regarded it to be one of the most difficult games released prior to 2007 .
Its enhanced version , Ninja Gaiden Black , also impressed reviewers . GameSpot noted that it had the best visual and audio presentation on the Xbox , and praised its new Mission Mode for " [ distilling ] the game down to its purest essentials . " IGN called its release " a rare and welcome day " , which brought their " excitement levels back to the first time [ they ] played the game . "
From a technical point of view , critics regarded Ninja Gaiden and Black as the best of the available Xbox software at the time ; the console hardware had been pushed to its limits without showing significant drops in performance . GameSpot 's Kasavin was impressed with their " first @-@ rate presentation " and said that no other games at that time came close in visuals and audio . According to IGN , the games could " make [ them ] momentarily forget about the next generation of consoles " . Both Ninja Gaiden and Black were top @-@ sellers , which led to them being compatible with the Xbox 360 for all regions on the new platform 's release . Ninja Gaiden attracted criticism for the way on @-@ screen action is framed by the game 's camera . The default camera system centers the action on Ryu and his surroundings , but reviewers were frustrated by occasions when the camera locked on to part of the scenery , thus losing track of Ryu . Tecmo attempted to address this with the introduction of manual camera controls in the Hurricane Packs , and most critics judged that either the camera frame was usually acceptable , or that Ninja Gaiden was a good enough game that its flaws could be overlooked .
Consumers purchased 1 @.@ 5 million copies of Ninja Gaiden and Black to August 2007 , with the bulk of these sales going to North America and Europe . According to the NPD Group , in its first month Ninja Gaiden sold 362 @,@ 441 copies in the United States . These sales figures reflect Tecmo 's decision to target the non @-@ Japanese market . Japanese gamers were not particularly excited — according to Itagaki , only 60 @,@ 000 copies of Ninja Gaiden were sold in Japan in the four months following its release . The critical and commercial successes of Ninja Gaiden have led CNET and GameSpot Asia to induct the game into their halls of fame .
The Ninja Gaiden games gained a reputation throughout the gaming community for their difficulty and attention to detail . Although they appealed to gamers who , like Pro @-@ G 's Struan Robertson , wanted a " bloody hard , but also bloody good " challenge , it was feared that casual gamers would find the learning curve daunting . IGN warned that gamers with lesser skills might not " get as much out of this game as others due to [ its ] incredible difficulty " , and Edge commented that " Tecmo ’ s refusal to extend any kind of handhold to less dedicated players is simply a failure of design , not a badge of hardcore honour " and " it ’ s impossible to believe they couldn ’ t have found a way to increase the accessibility of the game without undermining the gloriously intractable nature of the challenges it contains . " EGM found the challenge to be " rewarding " as it " motivates you to actually get better at the game . " Clive Thompson focused on Ninja Gaiden in his Slate article examining the motivation for playing difficult games . He contends that extreme levels of challenge can be initially very frustrating and may cause a game to be abandoned in disgust . However , where a game also rewards a player 's perseverance by teaching the skills required to overcome its challenges , that player will have the motivation to finish the game . Ninja Gaiden , in his opinion , strikes the correct balance between challenge and reward ; completion brings " a sort of exhausted exhilaration , like finally reaching the end of War and Peace . " In 2012 , CraveOnline included it on their list of five " badass ninja games " , calling it " the pinnacle of action gaming at the time , holding onto that crown for an entire year until God of War released in 2005 " and " a true video game classic , and maybe the best ninja game of all time . " That same year , G4tv ranked it as the 83rd top video game of all time , also calling it " the best ninja game ever made and one of the all around hardest . "
|
= Milutin Bojić =
Milutin Bojić ( Serbian Cyrillic : Милутин Бојић ; 18 May [ O.S. 7 May ] 1892 – 8 November [ O.S. 25 October ] 1917 ) was a Serbian poet , theatre critic , playwright , and soldier .
A native of Belgrade , he began writing poetry at an early age and published a number of literary reviews under a pseudonym while he was still a teenager . He rose to prominence during the Balkan Wars , writing about his experiences in territories newly retaken from the Ottoman Empire . The outbreak of World War I interrupted Bojić 's studies at the University of Belgrade and forced him to postpone marrying his girlfriend , Radmila Todorović . The couple were separated in the chaos of war , and Bojić left Belgrade with his family and relocated to Niš , where he worked as a military censor and wrote articles for a local newspaper to pay his family 's bills . In October 1915 , the Serbian Army was overwhelmed by a combined Austro @-@ Hungarian , Bulgarian and German invasion and forced to retreat to neutral Greece via Albania . Bojić and his younger brother joined the exodus , marching for several weeks through Kosovo , Montenegro and northern Albania , where they were finally reunited with Bojić 's fiancée . Bojić was not allowed to accompany his brother and fiancée on a ship destined for Italy because he was of fighting age , and had to continue marching to Greece without them .
In early 1916 , Bojić reached the Greek island of Corfu , where he was recruited to work for Serbian military intelligence . That summer , he was transferred to Thessaloniki , where he continued working for the military . In August , he was granted leave and sailed to France , where he reunited with his fiancée and his brother . Bojić returned to Greece several weeks later , and was diagnosed with tuberculosis in September the following year . Owing to the political connections of his patrons , he managed to find care at an exclusive military hospital in Thessaloniki , but by late October his condition worsened . He died in early November at the age of 25 . He was initially buried at the Allied military cemetery at Zeitenlik , but in 1922 , his siblings had his remains relocated to Belgrade , where they were reburied beside those of his parents .
Bojić 's popularity grew exponentially following his death . Many of his poems received widespread critical acclaim for their portrayal of the Serbian Army 's retreat during the winter of 1915 – 16 and its stay on Corfu , where thousands of soldiers succumbed to disease and exhaustion and were buried at sea . Bojić 's work remained popular in Yugoslavia for much of the 20th century , cementing his reputation as one of the greatest Serbian poets of the Romantic period .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Family = = =
Milutin Bojić was born in Belgrade on 18 May [ O.S. 7 May ] 1892 , the eldest child of Jovan and Sofia Bojić ( née Bogojević ) . His father 's family was originally from Herzegovina . Following the First Serbian Uprising , Bojić 's great @-@ grandfather fled his ancestral homeland and settled in the Austro @-@ Hungarian city of Semlin ( modern Zemun ) to escape Ottoman persecution . Bojić 's father and grandfather were born in Semlin , and were good @-@ standing members of the town 's fledgling Serb community . In 1875 , Bojić 's father was conscripted into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army . Shortly afterwards , he entered into an argument with a high @-@ ranking Hungarian officer , insulted him , then fled to the Serbian capital to escape punishment . He attended trade school in Belgrade and became a successful shoemaker .
Bojić 's matrilineal line traces its origins to the town of Tetovo , in what is now northern Macedonia . His mother 's family had fled the town in 1690 as part of the Great Serb Migration and settled in Bečkerek ( modern Zrenjanin ) . Bojić 's maternal grandfather , Jovan , had lived in the border town of Pančevo since he was a child , married and started a family there . Much like Bojić 's father , he was a successful shoemaker , and in 1890 he offered to marry his only daughter to him . After initial disagreement over the price of the dowry , Bogojević gave the marriage his blessing and Bojić 's parents were soon married .
At the time of Bojić 's birth , his parents were living in a small flat at No. 4 Sremska Street , situated just above his father 's shop in Belgrade 's Stari Grad . Over the next decade , they had four more children – Jelica ( b . 1894 ) , Danica ( b . 1896 ) , Radivoje ( b . 1900 ) and Dragoljub ( b . 1905 ) . All of their children survived to adulthood . When Bojić was a child , he and his family were frequently visited by his mother 's cousin Jovan Sremac , the brother of humourist Stevan Sremac . Jovan is said to have greatly influenced the young Bojić , having introduced him to Serbian folk tales and medieval legends at an early age .
= = = Education and first publications = = =
Bojić began attending the Terazije Elementary School in 1898 , and finished with excellent grades . He likely began writing poetry between the ages of eight and ten , and this caught the attention of some of his teachers . Jovan Dravić , who taught Serbian in Bojić 's school , wrote : " One of my pupils has been writing poetry since his first year of elementary school . His father , a shoemaker on Sremska Street , is very proud of his son 's work . He keeps his poems locked away in a safe as great treasures , convinced that they are of immense value and proof of his son 's brilliant future . "
In 1902 , the Bojićes moved into a small house on Hilandarska Street . That autumn , Bojić enrolled into Belgrade 's Secondary School No. 2 , which taught children from the ages of ten to eighteen . Over the next several years , Bojić distinguished himself as an excellent student . In 1907 , he was recognized as the best student in his school , and was exempt from final examinations . By this time , Bojić 's poems started appearing in his school 's periodical . He also began writing literary reviews for Jovan Skerlić and Milan Grol 's Daily News ( Dnevni list ) , and became the paper 's youngest contributor . All of Bojić 's contributions there were written under a pseudonym because he feared he would not be taken seriously if his true age was uncovered . Bojić also authored articles in the newspapers Artwork ( Delo ) , Wreath ( Venac ) and The Serbian Literary Gazette ( Srpski književni glasnik ) . In 1908 , during the Austro @-@ Hungarian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina , Bojić penned his first stage play , titled " The Blind Despot " ( Slepi despot ) . It was meant to be the first play of a trilogy titled " The Despot 's Crown " ( Despotova kruna ) . Bojić shared the play with his friend Radoslav Vesnić , who then showed it to Rista Odović , the director of the National Theatre in Belgrade .
By the end of his secondary school studies , Bojić was elected chairman of his school 's literary club . Upon turning eighteen , in May 1910 , he was deemed unfit to serve in the Serbian Army and excused from mandatory service . After graduation , in the autumn of 1910 , he enrolled in the University of Belgrade 's Faculty of Philosophy , where he studied the works of Immanuel Kant , as well as German , Italian and South Slavic literature with varying rates of success . Shortly after entering the university , Bojić began contributing theatrical reviews to Pijemont , an ultra @-@ nationalist daily strongly opposed to the Prime Minister of Serbia , Nikola Pašić , and his People 's Radical Party ( Serbian : Narodna radikalna stranka ; NRS ) . Pijemont was also the quasi @-@ official paper of the secret organization Unification or Death ( better known as the Black Hand ) , which played an important role in Serbian political life between 1903 and 1914 .
Milutin K. Dragutinović was one of Bojić 's greatest influences during his teenage years . Dragutinović was one of Bojić 's former secondary school teachers , as well as a literary critic and member of the National Theatre 's artistic committee . He advised Bojić to continue writing poetry and dramatic verse . In 1911 , Bojić shared the first draft of a stage play titled " Chains " ( Lanci ) with Dragutinović , who encouraged him to submit it to a competition held by the Literary Committee of the National Theatre in Belgrade . Bojić 's play was one of forty @-@ two works that were submitted . A number of prominent writers took part in the competition , including Ivo Vojnović , Branislav Nušić , Aleksa Šantić , and Svetozar Ćorović . " Chains " was rejected as being too " naïve " and " full of youthful exaggerations " , and the prize went to another contestant . In May , Bojić 's father died suddenly of a heart attack , aged 56 .
= = = Rise to prominence and coverage of the Balkan Wars = = =
Despite his busy schedule , during his university years Bojić spent many of his nights in cafés and bars , mingling with other artists in Skadarlija , Belgrade 's Bohemian quarter . He was extremely popular among the writers and artists of his generation .
During this time , many of Belgrade 's merchant elite became art patrons . Bojić 's patrons were Ljuba Jovanović @-@ Patak and his wife Simka , who used their power and influence to publicize his works . During the Balkan Wars , Bojić accompanied the Serbian Army as a war reporter and wrote several travelogues about his experiences in Kosovo and Macedonia . The expulsion of the Turks , who had occupied much of the Balkans for 500 years , seemed to fill Bojić with optimism about the future . Helena Malířová , a Czech volunteer nurse with the 17th Reserve Hospital of the Serbian Army 's 7th Regiment , recalled : " His spirit was in constant opposition to everything ; at the same time he was an enthusiast . He was bursting with desires , and he drank the sap of life through his senses . " Historian Mihailo Đorđević writes :
[ Bojić ] was an impulsive young man . From rare photographs and the testimony of his contemporaries emerges [ ... ] a figure of medium stature , with slightly drooped shoulders , thick brown hair , and a pale oval face . His eyebrows were dark , and one of them was almost always raised , giving his face an expression of intense irony . His eyes burned with constant passion , and his lips were full and sensuous . There was also something young and vulnerable in his smile . He smiled often , and his conversation was reputed to be brilliant .
As the wars raged , Bojić wrote a historical drama titled " The King 's Autumn " ( Kraljeva jesen ) , which received considerable praise from Skerlić . The drama premiered at the National Theatre in October 1913 . Another one of Bojić 's works , " Ms. Olga " ( Gospođa Olga ) premiered soon after . In early 1914 , publishing magnate Svetislav Cvijanović printed Bojić 's first poetry collection , consisting of 48 works .
= = = Outbreak of World War I and retreat to Corfu = = =
At the outbreak of World War I , Bojić was in his final year at the University of Belgrade and had gotten engaged to his girlfriend , Radmila Todorović . The war put a stop to his education , and Bojić decided to postpone the marriage until peace was restored . He remained employed at Pijemont until 1915 , when he left Belgrade with his family , never to return . While Todorović remained in the city , the Bojićes moved to the town of Aranđelovac in the Serbian interior . Shortly after , they moved to Niš as it was further from the frontlines . There , Bojić worked as a military censor . He wrote articles for the Niš Gazette ( Niški glasnik ) to pay his family 's bills . In early February 1915 , Bojić 's mother died of cancer , leaving him to take care of his younger siblings .
Bojić devoted most of his creative energy to the completion of an epic poem titled Cain , which was published just before the combined Austro @-@ Hungarian , Bulgarian and German invasion of Serbia in October 1915 . A deeply patriotic work , Cain compares Bulgaria 's impending attack on Serbia to the Biblical story of Cain jealously murdering his brother Abel . Upon capturing Niš , the Bulgarians burned every copy of the poem , and the only one that survived was the one that Bojić carried with him out of the city . Upon leaving Niš , Bojić and his brother Radivoje joined the Serbian Army in its retreat to the Adriatic coast . Their sisters and infant brother went to live with a cousin in occupied Kraljevo . The Bojić brothers ' journey took them through Kuršumlija , Mitrovica , Pristina , Prizren , Đakovica , Dečani and Peć , from where they continued to Andrijevica and Podgorica . The two intended to join retreating Montenegrin Army columns and head on to Scutari , where they hoped that Allied ships would evacuate them and other Serbian troops to Italy .
The Serbs quickly realized that they had no hope of being evacuated at Scutari due to the Austro @-@ Hungarian naval presence off the northern Albanian coast , and the Serbian and Montenegrin military leaderships elected to retreat further into the Albanian interior rather than surrender . The Serbs and Montenegrins marched south , first to Durrës and then to Vlorë . From there , they intended to meet up with a French expeditionary force that was to evacuate them to the Greek island of Corfu . Thousands of soldiers either died of hunger or succumbed to the cold . Many were ambushed by hostile Albanian tribesmen and killed while traversing the countryside . While marching through the wilderness , Bojić began writing a poetry anthology titled " Songs of Pride and Suffering " ( Pesme bola i ponosa ) , which would comprise some of his best known works . He also started working on a new drama in verse titled " The Marriage of Uroš " ( Uroševa ženidba ) .
Stojan Živadinović , a friend who accompanied Bojić on the difficult journey , recalled :
He was dressed in a strange way . A šajkača was pulled to the front of his head and almost completely covered his forehead . His eyebrows were hardly visible . Under its weight , the ears seemed to have collapsed . He wore a kind of long , black coat , covered in mud and held in place by a string . He used another piece of string for a belt , and from it hung a pot for boiling water , a tea strainer , a canteen , and other useful things . He walked slightly bent forward , followed everywhere by the noise of the things clashing at his waist .
The occupation of Serbia by the Central Powers pained Bojić far more than the everyday struggles of the exodus itself . He is said to have slept very little , telling Živadinović : " You don 't realize what you are missing by sleeping . In circumstances like these , the entire soul must be kept constantly awake . Whole centuries have never painted such a vast fresco . Never has death been so greedy , nor heroes so indifferent to it . " In December 1915 , Bojić reached Shëngjin with the others and reunited with his fiancée . Živadinović recalled : " I shall never forget the day that we saw the sea . Only then did Bojić begin to speak about the future . He was making plans for a vast novel in verse , for comedies , dramas , tragedies , all intended to bring the great events of our history back to life . " Upon reaching the coast , Bojić was told that he could not board the ship to Italy because he was of fighting age . His fiancée was allowed to board and his fifteen @-@ year @-@ old brother was judged to be too young for military service and granted passage as well . Unable to go with them , Bojić and his companions continued down the length of the Albanian coast until they reached Corfu , where the Allies had sent ships to transport the remnants of the Serbian Army to the Greek mainland .
Upon reaching Corfu , thousands of Serb troops began showing symptoms of typhus and had to be quarantined on the island of Vido , where 11 @,@ 000 died over the span of two months . Seven thousand of these had to be buried at sea because there was not enough space for their remains to be interred on land ; corpses were simply piled onto barges and tossed overboard . Bojić was appalled by the suffering . " Our church bells toll dead instead of hours , " he wrote . Witnessing the disposal of bodies inspired Bojić to write the poem " Ode to a Blue Sea Tomb " ( Plava Grobnica ) , which Đorđević describes as " Bojić 's best ... a masterpiece of Serbian patriotic poetry . " Shortly after arriving at Corfu , Bojić was recruited to work for Serbian military intelligence . In mid @-@ 1916 , he was transferred to Thessaloniki .
= = = Last years and death = = =
Upon reaching Thessaloniki , Bojić spent much of his spare time reading the works of French authors and writing poetry . In August 1916 , he received a month 's leave and sailed for France , where his fiancée and brother had gone to escape from the war , shortly after landing in Italy . Bojić spent the month with his fiancée in Nice . Upon returning to Greece , Bojić resumed his army service , and continued writing poetry . " Songs of Pride and Suffering " was first published in Thessaloniki in mid @-@ 1917 . Nearly every copy of the anthology was destroyed in the Great Fire of Thessaloniki , in August 1917 . The only copy that survived was one sent by Bojić to his fiancée in France and this became the basis for the post @-@ war edition .
In September 1917 , Bojić was diagnosed with tuberculosis . Owing to the influence of his old patron , Ljuba Jovanović @-@ Patak , he was admitted to a military hospital in central Thessaloniki which tended exclusively to Serbian Army officers , where Jovanović 's wife often visited him . Bojić continued writing poetry , and as his condition deteriorated , his poems began to take a melancholy tone . Nevertheless , he remained optimistic that he would recover from his illness and see his family again . One month before his death , he sent his fiancée and brother a telegram assuring them that he was " ... only slightly ill " and promised they would be reunited . Bojić died of tuberculosis on 8 November [ O.S. 25 October ] 1917 . Even a few hours before his death , he appeared convinced of his survival . According to a fellow patient , Bojić " ... died choking in half @-@ sleep from a fit of coughing that destroyed the tissues of his lungs . " He was buried at the Zeitenlik military cemetery in Thessaloniki . His family was shocked by the news of his death , particularly his brother and fiancée , who believed him to be on the road to recovery . In 1922 , Bojić 's remains were exhumed and transferred to Belgrade 's New Cemetery , where they were reburied beside those of his parents .
All of Bojić 's siblings survived the war ; his brother Radivoje became a diplomat and worked in the Yugoslav Ministry of Foreign Affairs until the Axis invasion of the country in April 1941 , when he left Yugoslavia with his family and emigrated to the West . Bojić 's youngest brother , Dragoljub , spent the rest of his life in Belgrade and became a high school geography teacher . His sister Jelica married and lived in Belgrade until her death in 1942 . His youngest sister , Danica , died single in 1952 . Bojić 's fiancée Radmila remained loyal to him and never married after his death ; she returned to Serbia after the war and died in Belgrade in 1971 .
= = Influences , themes and legacy = =
While at the University of Belgrade , Bojić studied The Bible in his free time and read the works of Victor Hugo , Friedrich Nietzsche , Charles Baudelaire , Leo Tolstoy , Anton Chekhov and Sigmund Freud , among others . Đorđević notes that Bojić 's early poems reflect the degree to which he was influenced by the " exalted sensuality " of Baudelaire 's works . He contends that Baudelaire 's influence on Bojić 's early work is " rather unfortunate " , as by striving to imitate Baudelaire 's style , Bojić failed to achieve originality and instead merely used Baudelaire as a " crutch in the absence of spontaneous emotion " .
As he matured , Bojić was influenced by the works of Irish writer Oscar Wilde , particularly the play Salome , which was being performed at the National Theatre in Belgrade during Bojić 's university years . The play influenced Bojić to such an extent that he later composed a poem of the same name . According to Đorđević , Bojić was " thrilled by the beauty of Wilde 's descriptions " , and reading his work inspired Bojić to use Biblical rhythm and accentuation . Đorđević notes that the archaic phrase " thou art " only appears in Bojić 's poems after he began reading Wilde . Wilde 's influence can also be observed in Bojić 's lyric plays , especially " The King 's Autumn " . Bojić was also inspired by French playwright Edmond Rostand , whose play L 'Aiglon was Bojić 's " dramatic ideal incarnate " . Rostand 's influence is most clearly felt in " The Marriage of Uroš " , where Bojić paid homage to Rostand by writing the entire drama in verse , a style that was considered obsolete at the time . Serbian history and medieval legends had the greatest influence on Bojić 's plays ; Đorđević notes that " all Bojić 's dramas , published or not , are inspired by Serbian medieval motifs " .
The Balkan Wars inspired Bojić to write his first patriotic poetry , where he attempted to emulate Hugo 's rhetorical verse . By 1914 , much of Bojić 's poetry revolved around patriotic themes , and by 1917 this theme had overtaken all others . In his last months , the only non @-@ patriotic poems that Bojić wrote were about the love he felt towards his fiancée . The historian John K. Cox opines that Bojić 's " personal suffering ... [ embodied ] Serbian history at the crossroads of greatness and disaster . "
Cox considers Bojić the most famous of the many Serbian artists and writers who perished during World War I. Đorđević contends that Bojić achieved more during his short career than a number of other writers and poets who led far longer lives . He writes that Bojić 's influence on Serbian literature would have been even greater had he survived the war , and praises him as " one of the great poets of the 20th century " .
In May 2014 , the inaugural Milutin Bojić Prize was awarded to a student from Čačak by the Milutin Bojić Library , a Belgrade @-@ based learning institution dedicated exclusively to studies on Bojić 's life and work . The Library is funded by the Serbian Ministry of Culture , and operates an extensive online database known as the Milutin Bojić Virtual Library . In August 2014 , researchers discovered the original manuscript of " Ode to a Blue Sea Tomb " in the Library 's archives . The yellowed slip of paper was immediately given to experts at the National Library of Serbia , who went about restoring it so as to prevent further decay .
= = = Endnotes = = =
|
= The Target ( The Office ) =
" The Target " is the eighth episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the 184th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC on November 29 , 2012 . It features guest star Chris Gethard as Trevor .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) goes to Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) for help when she learns that her husband is having an affair . Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) and Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) take advantage of Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) when he needs a favor , and Pete ( Jake Lacy ) distracts Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) as she begins painting her mural .
" The Target " received positive reviews from critics , with many commenting on Nunez and Kinsey 's performances . The episode was viewed by 3 @.@ 88 million viewers and received 1 @.@ 9 / 5 rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking fourth in its timeslot . The episode , however , ultimately ranked as the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) believes that Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) does not know about his affair with her husband , but in fact she is playing dumb in order to keep Oscar off his guard while she makes arrangements to have him killed . She goes to Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) for help , without telling him the details , and he calls a fellow former volunteer sheriff 's deputy named Trevor ( Chris Gethard ) for assistance . After Trevor shows his credentials , Angela says she wants the target murdered , which Dwight protests is too extreme , so they compromise to breaking the target 's kneecaps . Dwight realizes the target is Oscar when Angela angrily crushes a cookie given to her by Oscar . Dwight tries to get Angela to reconsider , but Trevor has already arrived to carry out the job . Dwight rushes to get Oscar out . They run into Trevor outside . A struggle between the three men ensues , with Oscar ultimately managing to take away Trevor 's lead pipe . When Trevor runs away , Oscar and Dwight are confronted by Angela , who blames Oscar for turning her husband gay . Oscar says that he was always gay , and refuses to hand the lead pipe over to Angela . She kicks him in the shin instead . Upset that they don 't understand homosexuality , Dwight and Angela go to Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) , who is confounded by their outlandish questions over homosexual activity .
Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) asks Dunder Mifflin CEO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) if he can work part @-@ time so he can go to Philadelphia to help with his sports marketing job . David Wallace says that he might be needed in the office if there 's a crisis with one of his clients , to which he responds that Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) and Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) have agreed to cover for him , though he in fact hasn 't asked them yet . Stanley and Phyllis respond with their usual disinterest in helping others , so Jim offers to treat them to lunch . Stanley and Phyllis order extra side dishes and help themselves to an excess of wine , annoying Jim with drunken behavior and silencing him whenever he brings up the subject of their covering for him . When they arrive back at the office , a drunk Stanley and Phyllis are seemingly passed out in Jim 's backseat . When Jim puts his coat on them to keep them warm , Phyllis and Stanley say they will cover for him as they care for Jim and his family , laughing as they reveal they were only pranking him . Jim gives both of them a hug .
Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) decides to start painting her mural in the warehouse , but has a hard time getting started as she is afraid of it not being perfect . Meanwhile , bored with having to fill out customer complaint cards ( which he finds redundant because the complaints are already in the computer ) , Pete ( Jake Lacy ) uses them to build a card tower in the annex with other employees . The card tower takes on a deeper meaning for the employees when Pete points out that it is composed of failures made by every one of them ( excepting only Pam ) , and thus proves that they should not be ashamed of their failures . They decide to try to make it go all the way to the ceiling , but end up one complaint card short . Not wanting to use a blank card as it would defy the point of the tower , Pam offers to complete the tower by getting her first customer complaint . She calls one of their smaller clients , delivers a yo mama joke , and hangs up . The client , whose mother was actually obese and is now deceased , drops Dunder Mifflin as their paper supplier , leaving them simultaneously excited over getting that last complaint and disappointed over losing a client . After celebrating the completion of the card tower , Pam finally starts painting the mural , saying artists should not care too much in what others think , further asserting this by telling off Hide ( Hidetoshi Imura ) when he insults her artwork .
= = Production = =
" The Target " was written by producer Graham Wagner , marking his debut writing credit for the series after joining the writing staff in the ninth season . It was directed by executive producer Brent Forrester , his fourth directing credit for the series and first since the eighth season episode , " Test the Store " . Ed Helms and Clark Duke did not appear in the episode . This is due to the fact that they were both written out of several episodes of the season in order to film The Hangover Part III and Kick @-@ Ass 2 , respectively .
The official website of The Office included several cut scenes from " The Target " within a week of the episode 's release . In the first 58 @-@ second clip , Pam feels further pressure over her mural and reveals that several of the warehouse workers think her name is Pat . In the second 60 @-@ second clip , The Senator comes by the office , Jim pretends to beg to Stanley and Phyllis while they are sleeping , and Pam talks more about her mural . In the third 66 @-@ second clip , Angela checks out Trevor 's qualifications .
= = Cultural references = =
Dwight assures Angela that she is not stupid , rather " Jazz is stupid . " Angela concurs , saying : " Just play the right notes ! " " The Target " features several meta @-@ references and references to previous episodes . Dwight tells Angela and Trevor that " this documentary crew has been following our every move for the past nine years but I don 't see them so I think we 're good " , when they are in Trevor 's van . Angela and Dwight question Toby about the tendencies of homosexuals in a way similar to how Dwight questions Toby about the appearance of female genitalia in the second season episode " Sexual Harassment " . While working on her mural , Pam is seen wearing a Pratt Institute hoodie , which she attended for three months during the fifth season . Angela tells Dwight to meet up in the " usual place " , which Dwight shows up to nude , referencing their previous secretive relationship .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Target " originally aired on NBC on November 29 , 2012 . In its original American broadcast , the episode was viewed by 3 @.@ 88 million viewers and received a 1 @.@ 9 rating / 5 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This made " The Target " the lowest rated episode of the series , tying with " Here Comes Treble " . The episode also ranks as the least @-@ viewed episode of the series and the first one to fall below the 4 @-@ million viewer mark . Despite this , The Office was the highest @-@ rated NBC television program . When DVR ratings were taken into account , the episode was viewed by 6 @.@ 047 million viewers , a 56 percent increase .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Target " received mostly positive reviews from critics , with many praising the performances of Oscar Nunez and Angela Kinsey . The A.V. Club reviewer Erik Adams wrote that the episode was a perfect mix , between the more subtle , realistic style of the early seasons , and the more @-@ farcical style of the most recent seasons . He named the Oscar @-@ Angela plotline a " season highlight " , and complimented Angela Kinsey 's commitment to Angela throughout the plotline . He also praised the other storylines of the episode for showing the family @-@ like bond between the whole ensemble . He ultimately gave the episode an " A – " . Cindy White of IGN commented that the episode proved the series did not need a character in the role of the boss . She complimented the confrontation between Oscar and Angela and the Pam subplot for marking some " development " in her character , but criticized the Jim @-@ Stanley @-@ Phyllis subplot for being " over the top " . She ultimately gave the episode an 8 @.@ 0 / 10 . Paste writer Bonnie Stiernberg called the episode " strong " , and compared it to the older episodes . She praised the Oscar @-@ Angela plotline , calling it Oscar Nunez and Kinsey 's best performance of the year . She also complimented the Jim @-@ Stanley @-@ Phyllis subplot , calling the ending to it sweet , and the Pam @-@ Pete @-@ Erin subplot , calling it " more complex @-@ but no less enjoyable " and praised the development of Pam 's character , considering it to be " touching " . Stiernberg ultimately gave the episode an 8 @.@ 6 / 10 .
Michael Tedder of New York praised the writers work and for giving " nice character moments " to the cast , particularly Kinsey . He also praised them for giving Kinsey " more to work with " , comparing her role in previous episodes which featured her character being " exaggerated to cartoon levels for the sake of a laugh " . ScreenCrush reviewer Damon Houx was slightly more critical with his review , writing that while the cast was quite good , the episode was too struggled with " find [ ing ] stuff for everyone to do " , and that the Pete @-@ Erin @-@ Pam and Jim @-@ Stanley @-@ Phyllis subplots " ultimately have nowhere interesting to go " . Multiple critics noted similarities between the style of this episode with the early seasons of the series , particularly for its use of callbacks .
|
= Royal Question =
The Royal Question ( French : Question royale , Dutch : Koningskwestie ) was a major political crisis in Belgium that lasted from 1945 to 1951 , coming to a head between March and August 1950 . The " Question " at stake surrounded whether King Leopold III could resume his royal powers and duties as King of the Belgians amid allegations that his actions during World War II had gone contrary to the provisions of the Belgian Constitution . It was eventually resolved by the abdication of Leopold in favour of his son , Baudouin , in 1951 .
The crisis emerged from the division between Leopold and his government , led by Hubert Pierlot , during the German invasion of 1940 . Leopold , who was suspected of authoritarian sympathies , had taken over command of the Belgian Army at the outbreak of war . Considering his constitutional position as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief to take precedence over his civil role as head of state , he refused to leave his army and join the Belgian government in exile in France . Leopold 's refusal to obey the Government marked a constitutional crisis and , after having negotiated the surrender to the Germans on 28 May , Leopold was widely condemned . During the subsequent German occupation , Leopold was held under house arrest in his palace where he was praised for stoically sharing the suffering of ordinary Belgians . Shortly before the Allies liberated the country in 1944 , he was deported to Germany by the Nazis .
With Belgium liberated but the King still in captivity , a regency was proclaimed and Leopold 's brother , Prince Charles , Count of Flanders , was elected as prince regent . The King was declared officially " unable to rule " in accordance with the Constitution . With the country divided along political lines over whether the King could ever return to his functions , and with the left wing dominant politically , Leopold went into exile in Switzerland . In 1950 , a national referendum was organised by a new centre @-@ right government to decide on whether Leopold could return . Although the result was a victory for the Leopoldists , it produced a strong regional split between Flanders , which was broadly in favour of the King 's return , and Brussels and Wallonia which generally opposed it . Leopold 's return to Belgium in July 1950 was greeted with widespread protests in Wallonia and a general strike . The unrest culminated in the killing of four workers by police on 31 July . With the situation fast deteriorating , on 1 August 1950 Leopold announced his intention to resign . After a transition period , he formally abdicated in favour of Baudouin in July 1951 .
= = Background = =
= = = Monarchy and the Constitution = = =
Belgium gained its independence from the United Netherlands in 1830 and was established as a popular and constitutional monarchy under a bicameral parliamentary democracy . A liberal Constitution was written in 1831 which codified the responsibilities and restrictions imposed on the monarch . Although the King , as head of state , was prevented from acting without the approval of a government minister , he was allowed full control of military matters in his capacity as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . Which responsibility would take precedence if they became incompatible was left ambiguous and this uncertainty would lie at the heart of the Royal Question . The first king , King Leopold I , accepted the terms of the Constitution but attempted to use its ambiguities to subtly increase his own powers . This was continued by his successors , although with little real success .
= = = King Leopold III = = =
King Leopold III came to the throne in 1934 after his father , Albert I , died in a mountaineering accident . Albert , known as the " Knight King " ( roi @-@ chevalier or koning @-@ ridder ) , had been hugely popular in Belgium after commanding the Belgian army during World War I ( 1914 – 18 ) while much of the country was under German occupation . Leopold 's reign was marked by economic crisis in the wake of the Great Depression , and political agitation by both far @-@ left and far @-@ right parties . Amid this period of crisis , Leopold attempted to expand the powers of the monarch . He was widely suspected of holding authoritarian and right @-@ wing political views . From 1936 , Leopold was a strong supporter of Belgium 's " independence policy " of political neutrality in the face of Nazi Germany 's increasingly aggressive territorial expansion .
= = German invasion and occupation , 1940 – 44 = =
On 10 May 1940 , German forces invaded neutral Belgium without a formal declaration of war . Leopold headed immediately to Fort Breendonk , the headquarters of the Belgian army near Mechelen , to take control of the army . He refused to address the Belgian parliament beforehand , as Albert I had famously done at the outbreak of World War I. The speed of the German advance , using the new Blitzkrieg approach , soon pushed the Belgian army westwards despite British and French support . On 16 May , the Belgian government left Brussels .
= = = Break between King and Government = = =
Soon after the outbreak of war , the King and Government began to disagree . While the Government argued that the German invasion had violated Belgian neutrality and made Belgium one of the Allies , Leopold argued that Belgium was still a neutral country and had no obligations beyond defending its borders . Leopold opposed allowing British and French forces into Belgian territory to fight alongside Belgian troops , as a breach of its neutrality .
On 25 May 1940 , Leopold met senior representatives of his Government for a final time at the Kasteel van Wijnendale in West Flanders . The meeting is frequently cited as the start of the Royal Question and the moment of the decisive break between King and Government . Four ministers of the Government were present : Hubert Pierlot , Paul @-@ Henri Spaak , Henri Denis and Arthur Vanderpoorten . By the time of the meeting , against the backdrop of the bloody Battle of the Lys , the Belgian government was preparing to continue the fight against Germany from exile in France . They urged the King to join them , following the examples of Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands and Charlotte , Grand Duchess of Luxembourg . The King rejected their arguments and hardened his own position . He refused to leave Belgian territory and his army in Flanders at any cost . The ministers suspected that Leopold 's aides were already negotiating with the Germans . The meeting broke up with no agreement and the Belgian Government left for France .
Leopold negotiated a cease @-@ fire with the Germans on 27 May 1940 , and the Belgian armed forces officially surrendered the following day . Leopold became a prisoner of war and was placed under house arrest at the Royal Palace of Laeken , near Brussels . Furious that the King had both ignored the government and negotiated a surrender without consulting them , Pierlot gave an angry speech on Radio Paris , condemning the King and announcing the Government 's intention to continue fighting alongside the Allies . French politicians , notably Paul Reynaud , blamed Leopold for the growing disaster of the Battle of France and angrily condemned him as a " criminal king " ( roi @-@ félon ) .
= = = Leopold during the German occupation = = =
With the Belgian surrender on 28 May 1940 , Belgium was placed under German occupation and a military administration was established under General Alexander von Falkenhausen to govern the country . Belgian civil servants were ordered to remain at their posts in order to ensure the continued functioning of the state and to attempt to protect the population from the demands of the German authorities .
With France 's defeat and the installation of the pro @-@ German Vichy regime , it was widely believed that Germany was about to win the war . Leopold was hailed as a " martyr " or a symbol of national resilience , in contrast to a Government that appeared to place its ideology above the interests of the Belgian people . On 31 May 1940 , the senior representative of the Catholic Church in Belgium , Cardinal Jozef @-@ Ernest van Roey , circulated a pastoral letter calling for all Belgians to unite around the King . Other figures in the King 's entourage , particularly the authoritarian socialist Henri De Man , believed that democracy had failed and that the end of the war would see the King as the ruler of an authoritarian Belgian state .
Imprisoned , the King continued to follow his own political programme . He believed that after the German victory a " New Order " would be established in Europe and that , as the senior Belgian figure in occupied Europe , he could negotiate with the German authorities . Leopold corresponded with Adolf Hitler and tried to organise a meeting with him . Hitler remained uninterested and distrustful of the King , but on 19 November 1940 Leopold succeeded in gaining an unproductive audience with him at Berchtesgaden .
Popular support for Leopold in Belgium declined sharply in December 1941 when news of Leopold 's remarriage to Lilian Baels was made public . The marriage was deeply unpopular with the Belgian public . The image of the " prisoner @-@ king " ( roi prisonnier ) , sharing the suffering of the Belgian prisoners of war , was undermined and his popularity fell sharply , especially in Wallonia , the home of the majority of the Belgian prisoners still detained . Popular opinion also turned on the king for his perceived unwillingness to speak out against German occupation policies .
Amid German defeats against the Russians on the Eastern Front after 1942 , the King prepared for the end of the war . He ordered the preparation of a document , known as the Political Testament ( Testament Politique ) , which would justify his behaviour under the occupation and detail his interventions on behalf of Belgian prisoners of war and deported workers . Leopold however continued to condemn the action of the Belgian government in exile ( based in London after October 1940 ) . On 7 June 1944 , following D @-@ Day , he was deported to Germany . He was finally liberated by American forces on 7 May 1945 .
= = Regency and the early crisis , 1944 – 49 = =
= = = Leopold declared " unable to reign " , 1944 = = =
After D @-@ Day , Allied troops crossed the Belgian frontier on 1 September 1944 . German forces did little to oppose the liberating forces , which by 4 September were in control of Brussels , although the last occupied parts of Belgian territory were only liberated in February 1945 . On 8 September 1944 , the government in exile returned to Brussels and was greeted with general indifference . Although the King was no longer in the country , his Political Testament was presented to the returned Government as he had wished , and was soon circulated publicly . At the same time , a copy was presented to the British king , George VI , and was seen by the Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden . The text reignited the divisions within the Government which had been largely hidden since earlier in the war .
Since the King was still in German custody , there was no opposition to the creation of a regent in his absence . On 20 September 1944 , a meeting of both Chambers of Parliament was called . Article 82 of the Constitution was invoked , declaring the King " unable to reign " ( dans l 'impossibilité de régner ) . Leopold 's reclusive brother , Prince Charles , Count of Flanders , was elected prince regent and took the oath the following day . Further action on the Royal Question was pushed aside by more pressing economic and political issues that occupied most of the Government 's time .
= = = Political recovery and revival of the Royal Question = = =
Soon after the liberation , Belgium began a period of rapid economic recovery and the process of political reconstruction began . The traditional party system had been torn apart by the war and occupation . The two major ideological blocks proceeded to create their own parties : socialists created the Belgian Socialist Party ( PSB @-@ BSP ) , while Catholics and conservatives created the Christian Social Party ( PSC @-@ CVP ) . The biggest change in early post @-@ liberation politics was the surge of support for the Communist Party of Belgium , which become the third party in Belgian politics until 1949 , temporarily displacing the Liberal Party . The Walloon Movement also re @-@ emerged after the war , promoting the culture and economic interests of the French @-@ speaking areas in the south . The period saw major reform of trade unions following the creation of the first large unified union , the General Federation of Belgian Labour ( FGTB @-@ ABVV ) , in April 1945 with 248 @,@ 000 members nationwide . By 1947 , however , the political structure of the Belgian state had stabilised .
Under the early regency , both the Pierlot and subsequent Achille Van Acker governments attempted to avoid confronting the issue of Leopold 's return despite calls from Communists , some Socialists and trade unionists for the King 's resignation in April and May 1945 . Soon after the King 's liberation , Van Acker and a government delegation headed to Strobl , Austria to negotiate with Leopold . At a series of meetings between 9 and 11 May 1945 , Van Acker insisted that the King publicly announce his support for the Allied cause and his commitment to parliamentary democracy . No agreement was reached . In the meantime , Leopold took up residence in Pregny ( near Geneva ) in Switzerland under the pretext that heart palpitations made further negotiations or thoughts of return to political life impossible .
In Belgium , political debate about the Royal Question continued and grew after the war , and remained a polemical topic in the popular press , notably in the Francophone newspaper Le Soir . In the general election of 1949 , the PSC @-@ CVP campaigned on a pro @-@ Leopold royalist platform . The results reshaped the political landscape ; the Communists were routed and the PSB @-@ BSP lost seats to both the Liberals and Catholics . The Catholics gained a new majority in the Senate and a plurality in the Chamber of Representatives , their best results since the war . Gaston Eyskens took over as Prime Minister at the head of a Liberal @-@ Catholic coalition . Both parties in the government ( and Leopold himself ) supported a referendum on the King 's return , which became the focus of political attention .
= = Culmination of the crisis , 1950 = =
= = = Referendum of March 1950 = = =
The Eyskens government agreed to a national referendum , known as the " popular consultation " ( consultation populaire or volksraadpleging ) , which was scheduled for 12 March 1950 . Although campaigning was vigorous on both sides , there was little disruption to the polls .
The results of the referendum were indecisive . Leopold 's return won a clear 57 @.@ 68 per cent majority in the national vote , with majorities in seven of the nine provinces . However , the vote was heavily divided by region . In Flanders , 72 per cent voted in favour of Leopold 's return , but in Brussels the Leopoldists won only a minority of 48 per cent . In Wallonia a mere 42 per cent voted for the restitution of the King . The final results , in percentages by province , were :
* The majority in the arrondissement of Verviers voted in favour of the King 's return . ‡ The arrondissement of Namur voted against the return .
The result confirmed the worries of some , including Spaak , that the vote would not be sufficiently decisive in either direction and could divide the country along regional and linguistic lines . On 13 March , Eyskens traveled to Pregny to attempt to encourage Leopold to abdicate . Paul Van Zeeland and Spaak attempted to broker a new agreement by which Leopold would resign in favour of his son . On 15 April 1950 , Leopold announced that he was willing to temporarily delegate his authority . Many within the PSC @-@ CVP realised that , despite the referendum 's result , their party 's lack of a parliamentary majority would undermine their ability to build a national reconciliation around the King as long as their Liberal coalition partners and Socialist opponents were unwilling to accept the King 's return .
= = = Leopold 's return to Belgium = = =
On 29 April 1950 , Charles dissolved parliament pending fresh elections . His intention was probably to prevent the formation of a PSC @-@ CVP government under Van Zeeland , a staunch Leopoldist , which would lead to the return of the King without further discussion . The following election produced an absolute PSC @-@ CVP majority in both Chamber and Senate , and a new single @-@ party government under Jean Duvieusart was formed .
One of the first acts of the Duvieusart government was to introduce a bill bringing the " impossibility to reign " to an end . On 22 July 1950 , Leopold returned to Belgium for the first time since June 1944 and resumed his functions .
= = = General strike and abdication = = =
In 1949 , the FGTB @-@ ABVV voted a special budget of ten million Belgian francs to establish a Committee of Common Action ( Comité d 'action commune ) aimed at supporting strike action taken in event of the King 's return . The union took the lead in the opposition which emerged in the summer of 1950 . André Renard , a Walloon trade union leader , called for " insurrection " and " revolution " in the newspaper La Wallonie shortly after the King 's return in July 1950 . Modern historians have noted that " the smell of revolution was on the air " as Walloon nationalists called for the immediate secession of Wallonia and the creation of a republic .
The general strike of 1950 began in the coal mining centres of Hainaut and quickly spread . Workers were soon on strike across Wallonia , Brussels , and , to a lesser extent , Flanders . The port of Antwerp was one of the key sites affected and the country was virtually paralysed . On 30 July , four workers were shot dead by the Gendarmerie at Grâce @-@ Berleur , near Liège and the violence intensified . Staunch Leopoldists in the Government called for a stronger stance but found themselves in a minority , even in the PSC @-@ CVP . Frustrated at the lack of progress , the Government threatened to resign en masse .
As the situation escalated , the National Confederation of Political Prisoners and their Dependents ( Confédération nationale des prisonniers politiques et des ayants droit , Nationale Confederatie van Politieke Gevangenen en Rechthebbenden , or CNPPA @-@ NCPGR ) , the organisation representing political prisoners detained during the German occupation , offered to act as intermediaries between the different parties because of their respected status . The CNPPA @-@ NCPGR succeeded in persuading both parties to reopen negotiations . A tense meeting between the King and Government took place during the night of 31 July to 1 August at Laeken . In the afternoon on 1 August , Leopold publicly announced his intention to resign in favour of his eldest son , Baudouin , to avoid further bloodshed . Baudouin , at the age of 19 , formally became prince royal on 11 August 1950 .
= = Accession of Baudouin , 1951 = =
Leopold 's abdication message of 1 August 1950 was premised on a reconciliation in the person of his eldest son over the course of a year . Baudouin was seen by most parties as an acceptable alternative candidate . According to a law approved on 11 August , executive powers were transferred to Baudouin in advance of the official abdication . Leopold formally abdicated on 16 July 1951 . His son succeeded him the following day .
= = = Assassination of Julien Lahaut = = =
On 17 July 1951 , as Baudouin was taking the oath of allegiance to the Constitution in front of the Parliament , an unidentified individual in the Communist benches shouted " vive la république ! " ( " Long Live the Republic ! " ) . The interruption caused outrage . It was widely suspected that the culprit was Julien Lahaut , the noted Communist leader , who had been one of the leading opponents of Leopold 's return . On 18 August , Lahaut was shot dead by an unidentified assassin outside his house in Seraing , near Liège . The murder shocked the Belgian public and an estimated 200 @,@ 000 people attended Lahaut 's funeral . Although no @-@ one was ever prosecuted for the murder , it was widely attributed to clandestine Leopoldist militia like the Ligue Eltrois or the Bloc anticommuniste belge who operated with the knowledge of the security services .
= = Aftermath and significance = =
In the aftermath of the Royal Question , national priorities shifted to other political questions . On 17 September 1950 , the government of Joseph Pholien announced its intention of dispatching Belgian volunteers to fight in the Korean War . Negotiations about the European Defence Community followed and , by the mid @-@ 1950s , Belgium was immersed in a new political crisis , known as the Second School War , surrounding the secularisation of education .
Modern historians describe the Royal Question as an important moment in Belgian recovery after World War II . The opposition between Leopoldists and anti @-@ Leopoldists led to the re @-@ establishment of Socialist and Catholic political parties from before the war . The Question was also an important moment in the Belgian linguistic conflict . It also put an end to the federalisation of Belgian institutions which might exacerbate the regional tensions exposed by the Royal Question . In addition , the perceived failure of the PSC @-@ CVP to realise Flemish demands for the return of Leopold helped to strengthen support for the Flemish nationalist Volksunie party after 1954 . In Wallonia , the legacy of trade union and socialist political mobilisation during the general strike paved the way for a left @-@ wing revival of the Walloon Movement .
The Lahaut assassination was not solved , and it remains contentious as the only political murder in Belgian history apart from the death of the socialist politician André Cools in 1991 . Leopoldists were suspected , but no individual was prosecuted in the aftermath . An enquiry by historians Rudy Van Doorslaer and Etienne Verhoeyen named an alleged culprit . A final report , commissioned by the Belgian government , was submitted in 2015 .
|
= The Indian Princess ( play ) =
The Indian Princess ; or , La Belle Sauvage , is a musical play with a libretto by James Nelson Barker and music by John Bray , based on the Pocahontas story as originally recorded in John Smith 's The Generall Historie of Virginia ( 1624 ) . The piece is structured in the style of a Ballad @-@ opera , with songs and choruses , and also has music underlying dialogue , like a melodrama . Pocahontas persuades her father , King Powhatan , to free Smith and becomes attracted to John Rolfe , breaking off her arranged marriage with a neighboring tribal prince , an action that leads to war . Her tribe wins the war , but her father loses trust in the white settlers ; Pocahontas warns the settlers who reconcile with Powhatan . Several comic romances end happily , and Smith predicts a great future for the new country .
The play deals with relations between Native Americans and the first European settlers in America . Scholars have debated whether the piece is progressive in its depiction of the natives and have commented that the work reflects an emerging American dramatic and musical sensibility . It served to popularize and romanticize the Pocahontas story as an important American myth .
The comedy was first performed in 1808 at The Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia . It has been cited as the first play about American Indians by an American playwright known to be produced on a professional stage , and possibly the first play produced in America to be then performed in England , although the validity of both statements has been questioned . Its portrayal of Native Americans has been criticized as racially insensitive , but the piece is credited with inspiring a whole new genre of plays about Pocahontas specifically and Native Americans in general , that was prevalent throughout the 19th and early 20th Century . The play was subsequently produced throughout the country .
= = Background = =
Barker was motivated to create a truly " American " style of drama to counteract what he saw as " mental colonialism " and the American tendency to feel culturally inferior to Europe . For this reason , he looked to native subject matter for the play , as opposed to other American dramatists like John Howard Payne who neglected American subject matter and locations .
Although in his preface , Barker cites his primary source of inspiration as John Smith 's The Generall Historie of Virginia ( 1624 ) , he was likely more influenced by a series of popular books by John Davis , including , Travels of Four Years and a Half in the United States of America ( 1803 ) , Captain Smith and Princess Pocahontas ( 1805 ) , and The First Settlers of Virginia ( 1806 ) which featured a more sexualized and romanticized characterization of Pocahontas .
Much of the known background about the piece comes from a letter Barker wrote to William Dunlop , dated June 10 , 1832 . In it , he indicates that he had been working on The Indian Princess for a number of years before it was first produced in 1808 . In fact in 1805 , he wrote a Masque entitled " America " ( which has not survived ) that he intended to serve as a conclusion to the play , in which characters called " America , " " Science , " and " Liberty " sing and engage in political debate . Barker originally intended the piece as a play without music , but John Bray , an actor / translator / composer employed by The New Theatre in Philadelphia , convinced him to add a musical score .
= = Character list = =
The published dramatis personæ divides the character list into “ Europeans ” ( the settlers ) and “ Virginians ” ( the natives ) , listing the men first , by rank , followed by the women and the supernumeraries .
= = Plot synopsis = =
= = = Act I = = =
At the Powhatan River , Smith , Rolfe , Percy , Walter , Larry , Robin , and Alice disembark from a barge as the chorus of soldiers and adventurers sing about the joy of reaching the shore . Larry , Walter , Alice ( Walter ’ s wife ) , and Robin reminisce about love , and Robin admits to Larry his lustful feelings about Alice . Meanwhile , Nima is preparing a bridal gown for Pocahontas in the royal village of Werocomoco , but Pocahontas expresses displeasure about the arrangement her father made for her to marry Miami , a rival Indian prince . Smith is then attacked by a party of Indians , including Nantaquas , Pocahontas ’ s brother . Due to his fighting prowess , Nantaquas thinks he is a god , but Smith explains he is only a trained warrior from across the sea . The Indians capture Smith to bring him to their chief . Back at the Powhatan River , Robin attempts to seduce Alice , but is foiled by Walter and Larry . When Walter tells the group about Smith ’ s capture , they depart to go after him . Before they leave , Rolfe tries to convince Percy to move on after his lover , Geraldine , apparently was unfaithful .
= = = Act II = = =
When King Powhatan is presented with the captured Smith , he decides , at the urging of the tribe ’ s priest Grimosco , to execute him . Pocahontas , having been moved by Smith ’ s nobility , says she will not allow Smith to be killed unless she herself dies with him . This persuades Powhatan to free Smith . Soon , Percy and Rolfe encounter Smith and his Indian allies on the way back to the settlement , and Rolfe is immediately struck by Pocahontas , whose manner suggests the attraction is mutual . They speak of love , but Rolfe must soon depart with Smith . Pocahontas confesses her love for Rolfe to Miami , who receives the news with anger , jealousy and rage . Pocahontas convinces her father to dissolve her arranged engagement with Miami , which will mean war between their two tribes .
= = = Act III = = =
Jamestown has now been built and Walter tells his wife Alice about Powhatan ’ s victory over Miami . They then discuss a banquet hosted by Powhatan that Smith , Rolfe and Percy will attend . Meanwhile , Pocahontas and Nima witness Grimosco and Miami plotting to kill the European settlers . When Grimosco coerces Powhatan into believing he should kill all the White men , by casting doubt about their intentions , creating fear about how they will act in the future , and invoking religious imagery , Pocahontas runs to warn the settlers about the danger . Back in Jamestown , a comic bit ensues in which Larry ’ s wife Kate has arrived disguised as a male page , and teases him before revealing herself . She says she has come with Percy ’ s lover , Geraldine , also disguised as a page , who has come to convince Percy he was wrong about her infidelity . Pocahontas arrives and convinces the settlers to go to Powhatan ’ s palace to rescue their colleagues from Grimosco ’ s plot . They arrive just in time to prevent the disaster . Grimosco is taken away , and Miami stabs himself in shame . Everyone else has a happy ending : Pocahontas is with Rolfe , Walter is with Alice , Larry is with Kate , Percy is with Geraldine , and even Robin is with Nima . Smith forgives Powhatan , and gives the play 's final speech , predicting a great future for the new country that will form in this land .
= = Score = =
The surviving published version of the musical score appears in the format of a simplified keyboard transcription using a two @-@ staff system ( treble and bass ) . It includes only occasional notations about the instruments used in the original full orchestral score , which has not survived . Therefore , musical elements from the original production such as inner harmonic parts , countermelodies , and accompaniment figurations are no longer known . Based on records of payments made to musicians at The Chestnut Street Theatre at the time of the premiere , it was likely that the production employed approximately 25 pieces , which may have consisted of pairs of woodwinds ( flutes , oboes , clarinets , and bassoons ) and brasses ( horns and trumpets ) as well as some timpani and strings . Typically , however , the entire orchestra was used only for the overture and selected large chorus numbers , while solo numbers were accompanied by strings and one or two pairs of woodwinds . The brasses and timpani may have been used to invoke a sense of the military in numbers like Walter ’ s “ Captain Smith . ”
= = Performances = =
The play first premiered at The Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia on April 6 , 1808 . In Barker 's letter to Dunlop , he writes the performance was done as a benefit for Mr. Bray ( who also played the role of Walter ) . However , other sources suggest it was a benefit for a Mrs. Woodham . In any case , it is clear that the performance was interrupted by an offstage commotion which may have cut the performance short . Mr. Webster , a tenor who played the role of Larry , was an object of public scorn at the time because of his effeminate manner and dress , and audience members rioted in outrage at his participation , causing Barker himself to order the curtain to be dropped . The play was subsequently performed again in Philadelphia on February 1 , 1809 , although it was advertised for January 25 .
There is some discrepancy about the date of the New York premiere , which took place at The Park Theatre , either on June 14 , 1808 , or on January 14 , 1809 , as a benefit for English actress Mrs. Lipman . It was performed again in New York as a benefit for Dunlop on June 23 , 1809 , There was a performance benefiting Bray and an actor named Mr. Cone advertised for August 25 , 1808 , at The Alexandria Theatre in Virginia . There was also a gala premiere on an unspecified date in Baltimore . Barker wrote in his letter to Dunlop that the play was subsequently and frequently performed in all the theatres across the country . It was the standard practice in all these productions for the Native American roles to be played by white actors wearing dark makeup .
The The Indian Princess has been cited as the first well @-@ documented case of a play that was originally performed in America being subsequently staged in England . Although records indicate there was a play called Pocahontas ; or the Indian Princess , credited as being adapted by T.A. Cooper , that played The Theatre Royal at Drury Lane in London on December 15 , 1820 , and subsequently on December 16 and December 19 , the piece differed drastically from Barker 's original and featured a completely different cast of characters . Barker himself wrote that the production was done without his permission or even his knowledge , and based on a critical response he read of the London performance , he deduced that there was very little in the play that was his own . Other evidence suggests that the script used in England was not only a completely different play , but that it was likely not even originated by an American . This assertion is based primarily on three factors : the kinder and meeker portrayal of the Natives , which reduces the grandeur of the play 's American heroes , the more vague listing of the setting as " North America " rather than specifically " Virginia , " and the lack of implications about America 's great destiny that was evident in Barker 's version . The distinction between the London and American versions is also supported by a review of the London production , in which the reviewer cites a lack of comic characters ( Barker ’ s version included several ) , and the presence of a character named “ Opechancaough , ” who is nowhere to be found in Barker ’ s play .
= = Style and structure = =
Structurally , the play resembles a typical English Ballad @-@ opera . The plot of the play can be seen as a blending of a comedy of racial and cultural stereotypes with a love story and an historical drama . Barker borrows heavily from Shakespearean comedy , as can be seen most blatantly in the gender disguises employed by the characters of Kate and Geraldine . The use of verse writing for higher class characters and prose for those of lesser status also borrows from the Shakespearean tradition . It is of note that Pocahontas switches from prose to verse after falling in love with Rolfe .
The Indian Princess is also one of the first American plays to call itself a “ melo @-@ drame ” ( or melodrama ) which literally is French for “ play with music . ” Like the French and German melodramas typical of the period , the score contained open @-@ ended snippets of background mood music that can be repeated as much as necessary to heighten the sentimentality of the drama , although some have argued that it bears no other resemblance to the typical French melodrama of the period . Still others have said that the categorization of the piece as a melodrama is accurate , considering the play ’ s portrayal of the genre ’ s typical persecuted heroine ( Pocahontas ) , villainous antagonists ( Miami and Grimosco ) , virtuous hero ( Smith ) , and comic relief ( Robin and others ) .
The play can also be seen as a predecessor to the exaggerated emotionalism of later American drama , and as an early example of how background music would be used in more modern American drama and films .
= = Analysis and criticism = =
The Indian Princess is one example of an attempt by an artist of the early 19th Century to define an American national identity . Pocahontas , representing the spirit of America , literally shields Smith from injury and serves as foster mother , protecting colonists from famine and attack , achieving mythic status as a heroic mother , and preserving , nurturing and legitimizing America as a country . The play allows for an acknowledgement of the troubling aspects of the nation ’ s history of conquest , violence , and greed , by couching the negative implications in a romantic plot . In other words , the romantic conquest helps to soften the harshness and brutality of the colonial conquest . The success of the play reflects a larger cultural desire to express its sense of self through the Pocahontas myth .
Barker also had commercial interests , and was motivated by a drive for artistic and financial success . In this vein , the play was an attempt to please the anglophile public , but create something truly American in setting and theme . The portrayals of the Indians in the play , from a perspective of racial sensitivity , have been met with mixed reviews by modern critics . Some write positively about the portrayals , saying that , other than Grimosco and Miami , the natives are noble , though primitive , and have a more “ American ” value system than the savages traditionally portrayed in British media of the period . Others , however , see the characters portrayed stereotypically as lusty , childlike , weak and corruptible beings , with the exceptions of Pocahontas and Nantaquas , who are portrayed positively only because they accept English values . Still others take a middle ground , noting the range of representations . In any case , the play can be seen as a justification of White assimilation of the natives , especially when examining Pocahontas ’ s choice to be with Rolfe as a microcosm of their societies .
Critics have pointed out several inherent flaws in the script , including the early placement of the play ’ s climax ( Smith at the chopping block ) at the beginning of Act II , loose construction , song lyrics that trivialize characters , and a main character in Pocahontas that is somewhat stilted and overly poetic . In contrast , however others have argued that Pocahontas ’ s love scene in Act III is where the truest poetry of the piece emerges .
There has been less critique of Bray ’ s musical work , but Victor Fell Yellin tried to recreate what he felt was the score 's melodic expressiveness and sonorous grandeur in his 1978 recording of it . In the liner notes , he points out that the music does not critically compare with the great musical masters of its time , but its success is derived from its charm . While it lacks modulation , it contains well @-@ turned melodic and rhythmic phrases , and syncopations that add to its American style .
The Indian Princess certainly began a long American tradition of romanticizing and sexualizing Pocahontas , who was only a child in Smith ’ s original accounts . Therefore , it deserves recognition for inaugurating a genre , but it can be criticized for diminishing the potential richness of the subject matter .
= = Historical significance = =
Barker 's The Indian Princess has been cited as the first American play featuring Native American characters to ever be staged , although Barker 's play is predated by at least two offerings by Europeans featuring Native Americans , including Tammany in 1794 by British playwright Ann Kemble Hatton , and German writer Johann Wilhelm Rose 's Pocahontas : Schauspiel mit Gesang , in fünf Akten ( A Play with Songs , in five Acts ) in 1784 . At least one American play was also written before Barker 's : Ponteach , published by Robert Rogers in 1766 , though the piece was apparently never produced . However , more recently uncovered evidence shows a record of an anonymous melodrama entitled Captain Smith and the Princess Pocahontas produced at The Chestnut Street Theatre in 1806 , calling into question whether Barker ’ s play was really the first of its kind ( though no further information is known about the earlier piece ) . Barker 's play has also been cited as the earliest surviving dramatized account of Smith and Pocahontas , although this idea is debunked by the availability of the aforementioned Johann Wilhelm Rose work .
In any case , The Indian Princess is credited as being primarily responsible for elevating the Pocahontas story to one of the nation 's most celebrated myths , and is thought to mark the beginning of the popular American genre of Indian Drama . The piece is also of note as one of very few of its time to have the entire musical score published and available today , as opposed to only individual popular songs .
Barker ’ s play directly or indirectly inspired many other stage adaptations of the Pocahontas story , including :
Pocahontas , or the Settlers of Virginia by George Washington Parke Custis ( 1830 )
Pocahontas by Robert Dale Owen ( 1837 )
The Forest Princess by Charlotte B. Conner ( 1848 )
Po @-@ ca @-@ hon @-@ tas , or The Gentle Savage by John Brougham ( 1855 )
Pocahontas by Welland Hendrick ( 1886 )
Pocahontas by Edwin O. Ropp ( 1906 )
Royalty in Old Virginia by Effie Koogle ( 1908 )
Pokey ; Or , The Beautiful Legend on the Amorous Indian by Phillip Moeller ( 1918 )
Pocahontas and the Elders by Virgil Geddes ( 1933 )
The Founders by Paul Green ( 1957 )
Additionally , there were approximately 40 plays with Indian themes recorded from 1825 to 1860 that likely were directly influenced by The Indian Princess . Edward Henry Corbould ’ s engraving ( c . 1850 ) , “ Smith Rescued by Pocahontas ” was possibly also directly inspired by The Indian Princess . Disney ’ s animated Pocahontas ( 1995 ) is one of the more recent of several films also in the same tradition as Barker ’ s play .
|
= 1996 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1996 Atlantic hurricane season had the most major hurricanes since 1964 , which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . Featuring a total of thirteen named storms , nine hurricanes , and six major hurricanes , the season officially began on June 1 , 1996 , and ended on November 30 , 1996 , dates which conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The season 's first tropical cyclone , Tropical Storm Arthur , developed on June 17 , while the final cyclone , Hurricane Marco dissipated on November 26 . The most intense hurricane , Edouard , was a powerful Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane that affected portions of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and New England . The season featured nine tropical cyclone landfalls , including six hurricanes , one of which was a major hurricane . In total , six major hurricanes formed during the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season — the highest number produced in a single season since 1964 .
The four most notable tropical cyclones of the season were hurricanes Bertha , Cesar , Fran , and Hortense . Bertha made landfall as a Category 2 hurricane on the coast of North Carolina , causing a total of 12 deaths and $ 335 million ( 1996 USD ) in damage . Hurricane Fran made landfall in the same general area a little over a month later as a Category 3 hurricane , causing 37 deaths and $ 6 @.@ 9 billion in damage . Hurricane Cesar developed in the east Caribbean during late @-@ July and crossed Nicaragua into the east Pacific as a strong tropical storm several days later , at which time it earned the name Douglas . The system produced strong winds and flooding , leading to 113 deaths and $ 202 @.@ 96 million in damage . Finally , Hurricane Hortense formed in the east Atlantic during the month of September and crossed Hispaniola and Puerto Rico , causing 39 direct deaths and $ 158 million in damage . Collectively , the tropical cyclones of the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season caused $ 8 @.@ 41 billion in damage and 256 deaths .
= = Season summary = =
= = = Pre @-@ season forecasts = = =
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts such as Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University ( CSU ) and the Weather Research Center ( WRC ) . A normal season , as defined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , has 12 @.@ 1 named storms , of these 6 @.@ 4 reach hurricane strength , and 2 @.@ 7 major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Additional , the 1950 @-@ 2000 CSU average for a normal season is 9 @.@ 6 named storms , of these 5 @.@ 9 reach hurricane strength , and 2 @.@ 3 become major hurricanes . In December 1995 , CSU predicted that only 8 named storms would form and 5 of those would become hurricanes ; no specific number of major hurricanes was given . However , in April 1996 , CSU revised their forecast , stating that 11 named storms would develop , with seven of those intensifying into a hurricane , and three reaching major hurricane intensity . In June , CSU predicted 10 named storms , 6 hurricanes , and 2 major hurricanes . The forecast by the WRC in early 1996 was 10 named storms and 6 hurricanes , though there was no prediction on the number of major hurricanes .
= = = Seasonal activity = = =
The 1996 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , but the first named storm did not form until seventeen days later . It was an above average season in which 13 tropical cyclones formed , with all cyclones attaining tropical storm status . Nine of these sixteen attained hurricane status and six of those reached major hurricane status , which was well above the 1980 – 2010 average of 2 @.@ 7 per season . Although there was neither an El Niño or a La Niña , the above average activity in the season was likely due to abnormally warm sea surface temperatures . Six hurricanes and three tropical storms made landfall during the season , causing 256 deaths and more than $ 8 @.@ 41 billion in damage . Hurricane Edouard and Hurricane Marco also caused damage and fatalities , but neither storm made an official landfall .
Tropical cyclogenesis in the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season began with the development of Tropical Storm Arthur on June 17 . In the month of July , two tropical cyclones formed , both of which later attained hurricane status . August was the most active month of the season , with a total of four storms developing in that period of time . The month of August also featured the strongest and costliest tropical cyclones of the season , Hurricane Edouard and Hurricane Fran , respectively . Although September is the climatological peak of hurricane season , only two tropical cyclones developed in that month . Despite this , both reached major hurricane status . Three tropical cyclones formed in October , with one attaining hurricane status . Finally , one tropical cyclone developed in November , Hurricane Marco . The storm lasted 10 days before dissipating on November 26 , only four days before the official end of the season on November 30 .
The season 's activity was reflected with an Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) index of 166 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Arthur = = =
An area of increasing convection , possibly associated with a tropical wave , developed into Tropical Depression One on June 17 at 1800 UTC , while located near Grand Bahama . Initially , the depression moved north @-@ northwestward and then northward around the western periphery of a Atlantic subtropical ridge . Despite moderately strong wind shear , the depression strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Arthur while re @-@ curving northeastward at 0000 UTC on June 19 . About 24 hours later , Arthur made landfall near Cape Lookout , North Carolina with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . The storm weakened to a tropical depression early on June 20 , before becoming extratropical the next day .
As the center of Arthur passed east of Cape Romain , South Carolina , minor increases in surf were reported . Rainfall peaked at 5 @.@ 85 inches ( 149 mm ) in Georgetown , South Carolina , though because it fell gradually , no significant flooding was reported , other than minor ponding of water on roads . In addition , Arthur also brought precipitation to Georgia and Virginia , though amounts rarely exceeded 3 inches ( 76 mm ) . In North Carolina , swells ranged as high as 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) . A C @-@ Man station located about 34 @.@ 5 miles ( 55 @.@ 5 km ) southeast of Cape Fear reported sustained winds of 39 mph ( 64 km / h ) and gusts up to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Overall , damage caused by Arthur was minimal , totaling only $ 1 million .
= = = Hurricane Bertha = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Two at 0000 UTC on July 5 , while located about 575 miles ( 925 km ) east of Cape Verde . Twelve hours later , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Bertha . Over the next few days , it continued to strengthen , becoming a hurricane on July 7 , prior to moving through the northern Leeward Islands . A period of rapid intensification began late on July 8 , with Bertha peaking as a Category 3 hurricane with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on the following day . Moving around the western periphery of a subtropical ridge , Bertha passed north of the Bahamas as a weakening hurricane before turning towards the north @-@ northeast and re @-@ strengthened . Late on July 12 , Bertha made landfall between Wrightsville Beach and Topsail Beach , North Carolina with winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Gradual weakening ensued the following day as Bertha moved up the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and into New England before becoming extratropical on July 14 .
In the United States Virgin Islands , heavy rainfall and hurricane @-@ force winds damaged about 2 @,@ 500 homes , of which 43 lost their roofs . Many boats were destroyed . Total damage was estimated near $ 7 @.@ 5 million . The storm caused 3 deaths in Puerto Rico . Additionally , damage in Puerto Rico totaled $ 7 @.@ 5 million . Two deaths were confirmed in Saint Martin . The storm caused numerous power outages and damaged 10 homes in Antigua and Barbuda . Four deaths occurred in Florida , three of which due to rip currents . North Carolina bore the brunt of the hurricane in the United States . Storm surge destroyed several fishing piers , marinas , and boats . A combination of storm surge and strong winds damaged over 5 @,@ 000 homes and buildings , with at least 4 destroyed . There were 2 deaths in the state . The remnants brought local flooding and minor wind damage to the Mid @-@ Atlantic , New England , and Atlantic Canada . One surfer died in New Jersey . Overall , the storm caused 12 deaths and about $ 285 million in damage , primarily in eastern North Carolina .
= = = Hurricane Cesar = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on July 17 . It developed into Tropical Depression Three near Isla Margarita of Venezuela on July 24 . The depression headed westward , steered by a strong high pressure area over the Bahamas . On July 25 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Cesar . Around that time , it struck Curaçao . Cesar caused minor damage in the ABC islands to roofs and trees ; one person drowned in heavy surf on Curçao . An additional three people drowned offshore Venezuela . In Colombia , heavy rainfall caused 3 deaths , 2 of which were from a mudslide in Pueblo Bello . Strong winds and significant amounts of precipitation lashed the Archipelago of San Andrés , Providencia and Santa Catalina , unroofing 60 homes , and resulting in 11 fatalities , and resulting in 800 million COP ( $ 440 @,@ 00 USD ) in damage . The storm continued westward and intensified into a hurricane on July 27 .
At 0400 UTC on July 28 , Cesar made landfall near Bluefields , Nicaragua , with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . After weakening to a tropical storm later that day , Cesar moved into the Pacific and was reclassified as Tropical Storm Douglas on July 29 . In Nicaragua , the storm wrought about $ 50 @.@ 5 million in losses . More than 2 @,@ 500 homes , 39 bridges and 25 miles ( 40 km ) of roads were destroyed . The storm killed 42 people and left an estimated 100 @,@ 000 homeless in Nicaragua . In Costa Rica , river flooding damaged or destroyed 3 @,@ 874 homes ; 150 bridges were also destroyed . The road network was significantly damaged . Across the country , at least 39 people were killed and damage amounted to $ 151 million . Additionally , 12 people died in El Salvador . Overall , Cesar caused 113 deaths and $ 202 @.@ 96 million in damage .
= = = Hurricane Dolly = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Four at 0600 UTC on August 19 , while located west @-@ southwest of Jamaica . The system strengthened into Tropical Storm Dolly about twelve hours later . Dolly headed westward and intensified into a Category 1 hurricane late on August 20 . It then made landfall near Chetumal , Quintana Roo with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The system weakened to a tropical depression on August 21 . Later that day or early on August 22 , Dolly emerged into the Bay of Campeche and quickly re @-@ strengthened into a tropical storm . The storm deepened further and was upgraded to a hurricane again at 1200 UTC on August 23 ; Dolly simultaneously peaked with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Around that time , it struck between Tuxpan , Veracruz and Tampico , Tamaulipas . Dolly quickly weakened to a tropical depression early on August 24 , but remained intact while crossing Mexico and dissipated over the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 25 .
The storm brought heavy rainfall to much of Mexico , peaking at 37 @.@ 41 inches ( 950 mm ) . In Quintana Roo , flooding destroyed a large amount of farmlands . Widespread flooding occurred after a river in the Pueblo Viejo area overflowed its banks . Hundreds of homes were destroyed , displacing about 35 @,@ 000 people . Large scale evacuations occurred in San Luis Potosí , while about 6 @,@ 500 fled their homes in the Tampico area . Communications and power outages were reported as far west as Mazatlán , Sinaloa . Throughout Mexico , there were fourteen fatalities reported , six in Veracruz , three in Nuevo León , one in Monterrey , and one in . Additionally , two people were left missing in Nuevo León . The outer bands of Dolly brought rainfall to southern Texas , which caused minor flooding , but was mostly beneficial due to drought conditions in the state .
= = = Hurricane Edouard = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Five on August 19 , while located about 345 miles ( 555 km ) southeast of Cape Verde . The depression moved westward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Edouard on August 22 . Further intensification occurred , with the storm being upgraded to a hurricane on the following day . Early on August 24 , the storm re @-@ curved west @-@ northwestward and began to undergo rapid deepening . At 0600 UTC on August 25 , Edouard attained its maximum sustained winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 933 mbar ( 27 @.@ 6 inHg ) ; it was the most intense tropical cyclone of the season . The storm remained a major hurricane for nearly eight days . Edouard passed well north of the Lesser Antilles and then began re @-@ curving northward on August 29 . Later , the storm passed midway between Cape Hatteras and Bermuda on September 1 .
Edouard approached Nantucket , Massachusetts , but turned to the east before reaching land . On September 3 , the storm weakened and became extratropical . It was absorbed by a larger system on the September 7 . Edouard brought rough seas and gusty winds along the East Coast of the United States from South Carolina northward . Strong waves in New Jersey drowned 2 people . Minor erosion and coastal flooding also occurred in several states , especially in New York and Massachusetts . In the latter , wind gusts up to 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) left two @-@ thirds of Nantucket , most of Cape Cod , and all of Martha 's Vineyard without electricity . Gusty winds in Maine left about 1 @,@ 900 without power in Portland . Damage in the United States totaled about $ 20 million . In Canada , the storm brought rainfall up to 5 @.@ 35 inches ( 136 mm ) and gusts to 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) . Rough seas disrupted ferry service and caused the closure of several beaches .
= = = Hurricane Fran = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Six on August 23 , while located southeast of Cape Verde . The depression moved westward for several days and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Fran on August 27 while 1 @,@ 035 miles ( 1 @,@ 665 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . Fran tracked west @-@ northwestward and intensified into a hurricane on August 29 . However , Fran became less organized after a disruption to inflow due to Hurricane Edouard and weakened back to a tropical storm . Fran quickly re @-@ intensified into a hurricane by August 31 . While moving west @-@ northwestward and then north @-@ northwestward , the storm slowly strengthened . At 0000 UTC on September 5 , Fran peaked as a Category 3 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 946 mbar ( 27 @.@ 9 inHg ) . Early on the following day , the storm made landfall near Cape Fear , North Carolina at the same intensity . Fran weakened and moved inland , becoming extratropical over Ontario on September 8 . Its remnants moved over the Great Lakes and were absorbed by a front on September 10 .
In South Carolina , the outer bands of Fran produced high winds and light to moderate rainfall , downing numerous trees and power lines . As a result , a number of cars were damaged and over 63 @,@ 000 people were left without electricity . Damage in South Carolina reached about $ 40 million . The state of North Carolina bore the brunt of the storm . Wind gusts as strong as 137 mph ( 220 km / h ) were reported . Additionally , storm tide heights ranging from 8 to 12 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 7 m ) lashed the coast . Damage was most severe in the Raleigh area , exceeding $ 2 billion . Several hundred thousand falling trees damaged at least 10 @,@ 000 homes . Throughout the state , approximately 1 @.@ 7 million people were left without electricity . Damage in North Carolina reached about $ 5 @.@ 1 billion , with about $ 2 @.@ 3 billion to homes and businesses , $ 1 @.@ 1 billion to public property , $ 1 billion to forestry and timber , and $ 700 million to agriculture . Elsewhere , Fran brought flooding to several states , including Virginia , West Virginia , Maryland , Ohio , and Pennsylvania , as well as Washington , D.C. Outside North Carolina , effects were worst in Virginia , where flooding and winds left 400 @,@ 000 people without electricity and caused about $ 350 million in damage . Hurricane Fran was responsible for 37 deaths , with 24 of them in North Carolina . Property damage in the United States was estimated at $ 6 @.@ 9 billion .
= = = Tropical Storm Gustav = = =
An area of disturbed weather , accompanied with a low @-@ level circulation , emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on August 24 . It organized further over the next few days , becoming Tropical Depression Seven on August 26 , while located about 150 miles ( 240 km ) south of Cape Verde . With a ridge to its north , the system moved west @-@ southwestward . Conditions were initially unfavorable for development due to outflow from Hurricane Fran . On August 28 , the depression began moving northwestward due to an approaching trough . Around the same time , the influence from Fran decreased , allowing it to intensify into Tropical Storm Gustav on August 28 .
At 0000 UTC on August 29 , Gustav reached its peak intensity as a 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 005 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . Thereafter , the trough previously causing the storm 's northwestward motion transitioned into an upper @-@ level low , increasing shear across the region . As a result , the storm slowly weakened and was downgraded to a tropical depression late on September 1 . Gustav dissipated at 0600 UTC on the following day , while situated about 1 @,@ 015 miles ( 1 @,@ 633 km ) east @-@ northeast of the northernmost Lesser Antilles .
= = = Hurricane Hortense = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Eight on September 3 , while located about halfway between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . The depression headed westward and barely strengthened until becoming Tropical Storm Hortense early on September 7 . Hortense passed over Guadeloupe on the following day and entered the Caribbean Sea . It strengthened into a hurricane on September 9 and then curved northwestward . The storm intensified slightly further , before making landfall near Guánica , Puerto Rico with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) at 0600 UTC on September 10 . It soon moved back offshore and brushed Dominican Republic while crossing the Mona Passage . After re @-@ entering the Atlantic , Hortense substantially strengthened and peaked as a 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane early on September 13 . Thereafter , the storm weakened as it tracked rapidly north @-@ northeastward . Early on September 15 , Hortense made landfall in Nova Scotia as a minimal Category 1 hurricane . It quickly weakened further to a tropical storm before re @-@ entering the Atlantic and became extratropical later that day .
The storm produced heavy rainfall and gusty winds as it passed through the Lesser Antilles . On Guadeloupe , damage was most significant to crops , with over 50 % of banana plantains destroyed . Localized flooding was reported on Martinique . Impact was most significant in Puerto Rico . Across the island , 11 @,@ 463 houses were severely damaged . About 1 @.@ 4 million people on Puerto Rico were left without electricity – equivalent to about 40 % of the island 's population . Damage in Puerto Rico was estimated at $ 153 @.@ 4 million . There were also 19 deaths , most of which due to drowning during flash floods . In the Dominican Republic , strong winds damaged a number of buildings and houses , and downed several power lines . Flooding also forced the closure of several roads and impacted 80 % of crops in Samaná Province . At least 3 fatalities were confirmed in that country . The storm brought strong winds to the Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands , and lesser winds to Bermuda . Later in its duration , Hortense struck Nova Scotia , bringing heavy rainfall and hurricane force winds to isolated locations . There were many power outages , trees blown down , roofs torn away , and roads damaged in the state . New Brunswick , Newfoundland , and Prince Edward Island were also impacted , though not as severely as in Nova Scotia . Damage in Atlantic Canada reached approximately $ 3 @.@ 64 million .
= = = Hurricane Isidore = = =
A tropical wave with a well @-@ defined circulation developed into Tropical Depression Nine at 1200 UTC on September 24 , while located south of Cape Verde . Due to an anticyclone to its north , the depression initially moved west @-@ northwestward . After convection wrapped around the circulation and banding features increased , the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Isidore on September 25 . Isidore deepened further and began developing an eye feature . Early on September 26 , the storm was upgraded to a hurricane . About 24 hours later , it reached Category 2 intensity . At 0000 UTC on September 28 , Isidore attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 960 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 35 inHg ) .
After reaching peak intensity on September 28 , steering current from a quasi @-@ stationary mid- to upper @-@ level low pressure area turned Isidore northward . Later that day , the eye feature disappeared and the storm began weakening due to strong upper @-@ level winds . On September 28 , Isidore weakened to a Category 2 hurricane . By the following day , it was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane . Early on September 30 , Isidore weakened to a tropical storm . The storm deteriorated further and was downgraded to a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on the following day . Because much of the deep convection diminished , Isidore was declared extratropical at 0000 UTC on October 1 , while located about 490 miles ( 790 km ) west @-@ southwest of Flores Island in the Azores .
= = = Tropical Storm Josephine = = =
Tropical Depression Ten developed from the remnants of a cold front in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico on October 6 . Moving generally eastward , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Josephine on October 6 . The next day , it peaked with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Josephine made landfall in Taylor County , Florida near peak intensity early on October 8 . Shortly after moving inland , the storm became extratropical . Early in its duration , the system interacted with a ridge , resulting in strong winds and high tides in Texas . The outer bands caused flooding rainfall in southern Texas , and in Louisiana , high tides flooded roads and stranded residents on Grand Isle . In Florida , the storm produced a storm surge reaching 9 @.@ 3 feet ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) in Suwannee . High tides flooded about 3 @,@ 600 houses along the west coast . Strong winds left about 400 @,@ 000 people without power . The storm also spawned at least 16 tornadoes , one of which damaged 130 homes .
The extratropical remnants of Josephine moved along the eastern coast of the United States , producing wind gusts as strong as 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) in St. Mary 's County and in Ocean City , Maryland . The winds caused widespread power outages , including 26 @,@ 000 in Virginia and 31 @,@ 000 in New Jersey . Heavy rainfall flooded low @-@ lying areas and rivers along the storm 's path , including in North Carolina which had previously been affected by hurricanes Bertha and Fran earlier in the year . In the Southeastern United States , the storm contributed to dozens of traffic accidents , which killed a person each in Georgia , North Carolina , and Virginia . Damage throughout the United States totaled about $ 130 million . Josephine later moved offshore , and after passing southeast of Cape Cod , moved through Atlantic Canada with moderate rainfall and gusty winds .
= = = Tropical Storm Kyle = = =
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on September 27 and crossed the Atlantic and Caribbean before eventually developing into Tropical Depression Eleven on October 11 . The depression drifted slowly southwestward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Kyle later that day . Slightly further intensification occurred and Kyle peaked as a 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) tropical storm early on October 12 . However , upper @-@ level southwesterly shear caused Kyle to quickly weaken back to a tropical depression later that day . At 1800 UTC on October 12 , Kyle made landfall in eastern Guatemala with winds of 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) . By early on October 13 , the storm had completely dissipated inland .
Portions of the coasts of Belize , Guatemala , Honduras , and Mexico were under a tropical storm warning or hurricane watch as Kyle was approaching ; however they were cancelled after Kyle weakened back to a tropical depression . Impact from Kyle was minimal and limited to light rainfall in the countries of Belize , Guatemala , Honduras , and the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico . In Belize , rainfall peaked at 2 @.@ 32 inches ( 59 mm ) . Rainfall to the northwest of the center of Kyle was heavier , with some areas of Mexico 's Yucatán Peninsula receiving over 3 inches ( 76 mm ) ; precipitation peaked at 5 @.@ 71 inches ( 145 mm ) in Tulum .
= = = Hurricane Lili = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Twelve on October 14 . After the storm formed , further strengthening of Lili was gradual , first to tropical storm status on October 16 and then to hurricane status on October 17 . The next day , Lili made landfall in Matanzas Province , Cuba with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) and moved across the central portion of the island ; it was first hurricane to hit the country since Kate in 1985 . After emerging into the Atlantic Ocean , the hurricane accelerated northeastward , briefly peaking as a Category 3 hurricane with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) near the Bahamas on October 19 . For almost an entire week , Hurricane Lili oscillated in intensity while fluctuating several times in forward speed . About two weeks passed before Lili transitioned into an extratropical storm north of the Azores on October 27 , which subsequently moved across Ireland and Great Britain .
Early in its duration , Lili caused flooding in Central America that left thousands homeless and killed 14 people . In Cuba , 269 @,@ 995 people were evacuated in advance of Lili , resulting in no deaths in the country . Damage was heaviest in Cuba , mostly due to the hurricane 's heavy rainfall peaking at 29 @.@ 41 inches ( 747 mm ) . The hurricane affected 11 Cuban provinces , damaging 92 @,@ 542 houses and destroying another 6 @,@ 369 . The rains heavily damaged the sugar cane and banana crops . Overall , damage in the country was estimated at $ 362 million . In nearby Florida , one person died after being swept into a drain during the storm 's heavy rains . Moisture from Lili also fueled a storm that struck the northeastern United States , which contributed indirectly to a death when a man in Maine tried to drive across a flooded roadway . Damage in the Bahamas was not severe and was limited to some damaged roofs and downed trees . When the remnants of Lili struck Ireland and the United Kingdom , it produced strong winds and high seas that damaged hundreds of houses , causing $ 300 million in damage and six deaths .
= = = Hurricane Marco = = =
A cold front interacted with several tropical waves , eventually spawning Tropical Depression Thirteen late on November 16 , while southwest of Jamaica . Initially a tropical depression , it remained weak while tracking southwestward and eventually southward . On November 19 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Marco . It re @-@ curved eastward and continued to strengthen , briefly becoming a hurricane on November 20 . Marco weakened back to a tropical storm later that day . The storm turned northeastward toward Hispanola , but later became stationary before curing eastward . Afterwards Marco doubled @-@ back to the west . After weakening to a tropical depression on November 23 , Marco became a tropical storm again on the following day . Thereafter , it tracked northwestward while fluctuating in intensity , before dissipating on November 26 .
Although it did not make landfall , Marco produced heavy rainfall in the Greater Antilles and Central America , which caused significant flooding in some areas . In Honduras , 4 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed , 40 bridges washed away , and nearly 50 @,@ 000 acres of fruit plantations were flooded . Nine deaths were also reported . Flood damage in other Central American countries was also reported , though affects were less severe . Heavy rainfall was also reported in Cuba . Marco also contributed to an ongoing flood in Jamaica and caused three additional fatalities in Dominican Republic . Overall , Marco caused 15 fatalities and approximately $ 8 @.@ 2 million in damage .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1996 . The World Meteorological Organization retired three names in the spring of 1997 : Cesar , Fran , and Hortense . They were replaced in the 2002 season by Cristobal , Fay , and Hanna . The names not retired from this list were used again in the 2002 season . This is the same list used for the 1990 season except for Dolly and Kyle , which replaced Diana and Klaus , respectively . A storm was named Kyle for the first time in 1996 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) – denoted by bold location names – damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still related to that storm . Damage and death include totals while a tropical cyclone was in its pre @-@ formative or post @-@ formative stages .
|
= Riot Act ( album ) =
Riot Act is the seventh studio album by American rock band Pearl Jam , released on November 12 , 2002 through Epic Records . Following a full @-@ scale tour in support of its previous album , Binaural ( 2000 ) , Pearl Jam took a year @-@ long break . The band then reconvened in the beginning of 2002 and commenced work on a new album . The music on the record featured a diverse sound , including songs influenced by folk , art rock , and experimental rock . The lyrics deal with mortality and existentialism , with much influence from both the political climate after the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks and the accidental death of nine fans during Pearl Jam 's performance at the 2000 Roskilde Festival .
The band supported the album with a politically charged concert tour in 2003 . Riot Act was the band 's last album of all @-@ new material for Epic . The album received mostly positive reviews , and has been certified gold by the RIAA in the United States .
= = Recording = =
Producer Adam Kasper was brought in to work with the band on its seventh album . Kasper had engineered other Pearl Jam albums , and was brought to produce following a suggestion by drummer Matt Cameron , who worked with Kasper on his previous groups Wellwater Conspiracy and Soundgarden . Riot Act was recorded in two sessions in February 2002 and April 2002 at Studio X in Seattle , Washington . The album was mixed by Brendan O 'Brien at Studio X.
Similar to the process for Yield and Binaural , band members worked on material individually before starting the recording sessions together . According to Cameron , everyone in the band had " four or five " ideas coming into the sessions , and there was " a lot to just kind of weed through and work on . " The band often recorded material intended to be demo recordings , but lead vocalist Eddie Vedder would come along and record his vocals afterwards , stating , " I just sang it , that 's the take . " Regarding the creative process , guitarist Stone Gossard said that while playing alone " the anal @-@ retentive side of you goes , ' I think I could play better . ' " , but when reuniting " the entire band goes ' No , it 's great as it is , ' then you just get in the mood and embrace it . " Gossard stated that " the process of letting go is constant in this band " , adding that bandmembers would arrive with " a clear idea of what a song is going to be " but eschew for other musical ideas while discussing the song with the group . Riot Act was the first Pearl Jam album to feature Kenneth " Boom " Gaspar on Keyboards , most notably on the song " Love Boat Captain " . According to Gaspar , the song initially developed out of a jam session he had with Vedder in Hawaii shortly after the two first met . When they were done , Vedder asked Gaspar if he was " ready to go to Seattle . " According to Gossard , bringing in Gaspar was about being " open to new things , " while Vedder stated Gaspar " was able to find his place " and fit in easily with the band dynamics . Guitarist Mike McCready said that he had always wanted the band to feature keyboards .
McCready described the recording environment as " a pretty positive one " and " very intense and spiritual . " Cameron said that producer Adam Kasper created a " really relaxed " atmosphere and that the band was able to complete lot of material in a short amount of time . Vedder set up his typewriter in a corner of the studio and would write lyrics as the band members played their material . Most of the album was recorded live , with Cameron describing the album as " our anti @-@ Pro Tools record . " Gossard said that the band fed off Cameron 's playing as well as Vedder 's excitement about the recording process .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Riot Act features a diverse sound , including folk @-@ based and experimental songs . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said " Riot Act is the album that Pearl Jam has been wanting to make since Vitalogy — a muscular art rock record , one that still hits hard but that 's filled with ragged edges and odd detours . " Gossard said " Riot Act really seems to showcase all of our thing . There 's the simple rock songs we could have written in the earlier era , but it covers all the different times and dynamics we 've had and still holds together . " The musical experiments also lead several songs on the album to use alternate tunings , including " You Are " , " All or None " and " Bu $ hleaguer " .
The lyrics on Riot Act were more direct than on preceding records , in response to the political climate after the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks . Bassist Jeff Ament commented that he felt that love was a major theme of the album , and Vedder tried to convey themes such as love , loss and struggle to make a difference because of the difficulty in leading with events such as the September 11 attacks and the accidental death of nine fans during Pearl Jam 's performance at the 2000 Roskilde Festival - " You start feeling like , ' What do I have to say ? What is my opinion ? ' Then I realized I did have an opinion . Not only did I have one , but I felt like it was formed by processing a lot of information and having good influences . Ament also told that " I think the time 's right to turn our voice up a bit [ . . . ] And Ed did it in a great way , with humour and a mystical , magical approach . It isn 't just , ' We 're pissed off , and fuck you ! Riot ! Anarchy ! ' Cos I don 't think that 's the method . At least at this point . " Vedder , however , said , " I have to admit this record came out a bit one @-@ sided . But I think we as a country need to understand why we 're involved in the Middle East . This hollow patriotism frightens me . " The singer added that the Riot Act lyrics " represent [ ed ] my state of mind these days . I 'm optimistic yet disillusioned , hopeful yet frustrated . " Several songs on the album were inspired by Roskilde tragedy , with the album 's first single , " I Am Mine " , being written by Vedder in 2000 in a hotel room before the band 's first show after Roskilde , and " Love Boat Captain " including a brief lyrical reference ( " Lost nine friends we 'll never know ... two years ago today " ) . Regarding the time period when the lyrics were being written , Vedder said , " There 's been a lot of mortality ... It 's a weird time to be writing . Roskilde changed the shape of us as people , and our filter for seeing the world changed . "
A few songs feature lyrical collaborations between Vedder and other members of the group , including one with Ament ( " Ghost " ) , one with Cameron ( " You Are " ) , and two with Gossard ( " Bu $ hleaguer " and " All or None " ) . Sole lyrical contributions from band members other than Vedder include Cameron with " Get Right " and Ament with " Help Help " . The album 's lyrics tackle existential matters ( " Love Boat Captain " , " Cropduster " , and " I Am Mine " ) , as well as social and political concerns ( " Green Disease " , " Bu $ hleaguer " , and " 1 / 2 Full " ) . The lyrics of " Save You " represent the anger felt by anyone who watches a close friend waste away his or her life . Regarding " Love Boat Captain " , Vedder said , " Love is one resource that the corporations aren 't going to be able to monopolize . " Vedder said that " Cropduster " is " about man 's giant ego , that he 's the most important thing on the planet . " Regarding " Green Disease " , Vedder stated he was " mystified " at CEO and corporate @-@ management salaries and " how someone can justify taking that much at the cost of other people 's livelihoods . " " Bu $ hleaguer " is a satirical commentary on President George W. Bush .
= = Packaging = =
The album 's cover art , photographed by Ament , features two skeletons wearing crowns , suggesting the possibility that the two represent a king and a queen . The forged metal figurines were created by blacksmith Kelly Gilliam . According to Ament , the band had trouble coming up with a name for the album . After the artwork had been finalized and the tracks were sequenced , the band spent weeks trying to come up with a title . Vedder suggested Riot Act , and the band members went with it as they were tired with trying to come up with a title . McCready stated that the title has no real significance . He said , " I guess we were trying to come up with a title that reflected some of the music on the record , which we thought was urgent @-@ sounding and kind of loud ... It just seemed to fit . " Ament implied that the title has to do with " getting your act together . "
= = Tour = =
Pearl Jam promoted the album with tours in Australia , Japan , and North America in 2003 . The tours were the band 's first with keyboardist Boom Gaspar . The two legs of the North American tour focused on the Midwestern United States , the East Coast , and the West Coast , and had more concerts in arenas . The trauma of Roskilde lead the tour to lack performances on festivals and open floor venues .
The band received much publicity for its energetic politically charged performances during the tour . At many shows during the 2003 North American tour , Vedder performed " Bu $ hleaguer " with a rubber mask of George W. Bush , wearing it at the beginning of the song and then hanging it on a mic stand to allow him to sing . The band made news when it was reported that several fans left after Vedder had " impaled " the Bush mask on his mic stand at the band 's April 1 , 2003 show in Denver , Colorado show at the Pepsi Center . Following a performance of the song at Pearl Jam 's April 30 , 2003 show in Uniondale , New York at the Nassau Coliseum , the band was met with boos from the crowd and chants of " U @-@ S @-@ A. " Vedder responded by defending his right to free speech and the band followed with a performance of The Clash 's " Know Your Rights " . The song " Arc " was performed by Vedder at nine shows during the second North American leg of the tour as a tribute to the victims of the Roskilde disaster . The concerts were documented by a long series of official bootlegs , all of which were available through the band 's official website , and six of which were released in record stores : Perth , Tokyo , State College , Pennsylvania , two shows from Madison Square Garden , and Mansfield , Massachusetts . Two concerts became DVDs , the Seattle one being issued as Live at the Showbox , and the first of two shows at Madison Square Garden was released as the Live at the Garden DVD . Pearl Jam also supported the album 's material at a series of political rallies and benefit concerts while preparing for its eighth studio album .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Riot Act reached number five in the U.S. on the Billboard 200 album chart , with 166 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week of release . The album would end up selling only 508 @,@ 000 copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan , short of the 718 @,@ 000 sold by predecessor Binaural . Riot Act has been certified gold by the RIAA . The international response to Riot Act was more positive . The album topped the charts in Australia , where it went platinum and ended among the best @-@ selling records of the year in both 2002 and 2003 . Riot Act also went to number two in both Italy , and New Zealand , three in Norway , and number four in Canada .
Three singles were released from Riot Act . Lead single " I Am Mine " entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 43 , and reached number six on the Modern Rock charts . While " Save You " was released as the second single for North America , " Love Boat Captain " was the second single for international markets . " Save You " did not chart on the Hot 100 , but it did place on the Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock charts . Music videos for several songs from the album , including " I Am Mine " , " Save You " , " Love Boat Captain " , " Thumbing My Way " , and " 1 / 2 Full " , were filmed at Seattle 's Chop Suey club in September 2002 .
= = = Critical response = = =
Riot Act received mixed to favorable reviews from music critics according to Metacritic , where it holds a 73 after 20 reviews . NME gave Riot Act an eight out of ten . Reviewer Louis Pattison stated that " Riot Act is the sound of a band entering a powerful middle @-@ age . They still deserve your attention . " AllMusic staff writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album four out of five stars , saying " given several plays , this does indeed seem like the richest record Pearl Jam has made in a long time . " Spin gave the album seven out of ten stars . The review said , " Pearl Jam 's seventh studio album balances emotive bombast with a taut @-@ sweaty hard @-@ rock attack . " Critic Robert Christgau described Pearl Jam on the album as " masters of their own audio , with soft spots where their emotions can go . " Rolling Stone staff writer Keith Harris gave the album three out of five stars , saying that " like Neil Young at his most deliberately despondent , Pearl Jam sound purposefully tired . " Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B , saying that Vedder ’ s lyrics " rarely cohere , " and that " too few of the tense rhythmic setups build to the kind of ... catharsis that would be something to Riot home about . " Q gave the album three out of five stars . The review called the album " An adult rock record in which nuance succeeds over bombast . "
Hugo Lindgren of The New York Times stated that the " record sounds as if it were made to slip quietly into the marketplace , connect with the faithful and leave everyone else alone , " and that " there 's no catchy single , and not even the slightest echo of anything else happening in pop music now . " He added that the " band 's grooves still sound taut , emotive and world @-@ class . " Adam Sweeting of The Guardian gave the album two out of five stars . In the review he stated that " Riot Act isn 't one thing or the other : tracks such as " Ghost " or " Get Right " gesture towards hard rock without really putting the hammer down , while a more reflective piece like " All or None " doesn 't exploit its own possibilities . " Sweeting observed , " On full , Pearl Jam sound like Stillwater , Cameron Crowe 's fictional 1970s second @-@ raters from his film Almost Famous . " Kyle Reiter of Pitchfork Media said that the album " meanders from one song to the next with an overwhelming insipidness , " and stated that it " [ brings ] them ever closer to homogenous bar @-@ band territory . "
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Eddie Vedder , except where noted .
= = = Outtakes = = =
The album 's singles featured three B @-@ sides from the Riot Act recording sessions that weren 't included on the album : " Down , " " Undone " and " Other Side . " " Down " and " Undone " were B @-@ sides on the " I Am Mine " single , and " Other Side " was featured on the " Save You " and " Love Boat Captain " singles . All three songs were included on the 2003 Lost Dogs collection of rarities , although " Undone " appeared in a slightly different form . McCready said that " Down " came out lighter than intended , and was ultimately left off Riot Act because it did not fit with the other songs on the album . Also recorded during the sessions was " 4 / 20 / 02 , " a song honoring Alice in Chains frontman Layne Staley which Vedder wrote the same day that he heard the news of Staley 's death . According to Vedder , " 4 / 20 / 02 " was not included on Riot Act because the band already had too many songs . It was included on Lost Dogs as well , albeit in the form of a hidden track . A recording of " Severed Hand , " a song that later appeared on the band 's next studio album Pearl Jam , was attempted during the recording sessions ; however the band only spent a few hours on the song before it was shelved . " Last Soldier , " which appeared on the band 's 2001 fan club Christmas single as a live version recorded at the 2001 Bridge School Benefit , was written by McCready following September 11 , 2001 . McCready said the band played around with the song , but never seriously considered recording it for Riot Act .
= = Personnel = =
|
= Oasis ( band ) =
Oasis were an English rock band formed in Manchester in 1991 . Developed from an earlier group , the Rain , the band originally consisted of Liam Gallagher ( vocals and tambourine ) , Paul " Bonehead " Arthurs ( guitar ) , Paul " Guigsy " McGuigan ( bass guitar ) , and Tony McCarroll ( drums , percussion ) . They were later joined by Liam 's older brother Noel Gallagher ( lead guitar and vocals ) as a fifth member , becoming the band 's settled line @-@ up until April 1995 .
Oasis signed to independent record label Creation Records in 1993 and released their record @-@ setting debut album Definitely Maybe ( 1994 ) . The following year the band recorded ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( 1995 ) with their new drummer Alan White , formerly of Starclub , in the midst of a chart rivalry with Britpop peers Blur . Along with Suede , Pulp and the aforementioned Blur , Oasis came to be regarded as a component of the Britpop " big four " , and the Gallagher brothers were featured regularly in tabloid newspapers for their sibling disputes and wild lifestyles . In 1997 Oasis released their third album , Be Here Now ( 1997 ) , and although it became the fastest @-@ selling album in UK chart history , the album 's popularity tapered off quickly , not before selling 8 million copies . McGuigan and Arthurs left Oasis in 1999 as the band went on to record and release Standing on the Shoulder of Giants ( 2000 ) . After their departures , they were replaced by former Heavy Stereo guitarist / frontman Gem Archer and former Hurricane No. 1 guitarist / frontman Andy Bell who joined the group for the tour in support of Standing on the Shoulder of Giants , which had moderate success . Their fifth studio album Heathen Chemistry ( 2002 ) saw Noel Gallagher 's releasing strict creative control in the band 's output with all members contributing songs , which led to more relaxed recording sessions . In 2004 the band were joined by The Who 's drummer Zak Starkey , replacing Alan White , and found renewed success and popularity with Don 't Believe the Truth ( 2005 ) .
Following the recording of the band 's seventh album Dig Out Your Soul ( 2008 ) , Starkey left and was replaced by Chris Sharrock on Oasis ' last tour as a collective band . During the tour the brothers ' increasingly deteriorating relationship ultimately led to Noel Gallagher announcing in August 2009 that he would be leaving the band after a backstage altercation with Liam before a festival appearance . The band , comprising the remaining members of Oasis and led by Liam Gallagher , decided to continue working together under the name Beady Eye until breaking up in 2014 , while Noel went on to form his solo project Noel Gallagher 's High Flying Birds .
Oasis have had eight UK number @-@ one singles and eight UK number @-@ one albums , and won fifteen NME Awards , nine Q Awards , four MTV Europe Music Awards and six Brit Awards , including one in 2007 for Outstanding Contribution to Music and one for the Best Album of the Last 30 Years as voted by BBC Radio 2 listeners ; they have been nominated for three Grammy Awards . By 2009 , the band had sold over 70 million records worldwide . The band were listed in the Guinness World Records book in 2010 for " Longest Top 10 UK Chart Run by a Group " after an unprecedented run of 22 top 10 hits in the UK . The band also holds the Guinness World Record for being the most successful act in the UK between the years 1995 and 2005 , spending 765 weeks in the Top 75 singles and albums charts .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early years : 1991 – 92 = = =
Oasis evolved from an earlier band called the Rain , composed of Paul McGuigan ( bass guitar ) , Paul Arthurs ( guitar ) , Tony McCarroll ( drums ) and Chris Hutton ( vocals ) . Unsatisfied with Hutton , Arthurs invited and auditioned acquaintance Liam Gallagher as a replacement . Liam suggested that the band name be changed to Oasis . This change was inspired by an Inspiral Carpets tour poster that hung in the Gallagher brothers ' bedroom . One of the venues the poster listed was the Oasis Leisure Centre in Swindon , Wiltshire .
Oasis played their first ever live gig on 18 August 1991 at the Boardwalk club in Manchester . Liam 's brother Noel Gallagher , who was a roadie for Inspiral Carpets , went with the band to watch his younger brother 's band play . Whilst Noel and his friends did not think Oasis sounded particularly spectacular , he did begin to consider the possibility of using his brother 's group as a possible outlet for a series of songs he had been writing for several years . Noel approached the group about joining with the proviso that he would become the band 's sole songwriter and leader , and that they would commit to an earnest pursuit of commercial success . " He had loads of stuff written , " Arthurs recalled . " When he walked in , we were a band making a racket with four tunes . All of a sudden , there were loads of ideas . " Oasis under Noel Gallagher crafted a musical approach that relied on simplicity , with Arthurs and McGuigan restricted to playing barre chords and root bass notes ; McCarroll playing basic rhythms , and the band 's amplifiers turned up to create distortion , Oasis created a sound " so devoid of finesse and complexity that it came out sounding pretty much unstoppable . "
= = = Definitely Maybe : 1993 – 94 = = =
After over a year of live shows , rehearsals and a recording of a proper demo ( known as the Live Demonstration tape ) , the band 's big break came in May 1993 when they were spotted by Creation Records co @-@ owner Alan McGee . Oasis were invited to play a gig at King Tut 's Wah Wah Hut club in Glasgow , Scotland , by a band called Sister Lovers , who shared their rehearsal rooms . Oasis , along with a group of friends , found the money to hire a van and make the journey to Glasgow . When they arrived , they were refused entry to the club as they were not on that night 's set list , which reportedly caused the band to bully their way in ( although both the band and McGee have given contradicting statements about how they actually managed to get into the club on that night ) . They were given the opening slot and impressed McGee , who was there to see 18 Wheeler , one of his own bands , that night . McGee was so impressed by what he saw he offered them a recording contract then and there ; they however did not sign until several months later . Due to problems securing an American contract , Oasis ended up signing a worldwide contract with Sony , which in turn licensed Oasis to Creation in the UK . Following a limited white label release of the demo of their song " Columbia " , their first single , " Supersonic " , was released in April 1994 , reaching number 31 in the charts . The release was followed by " Shakermaker " . This song would become the subject of a plagiarism suit , with Oasis paying $ 500 @,@ 000 in damages . Their third single , " Live Forever " , was their first to enter the top ten of the UK charts . After troubled recording and mixing sessions , their debut album , Definitely Maybe , was released on 29 August 1994 , entering the charts at number one within a week of its release , and at the time becoming the fastest selling debut album in the UK .
The best part of a year of constant live performances and recordings , along with a hedonistic lifestyle , were taking their toll on the band . This behaviour culminated during a gig in Los Angeles in September 1994 , leading to inept performance by Liam during which he made offensive remarks about American audiences and hit Noel with a tambourine . The incident upset Noel to such an extent that he temporarily quit the band immediately after and flew to San Francisco ( it was from this incident that the song " Talk Tonight " was written ) . He was tracked down by Creation 's Tim Abbot and they made a trip to Las Vegas . Once there , the elder Gallagher was persuaded to continue with the band . He reconciled with his brother and the tour resumed in Minneapolis . The group followed up the fourth single from Definitely Maybe , " Cigarettes & Alcohol " , with the Christmas single " Whatever " , which entered the British charts at number three . This song would later carry a co @-@ writer 's credit for Neil Innes , who sued and also won damages .
= = = ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? : 1995 = = =
Oasis had their first UK number one single in April 1995 with " Some Might Say " . At the same time , drummer Tony McCarroll was ousted from the band . McCarroll said , on leaving Oasis , that he was " unlawfully expelled from the partnership " for what he called a " personality clash " with the brothers . The Gallaghers , on the other hand , doubted McCarroll 's musical ability , with Noel saying : " I like Tony as a geezer but he wouldn 't have been able to drum the new songs " . McCarroll was replaced by Alan White , formerly of Starclub and younger brother of renowned studio percussionist Steve White , whom Paul Weller recommended to Noel . White made his debut for the band at a Top of the Pops performance of " Some Might Say " . Oasis began recording material for their second album in May of that year in Rockfield Studios near Monmouth . The band , by this point , had recorded the concert that would see release in August as Live by the Sea .
During this period , the British press seized upon a supposed rivalry between Oasis and Britpop band Blur . Previously , Oasis did not associate themselves with the Britpop movement and were not invited to perform on the BBC 's " Britpop Now " programme introduced by Blur singer Damon Albarn . On 14 August 1995 , Blur and Oasis released new singles on the same day , setting up " The Battle of Britpop " that dominated the national news . Blur 's " Country House " outsold Oasis ' " Roll with It " 274 @,@ 000 copies to 216 @,@ 000 during the week . Oasis ' management came up with several reasons for this , claiming " Country House " sold more because it was less expensive ( £ 1 @.@ 99 vs £ 3 @.@ 99 ) and because there were two different versions of " Country House " with different B @-@ sides forcing serious fans to buy two copies . An alternative explanation given at the time by Creation was that there were problems associated with the barcode on the " Roll with It " single case , which did not record all sales . Noel Gallagher told The Observer in September that he hoped Damon Albarn and Alex James of Blur would " catch AIDS and die " , which caused a media furore . He subsequently apologised for this in a formal letter to various publications .
Bassist Paul McGuigan briefly left the band in September 1995 , citing nervous exhaustion . He was replaced by Scott McLeod , formerly of The Ya Ya 's , who was featured on some of the tour dates as well as in the " Wonderwall " video before leaving abruptly while on tour in the US . McLeod later contacted Noel Gallagher claiming he felt he had made the wrong decision . Gallagher curtly replied " I think you have too . Good luck signing on . " To complete the tour , McGuigan was successfully convinced to return to the band .
Although a softer sound led to mixed reviews , Oasis ' second album , ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? was a commercial success , becoming the fourth best @-@ selling album in UK Chart history with over four million copies sold . The album spawned two further hit singles , " Wonderwall " and " Don 't Look Back in Anger " , which reached numbers two and one respectively . It also contained the non @-@ UK single " Champagne Supernova " — featuring guitar and backing vocals by Paul Weller — that received widespread critical acclaim and peaked at number one on the US modern rock chart .
= = = Be Here Now : 1996 – 98 = = =
The group played their first headline outdoor concerts at Maine Road football stadium , home of Manchester City F.C. whom the Gallagher brothers have been fans of since childhood , on 27 and 28 April 1996 . Highlights from the second night featured on the video ... There and Then , released later the same year . As their career reached its zenith , Oasis performed back @-@ to @-@ back concerts at Knebworth on 10 and 11 August . The band sold out both shows within minutes . The audience of 125 @,@ 000 people each night for two nights ( 2 @.@ 5 million people applied for tickets , and 250 @,@ 000 were actually sold , meaning the possibility of 20 sold out nights ) , was at the time a record @-@ breaking number for an outdoor concert held in the UK , and to this day the largest demand for a show in British history .
The rest of the month proved to be difficult for the group . Oasis were due to record an episode of MTV Unplugged at the Royal Festival Hall but Liam pulled out , citing a sore throat . He watched the performance from a balcony with cold beer and cigarettes , heckling Noel 's singing between songs . Four days later the group left for a tour of American arenas but Liam refused to go ; the band decided to continue the tour with Noel on vocals . Liam rejoined the tour on 30 August , and on 4 September 1996 , Oasis performed " Champagne Supernova " at the 1996 MTV Video Music Awards at Radio City Music Hall in New York City . Liam made gestures at Noel during his guitar solo , then spat beer all over the stage before storming off . A few weeks later Noel flew home without the band , who followed on another flight . This event prompted media speculation that the group were splitting up . The brothers soon reconciled and decided to complete the tour .
Oasis spent the end of 1996 and the first quarter of 1997 at Abbey Road Studios in London and Ridge Farm Studios in Surrey recording their third album . Quarrels between the Gallagher brothers plagued the recording sessions . Be Here Now was released in August 1997 . Preceded by the UK number one single " D 'You Know What I Mean ? " , the album was their most anticipated effort , and as such became the subject of considerable media attention . By the end of the first day of release , Be Here Now sold 424 @,@ 000 units and by the end of business on Saturday of that week sales had reached 696 @,@ 000 , making it the fastest @-@ selling album in British history . The album debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 in the US , but its first week sales of 152 @,@ 000 — below expected sales of 400 @,@ 000 copies — were considered a disappointment . Although early media reviews were positive , once the hype had died down , the album was criticised for being bloated and derivative with most of the critics focused on the extensive length of several songs , the heavier sound , and overproduction .
By this time the Britpop movement was in decline , and the band had failed to meet expectations with their third album . After the conclusion of the Be Here Now Tour in early 1998 , amidst much media criticism the group kept a low profile . Later in the year , Oasis released a compilation album of fourteen B @-@ sides , entitled The Masterplan . " The really interesting stuff from around that period is the B @-@ sides . There 's a lot more inspired music on the B @-@ sides than there is on Be Here Now itself , I think " , related Noel in an interview in 2008 .
= = = Standing on the Shoulder of Giants : 1999 – 2000 = = =
In early 1999 , the band began work on their fourth studio album . First details were announced in February with Mark " Spike " Stent revealed to be taking a co @-@ producing role . Things were not going well and the shock departure of founding member Paul " Bonehead " Arthurs was announced in August . This departure was reported at the time as amicable , with Noel stating that Arthurs wanted to spend more time with his family . Arthurs ' statement clarified his leaving as " to concentrate on other things " . However , Noel has since offered a contradicting version : that a series of violations of Noel 's " no drink or drugs " policy ( imposed by Noel so that Liam could sing properly ) for the album 's sessions resulted in a confrontation between the two . Two weeks later the departure of bassist Paul McGuigan was announced . The Gallagher brothers held a press conference shortly thereafter where they assured reporters that " the future of Oasis is secure . The story and the glory will go on . "
The now three @-@ piece Oasis chose to continue recording the album , with Noel Gallagher re @-@ recording most of Arthurs ' guitar and McGuigan 's bass parts . After the completion of the recording sessions , the band began searching for replacement members . The first new member to be announced was new lead / rhythm guitarist Colin " Gem " Archer , formerly of Heavy Stereo , who later claimed to have been approached by Noel Gallagher only a couple of days after Arthurs ' departure was publicly announced . Finding a replacement bassist took more time and effort . The band were rehearsing with David Potts , but he quickly resigned , and they brought in Andy Bell , former guitarist / songwriter of Ride and Hurricane No. 1 as their new bassist . Bell had never played bass before and had to learn to play it ( with Noel since saying that Liam said , " If he can play the guitar , he can play the fookin ' bass " ) , along with a handful of songs from Oasis ' back catalogue , in preparation for a scheduled tour of America in December 1999 .
With the folding of Creation Records , Oasis formed their own label , Big Brother , which released all of Oasis ' subsequent records in the UK and Ireland . Oasis ' fourth album , Standing on the Shoulder of Giants , was released in February 2000 to good first @-@ week sales . It peaked at number one on the British charts and number 24 on the Billboard charts . Three singles were released from the album : " Go Let It Out " , " Who Feels Love ? " and " Sunday Morning Call " , all of which were top five UK singles . The " Go Let It Out " video was shot before Bell joined the group and therefore featured the unusual line @-@ up of Liam on rhythm guitar , Archer on lead guitar and Noel on bass . With the departure of the founding members , the band made several small changes to their image and sound . The cover featured a new " Oasis " logo , designed by Gem Archer , and the album was also the first Oasis release to include a song written by Liam Gallagher , entitled " Little James " . The songs also had more experimental , psychedelic influences . Standing on the Shoulder of Giants received only lukewarm reviews and is the band 's lowest selling studio album .
To support the record the band staged an eventful world tour . While touring in Barcelona in 2000 , Oasis were forced to cancel a gig when an attack of tendinitis caused Alan White 's arm to seize up , and the band spent the night drinking instead . After a row between the two brothers , Noel declared he was quitting touring overseas altogether , and Oasis were supposed to finish the tour without him . Noel eventually returned for the Irish and British legs of the tour , which included two major shows at Wembley Stadium . A live album of the first show , called Familiar to Millions , was released in late 2000 to mixed reviews .
= = = Heathen Chemistry : 2001 – 03 = = =
Throughout 2001 , Oasis split time between sessions for their fifth studio album and live shows around the world . Some gigs included the month @-@ long Tour of Brotherly Love with The Black Crowes and Spacehog and a show in Paris supporting Neil Young . The album , Heathen Chemistry , Oasis ' first album with new members Andy Bell and Gem Archer , was released in July 2002 . The album reached number 1 in the UK and number 23 in the US , although critics gave it mixed reviews . There were four singles released from the album : " The Hindu Times " , " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " , " Little by Little / She Is Love " , and " Songbird " , written by Liam – Oasis ' first single not written by Noel . The record blended the band 's sonic experiments from their last albums , but also went for a more basic rock sound . The recording of Heathen Chemistry was much more balanced for the band , with all of the members , apart from White , writing songs . Johnny Marr provided additional guitar as well as backup vocals on a couple of songs .
After the album 's release , the band embarked on a successful world tour that was once again filled with incidents . In late summer 2002 , whilst the band were on tour in the US , Noel , Bell and touring keyboardist Jay Darlington were involved in a car accident in Indianapolis . While none of the band members sustained any major injuries , some shows were cancelled as a result . In December 2002 , the latter half of the German leg of the band 's European tour had to be postponed after Liam Gallagher , Alan White and three other members of the band 's entourage were arrested after a violent brawl at a Munich nightclub . The band had been drinking heavily and tests showed that Liam had used cocaine . Liam lost two front teeth and kicked a police officer in the ribs , while Alan suffered minor head injuries after getting hit with an ashtray . Two years later Liam was fined around £ 40 @,@ 000 . The band finished their tour in March 2003 after returning to those postponed dates .
= = = Don 't Believe the Truth : 2004 – 06 = = =
Liam Gallagher said Oasis began recording a sixth album in late December 2003 with producers Death in Vegas at Sawmills Studios in Cornwall . The album was originally planned for a September 2004 release to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the release of Definitely Maybe . However , long @-@ time drummer Alan White , who at this time had played on nearly all of the band 's material , left the band in early January 2004 . At the time , his brother Steve White stated on his own website that " the spirit of being in a band was kicked out of him " and he wanted to be with his current girlfriend . White was replaced by Zak Starkey , drummer of The Who and the son of The Beatles ' Ringo Starr . Though Starkey performed on studio recordings and toured with the band , he was not officially a member and the band were a four @-@ piece for the first time in their career . Starkey played publicly for the first time at Poole Lighthouse .
A few days later , Oasis , with Starkey , headlined the Glastonbury Festival for the second time in their career and performed a largely greatest hits set , which included two new songs — Gem Archer 's " A Bell Will Ring " and Liam Gallagher 's " The Meaning of Soul " . The performance received negative reviews , with NME calling it a " disaster . " The BBC 's Tom Bishop called Oasis ' set " lacklustre and uneventful ... prompting a mixed reception from fans " , mainly because of Liam 's uninspired singing and Starkey 's lack of experience with the band 's material .
After much turbulence , the band 's sixth album was finally recorded in Los Angeles @-@ based Capitol Studios from October to December the same year . Producer Dave Sardy took over the lead producing role from Noel , who decided to step back from these duties after a decade of producing leadership over the band . In May 2005 , after three years and as many scrapped recording sessions , the band released their sixth studio album , Don 't Believe the Truth , fulfilling their contract with Sony BMG . It followed the path of Heathen Chemistry as being a collaborative project again , rather than a Noel @-@ written album . The album was the first in a decade not to feature drumming by Alan White , marking the recording debut of Starkey . The record was generally hailed as the band 's best effort since Morning Glory by fans and critics alike , spawning two UK number one singles : " Lyla " and " The Importance of Being Idle " , whilst " Let There Be Love " entered at number 2 . Oasis picked up two awards at the Q Awards : one People 's Choice Award and the second for Don 't Believe the Truth as Best Album . Following in the footsteps of Oasis ' previous five albums , Don 't Believe the Truth also entered the UK album charts at number one . To date the album has sold more than 7 million copies worldwide .
In May 2005 , the band 's new line @-@ up embarked on a large scale world tour . Beginning on 10 May 2005 at the London Astoria , and finishing on 31 March 2006 in front of a sold out gig in Mexico City , Oasis played more live shows than at any time since the Definitely Maybe tour , visiting 26 countries and headlining 113 shows for over 3 @.@ 2 million people . The tour passed without any major incidents and was the band 's most successful in more than a decade . The tour included sold out shows at New York 's Madison Square Garden and LA 's Hollywood Bowl . A rockumentary film made during the tour , entitled Lord Don 't Slow Me Down directed by Dick Carruthers was released in October 2007 . A second DVD included live footage from an Oasis gig in Manchester from 2 July 2005 .
Oasis released a compilation double album entitled Stop the Clocks in 2006 , featuring what the band considers to be their " definitive " songs . The band received the Brit Award for outstanding contribution to music in February 2007 , playing several of their most famous songs afterwards . Oasis released their first ever digital @-@ only release , " Lord Don 't Slow Me Down " , in October 2007 . The song debuted at number ten in the UK singles chart .
= = = Dig Out Your Soul : 2007 – 09 = = =
The band 's resurgence in popularity since the success of Don 't Believe The Truth was highlighted in February 2008 when , in a poll to find the fifty greatest British albums of the last fifty years conducted by Q magazine and HMV , two Oasis albums were voted first and second ( Definitely Maybe and ( What 's The Story ) Morning Glory ? respectively ) . Two other albums by the band appeared in the list – Don 't Believe The Truth came in at number fourteen , and the album that has previously been heavily criticised by some of the media , Be Here Now , made the list at No.22.
Oasis recorded for a couple of months in 2007 – between July and September — completing work on two new songs and demoing the rest . They took a two @-@ month break , because of the birth of Noel 's son . The band re @-@ entered the studio on 5 November 2007 and finished recording around March 2008 with producer Dave Sardy . In May 2008 , Zak Starkey left the band after recording Dig Out Your Soul , the band 's seventh studio album . He was replaced by former Icicle Works drummer Chris Sharrock on their tour and , like Zak , Chris was not an official member of the band and Oasis remained as a four @-@ piece . The first single from the record was " The Shock of the Lightning " written by Noel Gallagher , and was pre @-@ released on 29 September 2008 . Dig Out Your Soul , the band 's seventh studio album , was released on 6 October and went to number one in the UK and number five on the Billboard 200 . The band started touring for a projected 18 @-@ month @-@ long tour expected to last till September 2009 , with support from Kasabian , The Enemy and Twisted Wheel . On 7 September 2008 , while performing at Virgin Festival in Toronto , a member of the audience ran on stage and physically assaulted Noel . Noel suffered three broken and dislodged ribs as a result from the attack , and the group had to cancel several shows while he recovered . In June 2008 , the band re @-@ signed with Sony BMG for a three @-@ album deal .
On 25 February 2009 , Oasis received the NME Award for Best British Band of 2009 as well as best blog for Noel 's ' Tales from the Middle of Nowhere ' .
On 4 June 2009 , Oasis played the first of three concerts at Manchester 's Heaton Park and after having to leave the stage twice due to a generator failure , came on the third time to declare the gig was now a free concert ; it delighted the 70 @,@ 000 ticket holders , 20 @,@ 000 of whom claimed the refund . The band 's two following gigs at the venue , on 6 and 7 June , proved a great success , with fans turning out in their thousands despite the changeable weather and first night 's sound issues .
= = = Split and aftermath : 2009 – present = = =
As a result of Liam suffering laryngitis , Oasis cancelled a planned gig at V Festival in Chelmsford on 23 August 2009 . Noel Gallagher later made a statement saying the gig was cancelled due to Liam having ' a hangover ' . Tension between the brothers rose and a fight between them in a backstage area on 28 August 2009 reportedly resulted in Liam throwing a plum and wielding Noel 's guitar like an axe . The group 's manager announced the cancellation of their concert at the Rock en Seine festival near Paris just minutes before it was about to begin , along with the cancellation of the last date at I @-@ Day Festival and a statement that the group " does not exist anymore " . Two hours later , a statement from Noel appeared on the band 's website :
" It is with some sadness and great relief ... I quit Oasis tonight . People will write and say what they like , but I simply could not go on working with Liam a day longer . "
On the 6th of July 2011 Absolute Radio uploaded a video to YouTube where Noel Gallagher speaks about the night Oasis ended . Noel states within this video . ' If i had my time again i would have gone back and done the gig . I 'd have done that gig and i 'd have done the next gig and we 'd have all gone away and we could have probably discussed it . We may never have split up.'
On 16 February 2010 , Oasis won the award for Best Brit Album of the Last 30 Years at the 2010 Brit Awards . Liam Gallagher collected the award alone before presenting his speech , which thanked Bonehead , McGuigan and Alan White but not his brother , Noel . Liam threw his microphone and the band 's award into the crowd . On 15 March 2010 , Liam defended his actions at the awards ceremony , saying " I 'm sick of it all being about me and Noel , the last couple of months has pretty much been all about me and him so I thought it was only right to mention the other lads who played on the album and the best fans in the world , " and " I thought it was a nice gesture to give this to the fans , obviously it was misinterpreted as per usual . " about throwing the award .
Time Flies ... 1994 – 2009 , a compilation album containing singles by the group , was released on 14 June 2010 . The decision to make the compilation a singles collection , and the track order , was decided by Noel Gallagher , who released a number of videos to the Oasis YouTube account relating to the collection .
On 26 February 2014 , Noel via the band 's official website announced that the first three studio albums would be reissued , remastered and re @-@ released throughout the remainder of 2014 to commemorate the 20th anniversary of Definitely Maybe . A remastered 3 @-@ disc version of Definitely Maybe was released on 19 May 2014 .
A documentary titled Supersonic is set to be released in October 2016 , and will tell the story of Oasis from their beginnings to the height of their fame during the summer of 1996 . Produced by the same team behind the Academy Award @-@ winning biopic Amy , Supersonic is said to feature up close and personal footage , as well as never before seen archive material and interviews with the band .
= = Influences = =
Oasis were most heavily influenced by the Beatles , an influence that was frequently labelled as an " obsession " by the British media . In addition , members of Oasis have cited the Stone Roses , U2 , Bee Gees , T. Rex , Sex Pistols , Slade , Small Faces , the Who , Nirvana , the Rolling Stones , the Stooges , the La 's , the Doors , Jimi Hendrix , Bob Dylan , Neil Young , Humble Pie , Happy Mondays , the Hollies , Inspiral Carpets , Peter Green @-@ era Fleetwood Mac , the Kinks , the Jam , Pink Floyd , the Verve , Led Zeppelin , David Bowie , the Velvet Underground , Talking Heads , and the Smiths as an influence or inspiration .
= = Legal battles over songwriter credits = =
Legal action has been taken against Noel Gallagher and Oasis for plagiarism on three separate occasions during the course of Oasis ' career . The first was the case of Neil Innes ( formerly of the Bonzo Dog Doo @-@ Dah Band and the Rutles ) suing to prove the Oasis song " Whatever " borrowed from his song " How Sweet to Be an Idiot " . Innes was eventually awarded royalties and a co @-@ writer credit . Noel Gallagher claimed in 2010 that the plagiarism was unintentional and he was unaware of the similarities until informed of Innes 's legal case . In the second incident , Oasis were also sued by Coca @-@ Cola and forced to pay $ 500 @,@ 000 in damages to the New Seekers after it was alleged that the Oasis song " Shakermaker " had lifted words and melody from " I 'd Like to Teach the World to Sing " . When asked about the incident , Noel Gallagher joked " Now we all drink Pepsi . " On the third and final occasion , when promotional copies of ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? were originally distributed , they contained a previously unreleased bonus song called " Step Out " . This promotional CD was quickly withdrawn and replaced with a version that omitted the controversial song , which was allegedly similar to the Stevie Wonder song " Uptight ( Everything 's Alright ) " . " Step Out " later reappeared as the B @-@ side to " Don 't Look Back in Anger " , albeit now listing " Wonder , et. al " as co @-@ writers .
On the flip side , the 2003 song " Life Got Cold " by UK girl band Girls Aloud received attention due to similarities between the guitar riff and melody of " Life Got Cold " and that of the song " Wonderwall " . A BBC review stated " part of the chorus sounds like it is going to turn into Wonderwall by Oasis . " A source told The Sun that Girls Aloud " are all big Oasis fans so I 'm sure they won 't mind comparisons with their classic love song . " Warner / Chappell Music has since credited Oasis songwriter Noel Gallagher .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Many bands and artists have cited Oasis as an influence or inspiration , including the Killers , Arctic Monkeys , the Enemy , Elliott Smith , Lily Allen , the View , Drake Bell , Hurts , Coldplay , Maroon 5 , the Coral , Ryan Adams , the Kooks , the Rifles , the Pigeon Detectives , Keane and Kasabian .
= = Band members = =
Liam Gallagher – lead vocals , tambourine , acoustic guitar ( 1991 – 2009 )
Noel Gallagher – lead guitar , acoustic guitar , rhythm guitar , vocals , bass , keyboard ( 1991 – 2009 )
Gem Archer – rhythm guitar , lead guitar , acoustic guitar , harmonica ( 1999 – 2009 )
Andy Bell – bass , acoustic guitar ( 1999 – 2009 )
Alan White – drums , percussion ( 1995 – 2004 )
Paul " Guigsy " McGuigan – bass ( 1991 – 1999 )
Paul " Bonehead " Arthurs – rhythm guitar , acoustic guitar , piano ( 1991 – 1999 )
Tony McCarroll – drums ( 1991 – 1995 )
Touring musicians
Jay Darlington – keyboard ( 2004 – 2009 )
Zak Starkey – drums , percussion ( 2004 – 2008 )
Chris Sharrock – drums ( 2008 – 2009 )
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Definitely Maybe ( 1994 )
( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( 1995 )
Be Here Now ( 1997 )
Standing on the Shoulder of Giants ( 2000 )
Heathen Chemistry ( 2002 )
Don 't Believe the Truth ( 2005 )
Dig Out Your Soul ( 2008 )
= = Awards = =
|
= Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows =
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is the seventh and final novel of the Harry Potter series , written by British author J. K. Rowling . The book was released on 21 July 2007 by Bloomsbury Publishing in the United Kingdom , in the United States by Scholastic , and in Canada by Raincoast Books , ending the series that began in 1997 with the publication of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone . The novel chronicles the events directly following Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince ( 2005 ) , and the final confrontation between the wizards Harry Potter and Lord Voldemort , as well as revealing the previously concealed back story of several main characters . The title of the book refers to three mythical objects featured in the story , collectively known as the " Deathly Hallows " — an unbeatable wand , a stone to bring the dead to life , and a cloak of invisibility .
Rowling finished writing Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in January 2007 . Before its release , Bloomsbury reportedly spent £ 10 million to keep the book 's contents safe before its release date . American publisher Arthur Levine refused any copies of the novel to be released in advance for press review , although two reviews were submitted early . Shortly before release , photos of all 759 pages of the U.S. edition were leaked and transcribed , leading Scholastic to look for the source that had leaked it .
Released globally in 93 countries , Deathly Hallows broke sales records as the fastest @-@ selling book ever , a record it still held in 2012 . It sold 15 million copies in the first 24 hours following its release , including more than 11 million in the U.S. and UK alone . The previous record , 9 million in its first day , had been held by Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince . The novel has also been translated into over 120 languages . The title proved difficult to translate and was often rendered closer to " Harry Potter and the Relics of Death " in other languages .
Major themes in the novel are death and living in a corrupted society , and critics have compared them to Christian allegories . Generally well @-@ received , the book won the 2008 Colorado Blue Spruce Book Award , and the American Library Association named it a " Best Book for Young Adults " . A two @-@ part film adaptation began showing in November 2010 when Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 was released ; Part 2 was released on 15 July 2011 .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
Throughout the six previous novels in the series , the titular character Harry Potter has struggled with the difficulties of adolescence along with being famous as the only wizard to survive the Killing Curse . The curse was cast by the evil Tom Riddle , better known as Lord Voldemort , a powerful evil wizard , who had murdered Harry 's parents and attempted to kill Harry as a baby , in the belief this would frustrate a prophecy that Harry would become his equal . As an orphan , Harry was placed in the care of his Muggle ( non @-@ magical ) relatives Aunt Petunia and Uncle Vernon .
In Philosopher 's Stone , Harry re @-@ enters the wizarding world at age 11 and enrols in Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . He makes friends with fellow students Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger , and is mentored by the school 's headmaster , Albus Dumbledore . He also meets Professor Severus Snape , who intensely dislikes and bullies him . Harry fights Voldemort several times while at school , as the wizard tries to regain a physical form . In Goblet of Fire , Harry is mysteriously entered in a dangerous magical competition called the Triwizard Tournament , which he discovers is a trap designed to allow the return of Lord Voldemort to full strength . During Order of the Phoenix , Harry and several of his friends face off against Voldemort 's Death Eaters , a group of Dark witches and wizards , and narrowly defeat them . In Half @-@ Blood Prince , Harry learns that Voldemort has divided his soul into several parts , creating " horcruxes " from various unknown objects to contain them ; in this way he has ensured his immortality as long as at least one of the horcruxes still exists . Two of these had already been destroyed , one a diary destroyed by Harry in the events of Chamber of Secrets and one a ring destroyed by Dumbledore shortly before the events of Half @-@ Blood Prince . Dumbledore takes Harry along in the attempt to destroy a third horcrux contained in a locket . However the horcrux has been taken by an unknown wizard , and upon their return Dumbledore is ambushed and disarmed by Draco Malfoy who cannot bring himself to kill him , then killed by Snape .
= = = Summary = = =
Following Dumbledore 's death , Voldemort consolidates his support and power , including covert control of the Ministry of Magic , while Harry is about to turn seventeen , losing the protection of his home . The Order of the Phoenix move Harry to a new location before his birthday , but are attacked upon departure . Mad @-@ Eye is killed , and George Weasley wounded , the rest arrive safely .
Abandoning school , Ron and Hermione accompany Harry to finish Dumbledore 's quest : to hunt and destroy Voldemort 's four remaining Horcruxes . Initially they have very few clues — one is a locket once owned by Hogwarts ' co @-@ founder Salazar Slytherin which was stolen by the mysterious " R.A.B. " , one is possibly a cup originally belonging to co @-@ founder Helga Hufflepuff , a third might be connected to co @-@ founder Rowena Ravenclaw , and the fourth might be Nagini , Voldemort 's snake familiar . They also receive apparently meaningless bequests from Dumbledore 's possessions — a Golden Snitch for Harry , a Deluminator for Ron , and a book of fairy tales for Hermione .
Before leaving , they attend Ron 's brother Bill 's wedding , but the Ministry of Magic finally falls to Voldemort and the wedding is attacked . They flee to 12 Grimmauld Place in London , the family home of Sirius Black and headquarters of the Order of the Phoenix , where they identify R.A.B. as Sirius ' brother Regulus Black , and learn from the house @-@ elf Kreacher that Slytherin 's locket was stolen from the house and then seized by Dolores Umbridge of the Ministry of Magic . They infiltrate the Ministry of Magic and take back the locket , but have no way to destroy it . Under the object 's evil influence and the strain of constant vigilance , they argue and Ron leaves .
Harry and Hermione continue the quest , discovering more about Dumbledore 's past , including the death of Dumbledore 's younger sister and his connection to the dark wizard Gellert Grindelwald . They travel to Godric 's Hollow , Harry 's birthplace and the place where his parents died , and meet the elderly magical historian Bathilda Bagshot , but she turns out to be Nagini in disguise , awaiting their arrival ; the snake attacks Harry and again they barely escape , this time to the Forest of Dean , where their luck appears to turn . A mysterious silver doe , similar to a Patronus , appears and silently guides Harry to an icy pond containing the Sword of Hogwarts co @-@ founder Godric Gryffindor , a Goblin @-@ made weapon and one of the few objects able to destroy Horcruxes . During Harry 's attempt to recover the sword , the Horcrux attempts to kill him . He is saved by Ron , who was guided back by the deluminator , and they realise Dumbledore 's gifts may be meaningful . Ron obtains the sword , and uses it to destroy the locket .
Harry continues to have visions of Voldemort torturing and killing wizards , apparently in pursuit of some object . Hermione identifies in her book , a strange symbol also worn at the wedding by Xenophilius Lovegood . They visit him and are told the symbol represents the mythical Deathly Hallows , three objects from an old fairy tale titled The Tale of the Three Brothers : the Elder Wand , an unbeatable wand ; the Resurrection Stone , able to summon the dead ; and an infallible Invisibility Cloak . Harry realises that Voldemort is seeking ( and shortly afterwards , successfully obtains ) the Elder Wand , won by Dumbledore after Grindelwald 's defeat , recognises the Resurrection Stone as that found by Dumbledore which had become the second Horcrux , and his own inherited Invisibility Cloak as the third Hallow .
The trio are captured and taken to Malfoy Manor , where Bellatrix Lestrange tortures Hermione to learn how the three acquired the sword , which she had believed was in her vault at Gringotts bank . They escape , along with Luna Lovegood , Ollivander , Dean Thomas , and the goblin Griphook , aided by the elf Dobby . During the escape Harry disarms Draco Malfoy and Dobby dies . Bellatrix ' terror in interrogating Hermione suggests to Harry that some exceptional object is in her vault , and when questioned , Griphook confirms that a gold cup is indeed in her vault . They break into the vault , retrieve the cup , and escape on a dragon , although they lose the sword . Harry has a vision of Voldemort and sees that he now understands their plan , and intends to make his remaining horcruxes even safer . The vision also confirms that the unidentified horcrux is at Hogwarts .
They enter the school through an undiscovered secret entrance . The teachers drive out Snape , and defend the school to win time for Harry to locate the penultimate horcrux . Voldemort had set a guard in the Ravenclaw tower , corroborating Harry 's belief that the horcrux is Rowena Ravenclaw 's diadem , lost centuries ago . The Ravenclaw ghost 's story further confirms this belief , and Harry remembers an old diadem in the Room of Requirement . Ron and Hermione destroy the cup with basilisk fangs from the Chamber of Secrets as Voldemort and his army besiege the castle . They find the diadem but are ambushed by Draco Malfoy and his friends Crabbe and Goyle . Crabbe tries to kill them using Fiendfyre , a cursed fire , but is unable to control it ; the fire destroys the diadem and himself . Harry and his friends save Malfoy and Goyle , and several major characters are killed in the battle , including Remus Lupin , Nymphadora Tonks , and Fred Weasley .
In his encampment , Voldemort feels that the Elder Wand is not performing as he expected . According to legend , its allegiance must be won by killing the previous owner , and Voldemort concludes — incorrectly — that as Snape killed Dumbledore , he will not be able to fully wield the wand 's power until he kills Snape , which he does . Harry arrives as Snape is dying , and Snape passes him memories to view in a pensieve . They reveal finally , that Snape had a lifelong love for Harry 's mother , and felt haunted by causing her death , that despite hating Harry 's father he agreed at Dumbledore 's request to watch over their son Harry and act as a double agent against Voldemort , that Dumbledore 's death was planned with Snape in advance , that Snape cast the doe Patronus to lead Harry to the sword , and that — apparently — he himself must die if Voldemort is to be killed . He accepts his death and Dumbledore 's scheming that has guided his life , and goes to seek out and be killed by Voldemort . On the way he tells Neville Longbottom that Voldemort 's snake Nagini — the last known horcrux — must be killed to make Voldemort vulnerable . He uses the Resurrection Stone to seek comfort and courage from his dead loved ones — his parents , Sirius and Lupin — dropping the stone in the forest before reaching Voldemort 's camp . Voldemort uses the Killing Curse and Harry does not defend himself .
Harry awakens in a dreamlike location somewhat like Kings Cross Station , and is greeted by Dumbledore who explains that Voldemort 's original Killing Curse left a fragment of Voldemort 's soul in Harry which caused the connection they had felt , that when Voldemort used Harry 's blood to regain his full strength , this further protected Harry from Voldemort , that this fragment of Voldemort 's soul has now been killed by Voldemort 's own spell , and that Harry is free to return or " go on " . Harry chooses to return and feigns death . Voldemort displays Harry 's body and offers a truce if the defenders surrender , but Neville kills Nagini with the sword , leaving Voldemort unprotected , and Harry escapes under his cloak as the battle resumes .
In a final onslaught , Bellatrix is killed and Harry reveals to Voldemort that he is alive . He explains to Voldemort that the Elder Wand 's loyalty transfers upon the defeat , not necessarily the killing , of its previous master . Although Voldemort believed he has won the wand 's allegiance by killing Snape , who killed Dumbledore , in fact he ( Harry ) had defeated Draco Malfoy who had previously disarmed Dumbledore . Therefore , the outcome of their duel will depend upon whether the Elder Wand knows its previous master was disarmed , which will have left Harry as its true master , even though neither Draco nor Harry ever physically held it . He also explains that his attempted self @-@ sacrifice has protected the remaining defendants , who can now no longer be hurt by Voldemort . Harry urges Voldemort to feel remorse , in order to save his soul . Enraged , Voldemort attempts one final Killing Curse , but the Elder Wand refuses to act against Harry and the spell rebounds , killing him finally .
After Voldemort 's death , Harry uses the Elder Wand to repair his original broken wand , saying that he will return it to Dumbledore 's tomb , where its power may vanish if Harry dies undefeated and where it may drop out of history , and the wizarding world returns to peace once more .
Epilogue
In an epilogue set in King 's Cross station 19 years later , Harry and Ginny Weasley are a couple with three children : James Sirius , Albus Severus , and Lily Luna . Ron and Hermione also have two children , Rose and Hugo ; Harry 's godson Teddy Lupin , is found kissing Bill and Fleur Weasley 's daughter Victoire ; Neville Longbottom is now a Hogwarts professor ; and Draco Malfoy and his wife are also at the station to send off their son , Scorpius . Albus is departing for his first year at Hogwarts , and is worried he will be placed into Slytherin House . Harry reassures him , telling his son that he is named for two Hogwarts headmasters , and one of them ( Snape ) was a Slytherin and " the bravest man he had ever met " , but that the Sorting Hat could take account of personal preferences , as it did for Harry . The book ends with the words : " The scar had not pained Harry for nineteen years . All was well . "
= = Background = =
= = = Franchise = = =
Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone was published by Bloomsbury , the publisher of all Harry Potter books in the United Kingdom , on 30 June 1997 . It was released in the United States on 1 September 1998 by Scholastic — the American publisher of the books — as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone , after Rowling had received US $ 105 @,@ 000 for the American rights — an unprecedented amount for a children 's book by a then @-@ unknown author .
The second book , Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 , and in the US on 2 June 1999 . Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was then published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 , and in the US on 8 September 1999 . Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic . Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the series at 766 pages in the UK version and 870 pages in the US version . It was published worldwide in English on 21 June 2003 . Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince was published on 16 July 2005 , and it sold 9 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release .
= = = Choice of title = = =
Shortly before releasing the title , J. K. Rowling announced that she had considered three titles for the book . The final title , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , named after the mythical Deathly Hallows in the novel , was released to the public on 21 December 2006 , via a special Christmas @-@ themed hangman puzzle on Rowling 's website , confirmed shortly afterwards by the book 's publishers . When asked during a live chat about the other titles she had been considering , Rowling mentioned Harry Potter and the Elder Wand and Harry Potter and the Peverell Quest .
= = = Rowling on finishing the book = = =
Rowling completed the book while staying at the Balmoral Hotel in Edinburgh in January 2007 , and left a signed statement on a marble bust of Hermes in her room which read : " J. K. Rowling finished writing Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in this room ( 552 ) on 11 January 2007 " . In a statement on her website , she said , " I 've never felt such a mixture of extreme emotions in my life , never dreamed I could feel simultaneously heartbroken and euphoric . " She compared her mixed feelings to those expressed by Charles Dickens in the preface of the 1850 edition of David Copperfield , " a two @-@ years ' imaginative task " . " To which , " she added , " I can only sigh , try seventeen years , Charles " . She ended her message by saying " Deathly Hallows is my favourite , and that is the most wonderful way to finish the series " .
When asked before publication about the forthcoming book , Rowling stated that she could not change the ending even if she wanted . " These books have been plotted for such a long time , and for six books now , that they 're all leading a certain direction . So , I really can 't " . She also commented that the final volume related closely to the previous book in the series , Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince , " almost as though they are two @-@ halves of the same novel " . She has said that the last chapter of the book was written " in something like 1990 " , as part of her earliest work on the series . Rowling also revealed she originally wrote the last words to be " something like : ' Only those who he loved could see his lightning scar ' " . Rowling changed this because she did not want people to think Voldemort would rise again and to say that Harry 's mission was over .
= = Major themes = =
= = = Death = = =
In a 2006 interview , J. K. Rowling said that the main theme of the series is Harry dealing with death , which was influenced by her mother 's death in 1990 , from multiple sclerosis . Lev Grossman of Time stated that the main theme of the series was the overwhelming importance of continuing to love in the face of death .
= = = Living in a corrupted society = = =
Academics and journalists have developed many other interpretations of themes in the books , some more complex than others , and some including political subtexts . Themes such as normality , oppression , survival , and overcoming imposing odds have all been considered as prevalent throughout the series . Similarly , the theme of making one 's way through adolescence and " going over one 's most harrowing ordeals — and thus coming to terms with them " has also been considered . Rowling has stated that the books comprise " a prolonged argument for tolerance , a prolonged plea for an end to bigotry " and that also pass on a message to " question authority and ... not assume that the establishment or the press tells you all of the truth " .
Some political commentators have seen J. K. Rowling 's portrayal of the bureaucratised Ministry of Magic and the oppressive measures taken by the Ministry in the later books ( like making attendance at Hogwarts School compulsory and the " registration of Mudbloods " with the Ministry ) as an allegory of criticising the state .
= = = Christian allegories = = =
The Harry Potter series has been criticised for supposedly supporting witchcraft and the occult . Before publication of Deathly Hallows , Rowling refused to speak out about her religion , stating , " If I talk too freely , every reader , whether 10 or 60 , will be able to guess what 's coming in the books " . However , many have noted Christian allegories apparent in Deathly Hallows . For example , Harry dies and then comes back to life to save mankind , like Christ . The location where this occurs is King 's Cross . Harry also urges Voldemort to show remorse , to restore his shattered soul . Rowling also stated that " my belief and my struggling with religious belief ... I think is quite apparent in this book " , which is shown as Harry struggles with his faith in Dumbledore .
Deathly Hallows begins with a pair of epigraphs , one by Quaker leader William Penn and one from Aeschylus ' The Libation Bearers . Of this , Rowling said " I really enjoyed choosing those two quotations because one is pagan , of course , and one is from a Christian tradition . I 'd known it was going to be those two passages since Chamber was published . I always knew [ that ] if I could use them at the beginning of book seven then I 'd cued up the ending perfectly . If they were relevant , then I went where I needed to go . They just say it all to me , they really do " .
When Harry visits his parents ' grave , the biblical reference " The last enemy that shall be destroyed is death " ( 1 Corinthians 15 : 26 ) is inscribed on the grave . The Dumbledores ' family tomb also holds a biblical quote : " Where your treasure is , there your heart will be also " , which is from Matthew 6 : 21 . Rowling states , " They 're very British books , so on a very practical note Harry was going to find biblical quotations on tombstones ... [ but ] I think those two particular quotations he finds on the tombstones at Godric 's Hollow , they sum up – they almost epitomise the whole series " .
Harry Potter pundit John Granger additionally noted that one of the reasons the Harry Potter books were so popular is their use of literary alchemy ( similar to Romeo and Juliet , C. S. Lewis 's Perelandra and Charles Dickens 's A Tale of Two Cities ) and vision symbolism . In this model , authors weave allegorical tales along the alchemical magnum opus . Since the medieval period , alchemical allegory has mirrored the passion , death and resurrection of Christ . While the entire series utilises symbols common in alchemy , the Deathly Hallows completes this cycle , tying themes of death , rebirth , and the Resurrection Stone to the principal motif of alchemical allegory , and topics presented in the first book of the series .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing and promotion = = =
The launch was celebrated by an all @-@ night book signing and reading at the Natural History Museum in London , which Rowling attended along with 1 @,@ 700 guests chosen by ballot . Rowling toured the US in October 2007 , where another event was held at Carnegie Hall in New York City with tickets allocated by sweepstake .
Scholastic , the American publisher of the Harry Potter series , launched a multimillion @-@ dollar " There will soon be 7 " marketing campaign with a " Knight Bus " travelling to 40 libraries across the United States , online fan discussions and competitions , collectible bookmarks , tattoos , and the staged release of seven Deathly Hallows questions most debated by fans . In the build @-@ up to the book 's release , Scholastic released seven questions that fans would find answered in the final book :
Who will live ? Who will die ?
Is Snape good or evil ?
Will Hogwarts reopen ?
Who ends up with whom ?
Where are the Horcruxes ?
Will Voldemort be defeated ?
What are the Deathly Hallows ?
J. K. Rowling arranged with her publishers for a poster bearing the face of the missing British child Madeleine McCann to be made available to book sellers when Deathly Hallows was launched on 21 July 2007 , and said that she hoped that the posters would be displayed prominently in shops all over the world .
After it was told that the novel would be released on 21 July 2007 , Warner Bros. shortly thereafter said that the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix would be released shortly before the novel would be released , on 13 July 2007 , making many people proclaim that July 2007 , was the month of Harry Potter .
= = = Spoiler embargo = = =
Bloomsbury invested £ 10 million in an attempt to keep the book 's contents secure until 21 July , the release date . Arthur Levine , U.S. editor of the Harry Potter series , denied distributing any copies of Deathly Hallows in advance for press review , but two U.S. papers published early reviews anyway . There was speculation that some shops would break the embargo and distribute copies of the book early , as the penalty imposed for previous instalments — that the distributor would not be supplied with any further copies of the series — would no longer be a deterrent .
= = = Online leaks and early delivery = = =
In the week before its release , a number of texts purporting to be genuine leaks appeared in various forms . On 16 July , a set of photographs representing all 759 pages of the U.S. edition was leaked and was fully transcribed prior to the official release date . The photographs later appeared on websites and peer @-@ to @-@ peer networks , leading Scholastic to seek a subpoena in order to identify one source . This represented the most serious security breach in the Harry Potter series ' history . Rowling and her lawyer confirmed that there were genuine online leaks . Reviews published in both The Baltimore Sun and The New York Times on 18 July 2007 , corroborated many of the plot elements from this leak , and about one day prior to release , The New York Times confirmed that the main circulating leak was real .
Scholastic announced that approximately one @-@ ten @-@ thousandth ( 0 @.@ 0001 ) of the U.S. supply had been shipped early — interpreted to mean about 1 @,@ 200 copies . One reader in Maryland received a copy of the book in the mail from DeepDiscount.com four days before it was launched , which evoked incredulous responses from both Scholastic and DeepDiscount . Scholastic initially reported that they were satisfied it had been a " human error " and would not discuss possible penalties ; however , the following day Scholastic announced that it would be launching legal action against DeepDiscount.com and its distributor , Levy Home Entertainment . Scholastic filed for damages in Chicago 's Circuit Court of Cook County , claiming that DeepDiscount engaged in a " complete and flagrant violation of the agreements that they knew were part of the carefully constructed release of this eagerly awaited book . " Some of the early release books soon appeared on eBay , in one case being sold to Publishers Weekly for US $ 250 from an initial price of US $ 18 .
= = = Price wars and other controversies = = =
Asda , along with several other UK supermarkets , having already taken pre @-@ orders for the book at a heavily discounted price , sparked a price war two days before the book 's launch by announcing they would sell it for just £ 5 a copy . Other retail chains then also offered the book at discounted prices . At these prices the book became a loss leader . This caused uproar from traditional UK booksellers who argued they had no hope of competing in those conditions . Independent shops protested loudest , but even Waterstone 's , the UK 's largest dedicated chain bookstore , could not compete with the supermarket price . Some small bookstores hit back by buying their stock from the supermarkets rather than their wholesalers . Asda attempted to counter this by imposing a limit of two copies per customer to prevent bulk purchases . Philip Wicks , a spokesman for the UK Booksellers Association , said , " It is a war we can 't even participate in . We think it 's a crying shame that the supermarkets have decided to treat it as a loss @-@ leader , like a can of baked beans . " Michael Norris , an analyst at Simba Information , said : " You are not only lowering the price of the book . At this point , you are lowering the value of reading . "
In Malaysia , a similar price war caused controversy regarding sales of the book . Four of the biggest bookstore chains in Malaysia , MPH Bookstores , Popular Bookstores , Times and Harris , decided to pull Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows off their shelves as a protest against Tesco and Carrefour hypermarkets . The retail price of the book in Malaysia is MYR 109 @.@ 90 , while the hypermarkets Tesco and Carrefour sold the book at MYR 69 @.@ 90 . The move by the bookstores was seen as an attempt to pressure the distributor Penguin Books to remove the books from the hypermarkets . However , as of 24 July 2007 , the price war has ended , with the four bookstores involved resuming selling the books in their stores with discount . Penguin Books has also confirmed that Tesco and Carrefour are selling the book at a loss , urging them to practice good business sense and fair trade .
The book 's early Saturday morning release in Israel was criticised for violating Shabbat . Trade and Industry Minister Eli Yishai commented " It is forbidden , according to Jewish values and Jewish culture , that a thing like this should take place at 2 am on Saturday . Let them do it on another day . " Yishai indicated that he would issue indictments and fines based on the Hours of Work and Rest Law .
= = Publication and reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The Baltimore Sun 's critic , Mary Carole McCauley , noted that the book was more serious than the previous novels in the series and had more straightforward prose . Furthermore , reviewer Alice Fordham from The Times wrote that " Rowling 's genius is not just her total realisation of a fantasy world , but the quieter skill of creating characters that bounce off the page , real and flawed and brave and lovable " . Fordham concluded , " We have been a long way together , and neither Rowling nor Harry let us down in the end " . The New York Times writer Michiko Kakutani agreed , praising Rowling 's ability to make Harry both a hero and a character that can be related to .
Time magazine 's Lev Grossman named it one of the Top 10 Fiction Books of 2007 , ranking it at No. 8 , and praised Rowling for proving that books can still be a global mass medium . Novelist Elizabeth Hand criticised that " ... the spectacularly complex interplay of narrative and character often reads as though an entire trilogy 's worth of summing @-@ up has been crammed into one volume . " In a starred review from Kirkus Reviews , the reviewer said , " Rowling has shown uncommon skill in playing them with and against each other , and also woven them into a darn good bildungsroman , populated by memorable characters and infused with a saving , irrepressible sense of fun " . They also praised the second half of the novel , but criticised the epilogue , calling it " provocatively sketchy " . In another review from The Times , reviewer Amanda Craig said that while Rowling was " not an original , high @-@ concept author " , she was " right up there with other greats of children 's fiction " . Craig went on to say that the novel was " beautifully judged , and a triumphant return to form " , and that Rowling 's imagination changed the perception of an entire generation , which " is more than all but a handful of living authors , in any genre , have achieved in the past half @-@ century " .
In contrast , Jenny Sawyer of The Christian Science Monitor said that , " There is much to love about the Harry Potter series , from its brilliantly realised magical world to its multilayered narrative " , however , " A story is about someone who changes . And , puberty aside , Harry doesn 't change much . As envisioned by Rowling , he walks the path of good so unwaveringly that his final victory over Voldemort feels , not just inevitable , but hollow " . In The New York Times , Christopher Hitchens compared the series to World War Two @-@ era English boarding school stories , and while he wrote that " Rowling has won imperishable renown " for the series as a whole , he also stated that he disliked Rowling 's use of deus ex machina , that the mid @-@ book camping chapters are " abysmally long " , and Voldemort " becomes more tiresome than an Ian Fleming villain " . Catherine Bennett of The Guardian praised Rowling for putting small details from the previous books and making them large in Deathly Hallows , such as Grindelwald being mentioned on a Chocolate Frog Card in the first book . While she points out " as her critics say , Rowling is no Dickens " , she says that Rowling " has willed into a fictional being , in every book , legions of new characters , places , spells , rules and scores of unimagined twists and subplots " .
Stephen King criticised the reactions of some reviewers to the books , including McCauley , for jumping too quickly to surface conclusions of the work . He felt this was inevitable , because of the extreme secrecy before launch which did not allow reviewers time to read and consider the book , but meant that many early reviews lacked depth . Rather than finding the writing style disappointing , he felt it had matured and improved . He acknowledged that the subject matter of the books had become more adult , and that Rowling had clearly been writing with the adult audience firmly in mind since the middle of the series . He compared the works in this respect to Huckleberry Finn and Alice in Wonderland which achieved success and have become established classics , in part by appealing to the adult audience as well as children .
= = = Sales , awards and honours = = =
Sales for Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows were record setting . The initial U.S. print run for Deathly Hallows was 12 million copies , and more than a million were pre @-@ ordered through Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble , 500 percent higher than pre @-@ sales had been for Half @-@ Blood Prince . On 12 April 2007 , Barnes & Noble declared that Deathly Hallows had broken its pre @-@ order record , with more than 500 @,@ 000 copies pre @-@ ordered through its site . On opening day , a record 8 @.@ 3 million copies were sold in the United States ( over 96 per second ) , and 2 @.@ 65 million copies in the United Kingdom . It holds the Guinness World record for fastest selling book of fiction in 24 hours for U.S. sales . At WH Smith , sales reportedly reached a rate of 15 books sold per second . By June 2008 , nearly a year after it was published , worldwide sales were reportedly around 44 million .
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows has won several awards . In 2007 , the book was named one of The New York Times 100 Notable Books , and one of its Notable Children 's Books . The novel was named the best book of 2007 , by Newsweek 's critic Malcolm Jones . Publishers Weekly also listed Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows among their Best Books of 2007 . In 2008 , the American Library Association named the novel one of its Best Books for Young Adults , and also listed it as a Notable Children 's Book . Furthermore , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows received the 2008 Colorado Blue Spruce Book Award .
= = Translations = =
Due to its worldwide fame , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows has been translated into many languages . The first translation to be released was the Ukrainian translation , on 25 September 2007 ( as Гаррі Поттер і смертельні реліквії – Harry Potter i smertel 'ni relikviji ) . The Swedish title of the book was revealed by Rowling as Harry Potter and the Relics of Death ( Harry Potter och Dödsrelikerna ) , following a pre @-@ release question from the Swedish publisher about the difficulty of translating the two words " Deathly Hallows " without having read the book . This is also the title used for the French translation ( Harry Potter et les reliques de la mort ) , the Spanish translation ( Harry Potter y las Reliquias de la Muerte ) , the Dutch translation ( Harry Potter en de Relieken van de Dood ) and the Brazilian Portuguese translation ( Harry Potter e as Relíquias da Morte ) . The first Polish translation was released with a new title : Harry Potter i Insygnia Śmierci – Harry Potter and the Insignia of Death . The Hindi translation Harry Potter aur Maut ke Tohfe ( हैरी पॉटर और मौत के तोहफे ) , which means " Harry Potter and the Gifts of Death " , was released by Manjul Publication in India on 27 June 2008 . The Romanian version was released on the 1st of December 2007 using the title ( Harry Potter și Talismanele Morții ) .
= = Editions = =
Deathly Hallows was released in hardcover on 21 July 2007 and in paperback in the United Kingdom on 10 July 2008 and the United States on 7 July 2009 . In SoHo , New York , there was a release party for the American paperback edition , with many games and activities . An " Adult Edition " with a different cover illustration was released by Bloomsbury on 21 July 2007 . To be released simultaneously with the original U.S. hardcover on 21 July with only 100 @,@ 000 copies was a Scholastic deluxe edition , highlighting a new cover illustration by Mary GrandPré . In October 2010 , Bloomsbury released a " Celebratory " paperback edition , which featured a foiled and starred cover . Lastly , on 1 November 2010 , a " Signature " edition of the novel was released in paperback by Bloomsbury .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Film = = =
A two @-@ part film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is directed by David Yates , written by Steve Kloves and produced by David Heyman , David Barron and J. K. Rowling . Part 1 was released on 19 November 2010 , and Part 2 on 15 July 2011 . Filming began in February 2009 , and ended on 12 June 2010 . However , the cast confirmed they would reshoot the epilogue scene as they only had two days to shoot the original . Reshoots officially ended around December 2010 . Part 1 ended at Chapter 24 of the book , when Voldemort regained the Elder Wand . However , there were a few omissions , such as the appearances of Dean Thomas and Viktor Krum , and Peter Pettigrew 's death . James Bernadelli of Reelviews said that the script stuck closest to the text since Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets , yet this was met with negativity from some audiences as the film inherited " the book 's own problems " .
= = = Audiobooks = = =
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows was released simultaneously on 21 July 2007 , in both the UK and the United States . The UK edition features the voice of Stephen Fry and runs about 24 hours while the U.S. edition features the voice of Jim Dale and runs about 21 hours . Both Fry and Dale recorded 146 different and distinguishable character voices , and was the most recorded by an individual on an audiobook at the time .
For his work on Deathly Hallows , Dale won the 2008 Grammy Award for the Best Spoken Word Album for Children . He also was awarded an Earphone Award by AudioFile , who claimed , " Dale has raised the bar on audiobook interpretation so high it 's hard to imagine any narrator vaulting over it . "
= = The Tales of Beedle the Bard = =
On 4 December 2008 , Rowling released The Tales of Beedle the Bard both in the UK and US . The Tales of Beedle the Bard is a spin @-@ off of Deathly Hallows and contains fairy tales that are told to children in the " Wizarding World " . The book includes five short stories , including " The Tale of the Three Brothers " which is the story of the Deathly Hallows .
Amazon.com released an exclusive collector 's edition of the book which is a replica of the book that Amazon.com purchased at auction in December 2007 . Seven copies were auctioned off in London by Sotheby 's . Each was illustrated and handwritten by Rowling and is 157 pages . It was bound in brown Moroccan leather and embellished with five hand @-@ chased hallmarked sterling silver ornaments and mounted moonstones .
|
= Apollo Global Management =
Apollo Global Management , LLC is an American private equity firm , founded in 1990 by former Drexel Burnham Lambert banker Leon Black . The firm specializes in leveraged buyout transactions and purchases of distressed securities involving corporate restructuring , special situations , and industry consolidations . Apollo is headquartered in New York City , and also has offices in Purchase , New York , Los Angeles , Houston , London , Frankfurt , Luxembourg , Singapore , Hong Kong and Mumbai .
As of August 2015 , Apollo managed over US $ 162 billion of investor commitments across its private equity , credit and real estate funds and other investment vehicles making it one of the largest alternative investment management firms globally . Among the most notable companies currently owned by Apollo are Claire 's , Caesars Entertainment Corporation , Norwegian Cruise Line , Novitex Enterprise Solutions , and CORE Media Group ( American Idol ) .
= = History = =
Apollo , originally referred to as Apollo Advisors , was founded in 1990 , on the heels of the collapse of Drexel Burnham Lambert in February 1990 . It was founded by Leon Black , the former head of Drexel 's mergers and acquisitions department , along with other Drexel alumni . Among the most notable founders are John Hannan , Drexel 's former co @-@ director of international finance ; Craig Cogut , a lawyer who worked with Drexel 's high @-@ yield division in Los Angeles ; and Arthur Bilger , the former head of the corporate finance department . Other founding partners included Marc Rowan , Josh Harris and Michael Gross , who both worked under Black in the mergers and acquisitions department , and Antony Ressler , who worked as a senior vice president in Drexel 's high yield department with responsibility for the new issue / syndicate desk .
Less than six months after the collapse of Drexel , the founders of Apollo had already begun a series of ventures . Apollo Investment Fund L.P. , the first of their private equity investment funds , was formed to make investments in distressed companies . Apollo 's first fund raised approximately $ 400 million of investor commitments on the strength of Black 's reputation as a prominent lieutenant of Michael Milken and key player in the buyout boom of the 1980s . Lion Advisors was set up to provide investment services to Credit Lyonnais , which was seeking to profit from depressed prices in the high yield market .
= = = 1990s = = =
At the time of Apollo 's founding , financing for new leveraged buyouts was minimal and Apollo turned instead to a strategy of distressed @-@ to @-@ control takeovers . Apollo would purchase distressed securities which could be converted into a controlling interest in the equity of the company through a bankruptcy reorganization or other restructuring . Apollo used distressed debt as an entry point , enabling the firm to invest in such firms as Vail Resorts , Walter Industries , Culligan and Samsonite .
Early on , Apollo made a name for itself by acquiring interests in companies that Drexel had helped finance by purchasing high @-@ yield bonds from failed savings and loans and insurance companies . Apollo acquired several large portfolios of assets from the U.S. government 's Resolution Trust Corporation . One of Apollo 's earliest and most successful deals involved the acquisition of Executive Life Insurance Company 's bond portfolio . Using this vehicle , Apollo would purchase the Executive Life portfolio , generating tremendous profits when the value of high yield bonds recovered , but also resulting in a variety of state regulatory issues for Apollo and Credit Lyonnais over the purchase . More than a decade after the purchase , in 2002 , California Attorney General Bill Lockyer accused Apollo , Leon Black , and an investor group led by French bank Credit Lyonnais , of illegally acquiring the assets and bond portfolio of Executive Life Insurance Co. in 1991 . According to the State of California , Lion allegedly violated a California law that prohibited foreign government @-@ owned banks from owning California insurance companies .
In 1993 , Apollo Real Estate Advisers was founded in collaboration with William Mack to seek opportunities in the U.S. property markets . Apollo Real Estate Investment Fund , L.P. , the first in a family of real estate " opportunity funds " was closed in April 1993 with $ 500 million of investor commitments . In 2000 , Apollo exited the partnership , which continued to operate as Apollo Real Estate Advisers until changing its name to AREA Property Partners , effective January 15 , 2009 . That firm is owned and controlled by its remaining principals , who include William Mack , Lee Neibart , William Benjamin , John Jacobsson , Stuart Koenig and Richard Mack . Apollo Real Estate Investment Fund , L.P. , the first in a family of real estate " opportunity funds " was closed in April 1993 with $ 500 million of investor commitments . As of 2008 , the firm was investing out of three funds : Apollo Real Estate Investment Fund V , Apollo European Real Estate Fund II and Apollo Value Enhancement Fund VII . In 2004 , Apollo Real Estate acquired the Value Enhancement Funds family of investment vehicles to broaden its offerings in the " value @-@ added " segment of the real estate investment spectrum . Apollo also operates a real estate mezzanine lending program and real estate securities hedge fund called Claros Real Estate Securities Fund , L.P.
In 1995 , Apollo raised its third private equity fund , Apollo Investment Fund III with $ 1 @.@ 5 billion of investor commitments from investors that included CalPERS and the General Motors pension fund . Unlike its first two funds and later funds , Fund III would ultimately prove only an average performer for private equity funds of its vintage . Among the investments made in Fund III ( invested through 1998 ) were : Alliance Imaging , Allied Waste Industries , Breuners Home Furnishings , Levitz Furniture , Communications Corporation of America , Dominick 's , Ralphs ( acquired Apollo 's Food @-@ 4 @-@ Less ) , Move.com , NRT Incorporated , Pillowtex Corporation , Telemundo and WMC Mortgage Corporation .
Also in 1995 , Apollo founding partner Craig Cogut left the firm to found a smaller competitor Pegasus Capital Advisors . Since inception Pegasus has raised $ 1 @.@ 8 billion in four private equity funds focused on investments in middle @-@ market companies in financial distress . In 1997 , Apollo co @-@ founder Tony Ressler founded Ares Management as the successor to its Lion Advisors business which would manage collateralized debt obligation vehicles .
In 1998 , Apollo raised its fourth private equity fund , Apollo Investment Fund IV , with $ 3 @.@ 6 billion of investor commitments . Among the investments made in Fund IV ( invested through 2001 ) were : Allied Waste Industries , AMC Entertainment , Berlitz International , Clark Retail Enterprises , Corporate Express ( Buhrmann ) , Encompass Services Corporation , National Financial Partners , Pacer International , Rent @-@ A @-@ Center , Resolution Performance Products , Resolution Specialty Materials , Sirius Satellite Radio , SkyTerra Communications , United Rentals and Wyndham Worldwide .
= = = 2000 @-@ 2005 = = =
Apollo deployed its fourth fund during the booming markets of the late 1990s , only to experience difficulties with the collapse of the Internet bubble and the onset of the recession . Amid the turmoil of collapsing markets , Apollo was able to raise its fifth private equity fund in 2001 , Apollo Investment Fund V , with $ 3 @.@ 7 billion of investor commitments , roughly the same amount raised as for its previous fund . Among the investments made in Fund V ( invested through 2006 ) were Affinion Group , AMC Entertainment , Berry Plastics , Cablecom , Compass Minerals , General Nutrition Centers ( GNC ) , Goodman Global , Hexion Specialty Chemicals ( Borden ) , Intelsat , Linens ‘ n Things , Metals USA , Nalco Investment Holdings , Sourcecorp , Spectrasite Communications , and Unity Media .
Meanwhile , Ares continued to grow through the late 1990s , and profited significantly from investments made after the collapse of the high yield market in 2000 and 2001 . Although technically , the founders of Ares had completed a spin out with the formation of the firm in 1997 , they had maintained a close relationship with Apollo over its first five years and operated as the West Coast affiliate of Apollo . By 2002 , when Ares raised its first corporate opportunities fund , the firm announced that it was more formally separating itself from its former parent company . The timing of this separation also coincided with Apollo 's legal difficulties with the State of California over its purchase of Executive Life Insurance Company in 1991 .
Following the spin @-@ off of Ares in 2002 , Apollo developed two new affiliates to continue its investment activities in the capital markets . The first of these new affiliates , founded in 2003 , was Apollo Distressed Investment Fund ( DIF ) Management a credit opportunity investment vehicle . The following year , in April 2004 , Apollo raised $ 930 million through an initial public offering ( IPO ) for a listed business development company , Apollo Investment Corporation ( NASDAQ : AINV ) ) . Apollo Investment Corporation was formed to invest primarily in middle @-@ market companies in the form of mezzanine debt and senior secured loans , as well as by making certain direct equity investments in companies . The Company also invests in the securities of public companies .
= = = 2005 @-@ 2010 = = =
The 2005 - 2007 period marked a boom period in private equity with new " largest buyout " records set and surpassed several times in an 18 @-@ month window from the beginning of 2006 through the middle of 2007 . Apollo was among the most active investors in leveraged buyout transactions during this period . Although Apollo was involved in a number of notable and large buyouts , the firm largely avoided the very largest transactions of this period . Among Apollo 's most notable investments during this period included Harrah 's Entertainment , a leading US gaming and casino company ; Norwegian Cruise Line , the cruise line operator ; Claire 's Stores , the retailer of costume jewelry ; and Realogy , the real estate franchisor that owns Coldwell Banker , Century 21 and Sotheby 's International Realty .
In August 2006 , Apollo launched a $ 2 billion publicly traded private equity vehicle in Europe , AP Alternative Assets ( ENXTAM : AAA ) . The IPO of this new vehicle followed in the footsteps of Kohlberg Kravis Roberts , which raised $ 5 billion for its KKR Private Equity Investors vehicle in May 2006 . Apollo initially attempted to raise $ 2 @.@ 5 billion for the public vehicle , but fell short when it offered the shares in June , raising only $ 1 @.@ 5 billion . Apollo raised an additional $ 500 million via private placements in the weeks following that sale .
As the private equity industry expanded through 2006 and 2007 , several of the largest private equity firms , most notably The Blackstone Group and Kohlberg Kravis Roberts , announced plans to realize value from their firms through the sale of shares in the public equity markets . Apollo Management chose a slightly different path , by completing a private placement of shares in its management company in July 2007 . By pursuing a private placement rather than a public offering , Apollo would be able to avoid much of the public scrutiny applied to Blackstone and KKR . In November 2007 , Apollo was able to realize additional value from the sale of a 9 % ownership interest in its management company to the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority ( ADIA ) . Ultimately , in April 2008 , Apollo would file with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) to permit some holders of its privately traded stock to sell their shares on the New York Stock Exchange and in March 2011 , Apollo completed its initial public offering ( NYSE : APO ) . In 2008 , the firm opened an office in India , marking their first push into Asia .
As the deterioration of the financial markets worsened into 2008 , Apollo saw several of its investments come under pressure . Apollo 's 2005 investment in the struggling US retailer , Linens ' n Things suffered from a significant debt burden and softening consumer demand . In May 2008 , Linens was forced to file for bankruptcy protection , one of several high profile retail bankruptcies in 2008 , costing Apollo all of its $ 365 million investment in the company . At the same time , Apollo 's investment in Claire 's , Realogy and Harrah 's Entertainment came under pressure . Apollo would respond actively to its investment difficulties seeking to exchange a portion of the existing debt at Harrah 's and Realogy to more favorable securities . At Claire 's , Apollo exercised its " PIK toggle " option to shut off cash interest payments to its bondholders and issue more debt instead , in order to provide the company with additional financial flexibility .
In December 2008 , Apollo completed fundraising for its latest fund , Apollo Investment Fund VII with approximately $ 14 @.@ 7 billion of investor commitments . Apollo had been targeting $ 15 billion , but had been in fundraising for more than 16 months , with the bulk of the capital raised in 2007 .
In December 2009 , it was announced that Apollo would acquire Cedar Fair Entertainment Company shares and the company would be become private underneath the management group . The deal includes a cash payment of $ 635 million and assumed debt which gives the transaction a value of $ 2 @.@ 4 billion . It was later announced in April 2010 that the deal was pulled due to poor shareholder response .
= = = 2010 @-@ 2015 = = =
In March 2012 it made a second attempt to acquire an amusement park operator with a $ 225 @.@ 7 million offer for Great Wolf Resorts .
In November 2012 , The McGraw @-@ Hill Companies sold their education division ( " McGraw @-@ Hill Education " ) to Apollo Global Management , in a deal totaling $ 2 @.@ 5 billion .
On 11 March 2013 , Apollo Global Management made the only bid for the snacks business of Hostess Brands , including Twinkies , for $ 410 million .
In December 2013 , Apollo bought a portfolio of Irish home loans from Lloyds Bank for € 307m , less than half their nominal £ 610m ( € 367m ) value . The shares were bought by an Apollo Global Management subsidiary , Tanager Limited . The portfolio made a £ 33m loss last year .
On 16 January 2014 , The Financial Times reported Apollo will buy CEC Entertainment , the parent of Chuck E. Cheese 's , for about $ 1 billion .
In June 2015 , Apollo Global Management made a successful offer of around $ 1 @.@ 03 billion in cash to privatise OM Group . Also that month , Apollo won the bidding during an auction for Saint @-@ Gobain ’ s Verallia glass bottle manufacturing unit for a rumoured fee of around 2 @.@ 95 billion .
In June 2016 , Apollo Global Management made a successful offer to purchase Diamond Resorts International .
= = Operations = =
Apollo is operated by its managing partners , Leon Black , Joshua Harris and Marc Rowan and a team of more than 250 investment professionals , as of March 31 , 2013 . The firm 's headquarters are located in the Solow Building at 9 West 57th Street in New York City , and the firm operates additional offices in Purchase , New York , Los Angeles , Houston , London , Frankfurt , Luxembourg , Singapore , Hong Kong and Mumbai
Apollo ’ s executive committee includes : Leon Black , chairman and chief executive officer ; Josh Harris , senior managing director ; Marc Rowan , senior managing director ; and Marc Spilker who was hired as President in November 2010 .
Apollo operates three business lines in an integrated manner :
Private equity — The private equity business is the cornerstone of Apollo 's investment activities . Apollo invests through a variety of private equity strategies , most notably leveraged buyouts and distressed buyouts and debt investments . This business operates primarily through the firm 's family of private equity investment funds ( See : Investment funds )
Credit — Apollo invests through a variety of credit strategies to complement its core private equity business . Apollo invests through a variety of investment vehicles including mezzanine funds , hedge funds , European non @-@ performing loan funds and senior credit opportunity funds .
Real Estate — Apollo Global Real Estate ( AGRE ) was established in 2008 to build upon Apollo 's history of investing in real estate @-@ related sectors such as hotels and lodging , leisure and logistics . AGRE manages a number of debt and equity @-@ oriented real estate investment funds .
= = Investment vehicles = =
= = = Private equity funds = = =
Apollo has historically relied primarily on private equity funds , pools of committed capital from pension funds , insurance companies , endowments , fund of funds , high @-@ net @-@ worth individuals , family offices , sovereign wealth funds and other institutional investors . Since 2014 , Apollo has begun investing its eighth private equity fund , Apollo Investment Fund VIII , which raised approximately $ 18 billion of investor commitments , making it the largest private equity fund raised since the financial crisis . Since inception in 1990 , Apollo has raised a total of eight private equity funds , including :
= = = Apollo Investment Corporation = = =
Apollo Investment Corporation is a US @-@ domiciled publicly traded private equity closed @-@ end fund and an affiliate of Apollo . AIC was formed to invest primarily in middle @-@ market companies in the form of mezzanine debt and senior secured loans , as well as by making certain direct equity investments in companies . The Company also invests in the securities of public companies .
AIC is structured as a business development company , a type of publicly traded private equity vehicle that is designed to generate interest income and long term capital appreciation . AIC historically has not invested in companies controlled by Apollo 's private equity funds .
= = = AP Alternative Assets = = =
AP Alternative Assets ( Euronext : AAA ) is a Guernsey @-@ domiciled publicly traded private equity closed @-@ end limited partnership , managed by Apollo Alternative Assets , an affiliate of Apollo Management . AAA was formed to invest alongside Apollo 's main private equity funds and hedge funds .
AAA was launched in August 2006 , shortly after Kohlberg Kravis Roberts completed an initial public offering for its $ 5 billion for its KKR Private Equity Investors vehicle in May 2006 . Apollo raised a total of $ 2 billion for AAA including the vehicle 's $ 1 @.@ 5 billion IPO and a subsequent private placement .
AAA 's investment portfolio is made up of a mix of private equity and capital markets investments :
= = Portfolio investments = =
Apollo has been an active private equity investor through the mid @-@ 2000s buyout boom . The following is a list of Apollo 's most recent and currently active private equity investments . The bulk of these investments are held in Apollo Investment Fund V , VI and VII .
Other investments include Connections Academy and Unity Media GMBH .
= = Affiliated businesses = =
From its inception , Apollo built as part of a network of affiliated businesses focusing on private equity and a variety of distressed investment strategies .
= = = Lion Advisors = = =
Lion Advisors ( or Lion Capital ) , which was founded at the same time as Apollo in 1990 , focused on investment management and consulting services to foreign institutional accounts targeting investments in public and private high yield debt securities in the US . In 1992 , Lion entered into a more formal arrangement to manage the $ 3 billion high @-@ yield portfolio for Credit Lyonnais which together with a consortium of other international investors provided the capital for Lion 's investment activities . The Lion business would ultimately be replaced by Ares Management .
= = = Ares Management = = =
Ares Management , founded in 1997 , was initially established to manage a $ 1 @.@ 2 billion market value collateralized debt obligation vehicle . Ares would grow to manage a family of collateralized loan obligation ( CLO ) vehicles that would invest in capital markets @-@ based securities including senior bank loans and high @-@ yield and mezzanine debt . Ares was founded by Antony Ressler and John H. Kissick , both partners at Apollo as well as Bennett Rosenthal , who joined the group from the global leveraged finance group at Merrill Lynch .
Ares I and II which were raised were structured as market value CLOs . Ares III though Ares X were structured as cash flow CLOs . In 2002 , Ares completed a spinout from Apollo management . Although technically , the founders of Ares had completed a spinout with the formation of the firm in 1997 , they had maintained a close relationship with Apollo over its first five years and operated as the West Coast affiliate of Apollo . Shortly thereafter , Ares completed fundraising for Ares Corporate Opportunities Fund , a special situations investment fund with $ 750 million of capital under management .
In 2004 , Ares debuted a publicly traded business development company , Ares Capital Corporation ( NASDAQ : ARCC ) . In 2006 , Ares raised a $ 2 @.@ 1 billion successor special situations fund ( Ares Corporate Opportunities Fund II ) .
|
= Bankers ' Toadies incident =
The Bankers ' Toadies incident occurred in 1937 in Alberta , Canada when a pamphlet was discovered advocating the " extermination " of nine men identified as " Bankers ' Toadies " . The men were opponents of the Social Credit government of Premier William Aberhart , which had been elected on a platform of giving all Albertans monthly dividends ; Aberhart blamed the banking system for his failure to follow through on this pledge .
After David Duggan , leader of the Conservative Party and one of the men named , raised his concern over the pamphlet in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta , police raided the Social Credit League 's Edmonton headquarters . Social Credit whip Joe Unwin and Social Credit Board advisor George Frederick Powell were arrested and charged with criminal libel and counselling to murder . Both were convicted of the libel charge , and Justice William Carlos Ives sentenced them to hard labour .
= = Background = =
William Aberhart 's Social Credit League won a substantial victory in the 1935 Alberta provincial election on the strength of its promise to implement social credit , an economic theory proposed by British engineer C. H. Douglas . Social credit held that the poverty of the Great Depression was in part the fault of bankers , who kept the cost of credit , and by extension of production , high . Aberhart 's solution involved , among other things , monthly " credit dividends " to Albertans in the amount of C $ 25 .
By 1937 , Aberhart 's failure to implement these dividends or make other progress towards implementing social credit made many of his backbenchers suspect that he was either unwilling or unable to do so . This belief , combined with a suspicion that he did not properly understand Douglas 's theories , led to the 1937 Social Credit backbenchers ' revolt . One outcome of the revolt was Aberhart 's ceding a number of the government 's powers to the Social Credit Board , made up of five Social Credit backbenchers . Glenville MacLachlan , its chair , travelled to the United Kingdom , where he asked Douglas to come to Alberta and serve as its advisor . Douglas declined , but in his stead sent two of his lieutenants , L. D. Byrne and George Frederick Powell . Part of the Board 's mandate was to educate the public about social credit ; to this end , Powell and Social Credit whip Joseph Unwin were assigned to write educational materials .
In response to what they saw as the radically anti @-@ business views of the Aberhart government and the Social Credit Board , Alberta 's mainstream opposition parties — chiefly the Liberals and the Conservatives — began to cooperate under the auspices of the newly formed People 's League .
= = Leaflet = =
In October 1937 , Conservative leader David Duggan rose in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta to draw its attention to a pamphlet distributed in and around the legislature building that called for his " extermination " . The front of the leaflet read as follows :
My child , you should NEVER say hard or unkind things about Bankers ' Toadies . God made snakes , slugs , snails and other creepy @-@ crawly , treacherous , and poisonous things . NEVER , therefore , abuse them — just exterminate them ! And to prevent all evasion demand the RESULT you want — $ 25 @.@ 00 a month and a lower cost to live .
The back of the pamphlet listed nine men identified as " toadies " . Besides Duggan , they were
S. W. Field , lawyer and president of the People 's League
H. H. Parlee , lawyer and president of the Liberals ' Edmonton constituency association
John Lymburn , lawyer , member of the People 's League , and former Attorney @-@ General of Alberta
H. R. Milner , lawyer and president of the Conservatives ' Edmonton constituency association
G. D. Hunt , investment broker
L. Y. Cairns , lawyer , member of the Conservatives ' provincial executive
G. W. Auxier , lawyer and secretary of the People 's League
William Antrobus Griesbach , lawyer , member of the Canadian Senate , and former member of the Canadian House of Commons and mayor of Edmonton
Below this list of names were the words " Exterminate Them . And to prevent all Evasion , Demand the Result You Want — $ 25 @.@ 00 a MONTH and a lower cost to live . "
On October 3 , the police raided the Social Credit League 's Edmonton office and seized 4 @,@ 000 copies of the pamphlet . Griesbach pressed charges against Powell and Unwin for criminal libel and counselling to murder .
= = Trial = =
Aberhart , who besides being Premier was Attorney @-@ General , tried to prevent the trial from proceeding by withdrawing the Crown prosecutor assigned to it . Either trial judge William Carlos Ives or a justice of the peace countered by appointing a private prosecutor so the case could go ahead . Both defendants were held on $ 20 @,@ 000 bail . Both hired lawyers : Powell was represented by Hugh Calais Macdonald , while Unwin retained one R. Jackson . George Steer acted for the prosecution .
On October 27 , both men appeared before police magistrate A. H. Gibson for their preliminary hearings on the criminal libel charge ( the counselling to murder charge had been dropped ) . Unwin opted for a jury trial , while Powell elected to be tried by a judge alone . Unwin 's trial proceeded first , on November 12 . He testified that he had ordered the pamphlets , which were paid for by the government , and then circulated them as a publication of the " United Democrats " , a fictitious organization that listed its address as that of Unwin 's home . According to Unwin , the leaflet 's text , minus the named individuals , had been provided to him by Powell , he had sent it to the printer 's in exactly that form , and he was surprised to see the list of names in the final version . Though his testimony was vague and apparently evasive , he admitted to destroying 4 @,@ 000 copies of the leaflet on the day of the police raid . He was convicted and Ives , dismissing his role in the affair as that of an " errand boy " , sentenced him to three months hard labour .
Powell 's trial proceeded immediately after Unwin 's , and his testimony contradicted much of what Unwin had said . Powell claimed that Unwin had put the list of names on the pamphlet , and that Powell had expected that it would list organizations rather than individuals . Ives found Unwin 's testimony more credible , convicted Powell on November 15 , and sentenced him to six months hard labour . He also recommended that he be deported to his native United Kingdom following his sentence . Appeals by both men against conviction and sentence were unsuccessful .
= = Aftermath = =
The case attracted considerable media attention and mixed reactions . A Toronto spokesman for the Communist Party of Canada protested the arrests and called for a " united front " against the People 's League . Aberhart maintained that the men had been jailed on the basis of some harmless political humour , and encouraged the federal government to grant them clemency ; Prime Minister of Canada William Lyon Mackenzie King responded that to do so would be to engage in " direct interference by the federal executive with the free and proper functioning of our courts " . Every night , some Social Crediters drove to the Fort Saskatchewan Penitentiary , where the men were being held , to show their support . On February 11 , 1938 , the legislature passed a resolution calling for the men 's release .
Douglas reacted to his deputy 's arrest with anger , telling reporters that " whoever is instigating the proceedings is asking for a great deal of trouble , and is likely to get it . " On December 10 , 1937 , he wrote King to tell him that he had been invited to come to Alberta to provide advice , and asked if he would be risking arrest and deportation if he did so . King responded that as long as Douglas , unlike Powell , refrained from running afoul of the Criminal Code , he had nothing to fear .
At the end of Unwin 's sentence , the Social Credit members of the legislature celebrated with a snake dance . Powell was released early , on March 21 , 1938 , in an attempt by King to bolster his Liberals ' chances in a by @-@ election in Edmonton East the same day ; the by @-@ election was won by Social Crediter Orvis A. Kennedy , and a jubilant celebration followed . Once again , the Communists expressed solidarity with the Social Crediters , with Jan Lakeman thanking the voters for giving " an overwhelming defeat to the forces of reaction " . Powell left Canada immediately upon his release , but not before being paid $ 4 @,@ 000 by the Alberta government as thanks for his services .
On August 18 , 1938 , police magistrate A. H. Gibson , who had presided over the prosecution of Unwin and Powell , was dismissed without cause by provincial Order in Council . Gibson believed that his dismissal was due to " the government 's resentment over my action in the Powell @-@ Unwin case and the fact that they hold me more or less to blame for the fact that the accused men were sent to jail . " Aberhart 's Social Crediters were re @-@ elected with a reduced majority in the 1940 provincial election ; Aberhart remained premier until his 1943 death . Unwin was defeated in 1940 by Labour candidate Angus James Morrison . Though he lived until January 4 , 1987 , Unwin remains most remembered for his involvement in the Bankers ' Toadies incident .
|
= Hôtel d 'Alluye =
The Hôtel d 'Alluye is a hôtel particulier in Blois , Loir @-@ et @-@ Cher , France . Built for Florimond Robertet when he was secretary and notary to Louis XII , the residence bears the name of his barony of Alluyes . On Rue Saint @-@ Honoré near Blois Cathedral and the Château de Blois , it is now significantly smaller than it was originally as the north and west wings were destroyed between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries .
Built between 1498 ( or 1500 ) and 1508 , the hôtel particulier is one of the first examples of Renaissance architecture in Blois . Its façades consist of Gothic , French Renaissance and Italian Renaissance architecture . The Hôtel d 'Alluye was owned by the Robertet family from 1508 until 1606 before undergoing frequent changes in ownership ; since 2007 , it has been divided into ten apartments and a large office .
As a result of its ownership changes the building has been considerably altered , with only the east and south wings retaining their original appearance . Destruction of the west wing began during the seventeenth century , and the north wing was destroyed in 1812 . The Hôtel d 'Alluye was classified as a monument historique on 6 November 1929 , and its courtyard has been open to the public on European Heritage Days since 2011 .
= = Location = =
Built near Blois Cathedral and the Royal Château de Blois , the Hôtel d 'Alluye is located on Rue Saint @-@ Honoré . Its south side originally extended along Rue Saint @-@ Honoré between the current No. 4 and No. 10 , and its west side extended along Rue Porte @-@ Chartraine . Records indicate that the north side was extended to Rue Beauvoir in 1643 , enlarging the hôtel particulier over a large quadrangle 30 m ( 98 ft ) wide .
How Robertet obtained such a large plot in the centre of Blois is unknown ; he may have acquired the land gradually for the building 's future construction , or could have been granted a fief by the Crown for his services . Although , it is known that Robertet sought to acquire an adjoining building ( the Hôtel Denis @-@ Dupont ) to extend his property . Lawyer Denis Dupont ( the building 's owner ) strongly opposed the idea , and over half of the former Hôtel Denis @-@ Dupont remains .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
Under Louis XII the courtesans of France settled in Blois from 1498 to 1515 , and the city became the capital of the Kingdom of France . As a result , many people purchased residences in Blois and the Loire Valley . Named after Robertet 's barony of Alluyes , construction of the Hôtel d 'Alluye began in 1498 or 1500 and was completed in 1508 . It was built during his tenure as secretary and notary to Louis XII , and a diplomatic document from the Republic of Florence described the hôtel as new in September 1508 . The hôtel particulier is an example of French Renaissance architecture ; this , coupled with its ornamentation , were intended to reflect the tastes of Robertet , who was well known for his artistic collections . One of the first examples of Renaissance architecture in Blois , the hôtel indicates the influence of the Quattrocento on him .
The Hôtel d 'Alluye was owned by the descendants of Robertet and Michelle Gaillard de Longjumeau until the early sixteenth century . In 1588 , it hosted Louis II , Cardinal of Guise , the brother of Henry I , Duke of Guise ( " Scarface " ) , who was on the Estates General of Blois until his assassination was ordered by Henry III . Robertet 's grandson , Baron François Robertet of Alluyes , died in 1603 with no male offspring ; three years later , the residence and its surrounding property were seized by the Crown .
= = = Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries = = =
The 1620s saw the fragmentation of the west wing of the original residence . Sold to a number of owners , this part of the building was gradually distorted until only a few remnants were left . The other three wings of the building were acquired by the Huraults of Saint @-@ Denis in 1621 , and on 5 July 1637 the residence was acquired by the Bégon family . In 1644 , major restoration work was done on the north wing under Charles Turmel . The Hôtel d 'Alluye was sold by Michel Bégon de la Picardière to the Terrouanne family on 5 August 1718 for 9 @,@ 000 livres .
= = = Modern era = = =
Around 1812 Lambert Rosey , a member of the Terrouanne family , demolished the building 's north wing . In 1832 , Rosey sold the building to Amédée Naudin for 12 @,@ 000 francs . Work began in the east wing , with its depth reduced and its layout becoming more irregular . Naudin died on 21 November 1864 , and his two daughters sold the residence on 5 June 1866 for 40 @,@ 000 francs . From 1868 to 1869 , it was restored under the direction of Félix Duban ; in 1877 , further restoration work was planned but not done .
From 1890 to 1895 major changes were made to the Rue Saint @-@ Honoré section , with many attics and roofs transformed . In 2007 , the residence was purchased by a developer , who divided it into ten apartments three years later . This helped save the rear of the residence , which had a badly @-@ damaged roof . Currently , the building comprises ten apartments and a large office .
= = Buildings = =
Destroyed in 1812 , the original layout of the north wing is unknown but it is described in a 1644 document . Narrower than the other wings , the wing and its gallery were no more than 8 m ( 26 ft ) wide and contained two bedrooms . A staircase at the northeast corner linked it to the other wings .
Although the east wing is well @-@ preserved , it has undergone many changes and its initial appearance is unknown . The wing has two levels overlooking the courtyard retaining their arcades ( now glassed @-@ in ) , which are the same shape as those in the south wing . The southeast end of the wing contained a kitchen ( with a well ) and a large pantry .
Opening onto Rue Saint @-@ Honoré with a large portal , the south wing was the hotel 's main building ; like the east wing , it is well @-@ preserved . To the left of the portal is an area which previously served as a stable . The ground floor has a large room opening onto the courtyard and another , smaller room . The first floor consists of three rooms : two small rooms and a garderobe . During the eighteenth century , it was recorded that the top floor had two chambres de bonne .
The west wing 's design is known only from archival records , since it was almost totally destroyed between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries . The first part of the wing consisted of stables , a spiral staircase leading to the exterior façade , a corridor linking the courtyard to the street and a large pantry . During the seventeenth century , the second part held an indoor jeu de paume court and a chapel ; its first floor had three large bedrooms .
= = Façades , entrances and courtyard = =
The hotel 's exterior façade was inspired by the Louis XII wing of the Château de Blois . Since its construction , dormers have been added and the window design has changed . The original façade can be seen in the decoration of some ground @-@ floor windows and the portal , and the walls , windows and corbels of this hôtel particulier are in the Gothic style .
More modern than the exterior façades and contrary to French architectural tradition , the interior façades embrace the Italian Renaissance style . The hotel 's galleries had two levels of " basket @-@ handle " arches , columns on the first floor and rectangular pillars . Italian influence on the buildings appears in the moldings and carvings on its doors and pillars — for example , facing birds .
Thirteen antique terracotta medallions adorn the balustrade of the gallery 's first floor , representing Roman emperors and influenced by Italian architecture . Surrounded by a thick garland of fruits and flowers , these medallions were originally painted green to suggest bronze and distinguish the façade . The building 's perforated railings are inspired by the François I wing of the Château de Blois . The windows were probably added during the late @-@ nineteenth @-@ century restoration . Dismantled in 1812 , the northern galleries were originally supported by two sets of six white marble columns ( rarely found in sixteenth @-@ century buildings ) .
The hôtel d 'Alluye originally had three entrances linking it to shopping areas . The original main entrance , on the south side of the hotel , has been preserved . The hotel was accessible from the west by a path from Rue Porte @-@ Chartraine ; that entrance was bricked up in 1606 . A third , seventeenth @-@ century entrance linked the north side of the hotel to Rue Beauvoir .
The inner courtyard was originally decorated with a bronze copy of Donatello 's David , which was inspired by Michelangelo . Placed in 1509 , the statue was given to Robertet by the Florentine Republic . As early as 1513 , it was moved to his Château de Bury .
= = Interior decoration = =
Much of the hôtel d 'Alluye 's original interior decoration remains . A notable exception is the fireplace in the largest room of the south wing , which was repainted and redecorated by Martin Monestier during the nineteenth century . On the sides of the fireplace , two maxims ( maxima propositio ) are engraved in ancient Greek . The first reads , " Remember the common fate " ( " ΜΕΜΝΗΣΟ ΤΗΣ ΚΟΙΝΗΣ ΤΥΧΗΣ " ) and the second " Above all , respect the divine " ( " ΠΡΟ ΠΑΝΤΩΝ ΣΕΒΟΥ ΤΟ ΘΕΙΟΝ " ) .
= = Conservation = =
The hôtel d 'Alluye , classified as a monument historique on 6 November 1929 , is privately owned . Since 2011 , its courtyard has been open to the public on European Heritage Days .
|
= The Last Temptation of Homer =
" The Last Temptation of Homer " is the ninth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 9 , 1993 . In the episode , a female employee named Mindy is hired at the nuclear power plant . Homer and Mindy find themselves attracted to each other , but even though Homer is very tempted by her , he stays faithful to his wife Marge . Meanwhile , Bart becomes an outcast and makes friends with a group of nerds after he is prescribed glasses , special shoes , and throat spray which changes his voice .
The episode was written by Frank Mula and directed by Carlos Baeza . It did not get the usual amount of laughs at the test screenings , which made the staff worry the show was not as funny as they expected . Michelle Pfeiffer guest starred in the episode as Mindy and received praise for her performance , including a spot on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the 16 best guest appearances on The Simpsons . The episode features cultural references to films such as The Wizard of Oz , It 's A Wonderful Life , and A Christmas Carol . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 7 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
After Homer and his coworkers barely escape from a gas leak at the nuclear power plant , Homer 's coworker is fired when he asks Mr. Burns to put in a real emergency exit . After breaking numerous labor laws in hiring a replacement , such as hiring illegal aliens and ducks , the United States Department of Labor demands that Burns make changes in the power plant 's policies , including hiring at least one female worker . A beautiful woman named Mindy Simmons is brought in and Homer finds he is falling in love with her . Barney advises Homer to talk to Mindy because they will most likely have nothing in common . Homer does so , and to his horror , he finds they have exactly the same personality and interests . Meanwhile , Marge is sick with a bad cold , which makes her very unattractive to Homer .
Meanwhile , Bart is sent to an eye specialist after it is discovered he has poor vision . The optometrist decides he has lazy eye and fits him with special , thick glasses he has to wear for two weeks . Bart also finds out he has a dry scalp that can only be treated by matting his hair down with a medicated salve , therefore parting his hair to both sides . He also receives a pair of oversized shoes to help his posture , and a spray in his throat to cure the redness , which temporarily gives him a squeaky voice . These adjustments give Bart the appearance of , and gradually turn him into , a nerd . He is picked on and beaten up regularly by bullies for the duration of the two weeks . Eventually , Bart comes back to school in his normal appearance , explaining he is no longer a nerd , but the bullies still decide to beat him up anyway .
Homer does his best to avoid Mindy , who is falling in love with Homer , but despite his best efforts , they keep ending up together . Eventually , Homer decides to talk to Mindy , and say that due to their attraction , they should completely avoid each other . However , things get worse when Homer and Mindy are sent to represent the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant at the National Energy Convention in Capital City . After a romantic dinner as an award for winning the Convention , Homer and Mindy go back to their hotel room , and Homer expresses his worries . Mindy tells Homer how she feels about him , but assures him that nothing has to happen between them , and that it is up to him to decide how far their relationship will go . Even though he is very tempted by her , Homer declares his faithfulness to Marge . Mindy accepts his decision and leaves after they share a kiss . Later , Marge shows up with Homer to share a romantic evening together .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Frank Mula and directed by Carlos Baeza . The idea was conceived by the then @-@ show runner David Mirkin . When he was hired to work on The Simpsons , one of his goals was to study the aspect of Homer 's character if he was " really tempted away " from Marge . Mirkin wanted to find out what would happen in a situation where Homer finds himself attracted to another woman . The Simpsons creator Matt Groening had previously written an episode for the show 's third season , called " Colonel Homer " , where Homer finds himself attracted to a country singer named Lurleen Lumpkin . In that episode , Lurleen immediately had a " crush " on Homer , but Homer was not aware of it until later on . With this episode , Mirkin wanted Homer to immediately know he was attracted to Mindy . Mirkin thought it was a " great exploration " to see what happened to Homer in this particular case . The episode did not get the usual amount of laughs at the animatic test screening , which made the staff worry it was not as funny as they expected . Mirkin said it had to do with the fact that because there were very " subtle " performances in the episode , the animation had to be " exactly right " for it to be funny . Baeza and David Silverman , another animation director on the show , worked " hard " on the episode . Mirkin said from the very beginning it was a " huge group effort " from both the writing and the animation staff .
Many scenes in the animatic portrayed Mindy as flirty . Mirkin did not like this because the secret of the episode was Homer and Mindy are two good people who are thrown into the situation and " can 't help that their libidos are going crazy upon seeing each other " . He added that the two characters have " so much in common " that it is " not just a physical relationship , but a mental connection as well " , and that Mindy is not a seductress but rather a woman just as nervous as Homer . Mirkin also pointed out that while Homer is being tempted by a " seemingly perfect " woman at work , his wife could not be more " imperfect " since she has got a cold and looks sick . " He 's trying to connect with his family , but with Marge looking sick and Bart looking like a nerd , everything is just not working , " Mirkin said .
American actress Michelle Pfeiffer provided the voice of Mindy Simmons in the episode . All the writers showed up at the recording studio in West Los Angeles to see her record her lines . When Pfeiffer entered the room with her daughter , Pfeiffer was " mobbed " by the energy of the writers and directors , who were excited to see her . Mirkin , who directed Pfeiffer in the studio , was nervous because he thought she was a beautiful woman who was on a " completely different level " than the other actors and actresses he had directed on the show . Pfeiffer was also nervous because she had never voiced an animated character . Mirkin told her : " You 're gonna love this more than anything you have ever done because it 's calm and pleasant , and we have so much time to play and experiment . " This helped her calm down and by the end of the session , she was " really relaxed " and they had a " fantastic " time . Silverman told Pfeiffer to not sound too flirty , and that she should just act herself . In one scene in the episode , Mindy drools as she eats doughnuts , much like Homer does . To get the right drool sound , Pfeiffer put broccoli and water in her mouth . Mirkin said he did not have to give much direction during the recording of Homer and Mindy 's final scene together , in which Mindy tells Homer how she feels about him . Pfeiffer " hit it really well " and they did it several times to get it " more and more real " . Mirkin also thought that Pfeiffer completely understood the part and played it perfectly . He described her as " one of those actresses that you don 't even have to see to know they 're great , instead you can hear from her voice what a brilliant actress she is . " Dan Castellaneta was also praised by Mirkin for his performance as Homer . Castellaneta struggled to be " sweet " and " moving " in his performance .
When Homer calls a marriage counseling hotline in the episode , he accidentally knocks himself unconscious in the phone booth . In a dream , he is approached by his guardian angel . The angel , in the form of Colonel Klink , shows Homer what his life would be like without Marge . Colonel Klink is a character on the American television series Hogan 's Heroes . Klink 's actor in Hogan 's Heroes , Werner Klemperer , provided the voice of Klink in this episode . Mirkin said Klemperer was a " fantastic sport " to do the character . Since Hogan 's Heroes had gone off the air in 1971 , he had forgotten how to play Klink . Mirkin therefore had to do an impression of Klink that Klemperer could imitate to get it right .
= = Cultural references = =
When Bart receives new glasses , scalp treatment , orthopedic shoes , and throat spray , he does an impersonation of Jerry Lewis ' nerdy character in The Nutty Professor . When Homer first meets Mindy , he imagines her as Venus in Sandro Botticelli 's painting The Birth of Venus . To deal with Homer and Mindy charging room service to the company , Mr. Burns unleashes flying monkeys in the manner of the Wicked Witch of the West , as seen in the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz . However , the attempt fails as the monkeys all fall to their deaths . The scene between Homer and Colonel Klink from Hogan 's Heroes , wondering what his life would have been like if he married Mindy and not Marge , draws from the films It 's A Wonderful Life and A Christmas Carol . When Homer meets Mindy in the elevator , he thinks " unsexy thoughts " to avoid being seduced by her . He imagines Barney in a bikini and humming the theme tune to the American sitcom I Dream of Jeannie . Homer attempts to read the notes for Mindy that he wrote on his hand , but they have smeared out because of sweat . In his attempt , Homer unknowingly babbles the Nam Myoho Renge Kyo , a Buddhist chant in Nichiren Buddhism and SGI . This is a reference to an Akbar and Jeff cartoon , written by Matt Groening , in which the same mantra is used . When Homer notices the sweat , he says he is " sweating like [ film critic ] Roger Ebert " . In the bathroom , Homer sings a rough version of the song " Mandy " by Barry Manilow , replacing " Mandy " with " Mindy " . Homer refers to comic strip Ziggy when he wonders if Mindy agrees the title character has become " too preachy " . Barry White 's song " Can 't Get Enough of Your Love , Babe " is played in the episode 's final scene where Homer and Marge make out at the hotel room . When Bart is being fitted for correctional glasses the optician reveals former Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin had a pair just like Bart 's .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Last Temptation of Homer " finished 24th ( tied with The Fresh Prince of Bel Air ) in the ratings for the week of December 6 – 12 , 1993 . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 7 . The episode was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . In 2003 , it was placed tenth on Entertainment Weekly 's top 25 The Simpsons episode list , and The Daily Telegraph characterized the episode as one of " The 10 Best Simpsons Television Episodes " . Nancy Basile of About.com named it one of her top twenty favorite episodes of the show , and said Michelle Pfeiffer " is so elegant and beautiful , that the irony of her playing a burping love interest for Homer Simpson is funny enough . " She added " the thorny issue of adultery is tackled in a way only The Simpsons could , " and " though Homer is contemplating cheating , he 's a sympathetic and almost innocent character . " Robert Canning of IGN called the episode " smart , touching and funny " , and said " it did a great job showing Homer 's struggle to deal with the flirtations of a co @-@ worker . "
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it a " wonderfully scripted episode " . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said , " Given Homer ’ s utter devotion to Marge , it may seem off @-@ character for him to fall for Mindy , but the show makes it fit , as his obsession doesn ’ t come across as inconsistent . " He added the plot with Bart becoming a nerd is the " funnier one " of the two . Bill Gibron of DVD Talk called it a " jest fest loaded with insight into the human heart and hilarious over @-@ the @-@ top goofiness . " TV DVD Reviews 's Kay Daly called it the season 's finest episode with the " greatest foray into emotional resonance " . Matt Groening thought it was an amazing episode with " a lot of fun " in it . David Mirkin said Frank Mula 's script was great .
In a 2008 article , Entertainment Weekly named Pfeiffer 's role as Mindy one of the 16 best guest appearances on The Simpsons . She also appeared on AOL 's list of their top favorite guest stars on the show . Brett Buckalew of Metromix Indianapolis wrote that Pfeiffer " gives arguably the best celebrity guest @-@ vocal performance in series history . " Total Film 's Nathan Ditum ranked her performance as the 15th best guest appearance in the show 's history .
|
= European storm petrel =
The European storm petrel , British storm petrel or just storm petrel ( Hydrobates pelagicus ) is a seabird in the storm petrel family , Hydrobatidae . It is the only member of the genus Hydrobates . The small , square @-@ tailed bird is entirely black except for a broad white rump and a white band on the underwings , and it has a fluttering , bat @-@ like flight . The large majority of the population breeds on islands off the coasts of Europe , with the greatest numbers in the Faroe Islands , United Kingdom , Ireland and Iceland . The Mediterranean population is a separate subspecies , but is inseparable at sea from its Atlantic relatives ; its strongholds are Filfla Island ( Malta ) , Sicily and the Balearic Islands .
The storm petrel nests in crevices and burrows , sometimes shared with other seabirds or rabbits , and lays a single white egg , usually on bare soil . The adults share the lengthy incubation and both feed the chick , which is not normally brooded after the first week . This bird is strongly migratory , spending the northern hemisphere winter mainly off the coasts of South Africa and Namibia , with some birds stopping in the seas adjoining West Africa , and a few remaining near their Mediterranean breeding islands . This petrel is strictly oceanic outside the breeding season . It feeds on small fish , squid and zooplankton while pattering on the sea 's surface , and can find oily edible items by smell . The food is converted in the bird 's stomach to an oily orange liquid which is regurgitated when the chick is fed . Although usually silent at sea , the storm petrel has a chattering call given by both members of a pair in their courtship flight , and the male has a purring song given from the breeding chamber .
The storm petrel cannot survive on islands where land mammals such as rats and cats have been introduced , and it suffers natural predation from gulls , skuas , owls and falcons . Although the population may be declining slightly , this petrel is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of Least Concern due to its high total numbers . Its presence in rough weather at sea has led to various mariners ' superstitions , and , by analogy , to its use as a symbol by revolutionary and anarchist groups .
= = Taxonomy = =
The storm petrels , Hydrobatidae , are one of the four major families of the Procellariiformes or " tubenoses " , an order of seabirds that also includes the albatrosses , the Procellariidae , and the diving petrels . The family is an ancient group of small species which is thought to have diverged early from the rest of the tubenoses ; the supporting fossil record is poor , with specimens from California dating back only to the Late Miocene ( 11 @.@ 6 – 5 @.@ 3 million years ago ) . The Hydrobatidae are often divided into two subfamilies , the mainly southern hemisphere Oceanitinae and the northern Hydrobatinae ; cytochrome b DNA sequence analysis suggests that these might be full families . The European storm petrel is the only member of the genus Hydrobates , the remainder of the Hydrobatinae being placed in Oceanodroma , although the least storm petrel is sometimes separated as the sole member of Halocyptena . The relationships within the Hydrobatinae are complex and uncertain , and it has been suggested that all the members of the subfamily could be subsumed into an enlarged Hydrobates .
The storm petrel was first described from by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae in 1758 as Procellaria pelagica . It was moved to the genus Hydrobates by Friedrich Boie in 1822 . Petrel , first recorded in 1602 , is a corruption of pitteral , referring to the bird 's pitter @-@ pattering across the water . The suggestion that the word refers to St Peter walking on the waves is a later invention . Storm arises from seamen 's association of this bird with bad weather . In English , the name of the species was written as " stormy petrel " by some 19th @-@ century authors .
The scientific name derives from Greek ; Hydrobates is from hudro , water , and bates , walker , and pelagicus is from pelagikos , of the sea . There are two recognised subspecies , the North Atlantic nominate subspecies , H. p. pelagicus ( Linnaeus , 1758 ) , and the Mediterranean H. p. melitensis ( Schembri , 1843 ) . Although there is some genetic support for classifying the southern form as a separate species , the morphology is not considered sufficiently different from that of the nominate subspecies to justify a split .
= = Description = =
The storm petrel is a small bird , 14 – 18 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) in length with a 36 – 39 cm ( 14 – 15 in ) wingspan . It weighs 20 – 38 g ( 0 @.@ 71 – 1 @.@ 34 oz ) , with an average of 28 g ( 0 @.@ 99 oz ) . It is square @-@ tailed and has all @-@ black plumage except for a snow @-@ white rump that extends to the sides of the tail base and a broad white band on the underwings . Juveniles in fresh plumage can also show a narrow white bar on the upperwing . The plumage becomes dark brown rather than black as it becomes worn . There are no obvious differences between the sexes , although in the Mediterranean subspecies , at least , most captured birds can be sexed using a formula which involves multiplying the wing length by the length of the white rump band ; females are slightly larger and have a longer white rump than males . The Mediterranean subspecies has longer wings and a heavier bill on average than the nominate form , but neither sex nor subspecies can be determined by observation at sea .
Moult is prolonged in all tubenoses , since they must maintain an ability to fly . Northern populations start replacing their plumage after those further south , reflecting the later start to their breeding season . Birds in a Welsh colony commenced moulting in early August , while populations in northern Spain and the Balearics started in early July and mid @-@ June respectively . Breeding birds moult later than non @-@ breeders .
The storm petrel 's large nasal olfactory bulbs facilitate a keen sense of smell , and the birds themselves have a distinctive musty aroma which can help researchers to locate breeding colonies . Individual petrels recognise their own body scent and can use it to locate their nest in the dark .
The flight is weak @-@ looking and resembles that of a bat , with fluttering interspersed with short glides . When feeding , the birds hang with raised wings and patter on the surface with their feet , but , unlike the Wilson 's storm petrel , do not look as if they are walking on the water . Birds will sometimes settle on the sea . Like other petrels , the European storm petrel cannot walk properly on land , but shuffles on its tarsi ; once there is enough room , the bird flaps its wings to support itself on its toes .
The European storm petrel can be distinguished from related Western Palaearctic species by the white bar on its underwing and its distinctive fluttering flight . Compared to Leach 's storm petrel , band @-@ rumped storm petrel , and the recently described Monteiro 's storm petrel , it is also smaller , darker , shorter @-@ winged and has a square tail . Wilson 's storm petrel lacks an underwing bar , and has long legs with the feet visible beyond the tail .
= = = Voice = = =
In its display flight , the storm petrel gives a call consisting of eight or more repetitions of a fast ter @-@ CHICK sounds ending in a trill ( rapid alternation of notes ) . This chattering , staccato call is highly variable in pitch , stress and length . Both sexes make the call , which is used as an advertisement for a mate , for pair recognition , and in the nuptial flight . The details of the vocalisation vary geographically , including between the Atlantic and Mediterranean populations , and birds recognise calls from their own breeding area . The chatter @-@ call of the Mediterranean subspecies is distinctive . It has the first two notes running into each other , and the final element is sometimes doubled . The storm petrel is usually silent at sea , but sometimes gives the chattering call . A purring song arrr @-@ r @-@ r @-@ r @-@ r @-@ r @-@ r … ending with a sharp chikka is given in the burrow by the male only ; it was described by Charles Oldham as " like a fairy being sick " . Other vocalisations include a fast wick @-@ wick @-@ wick , sometimes given in flight , and an up @-@ CHERRK alarm which resembles the chatter @-@ call . Chicks give a whistling pee @-@ pee @-@ pee call when being fed , and a faster version of this vocalisation is used by adults and young to signal distress .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Storm petrels breed only in the Western Palaearctic on islands off the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of Europe . The largest colonies are in the Faroe Islands ( 150 @,@ 000 @-@ 400 @,@ 000 pairs ) , United Kingdom ( 20 @,@ 000 @-@ 150 @,@ 000 ) , Ireland ( 50 @,@ 000 @-@ 100 @,@ 000 ) and Iceland ( 50 @,@ 000 @-@ 100 @,@ 000 ) , with smaller breeding areas off Norway , Malta , Spain , the Canary Islands , Italy , France and Greece . The strongholds of the melitensis subspecies are the island of Filfla ( Malta ) , Sicily and the Balearic Islands , with smaller sites elsewhere in the Mediterranean . This latter form also breeds in North Africa ; definitely in Tunisia , probably in Algeria and possibly in Morocco . Because of its nocturnal habits and the problems of accessing some of the small islands on which it breeds , the distribution is poorly known . A colony was discovered as recently as 2009 , on Lampedusa . The storm petrel has been recorded as a vagrant in several European countries as far east as the Ukraine , in the Guinea region of West Africa , and in Turkey , Israel , Lebanon , and the US . Although there were no North American records for more than 30 years after the first in 1970 , this bird has been more or less annual in small numbers since 2003 .
The storm petrel breeds on exposed and usually uninhabited islands which it visits only at night . It otherwise frequents mid @-@ depth waters away from the coastal zone , but not over the ocean deeps . In the breeding season , it is mainly found between the 10 – 25 ° C July isotherms . In Europe , it is rarely seen from land except in autumn storms .
The storm petrel is migratory , spending the northern hemisphere winter mainly in cool waters off the coasts of South Africa and Namibia , south to latitude 38 ° S and east to KwaZulu @-@ Natal . Some birds stay north of the equator in the seas adjoining Mauritania and Rio de Oro , and a few remain near the breeding islands , especially in the Mediterranean . It is strictly oceanic outside the breeding season , although it is described as regularly seen from land in West Africa . Young birds do not return to the breeding colonies until their second or third year . Birds mostly head south from the breeding islands between September and November , reaching West Africa by mid @-@ November and the south Atlantic by the end of the year . The return passage starts in April , with late records from the tropics and further south probably representing sub @-@ adult birds that will not breed that year .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
The storm petrel is sexually mature at age 4 – 5 years , with the Mediterranean subspecies typically breeding a year earlier than the Atlantic form . Breeding happens in colonies and normally begins in late May or June . Pairs have a repeated nocturnal display flight in which the male chases the female , the chase being accompanied by flight calls . Some near @-@ adult birds may pair up and occupy a hole at the same time , prior to breeding in the following year .
Storm petrels normally nest in crevices between or under rocks , or burrow in the soil . When they make their own tunnels , they loosen the earth with their bills and kick out the debris with their feet . The birds less commonly nest in walls , under buildings or down rabbit burrows . Disused or occupied burrows of Atlantic puffins and Manx shearwaters are sometimes used , and the petrel pair may share a common entrance with those seabirds , rabbits or other pairs of its own species . Where other occupants are present , the petrels dig a side burrow or use an existing low @-@ roofed tunnel which the larger birds or rabbits cannot easily enter . Even so , puffins and shearwaters will sometimes access and destroy nests , and adult petrels may be killed by their larger neighbours . Human @-@ made plastic nesting tubes are readily used , and may provide protection against predators . Birds usually mate for life and use the same hole every year .
The nest tunnel is 10 – 300 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 118 @.@ 1 in ) long and 5 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) across , with a slightly narrower entrance . The nest chamber is typically unlined , although pairs may bring in some grass , bracken or seaweed . Although the storm petrel is generally non @-@ territorial when breeding , a pair will defend the nest chamber itself after the eggs have been laid .
The clutch is a single egg , usually pure white , sometimes with some reddish brown spots that soon disappear . The average size of the egg is 28 mm × 21 mm ( 1 @.@ 10 in × 0 @.@ 83 in ) , and it weighs 6 @.@ 8 g ( 0 @.@ 24 oz ) , of which 6 % is shell . If an egg is lost early enough , on rare occasions a replacement may be laid . This is very unusual for tubenoses . The eggs are incubated by both parents for 38 – 50 days , the longer periods arising when the eggs have become chilled through adult absence . One adult typically spends three days at a time on the egg while its partner feeds at sea . The chicks are altricial and covered with silver @-@ grey down , and are fed by both parents with their regurgitated oily stomach contents . The adults do not normally stay with the chick after first week , visiting only to bring food . After about 50 days , the chicks are fed less regularly , sometimes with gaps of several days , and the parents may stop visiting completely shortly before the chick leaves the nest . The chicks fledge about 56 – 86 days after hatching , and receive no parental support after leaving the nest hole .
Tubenoses have smaller egg clutches and much longer and more variable incubation and fledging times than passerines with similarly sized eggs , resembling swifts in these developmental factors . Tubenoses and swifts have generally secure nest sites , but their food sources are unreliable , whereas passerines are vulnerable in the nest but food is usually plentiful . In the particular case of the storm petrel , it has a body temperature perhaps 3 ° C lower than other small birds , and this may also contribute to the lengthy incubation .
The adult petrel 's annual death rate is 12 – 13 % , and the typical life span is 11 years . Longevity records established from bird ringing recoveries include a bird aged 31 years 11 months 9 days , and another aged more than 33 years .
= = = Feeding = = =
The storm petrel normally flies within 10 m ( 33 ft ) of the water surface and typically feeds by picking items off the sea as it patters over the surface . Birds have been observed diving for food to a depth of not more than 0 @.@ 5 m ( 20 in ) . and it is claimed , using indirect measurements , that the Mediterranean subspecies reaches depths of up to 5 m ( 16 ft ) ) . A bird may range up to 200 km ( 120 mi ) over the course of two or three days in search of food . Although the bird usually feeds during the day , in the breeding season petrels will often feed at night close to the shore .
The typical prey consists of surface organisms such as small fish , squid , crustaceans and jellyfish . The storm petrel will also eat offal and oily food , often located by smell , and will follow ships . In the Atlantic , more than half the food items are zooplankton and the fish caught include small herring and sprats ; whale carcasses are scavenged where available . During digestion , the plankton is quickly converted to an oily orange liquid that owes its colour to carotenoids . Larger prey items take longer to digest . The oil , rich in vitamin A , is produced by a large gland in the stomach . The Mediterranean subspecies ' diet is mainly fish , particularly Mediterranean sand eels . Petrels also catch opossum shrimps from waters close to the colony . Bluefin tuna farms are exploited on the Maltese island of Filfla ; birds from the large local colony feed on the unwashed food fed to the farmed tuna , a mixture of fish , squid and prawns which produces a sizeable oily slick . Small numbers of insects are caught near breeding colonies , and some plant material , including angiosperm seeds and sorrel , has been found in the stomach contents . A study on Leach 's storm petrel , which consumes similar items , showed that the petrels were snipping pieces off plant leaves in flight , but it could not be confirmed that this was in the course of catching insects . Nasal glands remove excess salt from seawater consumed by the petrel as a concentrated solution excreted through the nostrils .
Petrels can be attracted to boats with " chum " , a malodorous mixture typically containing fish heads , bones and offal , with added fish oil and popcorn to aid flotation . An apparently empty ocean will soon fill with hundreds of birds attracted by the smell . The attraction of the fishy odour is sometimes enhanced by the addition of dimethylsulphide ( DMS ) a chemical also naturally produced by some planktonic organisms , although there are doubts about the safety of this possible carcinogen .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Adults and young are vulnerable to predation at the breeding colonies , their only defence being to spit oil . Petrels cannot breed on islands where rats have been introduced , and feral cats frequently kill these birds on Foula in the Shetland Islands . The American mink , a non @-@ native species in Europe , is a strong swimmer , and can colonise islands up to 2 km ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) from the mainland . Natural predators of petrels and other seabirds include skuas and large gulls . The yellow @-@ legged gull is a particular problem in the Mediterranean , and great skuas were estimated to kill 7 @,@ 500 petrels a year on St Kilda , an unsustainable number . Some great black @-@ backed gulls on the Atlantic islands specialise in taking seabird chicks at night , and peregrine falcons hunt adults at sea . Localised predators include Eleonora 's falcon on the Columbretes Islands and the nocturnal barn owl on the Balearics ; a few owls can wipe out a colony . The little owl is also a predator of both adults and young where it occurs .
Feather mites of at least two species have been found on the storm petrel , with Halipeurus pelagicus occurring at much higher densities than Philoceanus robertsi . The flea Xenopsylla gratiosa and dermanyssid mites are commonly found , with lower numbers of ticks . These blood @-@ sucking parasites slow the growth rate of nestlings and may affect their survival rate .
Storm petrels seem to be largely free of blood parasites , even when in close proximity to carrier species such as the yellow @-@ legged gull . It has been suggested that seabird species with long incubation periods and long lives have well @-@ developed immune systems that prevent serious blood parasitism .
= = Status = =
The European population of the storm petrel has been estimated at 430 @,@ 000 – 510 @,@ 000 breeding pairs or 1 @,@ 290 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 530 @,@ 000 individual birds and makes up 95 % of the world total numbers . The population estimate includes about 11 @,@ 000 to 16 @,@ 000 breeding pairs of the Mediterranean subspecies .
Although this species ' population now appears to be declining , the decrease is not rapid or large enough to trigger conservation vulnerability criteria . Given its high numbers , this petrel is therefore classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of Least Concern . The perceived decline may be due increased predation from gulls , skuas and introduced mammals . Eradication of rats protects seabird colonies and may enable recolonisation of islands cleared of rodents . Predation of cave @-@ nesting petrels in the Balearics by yellow @-@ legged gulls is restricted to relatively few individual gulls specialising in this prey item ; this means that the problems can be controlled by selective culling and the provision of plastic nest boxes .
Because it feeds in flight , the storm petrel is less affected by oil pollution than other seabirds , and may be able to use its good sense of smell to avoid slicks , although a large spill near a breeding colony could have serious consequences .
= = In culture = =
Its association with storms makes the storm petrel a bird of bad omen to mariners ; they are said to either foretell or cause bad weather . A more prosaic explanation of their appearance in rough weather is that , like most oceanic seabirds , they rely on the winds to support them in flight and just sit on the water surface when becalmed . The birds were sometimes thought to be the souls of perished sailors , and killing a petrel was believed to bring bad luck . The petrel 's reputation led to the old name of witch , although the commonest of the folk names is Mother Carey 's Chicken , a name also used for storm petrels in general in the UK and USA from at least 1767 . This is believed to be a corruption of mater cara ( dear mother , the Virgin Mary ) , a reference to the supernatural Mother Carey , or a superstitious modification of an earlier Mother Mary 's Chicken to reduce the potency of the religious name . The Mother Carey character appears a number of times in literature . In the Cicely Fox Smith poem " Mother Carey " , she calls old sailors to return to the sea , but in John Masefield 's poem of the same name she is seen as a wrecker of ships . She appears as a fairy in Charles Kingsley 's The Water Babies and is depicted in one of Jessie Willcox Smith 's illustrations for the book .
The association of the storm petrel with turbulent weather has led to its use as a metaphor for revolutionary views , the epithet " stormy petrel " being applied by various authors to characters as disparate as Roman tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher , a Presbyterian minister in the early Carolinas , an Afghan governor , or an Arkansas politician .
A 1901 poem by Russian writer Maxim Gorky is invariably titled in English as " The Song of the Stormy Petrel " , although that may not be a perfectly accurate translation of the Russian title " Песня о Буревестнике " , because " Буревестник " ( the name of the bird in Russian ) translates to the English general term " storm bird " . The poem was called " the battle anthem of the revolution " , and earned Gorky the nickname " The Storm Petrel of the Revolution " .
Various revolutionary anarchist groups adopted the bird 's name , either as a group identifier , as in the Spanish Civil War , or for their publications . The Stormy Petrel ( Burevestnik ) was the title of the magazine of the Anarchist Communist Federation in Russia around the time of the 1905 revolution , and is still an imprint of the London group of the Anarchist Federation ( Britain and Ireland ) . To honor Gorky and his work , the name Burevestnik was bestowed on a variety of institutions , locations , and products in the USSR .
|
= Bluespotted ribbontail ray =
Not to be confused with the bluespotted stingray , Neotrygon kuhlii .
The bluespotted ribbontail ray ( Taeniura lymma ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae . Found from the intertidal zone to a depth of 30 m ( 100 ft ) , this species is common throughout the tropical Indian and western Pacific Oceans in nearshore , coral reef @-@ associated habitats . It is a fairly small ray , not exceeding 35 cm ( 14 in ) in width , with a mostly smooth , oval pectoral fin disc , large protruding eyes , and a relatively short and thick tail with a deep fin fold underneath . It can be easily identified by its striking color pattern of many electric blue spots on a yellowish background , with a pair of blue stripes on the tail .
At night , small groups of bluespotted ribbontail rays follow the rising tide onto sandy flats to root for small benthic invertebrates and bony fishes in the sediment . When the tide recedes , the rays separate and withdraw to shelters on the reef . Reproduction is aplacental viviparous , with females giving birth to litters of up to seven young . This ray is capable of injuring humans with its venomous tail spines , though it prefers to flee if threatened . Because of its beauty and size , the bluespotted ribbontail ray is popular with private aquarists despite being poorly suited to captivity . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species as Near Threatened , as it faces widespread habitat degradation and intensive fishing pressure throughout its range .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The bluespotted ribbontail ray was originally described as Raja lymma by Swedish naturalist Peter Forsskål , in his 1775 Descriptiones Animalium quae in itinere ad maris australis terras per annos 1772 , 1773 , et 1774 suscepto collegit , observavit , et delineavit Joannes Reinlioldus Forster , etc . , curante Henrico Lichtenstein . The specific epithet lymma means " dirt " . Forsskål did not designate a type specimen . In 1837 , German biologists Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle created the genus Taeniura for Trygon ornatus , now known to be a junior synonym of this species .
Other common names used for this species include bluespotted ray , bluespotted fantail ray , bluespotted lagoon ray , bluespotted stingray , fantail ray , lesser fantail ray , lagoon ray , reef ray , ribbon @-@ tailed stingray , and ribbontail stingray . Morphological examination has suggested that the bluespotted ribbontail ray is more closely related to the amphi @-@ American Himantura ( H. pacifica and H. schmardae ) and the river stingrays ( Potamotrygonidae ) than to the congeneric blotched fantail ray ( T. meyeni ) , which is closer to Dasyatis and Indo @-@ Pacific Himantura .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Widespread in the nearshore waters of the tropical Indo @-@ Pacific region , the bluespotted ribbontail ray has a range that extends around the periphery of the Indian Ocean from South Africa to the Arabian Peninsula to Southeast Asia , including Madagascar , Mauritius , Zanzibar , the Seychelles , Sri Lanka , and the Maldives . It is rare in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman . In the Pacific Ocean , this species is found from the Philippines to northern Australia , as well as around numerous Melanesian and Polynesian islands as far east as the Solomon Islands . Rarely found deeper than 30 m ( 100 ft ) , the bluespotted ribbontail ray is a bottom @-@ dwelling species that frequents coral reefs and adjacent sandy flats . It is also commonly encountered in the intertidal zone and tidal pools , and has been sighted near seagrass beds . Every summer , considerable numbers of bluespotted ribbontail rays arrive off South Africa .
= = Description = =
The pectoral fin disc of the bluespotted ribbontail ray is oval in shape , around four @-@ fifths as wide as long , with a rounded to broadly angular snout . The large , protruding eyes are immediately followed by the broad spiracles . There is a narrow flap of skin between the nares with a fringed posterior margin , reaching past the mouth . The lower jaw dips at the middle and deep furrows are present at the mouth corners . There are 15 – 24 tooth rows in either jaw , arranged into pavement @-@ like plates , and two large papillae on the floor of the mouth . The pelvic fins are narrow and angular . The thick , depressed tail measures about 1 @.@ 5 times the disc length and bears one or two ( usually two ) serrated spines well behind the tail base ; there is a deep fin fold on the ventral surface , reaching the tip of the tail , and a low midline ridge on the upper surface .
The skin is generally smooth , save for perhaps a scattering of small thorns on the middle of the back . The dorsal coloration is striking , consisting of numerous circular , neon blue spots on a yellowish brown or green background ; the spots vary in size , becoming smaller and denser towards the disc margin . The tail has two stripes of the same blue running along each side as far as the spines . The eyes are bright yellow and the belly is white . Individuals found off southern Africa may lack the blue tail stripes . The bluespotted ribbontail ray grows to 35 cm ( 14 in ) across , 80 cm ( 31 in ) long , and 5 kg ( 11 lb ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
One of the most abundant stingrays inhabiting Indo @-@ Pacific reefs , the bluespotted ribbontail ray generally spends the day hidden alone inside caves or under coral ledges or other debris ( including from shipwrecks ) , often with only its tail showing . At night , small groups assemble and swim onto shallow sandy flats with the rising tide to feed . Unlike many other stingrays , this species seldom buries itself in sand . The bluespotted ribbontail ray excavates sand pits in search of molluscs , polychaete worms , shrimps , crabs , and small benthic bony fishes ; when prey is located , it is trapped by the body of the ray and maneuvered into the mouth with the disc . Other fishes , such as goatfish , frequently follow foraging rays , seeking food missed by the ray .
Breeding in the bluespotted ribbontail ray occurs from late spring to summer ; the male follows the female and nips at her disc , eventually biting and holding onto her for copulation . There is also a documented instance of a male holding onto the disc of a smaller male bluespotted stingray ( Dasyatis kuhlii ) , in a possible case of mistaken identity . Adult males have been observed gathering in shallow water , which may relate to reproduction . Like other stingrays , this species is aplacental viviparous : the embryos are initially sustained by yolk , which later in development is supplemented by histotroph ( " uterine milk " , containing mucus , fat , and proteins ) produced by the mother . The gestation period is uncertain , but is thought to be between four and twelve months long . Females bear litters of up to seven young , each a miniature version of the adult measuring around 13 – 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) across . Males attain sexual maturity at a disc width of 20 – 21 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 3 in ) ; the maturation size of females is unknown .
Known predators of the bluespotted ribbontail ray include hammerhead sharks ( Sphyrna ) and bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops ) ; it is also potentially preyed upon by other large fishes and marine mammals . When threatened , this ray tends to flee at high speed in a zigzag pattern , to throw off pursuers . Numerous parasites have been identified from this species : the tapeworms Aberrapex manjajiae , Anthobothrium taeniuri , Cephalobothrium taeniurai , Echinobothrium elegans and E. helmymohamedi , Kotorelliella jonesi , Polypocephalus saoudi , and Rhinebothrium ghardaguensis and R. taeniuri , the monogeneans Decacotyle lymmae , Empruthotrema quindecima , Entobdella australis , and Pseudohexabothrium taeniurae , the flatworms Pedunculacetabulum ghardaguensis and Anaporrhutum albidum , the nematode Mawsonascaris australis , the copepod Sheina orri , and the protozoan Trypanosoma taeniurae . This ray has been observed soliciting cleanings from the bluestreak cleaner wrasse ( Labroides dimidiatus ) by raising the margins of its disc and pelvic fins .
= = Human interactions = =
While timid and innocuous towards humans , the bluespotted ribbontail ray is capable of inflicting an excruciating wound with its venomous tail spines . Its attractive appearance and relatively small size has resulted in its being the most common stingray found in the home aquarium trade . However , it seldom fares well in captivity and very few hobbyists are able to maintain one for long . Many specimens refuse to feed in the aquarium , and even seemingly healthy individuals often inexplicably die or stop feeding . A higher degree of success has been achieved by public aquariums and a breeding project is maintained by the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria ( for example , a total of 15 pubs were born at Lisbon Oceanarium from 2011 to 2013 ) . The bluespotted ribbontail ray is utilized as food in East Africa , Southeast Asia , and Australia ; it is captured intentionally or incidentally using gillnets , longlines , spears , and fence traps .
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the bluespotted ribbontail ray as Near Threatened . Although still relatively common and widely distributed , this species faces continuing degradation of its coral reef habitat throughout its range , from development and destructive fishing practices using cyanide or dynamite . In addition , its populations are under heavy pressure by artisanal and commercial fisheries , and by local collecting for the aquarium trade .
|
= Douglas Jardine =
Douglas Robert Jardine ( 23 October 1900 – 18 June 1958 ) was a cricketer who played 22 Test matches for England , captaining the side in 15 of those matches between 1931 and 1934 . A right @-@ handed batsman , he is best known for captaining the English team during the 1932 – 33 Ashes tour of Australia . During that series , England employed " Bodyline " tactics against the Australian batsmen , wherein bowlers pitched the ball short on the line of leg stump to rise towards the bodies of the batsmen in a manner that most contemporary players and critics viewed as intimidatory and physically dangerous . Jardine is generally believed to be the person responsible for the implementation of Bodyline . A controversial figure among cricketers , he was well known for his dislike of Australian players and crowds and was unpopular in Australia , particularly for his manner and especially after the Bodyline tour . Many who played under his leadership regarded him as an excellent captain ; not all regarded him as good at managing people . He was also famous in cricket circles for wearing a multi @-@ coloured Harlequin cap .
After establishing an early reputation as a prolific schoolboy batsman , Jardine played cricket for Winchester College , attended the University of Oxford , playing for its cricket team , and played for Surrey County Cricket Club as an amateur . He developed a defensive method of batting which was unusual for an amateur , receiving occasional criticism for negative batting . Despite this , Jardine was selected in Test matches for the first time in 1928 , and went on to play with some success in the Test series in Australia in 1928 – 29 . Following this tour , his business commitments prevented him from playing as much cricket . However , in 1931 , he was asked to captain England in a Test against New Zealand . Although there were some initial misgivings about his captaincy , Jardine led England in the next three cricket seasons and on two overseas tours , one of which was the Australian tour of 1932 – 33 . Of his 15 Tests as captain , he won nine , lost one and drew five . He retired from all first @-@ class cricket in 1934 following a tour to India .
Although Jardine was a qualified solicitor he did not work much in law , choosing instead to devote most of his working life to banking and , later on , journalism . He joined the Territorial Army in the Second World War and spent most of it posted in India . After the war , he worked as company secretary at a paper manufacturer and also returned to journalism . While on a business trip in 1957 , he became ill with what proved to be lung cancer and died , aged 57 , in 1958 .
= = Early life = =
Douglas Jardine was born on 23 October 1900 in Bombay , British India , to Scottish parents . His parents were Malcolm Jardine , also a former first @-@ class cricketer but later a barrister , and Alison Moir . At the age of nine , Douglas was sent to stay with his mother 's sister in St Andrews , Scotland . She lived in a large mansion where he spent most of his school holidays while going to Horris Hill School near Newbury , Berkshire , from May 1910 . The school had high standards and Jardine was moderately successful academically . From 1912 , he played cricket for the school first eleven , enjoying success as a bowler and as a batsman . He captained the team in his final term , when the team were unbeaten . Jardine was influenced by the writing of former England captain C. B. Fry on batting technique , which contradicted the advice of his coach at Horris Hill . The coach disapproved of Jardine 's batting methods , but Jardine did not back down and quoted a book by Fry to support his viewpoint .
In 1914 , Jardine entered Winchester College . At the time , life at Winchester was arduous and austere ; discipline was harsh . Sport and exercise were vital parts of the school day . In Jardine 's time , preparing the pupils for war was also important . According to Jardine 's biographer , Christopher Douglas , the pupils were " taught to be honest , impervious to physical pain , uncomplaining and civilised . " All pupils were required to be academically competent and Jardine was able to get along without exhibiting brilliance ; successful sportsmen , on the other hand , were revered . Jardine enjoyed a slightly better position than some other pupils , already possessing when he arrived a reputation as a cricketer and soon excelling at other sports , representing the school at football as a goalkeeper and rackets , and playing Winchester College football , a sport which has resemblances to rugby union . However , his main sporting reputation came from cricket . He was in the first eleven for three years from 1917 and received coaching from Harry Altham , Rockley Wilson and Schofield Haigh , the latter two of whom were distinguished cricketers . Jardine later said that Wilson helped to develop his batting . In 1919 , his final year , Jardine came top of the school batting averages with 997 runs at an average of 66 @.@ 46 . He also became captain although there were doubts within the school about his ability to unify the team . Despite these doubts , Winchester won their annual match against Eton College in 1919 , a fixture in which Eton usually held the upper hand . Jardine 's batting ( 35 and 89 in the match ) and captaincy were believed by critics to be the key factors in his side 's first victory over Eton for 12 years . After his retirement from cricket , he named his 89 in that match as his favourite innings . Jardine went on to score 135 not out against Harrow School .
Jardine 's achievements in the season were widely reported in the local and national press . He went on to play in two representative schools matches at Lord 's Cricket Ground , where he scored 44 , 91 , 57 and 55 in two matches and won favourable reviews in the press . Wisden , in 1928 , described Jardine at this time as being obviously of a much higher standard than his contemporaries , particularly in defence and on side batting . However , at this stage in his batting , he was sometimes criticised for being too cautious and not using all the batting strokes of which he was capable . His good batting technique gave the impression that he could easily score more quickly .
= = First @-@ class career = =
= = = Oxford University = = =
Jardine entered New College , Oxford , in September 1919 at a time when the university was more crowded than usual due to the arrival of men whose entrance had been delayed due to the war . He still took part in several sports , representing New College as goalkeeper in matches between the colleges , and being given a trial for the University football team , although he was not chosen . He continued to play rackets and began to play real tennis , making such progress and showing such promise that he went on to represent the University successfully and won his Blue . In cricket , Jardine came under the coaching of Tom Hayward who influenced his footwork and defence . Wisden commented in 1928 that Jardine had come with an excellent reputation , but did not quite achieve the success which was expected . However , his batting ability , particularly defensively , remained unquestionable .
In the 1920 season , Jardine made his first @-@ class debut , played eight first @-@ class matches and scored two fifties . Playing mainly as an opening batsman , he won his Blue , appearing in the University Match against Cambridge but fell short of expectations , according to Wisden . Although his batting technique was excellent , he received criticism from those who saw him bat as they believed him to be too cautious . At this stage in his career , Jardine did limit his strokes , not feeling confident enough to play them all safely enough . In all , he scored 217 runs at an average of 22 @.@ 64 . In the match for Oxford against Essex , he took six wickets for six runs in a bowling spell of 45 balls , bowling leg breaks , to have bowling figures of six for 28 . It was the only occasion in his career where he took five or more wickets in an innings .
Playing more confidently and fluently in 1921 , Jardine began the season well , scoring three fifties in his first three first @-@ class matches . Then Oxford played against the Australian touring side which dominated the season . In the second innings , Jardine scored 96 not out to save the game but was unable to complete his century before the game ended . Even so , the innings was praised by those who saw it . The tourists were criticised in the press for not allowing Jardine to reach his hundred , particularly as the match was reduced from three days to two days at the request of the Australians , who wished to have a rest day in between matches . The Australians had tried to help him with some easy bowling but the situation was confused by the batsmen 's scores not being displayed on a scoreboard at the cricket ground . There has been speculation that this incident led to Jardine 's later hatred of Australians , although Christopher Douglas denies this was the case . Cricket historian David Frith believed it is possible that Australian captain Warwick Armstrong could have addressed sarcastic comments to Jardine but Wisden believed his slow approach cost him his century . The Australian manager expressed regret that he missed out . This innings was the highest that had been played to that point in the season against the Australians , and only one higher score was made before the first Test . It could have led to Jardine playing for England in 1921 as Plum Warner , an influential figure who had recently captained Middlesex , suggested in The Cricketer magazine that Jardine should play in the first Test , which followed the Oxford match . He had been impressed by Jardine on the other occasions he had seen him bat . He remained in Test contention for a short time , but was not selected . In the meantime , he scored his first first @-@ class hundred in a match against The Army and another followed against Sussex . Both innings were cautious , with defence his main priority for much of the innings , but he failed in the match against Cambridge . Jardine then went on to play for Surrey , for whom he was qualified , replacing the injured Jack Hobbs as an opening batsman before dropping down to number five in the batting order . Jardine played in a vital match against reigning County Champions Middlesex which would determine the champions for the season . In a situation of great pressure , Jardine scored a vital 55 to hold the innings together after the loss of early wickets , although Surrey went on to lose the match . Jardine finished the season with 1 @,@ 015 runs at an average of 39 @.@ 03 , although critics still did not believe his potential had been fulfilled .
Jardine missed most of the 1922 season due to a serious knee injury , playing only four matches at a time when he was expected to make a big impression . There was speculation in the newspapers about whether he would be fit for the match against Cambridge , but he missed it and was also unable to play for Surrey that season . Even so , in 1922 he was selected by The Isis as one of its men of the year . After some early problems with his troublesome knee , Jardine returned to cricket by May of the 1923 season . He was not given the Oxford captaincy in his final year , which has led to speculation that his manner and unfriendliness prevented him from being made captain . However , his injury and the availability of other deserving candidates may have provided at least part of the explanation . After a cautious start on his return , Jardine gradually found his batting form , and contributed to Oxford 's only win over Cambridge in the decade . During one innings of another match , he received criticism for using his pads to stop the ball from hitting the wickets : this was within the laws of the game but was controversial and seen by critics to be against the spirit of the game . Christopher Douglas traces Jardine 's hostility towards the press and critics to this incident . He also received criticism for his slow batting for Oxford , again being singled out due to his known ability to play attacking shots . Partly this was because Jardine held a responsible position , the team often reliant on his success . The complaints were a manifestation of wider criticism of young amateur batting at the time for its lack of enterprise , as commentators began to hark back to the " golden age " before the war . Jardine left Oxford in 1923 having scored a total of 1 @,@ 381 runs and a fourth class degree in modern history .
When Jardine went on to play for Surrey that season , a strong batting side , he played with more freedom and in a varied style . Batting at number five , he had to play different types of innings , either attacking or defensive , depending on the match situation . He made a success of it , playing long defensive innings or sacrificing his innings in an attempt to hit quick runs . His captain Percy Fender seemed satisfied with his role , keeping him in it all season despite his reputation for caution . He scored his first century for Surrey against Yorkshire and was awarded his County Cap , making 916 runs at an average of 38 @.@ 16 in the whole season .
= = = County cricketer = = =
Once Jardine left Oxford , he began to qualify as a solicitor while still playing for Surrey . He made steady progress over the next three seasons but was overshadowed by other amateur batsmen . His contemporaries at Oxford and Cambridge attracted much attention in the press , as did the next generation of amateur batsmen . He was appointed vice @-@ captain to Fender for the 1924 season , due in large part to the stigma attached to professional cricketers being appointed as captain . There were professionals such as Jack Hobbs playing for Surrey who could have been made captain , but Jardine was preferred as an amateur . In that season , Jardine was selected for the Gentlemen v Players match for the first time and came third in the Surrey averages . In all first @-@ class matches , he scored 1 @,@ 249 runs at an average of 40 @.@ 29 . The following season , Jardine was less successful , scoring fewer runs at a lower average and with a highest score of 87 ( 1 @,@ 020 runs at 30 @.@ 90 ) . It had also been suggested in the press that Jardine should captain the Gentlemen , with a view towards the future of the England Test team , but this did not happen . In fact , owing to an injury sustained playing village cricket at Ashtead for a team called C.E. McIver 's XI , he was unable to appear in the Gentlemen v Players match at Lord 's . In 1926 , Jardine had his most successful season to date , with 1 @,@ 473 runs ( average 46 @.@ 03 ) , although he was again overshadowed by other players and by the attention given to the Ashes series being played . Towards the end of the season , his batting became more attractive and his rate of scoring increased as he began to play more shots . His assurance and judgement against all bowling , even international bowlers , became noticed and he scored 538 runs in his final ten innings .
In 1927 , Jardine achieved his highest average in a season , scoring 1 @,@ 002 runs and averaging 91 @.@ 09 in a very wet summer which led to difficult wickets to bat on . Wisden named him as one of its Cricketers of the Year , commenting that he had improved his style and footwork . That season , he could only play 11 matches due to work commitments as a clerk with Barings Bank , for whom he had worked since qualifying as a solicitor . Despite his lack of practice , he scored hundreds in his first three matches and came top of the Surrey batting averages . He scored a century in the Gentlemen v Players match , which impressed influential people at Lord 's , and represented England in a trial match against The Rest . In this latter match , when Percy Chapman withdrew at the last minute , Jardine took over the captaincy , earning praise in the press for his performance . By this stage , he was considered a certainty to tour Australia the following winter .
= = = Test cricketer = = =
Jardine 's batting performance in 1928 was similar to that from the previous season . He played 14 matches , but scored 1 @,@ 133 runs at an average of 87 @.@ 15 . He also enjoyed success in high profile matches , scoring 193 for Gentlemen at the Oval , where the crowd had booed his slow start ( at one stage , he took half an hour to score two runs ) but later cheered him as his last fifty runs were scored in half an hour . For the same team at Lord 's , he scored 86 and 40 . He captained The Rest against England in a Test trial and made the highest score in each innings , scoring 74 not out in the fourth innings to help his team to draw the game on a difficult pitch , against international bowlers Maurice Tate and Harold Larwood .
Immediately after this match , Jardine made his Test debut against the West Indies who were touring England that season . This was West Indies ' first ever Test match . The team possessed several fast bowlers who bowled with hostility and enjoyed some success on the tour of England . Many batsmen only played them with difficulty , particularly on the occasional fast @-@ paced pitch , but Jardine played them confidently in the Test series . Jardine played in the first two Tests , both of which were won by England by an innings , but missed the third for unknown reasons . He scored 22 on his debut , but was more successful in the second Test . He scored an eventful 83 : when he had scored 26 , he hit his wicket when setting off for a run , but was given not out . At the time , a batsman was not out if he had completed his shot and was setting off for a run . West Indian cricketer Learie Constantine later recalled that Jardine would have been given out except that the batsman informed the umpire that he had already finished his shot . Jardine was later run out by Tate , a player with whom he did not enjoy a good relationship , when they were batting together in the England innings : Tate refused to go for a run causing Jardine to be run out .
= = = First tour to Australia = = =
Jardine was selected to tour Australia with the M.C.C. team in 1928 – 29 as part of a very strong batting side , playing in all five Test matches and scoring 341 runs at an average of 42 @.@ 62 . In all first @-@ class matches , he scored 1 @,@ 168 runs ( average 64 @.@ 88 ) . He was also on the five @-@ man selection committee for the tour , which chose teams to play in specific games but had not chosen the touring party . Wisden judged that he had been as great a success as had been expected and impressed everyone with the strength of his defensive shots and his play on the back foot . It said that he played some delightful innings . Percy Fender , covering the tour as a journalist , believed that Jardine never had the chance to play a normal innings in the Test , having to provide the stability to the batting , and often seeming to come out to bat in a crisis .
Jardine was the centre of attention at the start of the tour . He began the tour with three consecutive hundreds and was seen as one of the main English threats . In his first hundred , the crowd engaged in some good @-@ natured joking at Jardine 's expense , but he was jeered by the crowd in his second hundred for batting too slowly . His third hundred was described by Bradman as one of the finest exhibitions of strokeplay that he had seen ; Jardine accelerated after another slow start , during which he was again barracked , to play some excellent shots . The crowds took an increasing dislike to him , partially for his success with the bat , but mainly for his superior attitude and bearing , his awkward fielding , and particularly his choice of headwear . His first public action in South Australia was to take out the members of the South Australian team who had been to Oxford or Cambridge Universities . Then , he wore a Harlequin cap , given to people who played good cricket at Oxford . It was not unusual for Oxford and Cambridge cricketers to wear similar caps while batting , as both Jardine and M.C.C. captain Percy Chapman did so on this tour , although it was slightly unorthodox to wear them while fielding . However , this was neither understood nor acceptable to the Australian crowds . They quickly took exception to the importance he seemed to place on class distinction . Although Jardine may simply have worn the cap out of superstition , it conveyed a negative impression to the spectators , with his general demeanour drawing one comment of " Where 's the butler to carry the bat for you ? " Jardine 's cap became a focus for criticism and mockery from the crowds throughout the tour . Nevertheless , Jack Fingleton later claimed that Jardine could still have brought the crowds onto his side by exchanging jokes or pleasantries with them . It is certain that Jardine by this stage had developed an intense dislike for Australian crowds . During his third century at the start of the tour , during a period of abuse from the spectators , he observed to a sympathetic Hunter Hendry that " All Australians are uneducated , and an unruly mob " . After the innings , when Patsy Hendren said that the Australian crowds did not like Jardine , he replied " It 's fucking mutual " . Due to the large number of good close fielders in the side , Jardine did not field in the slips , his usual position for Surrey , but next to the crowd on the boundary . There , he was roundly abused and mocked , particularly when chasing the ball : he was not a good fielder on the boundary . In one of the Test matches , he spat towards the crowd while fielding on the boundary as he changed position for the final time .
In the first Test , Jardine scored 35 and 65 not out . His first innings began with England in an uncertain position , having lost three wickets for 108 on a very good batting wicket . His innings led England to a stronger position . He played very cautiously , being troubled by Clarrie Grimmett and Bert Ironmonger , the Australian spinners . Jardine believed that Ironmonger threw the ball , and this bowler gave him considerable trouble throughout his career . Thanks to the bowling of Harold Larwood , England took a huge first innings lead . In his second innings , although he played well in his 65 , Jardine was not under much pressure . He scored a large number of singles , giving his partners most of the bowling and building up the lead to the point where England achieved a massive victory by 675 runs . This victory surprised and troubled the Australian cricketing public . Jardine played a similar role in the second Test , batting with Wally Hammond to retrieve a poor start for England in his only innings as they won by eight wickets . Jardine scored 62 in the third Test , supporting Hammond who made a double century . However , when Australia batted a second time , they built up a big lead and left England needing 332 to win on an exceptionally bad wicket which had been damaged by rain . Jack Hobbs and Herbert Sutcliffe , in one of their most famous partnerships , put on 105 . Hobbs sent a message to the team that Jardine should be the next batsmen to come in , even though he usually batted later on , as he was the batsman most likely to survive in the conditions . When Hobbs was dismissed , Jardine came in to bat . He survived , although finding batting exceptionally difficult , until the day 's play ended . Percy Fender believed that Jardine was the only batsman in the side who could have coped with the difficult conditions . He went on to make 33 next day , and England won by three wickets .
During the team 's brief visit to Tasmania , Jardine made his highest first @-@ class score of 214 . In the fourth Test , Jardine only scored one run in the first innings , before he was given out leg before wicket ( lbw ) despite obviously hitting the ball . In the second innings , coming out to bat with the score 21 for two , Jardine scored 98 in a partnership of 262 with Hammond which was then the highest partnership for the third wicket in all Test matches . The scoring was very slow , and the crowd protested throughout Jardine 's innings , even though he scored faster than Hammond . He was out when Wisden believed he looked certain to reach a century . England went on to win the match by 12 runs .
Jardine was not successful in the final Test , won by Australia . He was used as an opener , due to an injury to Sutcliffe , and made just 19 and a first ball duck . Once both of his innings were completed , on the fifth day of a match which lasted eight days , he left the match and set off across Australia to catch a boat to India for a holiday . It is not clear if this was planned or if he had simply had enough . Jardine never provided an explanation , to the Australian press nor afterwards . Later , Jardine wrote about the Australian crowds , complaining over their involvement , but praising their knowledge and judgement of the game and describing them as more informed than English crowds . He also expressed later reservations to Bob Wyatt about Percy Chapman , saying that he would have shot him if a gun was available . Jardine did not appear in first @-@ class cricket in the 1929 season due to business commitments .
= = England captain = =
= = = Appointment as captain = = =
At the beginning of the 1930 season , Jardine was offered the vice @-@ captaincy of Surrey . He was unable to accept owing to business commitments and played just nine matches for the season , scoring 402 runs at an average of 36 @.@ 54 and managing one century and one fifty . He was never in the running for Test selection that season , although his presence may have been missed as the English batting was unreliable in the Tests . Christopher Douglas argues that had Jardine been playing regularly , he would have been made captain for the final Test , when Chapman was dropped in favour of the sounder batsman Bob Wyatt . The sensation of the Test series was Donald Bradman , who dominated the English bowling to score 974 runs with unprecedented speed and certainty , making the English selectors realise that something must be done to address his skill . With Bradman at the fore , Australia regained the Ashes 2 – 1 .
Jardine played a full season of cricket in 1931 . In June , he was appointed as captain for the Test against New Zealand ( two more Tests were later added ) . The English selectors were searching for possible captains for the 1932 – 33 tour of Australia , with Bradman and Australia 's strong batting line up foremost in their minds . Christopher Douglas believes that , as Jardine was not a regular county captain , the selectors wanted to assess his leadership ability but had probably not settled on him as a final choice . He was also chosen as a dependable , proven batsman . While Percy Fender approved of his appointment , The Times ' correspondent believed that he was unproven and others were more deserving of the leadership . Ian Peebles , writing 40 years later , claimed that Jardine 's appointment was popular but cricket administrators had misgivings . Alan Gibson believed that Jardine was chosen because the other candidates were either not worth their place in the side , too old or had controversy attached to them . Furthermore , Jardine impressed the chairman of selectors , Pelham Warner , who stated that he was very effective in selection meetings through his knowledge of cricket history and went into great detail to choose the correct players ; it seems that Warner was the driving force behind Jardine 's appointment .
In his first Test as captain , Jardine clashed with several players . Frank Woolley was unhappy with his captain 's manner , feeling humiliated at his treatment in the field at one point . He also rebuked Ian Peebles and Walter Robins , two young amateur bowlers , for their amusement over an incident in the match . The home team 's fortunes were mixed , as New Zealand put up a very good fight in their first Test in England , and both sides could have won . The New Zealanders were so successful that a further two Tests were arranged . Jardine was criticised in the press for not instructing his batsmen to score quickly enough to win in the fourth innings , although this strategy was unlikely to succeed , and the match was drawn . England won the second Test by an innings and the third Test was drawn , sealing the series 1 – 0 . Jardine had a top score of just 38 in the series , but only batted four times and was not out in three of the innings . At the beginning of the following season , Wisden 's editor believed that , as Jardine had failed to impress ( unspecified ) people with his captaincy , he was no longer a certainty to lead the side to Australia , and only Percy Chapman 's lack of form prevented his reinstatement at Jardine 's expense . As a batsman , Jardine was more impressive in Wisden 's opinion , showing himself to be good in defence despite his lack of cricket in the past two seasons . A notable innings was his 104 for The Rest to prevent defeat against champion county Yorkshire . The opposition bowling , particularly from Bill Bowes , was short and hostile , but Jardine survived for over four hours . He scored 1 @,@ 104 first @-@ class runs for the season at an average of 64 @.@ 94 .
At the beginning of the 1932 season , Jardine became captain of Surrey . There was much speculation that Fender had been replaced due to disputes with the Surrey committee but it was some time before this , and Jardine 's appointment , was confirmed . Fender was supportive of Jardine and happy to play under him . Jardine overcame a cautious beginning to develop a more aggressive captaincy style , and Surrey finished in their highest position in the championship for six years . England played one international match that season , India 's first ever Test match , and Jardine was selected as captain . India possessed a very effective bowling attack on this tour , which surprised many teams , and England 's batsmen struggled against them . Jardine , who had played a long innings against the tourists for M.C.C. earlier in the season , was the only English batsman to pass 30 in both innings . He scored 79 and 85 not out , and was praised for two excellent defensive innings in a difficult situation by Wisden and The Cricketer . During the match , Jardine again clashed with his team . He gave Bill Bowes and Bill Voce the very unusual instruction to bowl one full toss each over to take advantage of the batsmen 's trouble seeing the ball against the crowd . The bowlers did not do so , and were later reprimanded by Jardine who told them to obey orders . Jardine himself went on to score 1 @,@ 464 runs in the season at an average of 52 @.@ 28 .
= = = Planning for the 1932 – 33 tour = = =
A week after the Test , it was announced that Jardine would captain the M.C.C. team to Australia that winter , although he seemed to have had last minute doubts about accepting . Others were also concerned about whether he was the best choice . For example , Rockley Wilson is reputed to have said that with Jardine as captain , " We shall win the Ashes ... but we may well lose a Dominion " . However , the selectors thought that a determined leader was needed to defeat the Australians and a more disciplined approach than that of Percy Chapman on the previous tour was needed . Jardine began to plan tactics from this point , discussing ideas with various people . He was aware that Bradman , Australia 's star batsman and the main worry of the selectors , had occasionally shown vulnerability to pace bowling . During the final Test of the 1930 Ashes at the Oval , during Bradman 's innings of 232 , the wicket became difficult for a time following rain . Bradman was briefly seen to be uncomfortable facing deliveries that bounced higher than usual at a faster pace . Percy Fender was one of many cricketers who noticed , and he discussed this with Jardine in 1932 . When Jardine later saw film footage of the Oval incident and noticed Bradman 's discomfort , he shouted , " I 've got it ! He 's yellow ! " Further details that developed his plans came from letters Fender received from Australia in 1932 describing how Australian batsmen were increasingly moving across the stumps towards the off @-@ side to play the ball on the on @-@ side . Fender showed these letters to Jardine . It was also known in England that Bradman had shown some discomfort during the 1931 – 32 Australian season against pace bowling .
Following Jardine 's appointment , a meeting was arranged with Nottinghamshire captain Arthur Carr and his two fast bowlers Larwood and Voce at London 's Piccadilly Hotel . Jardine explained his belief that Bradman was weak against bowling directed at leg stump and that if this line of attack could be maintained , it would restrict Bradman 's scoring to one side of the field , giving the bowlers greater control of his scoring . Jardine asked Larwood and Voce if they could bowl accurately on leg stump and make the ball rise up into the body of the batsman . The bowlers agreed that they could , and that it might prove effective , but Jardine stressed that bowling accurately was vitally important , or Bradman would dominate the bowling . Larwood believed that Jardine saw Bradman as his main target and wished to attack him psychologically as well as in a cricketing sense . At the same time , other Australian batsmen were also discussed . Larwood and Voce practised the plan over the remainder of the 1932 season with mixed success . Jardine also visited Frank Foster who had toured Australia in 1911 – 12 to discuss field placings appropriate to Australian conditions . Foster had bowled leg theory on that tour with his fielders placed close in on the leg @-@ side , as had George Hirst in 1903 – 04 . During the second half of the season , the team to tour Australia was announced . The selection of four fast bowlers and a few medium pacers was very unusual at the time , and it was commented on by the hosts ' media , including Bradman . The selection of Eddie Paynter , who did not have a strong record , to replace the ill Kumar Shri Duleepsinhji was very likely a choice of Jardine . He had a history of good performances against Yorkshire , and Jardine considered that a player 's record against northern counties was a good indication of his potential at international level .
= = Bodyline tour = =
= = = Beginning of the tour = = =
In Jardine 's obituary , Wisden described this tour as " probably the most controversial tour in history . England won four of the five Tests , but it was the methods they employed rather than the results which caused so much discussion and acrimony . " On the journey to Australia , by the boat Orontes , Jardine kept away from his team . He issued some instructions on their conduct , such as giving autographs or keeping out of the sun . He also began to have disagreements with Plum Warner , who was one of the two team managers along with Richard Palairet . He discussed tactics with Harold Larwood and other bowlers , spoke to Hedley Verity about his role in the team , and he may have met batsmen Wally Hammond and Herbert Sutcliffe . Some players reported that Jardine told them to hate the Australians in order to defeat them , while instructing them to refer to Bradman as " the little bastard . " At this stage , he seems to have settled on leg theory , if not full Bodyline , as his main tactic .
Once the team arrived in Australia , Jardine quickly alienated the press by refusing to give team details before a match and being uncooperative when interviewed by journalists . The press printed some negative stories as a result and the crowds barracked as they had done on his previous tour , which made him angry . Jardine still wore his Harlequin cap and began the tour well with 98 and 127 before the first Test . Once again , he clashed with paceman Bill Bowes , refusing to give his bowler the requested field placings in an early match . As a result , Bowes deliberately gave away easy runs in an attempt to get his way , but following a discussion , Bowes was converted to Jardine 's tactics and ultimately to his ability as a captain . In a tour match , Jardine also instructed Hammond to attack the bowling of Chuck Fleetwood @-@ Smith , whom he considered dangerous and thus did not want him to play in the Tests . Up until this point , there had been little unusual about the English bowling except the number of fast bowlers . Larwood and Voce were given a light workload in the early matches by Jardine . This changed in the match against an Australian XI , from which Jardine rested himself , where the bowlers first used the tactics that came to be known as Bodyline . Under the captaincy of Wyatt , the bowlers bowled short and around leg stump , with fielders positioned close by on the leg side to catch any deflections . Wyatt later claimed that this was not planned beforehand and he simply passed on to Jardine what happened after the match . These tactics continued in the next match ; several players were hit . Many commentators criticised this style of bowling ; although bowlers had previously used leg theory bowling , where bowlers bowled outside leg stump with a concentration of fielders on the leg side , using these tactics with fast bowlers dropping the ball short was almost unprecedented . It was seen as dangerous and against the spirit of the game . In a letter , Jardine told Fender that his information about the Australian batting technique was correct and that it meant he was having to move more and more fielders onto the leg side . He said that " if this goes on I shall have to move the whole bloody lot to the leg side . " Jardine increasingly came into disagreement with Warner over Bodyline as the tour progressed , but his tactics were successful in one respect : in six innings against the tourists ahead of the Tests , Bradman had scored only 103 runs , causing concern among the Australian public who expected much more from him .
= = = Test matches = = =
When the first Test began , Jardine persisted with Bodyline tactics , even though Bradman , the main target , did not play in the match . David Frith has pointed out that Bradman would have been watching and seeing the tactics that England were using . However , when Stan McCabe was scoring 187 not out , Jardine was briefly seen to be unsettled as runs came quickly , and he may not have been fully convinced that the tactics would be successful . England eventually won the match comfortably . In the second Test , Jardine completely misjudged the pitch and left out a specialist spinner when conditions later in the match favoured one . The match seemed to be going well when Bill Bowes unexpectedly bowled the returning Bradman first ball in the first innings ; Jardine was seen to be so delighted that he had clasped his hands above his head and performed a " war dance " . This was an extremely unusual reaction in the 1930s , particularly from Jardine who rarely showed any emotion while playing cricket . In the second innings , Bradman scored an unbeaten century which helped Australia to win the match and level the series at one match each . This made it seem to critics that Bodyline was not quite the threat that had been perceived and Bradman 's reputation , which had suffered slightly with his earlier failures , was restored . On the other hand , the pitch was slightly slower than was customary throughout the series , and Larwood was suffering from problems with his boots which reduced his effectiveness .
Jardine had clashed with more of his team by this stage : he had argued with Gubby Allen at least twice about his refusal to bowl Bodyline ( although he did bowl bouncers and fielded in the " leg trap " , the fielders who waited for catches close in on the leg side ) ; and the Nawab of Pataudi had refused to field in the " leg trap " , to which Jardine responded , " I see his highness is a conscientious objector " , and subsequently allowed Pataudi to play little part in the tour .
The teams went into the third Test with the series level ; England won that match but the controversy nearly ended the tour . Jardine , concerned by his poor run of batting form , had promoted himself to open the batting but was part of a drastic England collapse to 30 for four in the first innings . However , the trouble began when Bill Woodfull was struck on the chest by a Larwood delivery , drawing the comment from Jardine of " Well bowled , Harold " , aimed mainly at Bradman who was also batting at the time . For the next ball faced by Woodfull , at the start of Larwood 's next over , the fielders moved into the Bodyline fielding positions for the next ball he faced . Jardine wrote that Larwood had asked for the field to be moved , while Larwood said that it was Jardine 's decision . The crowd became noisily angry as the ill feeling caused by the English bowling tactics spilled out , and Jardine later expressed regret that he had moved the fielders when he did . There was further anger later in the innings when Bert Oldfield suffered a fractured skull . At this point , several of the players feared that there may be a riot and that the crowd would jump onto the field to attack them ; mounted police were deployed as a precaution , but the spectators remained behind the fences . Jardine then batted very slowly in an innings of 56 , during which he was continuously barracked by the crowd . Despite England 's win , Wisden believed that it was probably the most unpleasant match ever played . However , it commended Jardine 's courage , claimed that praise of his leadership was unanimous , and said that " above all he captained his team in this particular match like a genius " . In the immediate aftermath , journalists in England and Australia took up viewpoints both for and against Jardine . The M.C.C. sent a telegram congratulating him on winning the match .
Following the third Test , strongly worded cables passed between the Australian Board of Control and the M.C.C. at Lord 's . The Australian Board accused the English team of unsportsmanlike tactics , stating that " Bodyline bowling has assumed such proportions as to menace the best interests of the game , making protection of the body the main consideration . " The M.C.C. responded angrily to the accusations of unsporting conduct , played down the Australian claims about the danger of Bodyline and threatened to call off the tour . The series was becoming a major diplomatic incident by this stage , and many people saw Bodyline as damaging to an international relationship that needed to remain strong . Public reaction in both England and Australia was outrage directed at the other nation . The Governor of South Australia , Alexander Hore @-@ Ruthven , who was in England at the time , expressed his concern to British Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs James Henry Thomas that this would cause a significant impact on trade between the nations . The standoff was settled only when Australian Prime Minister Joseph Lyons met members of the Australian Board and outlined to them the severe economic hardships that could be caused in Australia if the British public boycotted Australian trade . Given this understanding , the Board withdrew the allegation of unsportsmanlike behaviour two days before the fourth Test , thus saving the tour . However , correspondence continued for almost a year . Jardine was shaken by the events and by the hostile reactions that his team were receiving . Stories appeared in the press , possibly leaked by the disenchanted Nawab of Pataudi , about fights and arguments between the England players . Jardine offered to stop using Bodyline if the team did not support him , but after a private meeting ( not attended by Jardine or either of the team managers ) the players released a statement fully supporting Jardine and the Bodyline tactics . It was subsequently revealed that several of the players had private reservations , but they did not express them publicly at the time . Even so , Jardine would not have played in the fourth Test without the withdrawal of the unsportsmanlike accusation .
Once the fourth Test got underway , England won the match to take the series . Partly prompted by Jardine , Eddie Paynter scored 83 having released himself from hospital . Jardine went on to make a painstaking 24 , at one point facing 82 balls without scoring a single run . He was not proud of his batting performance , being shamefaced to Australian Test opener Jack Fingleton , and describing his batting to Bill O 'Reilly as being " like an old maid defending her virginity . " England also won the final Test ending on 28 February , with a final clash taking place between Jardine and Larwood . After a long bowling spell , Larwood was furious when Jardine sent him in to bat as nightwatchman but went on to score 98 runs . Later , Larwood broke his foot while bowling in the second innings , but Jardine was not convinced that he was seriously injured . He made him stay on the field until Bradman was out . Larwood , partly through this injury and partly through political repercussions from this series , never played another Test . Also in this match , Jardine enraged Harry Alexander by asking him not to run on the pitch as he was damaging it and giving his side an advantage . He proceeded to bowl hostile bouncers at Jardine , who was struck painfully to the delight of the crowd .
While Jardine won the series as captain , he contributed just 199 runs at an average of 22 @.@ 11 in the Tests , and 628 runs ( average 36 @.@ 94 ) in all first @-@ class cricket in Australia . Jardine only played in the first Test of the short series which followed in New Zealand , due to rheumatism . All the players enjoyed the short tour although rain ruined the cricket , and Jardine was observed to show signs of paranoia towards all things Australian . Pelham Warner , although he later stated that he disapproved of Bodyline bowling , praised Jardine 's captaincy on the tour and believed that he was cruelly treated by the Australian crowds . He further believed that Jardine was convinced that the tactics were legitimate .
= = = Aftermath and 1933 season = = =
Controversy over Bodyline continued throughout the following summer . Jardine himself contributed his opinion in a book , In Quest for the Ashes , a first @-@ hand account of the Bodyline tour . He defended his tactics and heavily criticised the Australian barrackers , to the extent of suggesting that fixtures between England and Australia should be halted until this problem was solved . While arguments continued to rage in print and discussion , even at government level , Jardine received a hero 's welcome on his return to England , making several public appearances . Despite his fears that the M.C.C. might sack him in the face of criticism , he was appointed as England captain for the series against the West Indies in 1933 . He continued to captain Surrey during his infrequent first @-@ class appearances that summer , although business commitments prevented him from playing a full season . He was cheered by the crowd or given a standing ovation when he came out to bat as M.C.C. captain against the West Indians in May , at Sheffield for Surrey against Yorkshire , and in the first and second Test matches . In all first @-@ class cricket that season , Jardine scored 779 runs at an average of 51 @.@ 93 , including three hundreds . One of these centuries came in the second Test ( Jardine missed the third with an injury that ended his season ) .
Some bowlers had experimented with Bodyline in the season , and the West Indian team , 1 – 0 down in the series and frustrated by the lack of pace in the pitches , decided to experiment with the tactic . Facing a good West Indies total , England suffered a batting collapse , at one point falling to 134 for four . With Les Ames in difficulty against the short @-@ pitched bowling , Jardine said , " You get yourself down this end , Les . I 'll take care of this bloody nonsense . " He went right back to the bouncers , standing on tiptoe , and stopped them with a dead bat , sometimes playing the ball one handed for more control . Wisden described how he never flinched despite facing the greatest amount of Bodyline . It also believed that he played it " probably better than any other man in the world was capable of doing . " He batted for nearly five hours , scoring 127 , his only Test century . England then retaliated by bowling Bodyline in the West Indies ' second innings , but the slow pitch meant that the match was drawn . However , this performance played a large part in turning English opinion against Bodyline . The Times used the word " Bodyline " , without using inverted commas or using the qualification " so @-@ called " , for the first time . Wisden said that " most of those watching it for the first time must have come to the conclusion that , while strictly within the law , it was not nice . "
= = = Retirement = = =
During the 1933 season , Jardine was appointed as captain for the M.C.C. tour of India that winter which would feature the hosts ' first Tests at home . This continued support for Jardine in the face of growing unhappiness towards Bodyline bowling came with some reservations , as the President and Secretary of the M.C.C. met Jardine for discussions prior to his appointment . This was probably about the need for diplomacy and tact on what may have proved to be a sensitive tour . With only two players from the Bodyline tour , Jardine and Verity , taking part , it was not a full @-@ strength side but won the Test series 2 – 0 . India were weaker than expected , and lacked a large group of quality players . Jardine nevertheless won praise from Wisden for his captaincy and his batting . He approached the matches with a very competitive spirit , seeking to gain every advantage with his tactics and research . At the same time , he was far more willing to take up speaking engagements than on the Bodyline tour , showed an appreciation and regard for Indian crowds which he had never extended to Australia , and played the diplomatic role that was usually expected of a captain of the M.C.C. at the time . He often spoke of his affection for India , describing it as the land of his birth and seemed to be relaxed and happy on this tour .
England won the Test series 2 – 0 . Jardine contributed three fifties in four innings in the series , scoring 221 runs at an average of 73 @.@ 66 . He scored 60 , 61 and 65 before his final Test innings ended at 35 not out . Jardine scored 831 first @-@ class runs on the Indian leg of the tour — he played one match in Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) — averaging 55 @.@ 40 . Although Jardine enjoyed the tour , there were still clashes evident . There was an argument with the Viceroy over Jardine selecting the Maharaja of Patiala to play for the M.C.C. in one match ; in a subsequent match , Jardine complained that the pitch was rolled for too long . He also clashed , later on , with the umpire Frank Tarrant , initially due to suspicion over the number of lbw decisions given against the M.C.C. , but also because Tarrant had warned him against using Bodyline and was employed by Indian princes . Jardine threatened to stop him umpiring and sent a telegram to Lord 's , with the result that Tarrant , having officiated the first two Tests , was not used in the third . For much of the time , Jardine used different tactics to those employed in Australia . Slow bowling , particularly that of Hedley Verity , played a key part in the bowling attack . At times , the faster bowlers Nobby Clark and Stan Nichols bowled Bodyline , resulting in several injuries . In this case , the Indian bowlers Mohammad Nissar and Amar Singh retaliated with Bodyline bowling of their own .
As the tour went on , there was discussion at a high level over Jardine 's future . The M.C.C. authorities had realised that Bodyline was dangerous and should not be continued , but some figures such as Lord Hawke did not want to let Jardine down . Australians saw him as more of a problem ; the likes of Alexander Hore @-@ Ruthven wanted guarantees that Jardine would not use Bodyline and even that he not play . Plum Warner also believed that Jardine should no longer captain . Jardine himself saved the English selectors from any possible dilemma . In March 1934 , he first told Surrey that he would be unable to play regularly any more and he resigned as captain . Then in an announcement in the Evening Standard , he stated that " I have neither the intention nor the desire to play cricket against Australia this summer . " It is unclear whether this was due to the pressure over Bodyline , over assurances that the M.C.C. may have asked him to give or simply due to financial worries . This decision effectively ended his first @-@ class career . He never played another Test and played only two more first @-@ class matches in England , in 1937 and 1948 , and one in India in 1943 – 44 .
Jardine played in 22 Test matches for England , scoring 1 @,@ 296 runs at an average of 48 @.@ 00 . In his first @-@ class cricket career , he played 262 matches , scoring 14 @,@ 848 runs at an average of 46 @.@ 83 . His occasional bowling brought him 48 wickets at an average of 31 @.@ 10 .
= = Style and personality = =
= = = Batting = = =
Jardine was seen as having a classical technique . While batting , he stood very straight and side on to the bowler . His off @-@ driving was powerful , his defence was excellent , and he was superb at judging the line of the ball and letting it pass by if it was going to miss his wickets . His on @-@ side play was also excellent , being able to place the ball between fielders for easy runs . Christopher Douglas described Jardine as " the epitome of the old @-@ fashioned amateur " . However , he also comments that his approach to batting was like that of a professional and that his back @-@ foot batting was of a quality that few amateurs could manage . In 1928 , Wisden 's correspondent described Jardine as the most secure amateur batsman of the time , and identified his greatest strength as his defence and his " mental gifts . " He played very straight and hit the ball hard in defence , but could not play all the strokes , particularly on the off side . R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow believed that Jardine had modelled himself on C. B. Fry . He also noted that Jardine displayed good concentration , a strong desire to improve his batting and a fighting spirit that brought out his best in a crisis . He also said that Jardine could play every recognised cricket shot , but would not do so in a match and Robertson @-@ Glasgow believed it was Jardine 's one weakness as a batsman . The more important the occasion , the more defensive and restricted Jardine 's batting became : " In general , as the task grew greater , the strokes grew fewer . "
Christopher Douglas argues that Jardine liked to make his runs when his side was in difficulty and enjoyed being tested ; his approach would often lead his team to recovery from an unfavourable situation . Douglas comments that Jardine held his place in the England side despite strong competition from other batsmen . His defensive technique rescued England from weak positions in around a dozen innings and only played in two losses with England ( which were his two least successful games with the bat ) . He also excelled in the main Gentlemen v Players fixture at Lord 's , making a good score in each of his appearances in this match . Jack Hobbs classed him as a great batsman and believed that he was under @-@ rated by his contemporaries .
Wisden believed that Jardine 's effective batting technique meant that fast bowlers troubled him less than other batsmen . He did have difficulties with a few bowlers . Alec Kennedy , a medium paced inswing bowler , took Jardine 's wicket eleven times , eight of these occasions before the batsman had scored 20 runs . Kennedy found that Jardine had slightly slow footwork , often bowling him or trapping him lbw . Bert Ironmonger also troubled Jardine , taking his wicket in five of the eleven Test innings in which they faced each other . Jardine displayed a slight weakness against Australian slow bowlers , not moving his feet well enough against them . In 16 Test innings in Australia , he was out to slow bowlers ten times , but he rarely experienced similar difficulties against English spinners . One other bowler to cause Jardine problems was the Australian paceman Tim Wall , who took his wicket five times on the nine occasions he bowled to him .
= = = Captaincy = = =
As a captain , Jardine inspired great loyalty in his players , even if they did not approve of his tactics . Christopher Douglas judges that Jardine did very well to keep the team united and loyal on the Bodyline tour . He points out that team spirit was always excellent and the players showed great determination and resolve . Jardine particularly impressed Yorkshiremen who played under him , as they believed he thought about cricket in a similar way to their county colleagues . He became close to Herbert Sutcliffe during the Bodyline tour , even though Sutcliffe was sceptical about Jardine on the previous Australian tour in 1928 – 29 . Hedley Verity was impressed by Jardine 's tactical understanding and named his younger son Douglas after the captain . Bill Bowes expressed approval of his leadership after initial misgivings , and went on to call him England 's greatest captain . Nevertheless , some players such as Arthur Mitchell who played under Jardine believed he was intolerant and unsupportive of players of lesser talent , expecting everyone to perform at world @-@ class standards .
Jardine insisted on strict discipline from his players but in return he went to great lengths to look after them , such as organising dental treatment or providing champagne for his tired bowlers . Critics praised his skill in field placing , which was sometimes interpreted as panic when he made frequent changes if the batsmen were on top . He also displayed great physical courage , such as when he was struck by a ball hard enough to draw blood on the Bodyline tour , but refused to show pain before reaching the dressing room . On the same tour , he instructed his men not to be friendly or to socialise with the Australian players ; Gubby Allen even claimed that Jardine instructed the team to hate the Australians . Robertson @-@ Glasgow wrote that Jardine made thorough preparation for games in which he was captain , studying individual batsmen at great length to find weaknesses . He had very clear plans , judged the strengths and weaknesses of his teams and knew how to get the best out of individual players . However , Robertson @-@ Glasgow considered it a grave misjudgement to make Jardine captain of England , particularly given his known antipathy towards Australia . Pelham Warner described how Jardine " was a master of tactics and strategy , and was especially adept in managing fast bowlers and thereby preserving their energy . He possessed a great capacity for taking pains , which , it has been said , is the mark of a genius ... As a field tactician and selector of teams he was , I consider , surpassed by no one and equalled by few , if any . "
Laurence Le Quesne argues that one of Jardine 's greatest talents , and at the same time greatest weaknesses , was his ability to formulate a winning strategy without consideration of wider contexts such as the social aspect of the game . On the Bodyline tour , he ignored the diplomacy required of an M.C.C. delegation . Instead , he embarked , according to Le Quesne , to win the Tests and settle personal scores with the Australians . Jardine was personally incapable of reacting to the crowds or responding to the controversy in a way that would have eased tensions , and so was not a good choice as captain given what the selectors already knew of him . Nevertheless , Le Quesne believed that when trouble arose , Jardine conducted himself with " great moral courage and an impressive degree of dignity and restraint . "
In his Wisden obituary , Jardine was described as one of England 's best captains , while Jack Hobbs rated him the second best captain after Percy Fender . Warner also said that he was a fine captain on and off the field , and in dealing with administrators . In fact , he stated that , " If ever there was a cricket match between England and the rest of the world and the fate of England depended upon its result , I would pick Jardine as England captain every time . "
= = = Personality = = =
Jardine divided opinion among those with whom he played . He could be charming and witty or ruthless and harsh , while many people who knew him believed him to be innately shy . David Frith describes him as a complex figure who could change moods quickly . Although he could be friendly off the field , he became hostile and determined once he stepped onto the field . At his memorial service , he was described by Hubert Ashton as being " provocative , austere , brusque , shy , humble , thoughtful , kindly , proud , sensitive , single @-@ minded and possessed of immense moral and physical courage , " and Frith argues that these varied qualities are easily proven by what was said about him .
Harold Larwood maintained great respect for Jardine , treasuring a gift his captain gave him after the Bodyline tour and believing him to be a great man . Jardine showed affection for Larwood in return even after both of their retirements ; he expressed his concern for the way Larwood was treated , hosted a lunch for the former fast bowler shortly before he emigrated to Australia and met him there in 1954 . On the other hand , Donald Bradman would never speak to journalists about Bodyline or Jardine , and refused to give a tribute when Jardine died in 1958 . Jack Fingleton admitted that he had liked Jardine and stated that he and Larwood had each done their job on the Bodyline tour , and expressed regret at the way both left cricket in acrimonious circumstances . Fingleton also described Jardine as an aloof individual who preferred to take his time in judging a person before befriending them , a quality that caused problems in Australia . Bill O 'Reilly stated that he disliked Jardine at the time of Bodyline , but on meeting him later found him agreeable and even charming .
Alan Gibson said that Jardine had " irony rather than humour " . He sent Herbert Sutcliffe an umbrella as a joke on the day of his benefit match , when rain would have ruined the match and lost Sutcliffe a considerable amount of money . Many people who knew Jardine later in his life described him as having a sense of humour . Robertson @-@ Glasgow noted that while he could curse very eloquently , Jardine displayed " dislike of waste in material or words . " He also commented that " if he has sometimes been a fierce enemy , he has also been a wonderful friend . "
= = Later life = =
= = = Career after cricket = = =
Shortly before the tour of India in 1933 – 34 , Jardine became engaged and on 14 September 1934 , married Irene " Isla " Margaret Peat in London . She had met Jardine at shooting parties at her father 's Norfolk home . According to Gerald Howat , Jardine 's marriage was the probable reason for his giving up playing first @-@ class cricket . Jardine 's father @-@ in @-@ law was keen for him to pursue his law career but he instead continued as a bank clerk and began to work as a journalist . He reported on the 1934 Ashes for the Evening Standard . His writing for the press , and in a follow @-@ up book on the series , was critical of selectors but less so of the players . In 1936 , he penned Cricket : how to succeed , which was written as an instruction book for the National Union of Teachers . There was a possibility of his going to Australia as a journalist to cover the M.C.C. tour of 1936 – 37 , to the dismay of Hore @-@ Ruthven , but nothing came of this . With alterations to the law in 1935 , changing the lbw law and preventing Bodyline bowling , Jardine became increasingly disillusioned with top @-@ level cricket . He had grown uncomfortable with the nationalism stirred up by Tests , the greed of clubs and the large public following of individual players , particularly Bradman . At the same time , Jardine seemed to be ostracised by cricket writers and commentators , who simply ignored him . For example , Wisden made no mention of his retirement . Christopher Douglas believes that Jardine was used as a scapegoat for Bodyline once the M.C.C. stopped supporting the tactic and that a stigma was attached to him for the rest of his life and beyond .
Although Jardine had retired from regular first @-@ class competition , he continued to play club cricket . Jardine and his wife initially lived in Kensington but moved to Reading after the birth of their first child , daughter Fianach . A second daughter , Marion , followed but the family suffered from financial worries . Jardine , as well as working in journalism , earned money from playing bridge . The family also tried unsuccessfully to engage in market gardening . To make more money , Jardine became a salesman with Cable & Wireless before working for a coal mining company in the late 1930s . In 1939 , he returned to cricket journalism and according to Christopher Douglas , achieved his highest standard as a writer .
= = = Career in the Second World War = = =
Jardine joined the Territorial Army in August 1939 . Once World War II began , he was commissioned into the Royal Berkshire Regiment and went with the British Expeditionary Force to France . He served at Dunkirk , where he was fortunate to escape but suffered some injuries . After serving as staff captain at St. Albans , he was posted to India for the remainder of the war . He served in Quetta , then Simla as a major in the Central Provisions Directorate . He became fluent in the Hindustani language and although friendly , never formed close relationships with other officers . He gave lectures and played some cricket while in India . He left the army in 1945 only to find his job with the coal mining company was no longer available .
In the meantime , his wife had moved to Somerset . In 1940 , she gave birth to a son , Euan , who had many medical problems , and in 1943 she bore a third daughter , Iona . The pressure of running the household and caring for Euan led Isla to have a nervous breakdown after Iona 's birth . When Jardine returned from the war , the family moved to Radlett to be closer to London . Isla recovered and Jardine found a job with paper manufacturers Wiggins Teape . In 1946 , Jardine was chosen to play for Old England in a popular and successful fund raising match against Surrey . He displayed much of his old batting skill but did not show much involvement with his team @-@ mates . By 1948 , Jardine was more accepted in the cricket world . This was partly due to English perception of the short @-@ pitched fast bowling of Australian pairing Ray Lindwall and Keith Miller as being hostile . England 's poor performance in the 1946 – 47 and 1948 Ashes also caused writers to remember Jardine more fondly as an icon of past English success .
= = = Final years = = =
In 1953 , Jardine resumed journalism for the Ashes series and expressed a high opinion of Len Hutton 's captaincy . He also did some broadcasting and wrote short stories to supplement his income ; Isla was in poor health and her medical care was expensive . In the same year , he became the first President of the Umpires Association , while from 1955 to 1957 he was President of the Oxford University Cricket Club . In 1953 , he travelled , with some trepidation , as a board member of the Scottish Australian Company to inspect some land in Australia . While there , he struck up a friendship with Fingleton and was surprised to be well received in the country , in his own words , as " an old so @-@ and @-@ so who got away with it . "
In 1957 , Jardine travelled to Rhodesia , again to inspect some land , with his daughter Marion . While there , he became ill with tick fever . He showed no improvement upon his return to England and further tests revealed that he had advanced lung cancer . After some treatment , he travelled with his wife to a clinic in Switzerland but it was discovered that the cancer had spread and was incurable . He died in Switzerland on 18 June 1958 and his ashes were scattered over the top of Craigs Cross mountain in Perthshire , Scotland . His family had enquired about having his ashes dispersed at Lord 's , but this honour was restricted to war dead . When he died , his estate was valued at just over £ 71 @,@ 000 , which would have been worth around £ 1 ¼ million in 2008 .
= = Legacy = =
Jardine is inextricably associated with Bodyline . John Arlott wrote in 1989 that " It is no exaggeration to say that , among Australians , Douglas Jardine is probably the most disliked of cricketers . " In the view of Christopher Douglas , his name " stands for the legendary British qualities of cool @-@ headed determination , implacable resolve , patrician disdain for crowds and critics alike – if you 're English that is . To Australians the name is synonymous with the legendary British qualities of snobbishness , cynicism and downright Pommie arrogance . " He also argues that Bodyline , which was legal at the time , was a necessary step to overcome the unfair advantage which batsmen of the time enjoyed .
After the Bodyline tour , according to cricket writer Gideon Haigh , Jardine was seen as " the most reviled man in sport . " This perception faded from the 1950s onwards , and in more recent times , Jardine has been viewed more sympathetically . In 2002 , the England captain Nasser Hussain was compared to Jardine as a compliment when he displayed ruthlessness against the opposition .
|
= Maniac Mansion =
Maniac Mansion is a 1987 graphic adventure video game developed and published by Lucasfilm Games . It follows teenage protagonist Dave Miller as he attempts to rescue his girlfriend from a mad scientist , whose mind has been enslaved by a sentient meteor . The player uses a point @-@ and @-@ click interface to guide Dave and two of his six playable friends through the scientist 's mansion while solving puzzles and avoiding dangers . Gameplay is nonlinear , and the game must be completed in different ways based on the player 's choice of characters . Initially released for the Commodore 64 and Apple II , Maniac Mansion was Lucasfilm Games ' first self @-@ published product .
The game was conceived in 1985 by Ron Gilbert and Gary Winnick , who sought to tell a comedic story based on horror film and B movie clichés . They mapped out the project as a paper @-@ and @-@ pencil game before coding commenced . While earlier adventure titles had relied on command lines , Gilbert disliked such systems , and he developed Maniac Mansion 's simpler point @-@ and @-@ click interface as a replacement . To speed up production , he created a game engine called SCUMM , which was used in many later LucasArts titles . After its release , Maniac Mansion was ported to several platforms . A port for the Nintendo Entertainment System had to be reworked heavily , in response to complaints by Nintendo of America that the game was inappropriate for children .
Maniac Mansion was critically acclaimed : reviewers lauded its graphics , cutscenes , animation and humor . Writer Orson Scott Card praised it as a step toward " computer games [ becoming ] a valid storytelling art . " It influenced numerous graphic adventure titles , and its point @-@ and @-@ click interface became a standard feature in the genre . The game 's success solidified Lucasfilm as a serious rival to adventure game studios such as Sierra On @-@ Line . In 1990 , Maniac Mansion was adapted into a three @-@ season television series of the same name , written by Eugene Levy and starring Joe Flaherty . A sequel to the game , entitled Day of the Tentacle , was released in 1993 .
= = Overview = =
Maniac Mansion is a graphic adventure game in which the player uses a point @-@ and @-@ click interface to guide characters through a two @-@ dimensional game world and to solve puzzles . Fifteen action commands , such as " Walk To " and " Unlock " , may be selected by the player from a menu on the screen 's lower half . The player starts the game by choosing two out of six characters to accompany protagonist Dave Miller . Each character possesses unique abilities : for example , Syd and Razor can play musical instruments , while Bernard can repair appliances . The game may be completed with any combination of characters ; but , since many puzzles are solvable only by certain characters , different paths must be taken based on the group 's composition . Maniac Mansion features cutscenes , a word coined by Ron Gilbert , that interrupt gameplay to advance the story and inform the player about offscreen events .
The game takes place in the mansion of the fictional Edison family : Dr. Fred , a mad scientist ; Nurse Edna , his wife ; and their son Weird Ed . Living with the Edisons are two large , disembodied tentacles , one purple and the other green . The intro sequence shows that a sentient meteor crashed near the mansion twenty years earlier ; it brainwashed the Edisons and directed Dr. Fred to obtain human brains for use in experiments . The game begins as Dave Miller prepares to enter the mansion to rescue his girlfriend , Sandy Pantz , who was kidnapped by Dr. Fred . With the exception of the green tentacle , the mansion 's inhabitants are hostile , and will throw the player characters into the dungeon — or , in some situations , kill them — if they see them . When a character dies , the player must choose a replacement from the unselected characters ; and the game ends if all characters are killed . Maniac Mansion has five possible endings , based on which characters are chosen , which survive , and what the characters accomplish .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception = = =
Maniac Mansion was conceived in 1985 , when Lucasfilm Games employees Ron Gilbert and Gary Winnick were assigned to create an original game . Gilbert had been hired the previous year as a programmer for the game Koronis Rift . He befriended Winnick over their similar tastes in humor , film and television . Company management provided little oversight in the creation of Maniac Mansion , a trend to which Gilbert credited the success of several of his games for Lucasfilm .
Gilbert and Winnick co @-@ wrote and co @-@ designed the project , but they worked separately as well : Gilbert on programming and Winnick on visuals . As both of them enjoyed B horror films , they decided to make a comedy @-@ horror game set in a haunted house . They drew inspiration from a film whose name Winnick could not recall . He described it as " a ridiculous teen horror movie " , in which teenagers inside a building were killed one by one without any thought of leaving . This film , combined with clichés from popular horror movies such as Friday the 13th and A Nightmare on Elm Street , became the basis for the game 's setting . Early work on the game progressed organically : according to Gilbert , " Very little was written down . Gary and I just talked and laughed a lot , and out it came . " Lucasfilm Games relocated to the Stable House at Skywalker Ranch during Maniac Mansion 's conception period , and the ranch 's Main House was used as a model for the mansion . Several rooms from the Main House received exact reproductions in the game , such as a library with a spiral staircase and a media room with a large @-@ screen TV and grand piano .
Story and characters were a primary concern for Gilbert and Winnick . The pair based the game 's cast on friends , family members , acquaintances and stereotypes . For example , Winnick 's girlfriend Ray was the inspiration for Razor , while Dave and Wendy were based , respectively , on Gilbert and a fellow Lucasfilm employee named Wendy . According to Winnick , the Edison family was shaped after characters from EC Comics and Warren Publishing magazines . The sentient meteor that brainwashes Dr. Fred was inspired by a segment from the 1982 anthology film Creepshow . A man @-@ eating plant , similar to that of Little Shop of Horrors , was included as well . The developers sought to strike a balance between tension and humor with the game 's story .
Initially , Gilbert and Winnick struggled to choose a gameplay genre for Maniac Mansion . While visiting relatives over Christmas , Gilbert saw his cousin play King 's Quest : Quest for the Crown , an adventure game by Sierra On @-@ Line . Although he was a fan of text adventures , this was Gilbert 's first experience with a graphic adventure , and he used the holiday to play the game and familiarize himself with the format . As a result , he decided to develop his and Winnick 's ideas into a graphic adventure game .
Maniac Mansion 's story and structure were designed before coding commenced . The project 's earliest incarnation was a simple paper @-@ and @-@ pencil board game , in which the mansion 's floor plan was used as a game board , and cards represented events and characters . Lines connected the rooms to illustrate pathways by which characters could travel . Strips of cellulose acetate were used to map out the game 's puzzles by tracking which items worked together when used by certain characters . Impressed by the map 's complexity , Winnick included it in the final game as a poster hung on a wall . Because each character contributes different skills and resources , the pair spent months working on the event combinations that could occur . This extended the game 's production time beyond that of previous Lucasfilm Games projects , which almost led to Gilbert 's firing . The game 's dialogue , written by David Fox , was not created until after programming had begun .
= = = Production and SCUMM = = =
Gilbert started programming Maniac Mansion in 6502 assembly language , but he quickly decided that the project was too large and complex for this method . He decided that a new game engine would have to be created . Its coding language was initially planned to be LISP @-@ inspired , but Gilbert opted for one similar to C. Lucasfilm employee Chip Morningstar contributed the base code for the engine , which Gilbert then built on . Gilbert hoped to create a " system that could be used on many adventure games , cutting down the time it took to make them " . Maniac Mansion 's first six @-@ to @-@ nine months of production were dedicated largely to engine development . The game was developed around the Commodore 64 home computer , an 8 @-@ bit system with only 64 KB of memory . The team wanted to include scrolling screens , but as it was normally impossible to scroll bitmap graphics on the Commodore 64 , they had to utilize lower @-@ detail tile graphics . Winnick gave each character a large head made of three stacked sprites to make them recognizable .
Although Gilbert wrote much of the foundational code for Maniac Mansion , the majority of the game 's events were programmed by Lucasfilm employee David Fox . Fox was between projects and planned to work on the game only for a month , but he remained with the team for six months . With Gilbert , he wrote the characters ' dialog and choreographed the action . Winnick 's concept art inspired him to add new elements to the game : for example , Fox allowed the player to place a hamster inside the kitchen 's microwave .
The team wanted to avoid punishing the player for applying everyday logic in Maniac Mansion . Fox noted that one Sierra game features a scene in which the player , without prior warning , may encounter a game over screen simply by picking up a shard of glass . He characterized such game design as " sadistic " , and he commented , " I know that in the real world I can successfully pick up a broken piece of mirror without dying " . Because of the project 's nonlinear puzzle design , the team struggled to prevent no @-@ win scenarios , in which the player unexpectedly became unable to complete the game . As a result of this problem , Gilbert later explained , " We were constantly fighting against the desire just to rip out all the endings and just go with three characters , or even sometimes just one character " . Lucasfilm Games had only one playtester , and many dead @-@ ends went undetected as a result . Further playtesting was provided by Gilbert 's uncle , to whom Gilbert mailed a floppy disk of the game 's latest version each week .
The Maniac Mansion team wanted to retain the structure of a text @-@ based adventure game , but without the standard command @-@ line interface . Gilbert and Winnick were frustrated by the genre 's text parsers and frequent game over screens . While in college , Gilbert had enjoyed Colossal Cave Adventure and the games of Infocom , but he disliked their lack of visuals . He found the inclusion of graphics in Sierra On @-@ Line games , such as King 's Quest , to be a step in the right direction . However , these games still require the player to type , and to guess which commands must be input . In response , Gilbert programmed a point @-@ and @-@ click graphical user interface that displays every possible command . Fox had made a similar attempt to streamline Lucasfilm 's earlier Labyrinth : The Computer Game , and he conceived the entirety of Maniac Mansion 's interface , according to Gilbert . Forty input commands were planned at first , but the number was gradually reduced to 12 . Gilbert finished the Maniac Mansion engine — which he later named " Script Creation Utility for Maniac Mansion " ( SCUMM ) — after roughly one year of work . Although the game was designed for the Commodore 64 , the SCUMM engine allowed it to be ported easily to other platforms .
After 18 to 24 months of development , Maniac Mansion debuted at the 1987 Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago . The game was released for the Commodore 64 and Apple II in October 1987 . While previous Lucasfilm Games products had been published by outside companies , Maniac Mansion was self @-@ published . This became a trend at Lucasfilm . The company hired Ken Macklin , an acquaintance of Winnick 's , to design the game 's packaging artwork . Gilbert and Winnick collaborated with the marketing department to design the back cover . The two also created an insert that includes hints , a backstory and jokes . An MS @-@ DOS port was released in early 1988 , developed in part by Lucasfilm employees Aric Wilmunder and Brad Taylor . Ports for the Amiga , Atari ST and Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) followed , with the Amiga and Atari ST ports in 1989 and the NES port in 1990 . The 16 @-@ bit versions of Maniac Mansion featured a copy protection system requiring the user to enter graphical symbols out of a code book include with the game . This was not present in the Commodore 64 and Apple versions due to lack of disk space , so those instead used an on @-@ disk copy protection .
= = Nintendo Entertainment System version = =
There were two separate versions of the game developed for the NES . The first port was handled and published by Jaleco only in Japan . Released in 1989 it featured characters redrawn in a cute art style and generally shrunken rooms . No scrolling is present , leading to rooms larger than a single screen to be displayed via flip @-@ screens . Many of the background details are missing , and instead of a save feature an over 100 character long password is required to save progress . In September 1990 Jaleco released an American version of Maniac Mansion as the first NES title developed by Lucasfilm Games in cooperation with Realtime Associates . Generally , this port is regarded as being far closer to the original game than the Japanese effort . Company management was occupied with other projects , and so the port received little attention until employee Douglas Crockford volunteered to direct it . The team used a modified version of the SCUMM engine called " NES SCUMM " for the port . According to Crockford , " [ One ] of the main differences between the NES and PCs is that the NES can do certain things much faster " . The graphics had to be entirely redrawn to match the NES 's display resolution . Tim Schafer , who later designed Maniac Mansion 's sequel Day of the Tentacle , received his first professional credit as a playtester for the NES version of Maniac Mansion .
During Maniac Mansion 's development for the Commodore 64 , Lucasfilm had censored profanity in the script : for instance , the early line of dialogue " Don 't be a shit head " became " Don 't be a tuna head " . However , additional content was removed from the NES version to make it suitable for a younger audience , and to conform with Nintendo 's policies . Jaleco USA president Howie Rubin warned Crockford about content to which Nintendo might object , such as the word " kill " . After reading the NES Game Standards Policy for himself , Crockford suspected that further elements of Maniac Mansion could be problematic , and he sent a list of questionable content to Jaleco . When the company replied that the content was reasonable , Lucasfilm Games submitted Maniac Mansion for approval .
One month later , Nintendo of America contacted Lucasfilm Games to request the removal of offensive text and nude graphics . Crockford censored this content but attempted to leave the game 's essence intact . For example , Nintendo wanted graffiti in one room — which provided an important hint to players — removed from the game . Unable to comply without simultaneously removing the hint , the team simply shortened it . Sexually suggestive and otherwise " graphic " dialogue was edited , including a remark from Dr. Fred about " pretty brains [ being ] sucked out " . The nudity described by Nintendo encompassed a swimsuit calendar , a classical sculpture and a poster of a mummy in a Playmate pose . After a brief fight to keep the sculpture , the team ultimately removed all three . The phrase " NES SCUMM " in the credits sequence was censored as well .
Lucasfilm Games re @-@ submitted the edited version of Maniac Mansion to Nintendo , which then manufactured 250 @,@ 000 cartridges . Each cartridge was fitted with a battery @-@ powered back @-@ up to save data . Nintendo announced the port through its official magazine in early 1990 , and it provided further coverage later that year . The ability to microwave a hamster remained in the game , which Crockford cited as an example of the censors ' contradictory criteria . However , Nintendo later noticed it , and after the first batch of cartridges was sold , Jaleco was forced to remove the content from future shipments .
Late in development , Jaleco commissioned Realtime Associates to provide background music , which no previous version of Maniac Mansion had featured . Realtime Associates ' founder and president David Warhol noted that " video games at that time had to have ' wall to wall ' music " . He brought in George " The Fat Man " Sanger and his band , along with David Hayes , to compose the score . Their goal was to create songs that suited each character , such as a punk rock theme for Razor , an electronic rock theme for Bernard and a version of Thin Lizzy 's " The Boys Are Back in Town " for Dave Miller . Warhol translated their work into NES chiptune music .
= = Reception = =
Keith Farrell of Compute ! ' s Gazette was struck by Maniac Mansion 's similarity to film , particularly in its use of cutscenes to impart " information or urgency " . He lauded the game 's graphics , animation and high level of detail . Commodore User 's Bill Scolding and three reviewers from Zzap ! 64 compared the game to The Rocky Horror Picture Show . Further comparisons were drawn to Psycho , Friday the 13th , The Texas Chain Saw Massacre , The Addams Family and Scooby @-@ Doo . Russ Ceccola of Commodore Magazine found the cutscenes to be creative and well made , and he commented that the " characters are distinctively Lucasfilm 's , bringing facial expressions and personality to each individual character " . In Compute ! , Orson Scott Card praised the game 's humor , cinematic storytelling and lack of violence . He called it " compellingly good " and evidence of Lucasfilm 's push " to make computer games a valid storytelling art " .
German magazine Happy @-@ Computer commended the point @-@ and @-@ click interface and likened it to that of Uninvited by ICOM Simulations . The publication highlighted Maniac Mansion 's graphics , originality and overall enjoyability : one of the writers called it the best adventure title yet released . Happy @-@ Computer later reported that Maniac Mansion was the highest @-@ selling video game in West Germany for three consecutive months . The game 's humor received praise from Zzap ! 64 , whose reviewers called the point @-@ and @-@ click controls " tremendous " and the total package " innovative and polished " . Shay Addams of Questbusters : The Adventurer 's Newsletter preferred Maniac Mansion 's interface to that of Labyrinth : The Computer Game . He considered the game to be Lucasfilm 's best , and he recommended it to Commodore 64 and Apple II users unable to run titles with better visuals , such as those from Sierra On @-@ Line . A writer for ACE enjoyed the game 's animation and depth , but he noted that fans of text @-@ based adventures would dislike the game 's simplicity .
= = = Ports = = =
Reviewing the MS @-@ DOS and Atari ST ports , a critic from The Games Machine called Maniac Mansion " an enjoyable romp " that was structurally superior to later LucasArts adventure games . However , the writer noticed poor pathfinding and disliked the limited audio . Reviewers for The Deseret News lauded the audiovisuals and considered the product " wonderful fun " . Computer Gaming World 's Charles Ardai praised the game for attaining " the necessary and precarious balance between laughs and suspense that so many comic horror films and novels lack " . Although he faulted the control system 's limited options , he hailed it as " one of the most comfortable ever devised " . Writing for VideoGames & Computer Entertainment , Bill Kunkel and Joyce Worley stated that the game 's plot and premise were typical of the horror genre ; but they praised the interface and execution .
Reviewing Maniac Mansion 's Amiga version four years after its release , Simon Byron of The One Amiga praised the game for retaining " charm and humour " , but suggested that its art direction had become " tacky " compared to more recent titles . Stephen Bradly of Amiga Format found the game derivative , but he encountered " loads of visual humour " in it ; and he added , " Strangely , it 's quite compelling after a while . " Michael Labiner of Germany 's Amiga Joker considered Maniac Mansion to be one of the best adventure games for the system . He noted minor graphical flaws , such as a limited color palette , but he argued that the gameplay made up for such shortcomings . Writing for Datormagazin in Sweden , Ingela Palmér commented that the Amiga and Commodore 64 versions of Maniac Mansion were nearly identical . She criticized the graphics and gameplay of both releases , but felt the game to be highly enjoyable regardless .
Reviewing the NES release , British magazine Mean Machines commended the game 's presentation , playability and replay value . However , the publication noted undetailed graphics and " ear @-@ bashing tunes " . The magazine 's Julian Rignall compared Maniac Mansion to the title Shadowgate , but he preferred the former 's controls and lack of " death @-@ without @-@ warning situations " . Writers for Germany 's Video Games referred to the NES version as a " classic " . Co @-@ reviewer Heinrich Lenhardt stated that Maniac Mansion was unlike any other NES adventure game , and that it was no less enjoyable than its home computer releases . Co @-@ reviewer Winnie Forster found it to be " one of the most original representatives of the [ adventure game ] genre " . In retrospective features , Edge magazine called the NES version " somewhat neutered " and GamesTM referred to it as " infamous " and " heavily censored " .
= = TV adaptation and game sequel = =
Lucasfilm conceived the idea for a television adaptation of Maniac Mansion , the rights to which were purchased by The Family Channel in 1990 . The two companies collaborated with Atlantis Films to produce a sitcom named after the game , which debuted in September of that year . It aired on YTV in Canada and The Family Channel in the United States . Based in part on the video game , the series focuses on the Edison family 's life and stars Joe Flaherty as Dr. Fred . Its writing staff was led by Eugene Levy . Gilbert later said that the premise of the series changed during production , until it differed heavily from the game 's original plot . Upon its debut , the adaptation received positive reviews from Variety , Entertainment Weekly and the Los Angeles Times . Time named it one of the year 's best new series . However , Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly questioned the decision to air the series on The Family Channel , given Flaherty 's subversive humor . Discussing the series in retrospect , Richard Cobbett of PC Gamer criticized its generic storylines and lack of relevance to the game . The series lasted for three seasons ; sixty @-@ six episodes were filmed .
In the early 1990s , LucasArts tasked Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer , both of whom had worked on the Monkey Island series , with designing a sequel to Maniac Mansion . Gilbert and Winnick initially assisted with the project 's writing . The team included voice acting and more detailed graphics , which Gilbert had originally envisioned for Maniac Mansion . The first game 's nonlinear design was discarded , and the team implemented a Chuck Jones @-@ inspired visual style , alongside numerous puzzles based on time travel . Bernard and the Edison family were retained . The sequel , entitled Day of the Tentacle , was released in 1993 .
= = Impact and legacy = =
In 2010 , the staff of GamesTM dubbed Maniac Mansion a " seminal " title that overhauled the gameplay of the graphic adventure genre . Removing the need to guess syntax allowed players to concentrate on the story and puzzles , which created a smoother and more enjoyable experience , according to the magazine . Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed agreed : he believed that the design was " infinitely more elegant and intuitive " than its predecessors , and that it freed players from " guessing @-@ game frustration " . Designer Dave Grossman , who worked on Lucasfilm Games ' later Day of the Tentacle and The Secret of Monkey Island , felt that Maniac Mansion had revolutionized the adventure game genre . Although 1985 's Uninvited had featured a point @-@ and @-@ click interface , it was not influential . Maniac Mansion 's implementation of the concept was widely imitated in other adventure titles . Writing in the game studies journal Kinephanos , Jonathan Lessard argued that Maniac Mansion led a " Casual Revolution " in the late 1980s , which opened the adventure genre to a wider audience . Similarly , Christopher Buecheler of GameSpy called the game a contributor to its genre 's subsequent critical adoration and commercial success .
Reed highlighted the " wonderfully ambitious " design of Maniac Mansion , in reference to its writing , interface and cast of characters . Game designer Sheri Graner Ray believed the game to challenge " damsel in distress " stereotypes through its inclusion of female protagonists . Conversely , writer Mark Dery argued that the goal of rescuing a kidnapped cheerleader reinforced negative gender roles . The Lucasfilm team built on their experiences from Maniac Mansion and became increasingly ambitious in subsequent titles . Gilbert admitted to making mistakes — such as the inclusion of no @-@ win situations — in Maniac Mansion , and he applied these lessons to future projects . For example , the game relies on timers rather than events to trigger cutscenes , which occasionally results in awkward transitions : Gilbert worked to avoid this flaw with the Monkey Island series . Because of Maniac Mansion 's imperfections , however , Gilbert considers it his favorite of his games .
According to writers Mike and Sandie Morrison , Lucasfilm Games became " serious competition " in the adventure genre after the release of Maniac Mansion . The game 's success solidified Lucasfilm as one of the leading producers of adventure games : authors Rusel DeMaria and Johnny Wilson described it as a " landmark title " for the company . In their view , Maniac Mansion — along with Space Quest : The Sarien Encounter and Leisure Suit Larry in the Land of the Lounge Lizards — inaugurated a " new era of humor @-@ based adventure games " . This belief was shared by Reed , who wrote that Maniac Mansion " set in motion a captivating chapter in the history of gaming " that encompassed wit , invention and style . The SCUMM engine was reused by Lucasfilm in eleven later titles ; improvements were made to its code with each game . Over time , rival adventure game developers adopted this paradigm in their own software . GamesTM attributed the change to a desire to streamline production and create enjoyable games . Following his 1992 departure from LucasArts — a conglomeration of Lucasfilm Games , ILM and Skywalker Sound formed in 1990 — Gilbert used SCUMM to create adventure games and Backyard Sports titles for Humongous Entertainment .
In 2011 , Richard Cobbett summarized Maniac Mansion as " one of the most intricate and important adventure games ever made " . Retro Gamer ranked it as one of the ten best Commodore 64 games in 2006 , and IGN later named it one of the ten best LucasArts adventure game . Seven years after the NES version 's debut , Nintendo Power named it the 61st best game ever . The publication dubbed it the 16th best NES title in 2008 . The game 's uniqueness and clever writing were praised by Nintendo Power : in 2010 , the magazine 's Chris Hoffman stated that the game is " unlike anything else out there — a point @-@ and @-@ click adventure with an awesome sense of humor and multiple solutions to almost every puzzle . " In its retrospective coverage , Nintendo Power several times noted the ability to microwave a hamster , which the staff considered to be an iconic scene . In March 2012 , Retro Gamer listed the hamster incident as one of the " 100 Classic Gaming Moments " .
Maniac Mansion enthusiasts have drawn fan art of its characters , participated in tentacle @-@ themed cosplay and produced a trailer for a fictitious film adaptation of the game . German fan Sascha Borisow created a fangame remake , entitled Maniac Mansion Deluxe , with enhanced audio and visuals . He used the Adventure Game Studio engine to develop the project , which he distributed free of charge on the Internet . By the end of 2004 , the remake had over 200 @,@ 000 downloads . A remake with three @-@ dimensional graphics called Meteor Mess was created by the German developer Vampyr Games , and , as of 2011 , another group in Germany is producing one with art direction similar to that of Day of the Tentacle . Fans have created an episodic series of games based on Maniac Mansion as well . Gilbert has said that he would like to see an official remake , similar in its graphics and gameplay to The Secret of Monkey Island : Special Edition and Monkey Island 2 Special Edition : LeChuck 's Revenge . However , he expressed doubts about its potential quality , in light of George Lucas ' enhanced remakes of the original Star Wars trilogy .
|
= East Carolina University =
East Carolina University is a public , doctoral / research university in Greenville , North Carolina , United States . Named East Carolina University by statute and commonly known as ECU or East Carolina , the university is the third @-@ largest in North Carolina . The Association of Public and Land Grant Universities designates East Carolina as a Sea Grant university and an Innovation and Economic Prosperity campus .
Founded on March 8 , 1907 as a teacher training school , East Carolina has grown from 43 acres ( 17 ha ) to almost 1 @,@ 600 acres ( 647 ha ) today . The university 's academic facilities are located on five properties : Main Campus , Health Sciences Campus , West Research Campus , the Field Station for Coastal Studies in New Holland , North Carolina and the Millennial Research and Innovation Campus in Greenville 's warehouse district . The nine undergraduate colleges , graduate school , and four professional schools are located on these four properties . All of the non @-@ health sciences majors are located on the main campus . The College of Nursing , College of Allied Health Sciences , The Brody School of Medicine , and School of Dental Medicine are located on the health science campus . There are ten social sororities , 16 social fraternities , four historically black sororities , five historically black fraternities , one Native American fraternity , and one Native American sorority . There are over 300 registered clubs on campus including fraternities and sororities .
= = History = =
Public Laws of North Carolina , 1907 , Chapter 820 titled An Act to Stimulate High School Instruction in the Public Schools of the State and Teacher Training is the official law chartering East Carolina Teachers Training School ( ECTTS ) on March 8 , 1907 by the North Carolina General Assembly . The chairman of its original Board of Trustees , Thomas Jordan Jarvis , a former Governor of North Carolina now known as the " Father of ECU " , participated in groundbreaking ceremonies for the first buildings on July 2 , 1908 in Greenville , North Carolina and ECTTS opened its doors on October 5 , 1909 . Although its purpose was to train " young white men and women " , there were no male graduates until 1932 . In 1920 , ECTTS became a four – year institution and renamed East Carolina Teachers College ( ECTC ) ; its first bachelor 's degrees were awarded the following year in education . A master 's degree program was authorized in 1929 ; the first such degree granted by ECTC was in 1933 . Progress toward full college status was made in 1948 with the designation of the bachelor of arts as a liberal arts degree , and the bachelor of science as a teaching degree . A change of name to East Carolina College in 1951 reflected this expanded mission . Over the objections of Governor Dan K. Moore , who opposed the creation of a university system separate from the Consolidated University of North Carolina , ECC was made a regional university effective July 1 , 1967 , and assumed its present name , East Carolina University . The university did not remain independent for long ; on July 1 , 1972 , it was incorporated into the University of North Carolina System , the successor to the Consolidated University . Today , ECU is the third – largest university in North Carolina with 21 @,@ 589 undergraduate and 5 @,@ 797 graduate students , including the 308 medicine and 52 dental students .
= = Campus = =
East Carolina is separated into three distinct campuses : Main Campus , Health Sciences Campus , and West Research Campus . It owns two sports complexes : Blount Recreational Sports Complex and North Recreational Complex . It owns a field station in New Holland , North Carolina .
= = = Main = = =
The main campus , also known as the east campus , is about 530 acres ( 2 km2 ) in an urban residential area of downtown Greenville . The 158 buildings on main campus comprise more than 4 @.@ 6 million square feet ( 325 @,@ 000 m ² ) of academic , research , and residential space . Many of the Main Campus buildings feature the Spanish – Mission style architecture ; inspiration drawn from Thomas Jarvis ' time as an ambassador to Brazil . He wanted to bring the unique architecture to eastern North Carolina . On the main campus , there are five districts : Campus Core , Downtown District , Warehouse District , Athletic fields and the South Academic District . On the Campus Core , there are 15 residence halls which are divided into three separate neighborhoods . The distinct feature of the main campus is the mall , which is a large tree – laden grassy area where many students go to relax . In the middle of the mall is the replica of the cupola on the original Austin building .
= = = = Athletic fields = = = =
The varsity athletics fields are located south of the College Hill residential neighborhood . Fourteenth Street divides College Hill to the north , with the athletic fields to the south . Charles Boulevard borders the fields to the west and Greenville Boulevard borders it to the south . A residential neighborhood and Elmhurst Elementary School are the eastern borders . The northern portion of the area sits Dowdy @-@ Ficklen Stadium , Minges Coliseum , and Minges Natatorium , along with parking . The Murphy Center , which is the primary strength and conditioning , and banquet building , is located between Dowdy @-@ Ficklen and Minges Coliseum . The Tennis Complex , Ward Sports Medicine Building , Scales Field House , and the Pirate Club Building also surround Dowdy @-@ Ficklen . The Ward Sports Medicine Building houses offices for football and basketball , Pirate Club , media relations , and the director of athletics . The Scales Field House provides locker rooms , offices and equipment storage . The Pirate Club Building houses a ticket office , other offices , and an area for Pirate Club members . South of those facilities is the Cliff Moore Practice Facility which has a pair of natural grass fields and one FieldTurf field designed exclusively for the football team . On the southern border of the practice facility is Clark @-@ LeClair Stadium , which is the men 's baseball stadium . It opened in 2005 and seats 3 @,@ 000 in permanent seating with another 2 @,@ 000 located in the outfield . At the southern end of the fields is the Olympic Sports Complex , which include women 's soccer stadium , softball stadium , track and field facility , and Olympic Sports Team building . The Olympic Sports Complex was completed in 2011 with a price of $ 23 @.@ 4 million . The Smith @-@ Williams Center is a $ 17 million basketball development and practice facility , opened in 2013 . The football stadium is planning for a $ 40 million upgrade . The upgrades will include a new press , club , and suite areas , and upper deck , all located on the south side . This addition will increase the capacity from 50 @,@ 000 to 60 @,@ 000 .
East Carolina has spent $ 92 million on athletic projects from 1998 @-@ 2011 . Including the proposed projects , this is increased to $ 145 million .
= = = Health Sciences = = =
The Health Sciences campus is situated beside Vidant Medical Center ( VMC ) . VMC was originally Pitt County Memorial Hospital . After becoming a private non @-@ profit hospital , the renaming occurred . VMC , an 861 – bed flagship Level I Trauma Center , serves as the academic medical center for The Brody School of Medicine . Vidant Health owns VMC , leases or owns six and manages one . The area is about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Main Campus on 206 acres ( 0 @.@ 8 km2 ) with nearly 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 square feet ( 121 @,@ 000 m2 ) of academic and research space in 62 buildings . Other buildings besides VMC include Brody Medicine Science Building , the East Carolina Heart Institute , Leo Jenkins Cancer Center , and the Allied Health building composed of the College of Nursing , Laupus Medical Library and College of Allied Health Sciences . The 117 @,@ 000 square feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m2 ) Family Medicine Center opened in the fall of 2011 . Ross Hall , which will house the School of Dental Medicine , will be just under 200 @,@ 000 square feet is currently being built .
= = = West Research = = =
West Research Campus lies on approximately 600 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 km2 ) 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) west of the Health Sciences Campus . It consists of four buildings with 36 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 300 m2 ) on the former Voice of America site . Approximately 367 acres ( 1 @.@ 49 km2 ) are designated wetlands and large areas of biology , botany and other sciences field study sites . It has an environmental health onsite wastewater demonstration facility which is open to the public and all educators . It is also the home of the North Carolina Institute for Health and Safety in Agriculture , Forestry , and Fisheries with an administrative and several support buildings .
= = = = Institutes and centers = = = =
The Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University
East Carolina Heart Institute
Leo W. Jenkins Cancer Center
Innovation Design Lab
Family Medicine Center
UNC Coastal Studies Institute
Center for Epidemiology and Outcomes Research
Small Business Institute
Institute for Coastal Science and Policy
Pediatric Healthy Weight Research and Treatment Center
Center for Sustainable Tourism
Center for Sustainability
Center for Natural Hazards
Center for Geographic Information Science
Center for GIScience
Center for Applied Computational Studies
Center for Science , Technology , Engineering and Mathematics Education
Center for Survey Research
Lost Colony Center for Science & Research
East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute
Pocosin Arts Riverside Lodge
NC Agromedicine Institute
Golden LEAF Educational Consortium
= = = Community Service Learning Centers = = =
The School of Dental Medicine proposes to create 10 community service learning centers to be located in rural and underserved areas throughout the state of North Carolina . The fourth @-@ year students will be learning and providing care for the community for one year in these community centers . Five community centers have been announced . They are located in Ahoskie , Elizabeth City , Lillington , Spruce Pine , and Sylva . The other locations will be announced at a future time .
= = = Field Station for Coastal Studies = = =
The field station is located in New Holland , North Carolina . The area serves as a field station for the coastal studies , coastal resource management , and biology programs . The main goal of the field station is economic development into the region through both environmental education and eco – tourism . It also serves as a facility for small retreats and as a base for research on coastal issues . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 . It is adjacent to the 49 @,@ 925 @-@ acre ( 202 km2 ) Mattamuskeet Wildlife Refuge .
= = = North Recreational Complex = = =
North Recreational Complex ( NRC ) is an athletic complex located on a 129 @-@ acre ( 522 @,@ 044 @.@ 5 m2 ) parcel of land north of East Carolina University 's main campus . The NRC is one of the Nation 's largest recreational complexes . It will augment the Blount Intramural Sports Fields located behind the Carol Belk Building on Charles Boulevard . The first of three phases of the complex opened on September 2 , 2008 . Phase one includes eight lighted fields , a 5 @.@ 6 acres ( 0 km2 ) lake with a beach , walking trails / areas , and a field house . The complex is located near the intersection of the North Carolina Highway 33 and U.S. Route 264 .
Phase II opened in August 2011 , with the grand opening occurring on September 15 , 2011 . This phase includes a 5 @.@ 6 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 0 km2 ) lake on with a 51 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 700 m2 ) beach . A 2 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 190 m2 ) boat house is also located there . Canoes and kayaks can be rented at the boathouse for use in the lake . Other amenities include sand volleyball courts , horseshoes , grills , fitness equipment , six walking / running trails , a disc golf course , and an Odyssey Course which includes a 300 @-@ foot zip line .
= = = UNC Coastal Studies Institute = = =
Main page : UNC Coastal Studies Institute
ECU houses and manages the UNC Coastal Studies Institute ( UNC @-@ CSI ) which is an inter @-@ university , marine research institute located on Roanoke Island in Manteo along the Croatan Sound on the Outer Banks , established in 2003 focusing on Estuarine Ecology and Human Health , Coastal Processes and Engineering , Public Policy and Coastal Sustainability , and Maritime Heritage .
= = Colleges and schools = =
ECU is home to nine undergraduate colleges , a graduate school , and four professional schools . The oldest school is the modern day College of Education . The University offers 16 doctoral degree programs , 4 first professional degree programs , 76 master 's degree programs , and 102 bachelor 's degree programs .
ECU 's liberal arts college is the Thomas Harriot College of Arts and Sciences . It consists of 16 departments , making it the third largest College . The liberal arts college has its roots in the beginning of the University .
The College of Business is a professional school consisting of six departments with undergraduate concentrations in each , plus the Miller School of Entrepreneurship and a Master of Business Administration and Master of Science in Accounting program . The College 's beginnings came in 1936 when the Department of Commerce was organized . It later changed to the Department of Business Education , and then to the Department of Business . Finally , in 1960 , the School of Business was formed . The college undergraduate program was accredited in 1967 , and the graduate program was accredited in 1976 by The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business . The college is a governing school of the Graduate Management Admission Council . The college runs a Small Business Institute to advise small business owners on how to succeed .
The College of Education is the oldest and largest college at ECU . It houses and administers all of the education majors and an international open access journal , the Journal of Curriculum and Instruction . There are 17 undergraduate degree programs , 22 graduate degree programs , six advanced certifications , and the Doctor of Education program . The College prepares more professionals for North Carolina schools than any other university in the state . The College scored higher than other North Carolina universities when the state board evaluated teacher education programs in 2006 . In addition , the Institution of Higher Education Performance Report showed ECU was first in the number of graduates who were employed in public schools across the state . The college is considered one of the exemplary professional preparation programs according to the North Carolina State Board of Education 's Higher Education Performance Report .
The College of Fine Arts and Communication comprises four schools that range from dance to design and broadcast journalism . The college officially opened on July 1 , 2003 , but can trace its roots to ECU founding ; the school hired art and music professionals in 1907 to train teachers .
The College of Health and Human Performance is made up of three departments and handles all of the recreational and exercise degrees at East Carolina University . It took on its name in 2003 , but traces its legacy to the Department of Physical Education in 1930 . It was the 1930 East Carolina Teachers College Planning Document number two priority . In 1938 , the Department of Physical Education was established and Physical education became a specialty area for high school teachers .
The College of Human Ecology houses four departments and one school along with two institutes . It was first incorporated in 1968 and started to admit students in 1971 . " The Carolyn Freeze Baynes Institute for Social Justice is an international forum for addressing questions , presenting ideas , and developing innovations . The Institute 's focus in these activities is the identification of injustices and development of more just alternatives through systematic professional research , scholarship , and public presentation of findings and ideas . "
The College of Engineering and Technology comprises four departments . The college offers nine degrees including engineering , computer science , construction management , design , distribution and logistics , industrial engineering technology , information and computer technology , and industrial technology .
The College of Allied Health Sciences encompasses the health science majors outside of nursing . The school offers over 15 majors . All of the health sciences majors are located in the Allied Health Sciences building which is on the Health Sciences Campus beside The Brody School of Medicine . It was established in the 1967 – 68 school year .
The College of Nursing is a professional school that offers one undergraduate degree , Bachelor of Science in Nursing . The school was created in 1959 and now offers Bachelor of Science , Masters , and Ph.D programs . The college has over 100 faculty teaching the students everything about the nursing field while practicing in the under @-@ served Eastern North Carolina . There are three departments within this school : Department of Undergraduate Nursing Science Junior Division , Department of Undergraduate Nursing Science Senior Division , and the Department of Graduate Nursing Science . On October 12 , 2007 , the University of North Carolina Board of Governors permitted the re – designation of the School of Nursing to the College of Nursing . The National League for Nursing named the college a Center of Excellence . The college produces more nurses than any other school in the Mid @-@ Atlantic region .
The Graduate School consist of 85 master 's degree , 21 doctoral programs and 62 certificates . It coordinates the graduate offerings of all departments in the nine colleges . The School also runs the non – professional degree programs of the professional School of Medicine . The school offers 17 master 's degree in Accounting , Arts , Business Administration , Construction Management , Education , Environmental Health , Fine Arts , Library Science , Music , Nursing , Occupational Therapy , Public Administration , Public Health , School AdministrationScience , Social Work and Teaching . It also offers four doctoral degrees in Audiology , Education , Philosophy , and Physical Therapy .
The Brody School of Medicine is a professional school at the university . It consists of seven graduate majors , plus the Doctor of Medicine , all located on the Health Sciences Campus . The first appropriations were approved in 1974 , with the first medical students arriving in 1977 . The medical school is one of five in North Carolina .
The School of Dental Medicine is a professional school at the university . The school graduates one degree , Doctor of Dental Medicine . It will also have two residencies in Advanced Education in General Dentistry and Dental General Practice . The school also will offer a specialty program in Pedodontics . It was founded on February 24 , 2006 at the East Carolina Board of Trustees meeting . The dental school was unanimously approved by the UNC System Board of Governors as well . The facilities are located on the Health Sciences Campus and will house the first three years of education . Dental students will complete their final year at ECU Community Service Learning Centers to be located throughout the state . The School of Dental Medicine is one of two dental schools in the state .
= = Research = =
Randolph Chitwood , a cardiothoracic surgeon with East Carolina , performed the first minimally invasive robotic @-@ assisted mitral @-@ valve heart surgery in the United States . East Carolina researchers also developed an electronic fluency device called SpeechEasy ; the device is designed to improve the fluency of a person who stutters by changing the sound of the user 's voice in his or her ear . Walter Pories , a faculty member at The Brody School of Medicine developed the standard procedure for gastric bypass surgery . Researchers here also first discovered that 80 % of obese / type 2 diabetic patients who underwent this surgical procedure had a reversal of the disease . The Biofeedback Lab is currently developing techniques to help service members recover from posttraumatic stress disorders and traumatic brain injuries they received in Afghanistan and Iraq . The in vitro fertilization program is ranked first in North Carolina and fourth overall in the United States . Jason Bond , a former scientist in the Department of Biology , discovered many new species of spiders , including Myrmekiaphila neilyoungi and Aptostichus stephencolberti .
During an archaeological dig on Hatteras Island in 1998 , archaeologists discovered a 10 @-@ carat gold English signet ring from the 16th century , among other artifacts . The discovered ring was the first material connection between The Lost Colony on Roanoke Island and the Algonquian peoples on Croatan Island . In 2011 , underwater archaeologists raised the anchors of the Queen Anne 's Revenge , the flagship vessel of Blackbeard , near Beaufort .
= = = Libraries = = =
J.Y. Joyner Library is the main library located beside the Mall on the main campus . It holds nearly 1 @.@ 9 million bound volumes , 2 @.@ 1 million pieces of microform , 532 @,@ 000 government documents , and more than 24 @,@ 000 journal subscriptions . The library , which houses the East Carolina manuscript collection , is the largest library east of Raleigh . It is one of the leading repositories in the nation for modern naval and maritime history . It also holds materials related to North Carolina , the tobacco industry , worldwide missionary activities , and American military history . The library is the official repository of the records of the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary . The J. Edgar Hoover Collection on International Communism contains many items dealing with communism worldwide . The Rare Book Collections has items dating from 1589 , including a 1733 Edward Moseley map , the first to comprehensively map the colony of North Carolina and the only original copy in the United States .
The Music Library is a branch of Joyner Library located on the first floor of A.J. Fletcher Music Center . It houses approximately 93 @,@ 000 items , including the entire audio recording collection . It is the largest music collection east of Raleigh . The primary users of the library are faculty and students within the School of Music and the School of Theatre and Dance , but anyone can use its resources . It began in 1958 @-@ 59 academic year when a small library was created . Today a staff of five oversee the library duties .
The William E. Laupus Library is the medical and health library for East Carolina . It is the primary library for the Brody School of Medicine , the College of Nursing , the College of Allied Health Sciences , and the School of Dental Medicine . It holds approximately 160 @,@ 000 volumes ( print and non – print ) and 10 @,@ 000 current print , non – print , and electronic serial titles . In 2006 , it moved to the Health Sciences Building on the Health Sciences campus . The library is named for Dr. Laupus , a former Dean of Brody School of Medicine .
= = Student life = =
= = = Greek life = = =
There are ten social sororities at the East Carolina Campus , most of which own a house located at or near 5th or 10th Street . There are currently 17 social fraternities at East Carolina . The majority are located off or near 5th Street or 10th Street . Of the 17 social fraternities , seven currently do own a house . Greek life started in 1958 with the introduction of four social fraternities : Kappa Alpha Order , Lambda Chi Alpha , Pi Kappa Alpha , and Theta Chi . Two years later , eight of the ten social sororities were founded .
National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council ( NPHC ) has a presence on campus , as well . There are four historically black sororities and five historically black fraternities . There are over 18 honor and 13 service or religious fraternities or sororities at ECU .
= = = Athletics = = =
ECU 's sports teams , nicknamed the Pirates , compete in NCAA Division FBS as a full – member of the American Athletic Conference ( The American ) . The Pirates joined The American on July 1 , 2014 . Jeff Compher is the Athletic Director . The football team is supported by world @-@ class spirit groups , such as the East Carolina University Marching Pirates , National Award winning Cheerleading squads , and spirit teams . Facilities include the 50 @,@ 000 seat Dowdy @-@ Ficklen Stadium for football , the 8 @,@ 000 – seat Williams Arena at Minges Coliseum for men 's and women 's basketball , and Clark @-@ LeClair Stadium , with a seating capacity of 3 @,@ 000 ( max capacity of 6 @,@ 000 + when including outfield " Jungle " areas ) for baseball . The Ward Sports Medicine building comprises 82 @,@ 095 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 7 @,@ 600 m2 ) and houses the athletic department , Pirate Club offices and the Human Performance Laboratory . Athletes train in the Murphy Center a 52 @,@ 475 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 875 m2 ) edifice , housing the strength and conditioning facilities , along with banquet rooms , sport memorabilia , and an academic enhancement center . The Murphy Center was built for approximately $ 13 million and opened its doors to ECU student – athletes in June 2002 .
= = = Diversity = = =
The EDC Mini @-@ grant Project @-@ The Office of Equity , Diversity , and Community Relations developed this project to improve East Carolina University 's number of diversity studies , programs , and groups . This project intends to supply resources and funds towards diversity proposals offered by students , campus organizations , faculty , and staff . These programs include monitoring cultural awareness educational seminars , to improve departmental climate , to recruit diverse students , for research for curriculum improvement , among others .
= = Administration = =
There have been six presidents and seven Chancellors in the university 's history . Robert Herring Wright was inaugurated as the first president of ECTTS on November 13 , 1909 . The chief administrator changed names after ECU joined the UNC System in 1972 . The chancellor is chosen by the University of North Carolina Board of Governors on the recommendation of the board 's president , and he reports to the 12 – member Board of Trustees at ECU . Four of the twelve trustees are picked by the Governor of North Carolina , while the other eight are picked by the Board of Governors . The ECU student body president is an ex officio member of the Board of Trustees . The current chancellor , Cecil Pope Staton , Jr . , has held that post since replacing chancellor Steve Ballard on July 1 . 2016
The University of North Carolina Board of Governors are the policy @-@ making body legally charged with " the general determination , control , supervision , management , and governance of all affairs of the constituent institutions . " It has 32 voting members who are elected by the General Assembly for four @-@ year terms .
= = Rankings = =
In 2012 , East Carolina was classified by U.S. News & World Report as a National University in its second @-@ tier rankings . In 2010 , Forbes ranked the school 36th in its America 's Best College Buys story .
In the 2012 edition of U.S. News & World Report , The Brody School of Medicine is ranked 10th in the country for primary care physician preparation , 13th in the rural medicine specialty and 14th in family medicine . In 2010 , Brody was ranked seventh on the social mission scale .
The College of Business is named one of the best business schools according to The Princeton Review for the fifth year in a row . The College of Business is also named by GetEducated.com as the third best buy for affordability and quality in the Online Masters of Business Administration ( AACSB @-@ accredited ) category .
In 2009 , the university was awarded the Patriot Award . The Patriot Award recognizes employers who go above and beyond what the law requires in supporting their employees who serve in the National Guard or reserves . In 2010 , the university was awarded the Secretary of Defense Employer Support Freedom Award . It is the highest recognition given by the U.S. Government to employers for their outstanding support of their employees who serve in the Guard and Reserve .
= = Songs = =
" Hail to Thy Name So Fair " is the alma mater at East Carolina University . It first appeared in the 1940 @-@ 41 East Carolina Teachers College ( ECTC ) Student Handbook . It was written by Harold A. McDougle ( ' 44 ) who became a part @-@ time instructor in the Music Department from 1946 @-@ 47 . The Marching Pirates perform the song during all home football and basketball games . At every home football game , after the National Anthem is played by the band , the Alma Mater is played followed by the E.C. Victory song . At the end of football games , the football team walks to the student section to sing the Alma Mater and E.C. Victory song in unison .
= = Notable alumni = =
Pirate graduates have been influential in teaching , business , and the arts . Actress Emily Procter , Beth Grant , and screenwriter Kevin Williamson , creator of Scream and Dawson 's Creek , graduated from East Carolina . Acclaimed screen actress Sandra Bullock attended , but graduated later after leaving to pursue her acting career . Marcus Crandell ( born June 1 , 1974 , in Charlotte , North Carolina ) is a former quarterback and current coach in professional Canadian football ; he played 11 seasons for the Edmonton Eskimos , Calgary Stampeders and Saskatchewan Roughriders from 1997 to 2008 while also spending time in NFL Europe and the XFL . Crandell was named the Grey Cup Most Valuable Player after the Stampeders won the 89th Grey Cup in 2001 . Class of 1974 Alumnus Rick Atkinson , wrote An Army at Dawn : The War in North Africa , 1942 – 1943 followed by " The Day of Battle , The War in Sicily , 1943 – 1944 " and Dan Neil wrote criticism on automobiles ; both received Pulitzer Prizes . The most notable teaching alumnus is Ron Clark , a teacher , author , and founder of the Ron Clark Academy in Atlanta , Georgia . James Maynard graduated with a degree in psychology and founded the Golden Corral restaurant chain . Kelly King is the current chief executive officer for BB & T and graduated with an undergraduate degree in business accounting and a master 's of business administration . Former Jacksonville Jaguars quarterback David Garrard attended where he majored in Construction Management . Chris Johnson was drafted by the Tennessee Titans in the first round of the 2008 NFL Draft . WWE Chairman and CEO Vincent K. McMahon and his wife Linda McMahon both graduated with a degree in business administration as well . Scott Avett of the folk @-@ rock band The Avett Brothers earned degrees in 1999 and 2000 . Henry " Gizmo " Williams , Canadian Football League inductee , graduated from East Carolina University .
|
= We Are the World 25 for Haiti =
" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " is a charity single recorded by the supergroup Artists for Haiti in 2010 . It is a remake of the 1985 hit song " We Are the World " , which was written by American musicians Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie , and was recorded by USA for Africa to benefit famine relief in Africa . Initially , in late 2009 , it had been suggested to Richie and Quincy Jones — producer of the original " We Are the World " — that a re @-@ cut version of the song be re @-@ released under the title " Live 25 " . Following the magnitude 7 @.@ 0 Mw earthquake in Haiti , which devastated the area and killed thousands of people , it was agreed that the song would be re @-@ recorded by new artists , in the hope that it would reach a new generation and help benefit the people of Haiti .
The song was recorded in fourteen and a half hours by over eighty artists on February 1 , 2010 . It was produced by Quincy Jones , and executively produced by Lionel Richie , and Haitian @-@ American musician Wyclef Jean . A music video directed by Paul Haggis was released to accompany and promote the song . The song was also recorded in Spanish by a Latin supergroup and was named Somos el Mundo . The song was directed by Emilio Estefan and his wife , Gloria Estefan .
" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " is musically structured similar to " We Are the World " , but includes a rap verse which was written by some of the song 's hip hop artists . Michael Jackson died months before the song 's release , but his material from the 1985 recording sessions was incorporated into the song and music video , as per the request of his mother , Katherine . His sister Janet duets with him on the song , and his nephews Taj , TJ , and Taryll — collectively known as 3T — feature on the track 's chorus .
" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " was released on February 12 , 2010 , during the opening ceremony of the 2010 Winter Olympics , as a CD single and a music download . Critically , " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " received generally negative reviews by contemporary music reviewers , with criticism focused on the song 's new musical additions , as well as the choice of artists who appear on the track . Some critics have even named it one of the worst songs of all time . However , the song was commercially successful worldwide , charting within the top 20 in multiple countries .
= = Background = =
In 1985 , " We Are the World " , a song and charity single originally recorded by USA for Africa was released . It was written by American musicians Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie , and produced by Quincy Jones and Michael Omartian for the album We Are the World . The song was well received by music critics and was the recipient of several awards . The song was a worldwide commercial success , as it topped music charts throughout the world and became the fastest @-@ selling American pop single in history , as well as the first single to be certified multi @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . " We Are the World " was the best selling pop single of all time until it was eclipsed by Elton John 's 1997 version of " Candle in the Wind " .
On January 12 , 2010 , Haiti was struck by a magnitude 7 @.@ 0 Mw earthquake . It was the country 's most severe earthquake in over 200 years and caused widespread damage . The epicenter of the quake was just outside the Haitian capital Port @-@ au @-@ Prince . It has been estimated that the death toll could reach 200 @,@ 000 . Before the earthquake , Jones and Richie had planned to organize a re @-@ recording of " We Are the World " on January 28 , 2010 — the 25th anniversary of the original recording of the song . Randy Phillips , who was a key figure in the song being re @-@ issued , said that " We Are The World " producer Ken Kragen had suggested to re @-@ cut " We Are the World " and title it " Live 25 " . However , Lionel Richie and Jones were " very lukewarm " about the idea . Phillips commented that ,
" [ They felt ] that what happened 25 years ago was iconic and they did everything they could for Africa at that time , and they didn 't feel re @-@ cutting the song really made any sense . Basically , Lionel didn 't really want to do it , and we kind of let it die by not issuing the publishing license , because Lionel owns the copyright along with Michael Jackson 's estate . That was in November / December [ 2009 ] . They had gotten Visa on board as an underwriter of that effort , and I think they were going to try and premiere it at the World Cup . "
However , because of the devastation caused in Haiti , these plans were postponed . Phillips said that Jones had called Lionel and said , " this is what this song is written for , as a fundraising vehicle for causes , tragedies , catastrophes like this . Why don 't we take over the process , call our friends , and actually do this ? " Lionel understood the urgency of Haiti , and in January 2010 , it was agreed that " We Are the World " would be re @-@ recorded to help benefit Haiti , similar to how the original recording helped famine relief in Africa . Richie commented , " Unfortunately , sometimes it takes a hit record to make someone decide to save a life . I want this song to be the battle cry again . Every once in a while , you have to wake the world up . We slept right through Katrina . If we are not a socially aware culture , we 're going to fail . "
= = Recording = =
The new version of the song was recorded on February 1 , 2010 , in a session lasting 14 hours . Eighty @-@ five musicians were reportedly involved in the song 's recording , which was held in the same place as the original , at Henson Recording Studio on Beverly Boulevard in Los Angeles , California . Also similar to the 1985 process , some of the participating musicians were already in Los Angeles to attend an awards ceremony : the 52nd Grammy Awards . Jones said of the recording session , " It was a big challenge . It takes a serious army and serious emotional architecture . I 've never seen such a diverse group of people , and they came for the right reasons . " The recording process brought together diverse artists , with the oldest being 83 @-@ year @-@ old Tony Bennett and the youngest being 9 @-@ year @-@ old Ethan Bortnick .
The new version features updated lyrics and music , such as a rap segment including LL Cool J , will.i.am , Snoop Dogg & 7 others pertaining to Haiti , described as a " Greek chorus extension " , which was written by will.i.am. Other writers included Kanye West , Jones and LL Cool J. Lionel Richie and Jones revealed that Michael Jackson 's sister Janet duets with her late brother , as per a request from their mother , Katherine . In the official video , there is archive footage of Michael Jackson from the original 1985 recording . Richie said that he agreed with Katherine 's request , commenting , " It made me feel more secure about this . We definitely felt a void . He 's the other parent [ to the song ] . " The production team for the song included Humberto Gatica , RedOne , Mervyn Warren , Patti Austin and Rickey Minor . RedOne said that it took a week to create the new arrangement for " We Are The World 25 For Haiti " . He commented that he wanted to keep the " class of the original one " and did not want to " mess it up , because it 's too good . " He noted that he wanted to make the song " sound more now and current " while keeping the originals " whole chord progressions , the feeling and the vibe , but brought fresher sounds that are more now . "
Haitian @-@ American musician Wyclef Jean also serves as a producer . In addition , Wyclef Jean sings the first line of the second chorus in Haitian Creole . Richie said new artists were selected for the song so the song could be aimed at a new audience , commenting , " We have a familiar song that kids learn in school . Why not bring in Miley Cyrus and the Jonas Brothers and let them address the issues ? " adding that " It was designed so that we wouldn 't have any of the originals there , so that we could pass on the baton to the next generation " . Phillips said that the producers received 80 percent of the people they wanted as recording artists for the song . In addition to Jean , Haitian actor Jimmy Jean @-@ Louis , most famous for playing The Haitian on Heroes , appears in the chorus .
At the time of the recording , numerous artists commented on the process , the 1985 version of the song and co @-@ writer Michael Jackson . R & B singer Jordin Sparks revealed that , despite having been born after the release of the original , the song had a " huge impact " on her . Celine Dion said that the release of the song would not only benefit the Haitian people , but also serve as a remembrance of " the passion [ Michael ] Jackson had for helping those in need " . Lionel Richie and Quincy Jones echoed Dion 's sentiments and further stated that if the singer were alive , he would have wanted to be just as involved as he had been a quarter of a century ago . According to Phillips , there was a " handful " of musicians who either declined or could not rearrange their schedules for the song 's recording , including country singer Taylor Swift , who was going to be touring in Australia .
= = Artists for Haiti = =
Conductors
Quincy Jones
Lionel Richie
Mervyn Warren
Soloists ( in order of appearance )
Chorus
= = Release , promotion , proceeds = =
The 2010 version of " We Are the World " , released under the name Artists for Haiti , debuted on the NBC television network on February 12 during their coverage of the 2010 Winter Olympics opening ceremony . When the song premiered in its paid time spot , the video was edited in length , due in part to the time spent introducing the song . However , the full @-@ length music video was shown on NBC the following day during daytime Olympic coverage .
Similar to marketing of " We Are the World " , a music video of the song was filmed and released . The music video was directed by Academy Award @-@ winning film director Paul Haggis . Haggis said that he finished the video 12 hours early . Haitian film students were involved in the video as part of the production crew . The official video for the song was formatted similar to the original ; the video opens with the song 's title with the recording artists ' signatures surrounding it , as well as clips of the artists performing their parts in the recording studio and included archive footage of Michael Jackson performing his part of the song . The video was intercut with clips showing people in Haiti following the earthquake .
= = Critical reviews and responses = =
" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " received extremely negative reviews from contemporary music critics . The song was criticized for its use of Auto @-@ Tune , the choice of recording artists , and for the song 's rap . Chris Richards , a writer for The Washington Post , described the song as being " horribly oversung " . Richards commented that the most " disappointing " thing about the song was that " there were too few voices from the country , rock and Latin music communities . " He also noted that " nobody can argue with its worthy cause " because of the song 's proceeds to relief in Haiti , but remarked that the song did not have " We Are the World " ' s " original thrill " due to the song 's " panoply of voices " . Jon Pareles , a writer for The New York Times , remarked that while the song 's " Hollywood gloss " was " durable " , the song has " all the pitfalls of a Hollywood remake " . Parales commented that the quality of the song and performance " rises or falls on its talent pool " and criticized the choice of male musicians compared to " We Are the World " ' s original male artists .
US Magazine mentioned that " this version features second @-@ by @-@ second unexplainable absurdities , including Justin Bieber being given the opening verse , Nicole Scherzinger and other Z @-@ listers assigned more than one prime slot , and Wyclef Jean 's incomprehensible yodeling " . Maura Johnston , a writer for MTV , wrote more positively about the song , commenting favorably on the contemporary artists ' performances in living up to their predecessors . " Despite the different faces , the overall feel is similar to the original 's , " Johnston wrote . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson , a writer for Entertainment Weekly , gave the song a mixed review , noting that We Are the World 25 for Haiti was not as good as the original : " All in all , I can ’ t say this new ' We Are the World ' measured up to the 1985 version . "
Eight days after the Artists for Haiti 2010 celebrity remake was released , a " video response " to the song 's official YouTube video was posted by Internet personality and singer @-@ songwriter Lisa Lavie , and was " favorited " on the YouTube channel of the We Are The World Foundation . Lavie 's " We Are the World 25 for Haiti ( YouTube Edition ) " excluded the rap segment and minimized the Auto @-@ tune that were the subject of critical reviews of the celebrity version . Lavie 's video , an Internet collaboration of 57 unsigned or independent YouTube musicians geographically distributed around the world , received positive reception from media , including CNN ( " certainly is a sign of the times " ) and ABC World News with Diane Sawyer ( " Persons of the Week " ... " in effect saying , We are the world , too ... who proved that anthem is not just for glittering names . " ) Both videos link to the We Are the World Foundation for donations .
Rolling Stone said its readers " mostly agreed " with the assessment of a February 27 , 2010 Saturday Night Live parody : " Recently , the music world came together to record ' We Are the World 2 , ' a song to raise awareness of the Haiti earthquake disaster ; sadly , the song itself was a disaster , " with several impersonators dubbing the parody " We Are the World 3 : Raising Awareness of the ' We Are the World 2 ' Disaster . "
= = Chart performance = =
" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " debuted within the top 30 in multiple territories . " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " charted at number 27 on the Spanish Singles Chart on the charts issue date February 14 , 2010 . The song debuted at number 17 in New Zealand on the charts issue date of February 15 , 2010 . " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " peaked within the top five , charting at number three in Norway on the charts issue date of February 16 , 2010 ; the chart 's position is currently the song 's highest charting international territory since its release . The song debuted at number 25 in France on the issue date of February 13 .
" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " charted at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 , behind Kesha 's " Tik Tok " . " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " charted higher in its debut week than the original version , which entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 21 . According to Billboard , the song 's charting position stemmed mainly from download sales , with a reported 96 % of the song 's charting being from such sales . Following the song 's debut during the Olympics , 246 radio stations sampled the song in the United States . Radio stations in New York expressed that they would play the song frequently to raise awareness of Haitian citizens in need . Other radio stations throughout the United States echoed similar responses on the song getting airplay .
The song also sold over 267 @,@ 000 downloads in three days . " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " debuted at number eight on the Canadian Hot 100 dated for February 27 . The song also debuted at number six in Belgium Wallonia and Flanders , as well at debuting at number 17 in Sweden . The song also charted at number 28 in Denmark . The song entered Irish charts at number nine . In the song 's second week of release in Norway , " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " moved up two spaces , topping the chart . Unlike the song 's chart performance in territories like Norway , the song dropped four places on the Billboard Hot 100 to sixth place and stayed in the charts for only five weeks more .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly = = =
= = = Year @-@ end = = =
= = Track listings = =
Short version " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " - 3 : 25
Long version " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " - 6 : 57
|
= Gethsemane ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Gethsemane " is the twenty @-@ fourth and final episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on May 18 , 1997 . It was directed by R.W. Goodwin , and written by series creator Chris Carter . " Gethsemane " featured guest appearances by Charles Cioffi , Sheila Larken and Pat Skipper , and introduced John Finn as recurring character Michael Kritschgau . The episode helped to explore the overarching mythology , or fictional history of The X @-@ Files . " Gethsemane " earned a Nielsen household rating of 13 @.@ 2 , being watched by 19 @.@ 85 million people in its initial broadcast .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Mulder is shown evidence of alien life which may actually be part of a huge government hoax designed to deflect attention from secret military programs . Meanwhile , Scully struggles with her cancer in the face of hostility from her brother , who believes she should no longer be working .
" Gethsemane " was filmed on one of the series ' most elaborate and costly sets , replicating an icy mountaintop inside a refrigerated building using real snow and ice . Shooting for exterior scenes took place on Vancouver 's Mount Seymour , occurring just a week before Duchovny 's wedding . The episode , which has been described by Carter as pondering " the existence of God " , has received mixed responses from critics , with its cliffhanger ending frequently being cited as its main failing .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens in medias res to police investigating a dead body in the apartment of FBI agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) confirms the unseen body 's identity and leaves . She subsequently appears before an FBI panel led by Section Chief Scott Blevins ( Charles Cioffi ) , reviewing her work with Mulder on the X @-@ Files .
In Canada 's St. Elias Mountains , a frozen extraterrestrial body is discovered by an expedition team . Professor Arlinsky , the team 's leader , sends ice core samples containing presumably alien DNA to Mulder . Scully has the samples tested and confirms the DNA 's non @-@ terrestrial origin , but is attacked by a man who steals the samples . Scully learns that her attacker is Michael Kritschgau ( John Finn ) , a Defense Department employee . When she tracks down Kritschgau and holds him at gunpoint , he reveals that he might be killed .
Meanwhile , Mulder and Arlinsky return to the mountains , but finds that most of the expedition members have been shot dead . The sole survivor is a man named Babcock , who reveals that he has saved the alien corpse from theft by burying it . Together , the three men bring the corpse to the United States . There , Mulder and Arlinsky perform an autopsy on the corpse , believing it belongs to a genuine extraterrestrial . After Mulder leaves to meet with Scully , a mysterious assassin , Scott Ostelhoff , arrives and kills Arlinsky .
Scully introduces Mulder to Kritschgau , who claims that everything Mulder thinks he knows about aliens is a lie . He tells him that his sister 's abduction was fabricated , that all evidence of alien biology are merely scientific anomalies , and that the alien body he has just examined was fake . Kritschgau claims that the entire alien mythos is a hoax perpetrated by the U.S. government as a cover for the activities of the military – industrial complex . Mulder dismisses these claims until Scully tells him Kritschgau told her that she was given cancer to make him believe .
Mulder finds Arlinsky and Babcock dead , with the alien body missing . Mulder , distraught , sits in his apartment watching a conference about extraterrestrial life on television . The narrative returns to the present , where Scully reveals to the panel that Mulder died the previous night of an apparent self @-@ inflicted gunshot wound to the head .
= = Production = =
The icy caverns featured in the episode were constructed inside a warehouse which had previously been used for cold storage ; and required the use of truckloads of lumber and 10 @,@ 000 square feet ( 930 m2 ) of Styrofoam . The set would become one of the most expensive and elaborate built during the series ' history . The set required a constant temperature of − 21 ° F ( − 29 ° C ) in order to maintain the real snow and ice used to decorate it . This refrigeration allowed the actors ' breath to visibly fog up , and allowed the cast to " have a place that feels real " to aid their acting .
The outdoor scenes were filmed around Vancouver 's Mount Seymour , with weather conditions making shooting difficult enough to require an extra day of work . The episode 's production took place just a week before David Duchovny 's wedding , with his fiancée Téa Leoni visiting the set during filming . The first cut of the episode was twelve minutes too long , resulting in some of the scenes in the mountains being removed . Series creator Chris Carter re @-@ edited the entire episode two days before it aired .
Carter has described " Gethsemane " as a " big ideas episode " , noting that its main concern is debating " the existence of God " . The title of the episode is an allusion to the biblical garden of Gethsemane where Jesus was betrayed by Judas Iscariot . The character Michael Kritschgau was named after a former drama teacher of Gillian Anderson . The tagline for this episode is " Believe the lie " , changed from the usual " The truth is out there " . This episode marks the first appearance of one of Scully 's brothers since a flashback in the season two episode " One Breath " . Section Chief Scott Blevins makes his first appearance since the fourth episode of the first season , " Conduit " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Gethsemane " premiered on the Fox network on May 18 , 1997 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on Sky One on July 13th 1997 and on free to air BBC One on March 4 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 7 with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 7 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 19 @.@ 85 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Gethsemane " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Lon Grahnke of Chicago Sun @-@ Times reacted positively toward the episode , calling it a " stunning " season finale . Paula Vitaris , writing for Cinefantastique , rated " Gethsemane " two stars out of four , noting that it " withholds so much information that it barely qualifies as a complete episode " . Vitaris felt that the large degree of ambiguity in the episode 's script left the actors ' performances " curiously neutral " , adding that the cast " struggle manfully " with the material . Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handlen rated the episode a B + , noting that " everything here has a ring of familiarity to it " . Handlen felt that the episode 's premise and ending were poorly executed , as " trying to balance possible truths while maintaining the plausibility of both is incredibly difficult to pull off on a long @-@ running show " , adding that the episode " comes down on the only side of the fence it really could " given that " there 've been too many scenes of shape @-@ changing bounty hunters and mystical alien healers to really let this idea play out know [ sic ] in any real way " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , noting that while it " attempts to do too much " , it " has a passion behind it which makes it gripping " . Shearman and Pearson felt that the episode 's cliffhanger ending , centering on the apparent death of Mulder , was too unbelievable , noting that it would be out of character for him to grow so disillusioned as to take his own life . In the 1999 FX Thanksgiving Marathon , containing fan @-@ selected episodes , " Gethsemane " ( along with " Redux " and " Redux II " ) was presented as the " Best Mythology Episode " .
The episode created speculation about whether or not Mulder was actually dead . An article in the Wall Street Journal discussed fan theories behind Mulder 's madness while a cartoon ran in The New Yorker a few weeks later surrounding Mulder 's " death " . Series creator Chris Carter noted that " the whole plot line of ' Gethsemane ' revolved around a hoax , but there are actually huge revelations in this show . And it 's an amazing thing that we could get people to believe that Mulder could actually kill himself because his belief system was stolen from him " . UGO Networks listed the episode at number 21 in a countdown of " TV 's Best Season Finales " , noting that it " rocked the core of the series ' entire mythology " . Den of Geek 's John Moore felt that the episode was " one of the finest season @-@ enders " of the series , noting that it " ended by completely pulling the carpet out from under the fans " . Moore listed the character of Michael Kritschgau as the seventh @-@ best villain of the series , adding that he shook " what we knew about the show to its core " by " provid [ ing ] nourishment to a seed of doubt that had been playing on Mulder 's mind for the entire season " .
|
= Cultura Profética =
Cultura Profética ( in English , Prophetic Culture ) is a Puerto Rican reggae band formed in 1996 . The band has undergone several lineup changes , but founding members Willy Rodríguez ( bass guitar , vocals ) , Boris Bilbraut ( drums , vocals ) , Eliut González ( guitar ) , and Omar Silva ( guitar , bass guitar ) have remained in the group throughout its history . Despite primarily performing reggae music , Cultura Profética has experimented with genres such as bossa nova , tango , jazz , and salsa . Lyrically , the group discusses socio @-@ political and ecological issues including Latin American identity and environmental concerns , as well as interpersonal relationships and love .
After gaining popularity in Puerto Rico as a cover band , Cultura Profética began performing original music and released its debut album , Canción de Alerta , in 1998 . The group followed up with Ideas Nuevas in 2000 , which featured further musical experimentation with a wider variety of musical styles , and then Diario in 2004 . After relocating to Mexico , the band released M.O.T.A. in 2005 , which peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Hot Latin Albums chart . In 2010 , La Dulzura was released , which took a more romantic lyrical focus and produced the radio hit " La Complicidad " . Cultura Profética released its most recent single , " Saca , Prende y Sorprende " in 2014 , and is reported to be working on a new album .
= = History = =
= = = 1996 – 99 : Formation and Canción de Alerta = = =
Cultura Profética originally began as a cover band , performing popular reggae songs in small bars and clubs before beginning to perform original music in Spanish . Shortly after transitioning to perform original music , the group adopted the name Cultura Profética , which was inspired by the view that " music is a voice of culture and is prophetic because the reggae music that we love , and that influenced us , is from the ’ 70s with themes of what 's happening now that can affect our future " , according to guitarist / bassist Omar Silva .
Many of the original members of the group attended the Escuela Elemental and the Escuela Secundaria of the University of Puerto Rico , an institution noted for its progressive and experimental teaching approaches . Vocalist / bassist Willy Rodriguez commented , " It is a school in which you are allowed to decide a few things on your own , you have free time between classes [ when ] you can do your own things , and there is a lot of musical culture in the school . It tends to allow you to explore your artistic interests ... There was always an air of liberation , of thinking on your own . I think that influenced a lot in what we do today musically and ideologically . " Group members Boris Bilbraut , Willy Rodríguez , Eliut González , Juan Costa , and Ivan Gutiérres began jamming together in 1996 , bonding over a shared interest in reggae music , particularly Bob Marley . These rehearsal sessions took place in El Hoyo , a neighborhood in the San Juan metropolitan area .
After transitioning away from being a cover band , the group quickly gained popularity in the Puerto Rican reggae scene . Cultura Profética began performing in major reggae festivals and opening for Jamaican reggae musician Don Carlos . The band 's first album , Canción de Alerta ( 1998 ) , was recorded in the Tuff Gong studios at Jamaica with Errol Brown , frontman of Hot Chocolate and Bob Marley 's sound engineer . The group was the first Spanish @-@ language act to record in Marley 's studios . The record discusses a number of social issues in Puerto Rico , including the importance of acknowledging the island 's African influence .
= = = 1998 – 2009 : Ideas Nuevas , Diario , and M.O.T.A. = = =
The group returned to Tuff Gong studios in 1999 to record its second album , Ideas Nuevas , which was released in May 2000 . On this record , the band began experimenting with a variety of rhythms such as bossa nova , salsa , ska , and jazz . The album was dedicated to a music instructor at the University of Puerto Rico . The band performed in Tito Puente 's amphitheater on May 12 , 2000 , later releasing a recording of the performance in the form of the live album Cultura en Vivo . In 2002 , the band released its third studio album , Diario . On this album , the band aimed to produce a record that represents Puerto Rican daily life , occasionally introducing songs with interludes of casual conversations and background noise , exemplified by songs such as " De Antes " and " Pa 'l Tanama " .
In 2004 , Cultura Profetica began to focus on the international stage , eventually moving temporarily to Mexico . Their fourth studio album , M.O.T.A. , was released in October 2005 after a tour through Mexico . M.O.T.A peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Hot Latin Albums chart , remaining at the position for two weeks . Also in 2005 , the group collaborated with Puerto Rican rapper Vico C on his song " Te Me Puedo Escapar " from his album Desahogo . In January 2006 , the song " Ritmo Que Pesa " from M.O.T.A peaked at number 35 on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart . In 2007 , the group released Tribute to the Legend : Bob Marley , a live recording of the group performing Bob Marley songs . After the release of the tribute album , Cultura Profética toured extensively through Latin America and expanded its fan base , particularly in Argentina . A DVD covering their performance at Jose Miguel Agrelot Coliseum was released in late summer of 2008 .
= = = 2010 – present : La Dulzura and upcoming album = = =
In 2010 , Cultura Profética released La Dulzura , the group 's first album on its own record label , La Mafafa . While discussing the decision to create an independent record label , Rodríguez explained " I can 't deny we spoke with different labels , but we didn 't find anything favorable . Labels are going through tough times and we decided to brave it on our own . " Many of the songs on the album were written and performed during the band 's extensive touring beginning in 2007 , and the songs went through numerous transformations during this time . Before the album 's official release , the band posted songs on the internet , including " La Complicidad " , which became a radio hit in Puerto Rico . La Dulzura debuted at number five on Billboard 's Top Latin Albums Chart .
La Dulzura represented a stylistic departure for the group , both musically and lyrically . The song " Del Tope al Fondo " is influenced by Argentine music , especially the genre of tango . Lyrically , the band discusses more romantic themes as opposed to the political emphasis of the group 's previous records . Guitarist Eliut Gonzalez remarked that the band aimed to shift discussion to " the good things in the world " , explaining that " We know that people need help , and that behind every revolution or movement , there is love . We wanted to document that in our music , but without doing it in a cheesy or typical way . " The singles " Baja la Tensión " , " La Complicidad " , " Para Estar " and " Ilegal " all charted on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart . In 2011 , the group collaborated with Dominican musician Vicente García on his single " Mi Balcón " .
The group 's most recent single , " Saca , Prende y Sorprende " , released in 2014 , pays homage to Jamaican deejay and rapper Super Cat and advocates for the legalization of marijuana . Gonzalez describes the band 's upcoming record as " very different " from La Dulzura , noting that the group began working on new material while on tour approximately a year after the album 's release .
= = Style and lyrical themes = =
Cultura Profética has been described as roots reggae . The group has often made use of the moog synthesizer , an instrument commonly used in traditional reggae but is generally rare in contemporary reggae . Despite primarily performing reggae music , the group incorporates various other rhythms into its compositions , including those of Caribbean genres such as salsa . The song " Reggae Rústico " from Ideas Nuevas includes an extended soneo , an improvised call @-@ and @-@ response section common in the salsa genre , at its closing , calling for unity in reggae music . Additionally , the band 's music features a strong emphasis on improvisation and polyrhythmic patterns . Rodríguez notes that " We 've developed what I think is our own genre . We don 't consider ourselves a pop act but we do make popular music in the sense that we are supported by many people . People have finally understood what we do . " Leila Cobo of Billboard observed elements of jazz in the single " La Complicidad , " additionally describing it as " more mellow rock than reggae . "
Lyrically , the group addresses social issues including corruption , environmentalism , personal liberty , and Latin American identity . Canción de Alerta contains the song " Por qué cantamos , " an adaptation of Uruguayan writer Mario Benedetti 's poem of the same name . Author Eunice Rojas cites this as an example of the group using " the power of music to advance social causes . " The song " Suelta Los Amarres " from Ideas Nuevas discourages listeners from using violence to advance a political cause . However , the lyrics on La Dulzura place more emphasis on interpersonal relationships and love . Silva notes that the group refrains from writing " romantic " lyrics , noting that " romanticism has a connotation of suffering for love . We are talking about the love that elevates and purifies your soul . We are talking in the sense of the love that sets you free . "
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
Canción de Alerta ( 1998 )
Ideas Nuevas ( 1999 )
Diario ( 2002 )
M.O.T.A. ( 2005 )
La Dulzura ( 2010 )
= = Band members = =
= = = Current members = = =
Willy Rodríguez — Bass Guitar , Vocals
Boris Bilbraut — Drums , Vocals
Omar Silva — Guitar , Bass Guitar
Juanqui Sulsona — Piano , Keyboards
Eliut González — Guitar
Eggie Santiago — Organ , Keyboards
Ernesto Rodriguez — Percussion
Patricia Lewis — Vocals
Adrianna Betancourt — Vocals
Victor Vazquez — Trombone
Kalani Trinidad — Flute & Saxophone
Jahaziel Garcia — Trumpet
= = = Former members = = =
Iván Gutiérrez — piano , brass arrangements
Sergio Orellana — keyboards , organ
Melvin Villanueva — piano
Juan Costa — rhythm guitar
Raúl Gaztambide — organ
Eduardo Fernández — trombone
Javier Joglar — tenor saxophone , flute
Luis Rafael Torres — tenor saxophone , alto saxophone , flute
Juan José " Cheo " Quiñones — trumpet
María Soledad Gaztambide — vocals
Yarimir Cabán , better known professionally as Mima — vocals
Eduardo " Edo " Sanz — drums , percussion
Omar Cruz — percussion
Beto Torrens , Juansi — percussion
Bayrex Jimenez — piano , keyboards
|
= Bridgewater Canal =
The Bridgewater Canal connects Runcorn , Manchester and Leigh , in North West England . It was commissioned by Francis Egerton , 3rd Duke of Bridgewater , to transport coal from his mines in Worsley to Manchester . It was opened in 1761 from Worsley to Manchester , and later extended from Manchester to Runcorn , and then from Worsley to Leigh .
The canal is connected to the Manchester Ship Canal via a lock at Cornbrook ; to the Rochdale Canal in Manchester ; to the Trent and Mersey Canal at Preston Brook , southeast of Runcorn ; and to the Leeds and Liverpool Canal at Leigh . It once connected with the River Mersey at Runcorn but has since been cut off by a slip road to the Silver Jubilee Bridge .
Often considered to be the first " true " canal in England , it required the construction of an aqueduct to cross the River Irwell , one of the first of its kind . Its success helped inspire a period of intense canal building in Britain , known as " canal mania " . It later faced intense competition from the Liverpool and Manchester Railway and the Macclesfield Canal . Navigable throughout its history , it is one of the few canals in Britain not to have been nationalised , and remains privately owned . Pleasure craft now use the canal which forms part of the Cheshire Ring network of canals .
= = Design and construction = =
Francis Egerton , 3rd Duke of Bridgewater , owned some of the coal mines dug to supply north west England with fuel for the steam engines instrumental in powering England 's industrial revolution . The duke transported his coal along the Mersey and Irwell Navigation and also by packhorse , but each method was inefficient and expensive ; river transport was subject to the vagaries of river navigation , and the amount of coal packhorses could carry was limited by its relative weight . The duke 's underground mines also suffered from persistent flooding , caused by the geology of the Middle Coal Measures , where the coal seam lies beneath a layer of permeable sandstone .
Having visited the Canal du Midi in France and watched the construction of the Sankey Canal in England , the duke 's solution to these problems was to build an underground canal at Worsley , connected to a surface canal between Worsley and Salford . In addition to easing overland transport difficulties and providing drainage for his mines , an underground canal would provide a reliable source of water for the surface canal , and also eliminate the need to lift the coal to the surface ( an expensive and difficult proposition ) . The canal boats would carry 30 long tons ( 30 t ) at a time , pulled by only one horse – more than ten times the amount of cargo per horse that was possible with a cart . The duke and his estate manager John Gilbert produced a plan of the canal , and in 1759 obtained an Act of Parliament , enabling its construction .
James Brindley was brought in for his technical expertise ( having previously installed a pumping system at the nearby Wet Earth Colliery ) , and after a six @-@ day visit suggested varying the route of the proposed canal away from Salford , instead taking it across the River Irwell to Stretford and thereon into Manchester . This route would make connecting to any future canals much easier , and would also increase competition with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation company . Brindley moved into Worsley Old Hall and spent 46 days surveying the proposed route , which to cross the Irwell would require the construction of an aqueduct at Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell . At the duke 's behest , in January 1760 Brindley also travelled to London to give evidence before a parliamentary committee . The duke therefore gained a second Act of Parliament , which superseded the original .
Brindley 's planned route began at Worsley and passed southeast through Eccles , before turning south to cross the River Irwell on the Barton Aqueduct . From there it continued southeast along the edge of Trafford Park , and then east into Manchester . Although a connection with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation was included in the new Act , at Hulme Locks in Castlefield ( on land previously occupied by Hulme Hall ) , this was not completed until 1838 . The terminus would be at Castlefield Basin , where the nearby River Medlock was to help supply the canal with water . Boats would unload their cargoes inside the duke 's purpose @-@ built warehouse . There were no locks in Brindley 's design , demonstrating his ability as a competent engineer . The Barton Aqueduct was built relatively quickly for the time ; work commenced in September 1760 and the first boat crossed on 17 July 1761 .
The duke invested a large sum of money in the scheme . From Worsley to Manchester its construction cost £ 168 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 23 @,@ 348 @,@ 370 in 2015 ) , but its advantages over land and river transport meant that within a year of its opening in 1761 , the price of coal in Manchester fell by about half . This success helped inspire a period of intense canal building , known as Canal Mania . Along with its stone aqueduct at Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell , the Bridgewater Canal was considered a major engineering achievement . One commentator wrote that when finished , " [ the canal ] will be the most extraordinary thing in the Kingdom , if not in Europe . The boats in some places are to go underground , and in other places over a navigable river , without communicating with its waters " .
In addition to the duke 's warehouse at Manchester , more buildings were built by Brindley and extended to Alport Street ( now called Deansgate ) . The warehouses were of timber @-@ frame design , with load @-@ bearing hand @-@ made brick walls , supported on cast iron posts . The duke 's warehouse was badly damaged by fire in 1789 but was rebuilt .
= = = Manchester to Runcorn extension = = =
In September 1761 , with his assistant Hugh Oldham , Brindley surveyed an extension from Longford Bridge to Hempstones , near Halton , Cheshire . He assisted in obtaining Parliamentary approval for the Bridgewater Canal Extension Act of 1762 which allowed the construction of an extension to the canal , from Manchester , to the River Mersey at Runcorn . Despite objections from the Mersey and Irwell Navigation Company , Royal assent was given on 24 March 1762 . A junction , Waters Meeting , was created in Trafford Park , at which the new extension branched south through Stretford , Sale , Altrincham , Lymm and finally to Runcorn .
In December 1761 Brindley undertook a survey of the route at Runcorn . His initial plan was to make the terminus at Hempstones , east of Runcorn Gap , but following a study of the tides and depth of water there , he decided instead to build the terminus west of Runcorn Gap . This change was designed to accommodate Mersey flats , although the low fixed bridges required that traffic on the canal be able to lower or unship their masts . Runcorn basin was almost 90 feet ( 27 m ) above the Mersey , so a flight of ten locks , described as " the wonder of their time " , was built to connect the two . Nine locks had a fall of 2 metres ( 7 ft ) , with a fall at the river lock of more than 6 metres ( 20 ft ) at low water . It allowed vessels to enter and leave the canal on any tide . The connection to the Mersey was made on 1 January 1773 . The river 's tidal action tended to deposit silt around the lower entrance to the locks , so to counteract this a channel , equipped with gates at each end and known as the Duke 's Gut , was cut through the marshes upriver from the locks . At high tide the gates were closed , and with the ebb of the tide were opened to release water , which scoured the silt from the entrance to the locks . The cut created an island , known as Runcorn Island , crossed by Castle Bridge .
The connection to Manchester was delayed by Sir Richard Brooke of Norton Priory . Concerned that boatmen might poach his game and wildfowl , Brooke did not want the canal to pass through his land . The Act included several stipulations : the canal should not come within 325 metres ( 1 @,@ 066 ft ) of his house ; the towpath should be on the south side of the canal , furthest away from Brooke 's house ; there should be no quays , buildings , hedges or fences to obstruct the view ; no vessels were to be moored within 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) of the house , other than during construction . Eventually , though , a compromise was reached . This included the construction of a link to the Trent and Mersey Canal at Preston Brook ( permitted by the Trent and Mersey Canal Act of 1766 ) , and the building of the canal 's terminus to the west of Runcorn Gap . The Trent and Mersey link gave the Duke access to the Midlands , and forestalled the Weaver Trustees from making their own junction with the canal . The new extension also met with opposition from the Mersey and Irwell Navigation , until the duke purchased a controlling interest in the company . The first part of the new extension was opened in 1767 , and completed in full by March 1776 , but Brindley did not live to see its completion ; it was continued by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Hugh Henshall .
The total cost of the canal , from Worsley to Manchester and from Longford Bridge to the Mersey at Runcorn , was £ 220 @,@ 000 . Alongside the Mersey , the duke built Runcorn Dock , several warehouses , and Bridgewater House , a temporary home from which he could supervise operations at the Runcorn end . Two locks up from the tideway was a small dry dock .
= = = Sale to Stockport branch = = =
In 1766 the Duke gained a fourth act of parliament for a branch canal between Sale Moor and Stockport which was to follow the valley of the Mersey . The Act was applied for to counter a proposed canal that would give the towns of Stockport and Macclesfield access to the Mersey , via the River Weaver . The work was not done , the Act lapsed and this section of canal was never built .
Over two decades later , the nearby Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal had sought a connection to other waterways , and it appears that the Duke had planned to limit the activities of the new company . On 15 December 1792 the Duke purchased a portion of the Ringspiggot estate in Salford which blocked the MB & BC 's plans to build a riverside basin and wharfs there .
= = = Worsley to Leigh extension = = =
In 1795 the duke secured a fifth Act which enabled him to extend the canal a further 5 miles ( 8 km ) from Worsley via Boothstown , Astley Green and Bedford to Leigh . The new extension enabled the supply to Manchester of coal from Leigh and the surrounding districts . On 21 June 1819 an Act of Parliament was enacted to create a link between this extension and the Wigan branch of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal .
Access to the canal brought about a rapid development in coal mining on the Manchester Coalfield west of Worsley . Chaddock pits in the east of Tyldesley were connected to an underground level from Worsley . In 1820 , to ease congestion at the Delph in Worsley , Chaddock Pit was connected to the canal at Boothstown basin by an underground canal , the Chaddock Level which ran in a north west direction from the canal at Boothstown to the pit . Sometime after 1840 Samuel Jackson built a narrow gauge tramroad worked by horses from his Gin Pit Colliery to Marsland Green where he installed cranes and tipplers to load barges at a wharf . The tramroad was later worked by locomotives . In 1867 the Fletchers built a private railway line and the Bedford Basin with facilities for loading coal from Howe Bridge onto barges . Astley Green Colliery began winding coal on the north bank of the canal in 1912 . In the 1940s and 50s coal was sent to Barton Power Station and Runcorn Gas Works .
= = = Connection to Rochdale Canal = = =
Upon completion of the Rochdale Canal in 1804 , the two canals were joined at Castlefield . This connection may have been a factor in the failure of the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal Company 's rival scheme to build a canal between Bury and Sladen . The River Medlock , a major source of water for the canal and which was almost as badly polluted as the nearby Irwell , was diverted through a tunnel under the canal at Castlefield by Charles Edward Cawley , a civil engineer for the Salford Corporation and later MP for Salford . The canal was from that point supplied by the much purer water of the Rochdale Canal .
= = = Mines = = =
Worsley Delph , in Worsley , originally a centuries @-@ old sandstone quarry near Worsley Brook , was the entrance to the Navigable Levels . It is now a Scheduled Monument . Two entrances , built years apart , allow access to the specially built M @-@ boats ( also known as Starvationers ) , the largest of which could carry 12 long tons ( 12 t ) of coal . Inside the mines 46 miles ( 74 km ) of underground canal on four levels , linked by inclined planes , were constructed . The mines ceased production in 1887 . As the canal passes through Worsley , iron oxide from the mines has , for many years , stained the water bright orange . The removal of this colouration is currently the subject of a £ 2 @.@ 5 million remedial scheme .
= = = Traffic = = =
In 1791 the mines at Worsley produced 100 @,@ 282 long tons ( 101 @,@ 891 t ) of coal , 60 @,@ 461 long tons ( 61 @,@ 431 t ) of which were " sold down the navigation " ; 12 @,@ 000 long tons ( 12 @,@ 000 t ) of rocksalt was also transported from Cheshire . Sales of coal were £ 19 @,@ 455 , and nearly £ 30 @,@ 000 was earned from other cargoes . Passenger traffic in 1791 brought in receipts of £ 3 @,@ 781 .
The canal also carried passengers and was in keen competition with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation Company ( M & IN ) . The journey down river by the latter route took eight hours ( nine hours in the up direction ) while the journey on the Bridgewater canal took nine hours each way . Fares were similar but the Bridgewater route was said to be " more picturesque " . Boating men also used the canal . They lifted their small lightweight boats out of the M & IN at Runcorn , and carried them a short distance up the steep streets onto the Bridgewater Canal .
Barges on the canal continued to be towed by horses until the middle of the 19th century , when they were replaced by steam @-@ powered boats after a fatal epidemic spread through the horse population . The " dense smoke " produced by the steam barges and their " harsh unnecessary whistling " proved unpopular with some local residents , who also began to suffer from a condition known as canal throat , " no doubt caused by the foul emanations given off by its [ the Bridgewater Canal 's ] horribly filthy water " .
The canal carried commercial freight traffic until 1975 ; the last regular cargo was grain from Liverpool to Manchester for BOCM . It is now used mainly by pleasure craft and hosts two rowing clubs – Trafford Rowing Club and Manchester University Boat Club .
= = Bridgewater Trustees = =
The Duke of Bridgewater died on 8 March 1803 . By his will the income from the canal was to be paid to his nephew George Leveson @-@ Gower , the Marquess of Stafford ( later the 1st Duke of Sutherland ) . On his death it was to go to Stafford 's second son Francis , provided he changed his name to Egerton ; and then to his heirs and successors . The management of the company was placed in the hands of three trustees . These were Sir Archibald Macdonald , who was Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer , Edward Venables @-@ Vernon @-@ Harcourt , at the time the Bishop of Carlisle and later the Archbishop of York , and , as Superintendent , Robert Haldane Bradshaw , the Duke 's agent . Bradshaw managed the estate , for which he received a salary of £ 2 @,@ 000 a year and the use of the duke 's mansions at Worsley and Runcorn . The other two trustees had each married nieces of the duke and were " dummy trustees " .
During the time the canal was administered by the Bridgewater Trustees , it made a profit every year . Until his retirement in 1834 , the administration was carried out entirely by Bradshaw . It has been calculated that the average annual profit between 1806 and 1826 was of the order of 13 per cent , and in 1824 , the best year , it was 23 per cent . Bradshaw found it difficult to delegate , and complained of being over @-@ worked , but he was also regarded as being a " formidable bargainer " . In 1805 he was approached by the proprietors of the nearby Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal to resolve a dispute with a Salford landowner , but his response was delayed . In 1810 there was a general agreement with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation Company ( M & IN ) to simultaneously raise freight charges . However any cooperation between the two companies was short @-@ lived and by 1812 the Mersey and Irwell had reduced their charges . Further competition was to come from other carriers who used the canal ; in 1824 the traffic carried by private companies exceeded that carried by the Trustees for the first time . However , in time more profit came from " tonnage traffic " ( that carried by private companies ) than from the Bridgewater 's own carriage of freight . Bradshaw 's administration saw increased deterioration of the fabric of the canal , the locks , docks and warehouses . The undertakings were starved of capital largely owing to inadequate provision for it in the duke 's will . There were also problems caused by silting around the entrance to the Mersey and by the changing channels of the river itself .
During the 1820s there was increased dissatisfaction with the canals . They did not cope well with increasing volumes of cargo , and they were perceived as monopolistic , and the preserve of the landed gentry class . There was increased interest in the possibility of railway construction . The possible construction of a railway between Liverpool and Manchester was vigorously opposed by Bradshaw , who refused railway surveyors access to land owned by the Trustees . When the first bill was presented to parliament in 1825 , the Trustees opposed and it was overthrown . However , later in the year Lord Stafford , possibly persuaded to do so by William Huskisson , invested £ 100 @,@ 000 ( one @-@ fifth of the required capital ) , in the Liverpool and Manchester Railway . Following this the Trustees withdrew their opposition to the construction of the railway ; they did not petition against the second bill , which was passed in 1826 . At the same time as he made his investment in the railway , Lord Stafford advanced £ 40 @,@ 000 for improvements to the canal . This was spent mainly on a second line of locks at Runcorn , which were completed in 1828 , plus new warehouses at Manchester and Liverpool . The additional line of locks cost £ 35 @,@ 000 and was used for traffic heading to Manchester , while the old line was used for traffic passing down to the Mersey .
In 1830 the new railway opened and by the end of the year was carrying freight . Bradshaw immediately went into competition by lowering the rates of carriage on the canal and by offering improved terms to the private carriers . By so doing he managed to maintain the volume of traffic carried by the canal , both freight and passengers , at a time when the country was suffering a trade depression . However Bradshaw 's tactics led to a sharp decline in profits . At the same time costs were rising , partly due to the use of steamboats on the Mersey . Further competition came with the opening of the Macclesfield Canal in 1831 which gave separate access to Manchester from the Midlands . In November 1831 Bradshaw suffered a stroke , as a result of which he lost the use of his left arm and leg , and there is evidence that it also impaired his judgement .
Matters came to a head in 1833 , the year in which the canal made its lowest profit since the death of the Duke . On 19 July the Marquess of Stafford ( now the 1st Duke of Sutherland ) died and the profits from the canal passed to Francis Egerton . On 25 September Bradshaw 's son , Captain James Bradshaw , who had been acting as a deputy superintendent to the Trustees , and who had been expected to succeed his father as Superintendent , committed suicide . The agent for both Francis Egerton and his older brother , who was now the 2nd Duke of Sutherland , was James Loch . The events that followed were " stage @-@ managed by Loch " . He reported to Francis Egerton that Bradshaw was no longer fit to be Superintendent , and then persuaded Bradshaw to retire on his full salary . It had been expected that he would appoint his other son , William Rigby Bradshaw , as his successor , but Loch persuaded him to appoint James Sothern in the position ; Sothern had been the principal agent of the Trust since December 1832 . He took over the position of Superintendent on 3 February 1834 . The appointment of Sothern was not a success . Charges were made against him of dishonesty and of nepotism . He entered into disputes and disagreements with Loch , with Francis Egerton , and with the other two trustees . ( Sir Archibald Macdonald had died in 1826 ; by this time his place had been taken by the 10th Earl of Devon ) . To avoid a costly lawsuit , at the end of 1836 Sothern agreed to retire on various conditions which included receipt of £ 45 @,@ 000 . On 1 March 1837 , he was succeeded as Superintendent by James Loch .
Loch was extremely busy and did not have time to deal with the detailed administration of the Trust . He therefore looked for a deputy to take on these duties . His first choice was Richard Smith who was the mine agent to the Trustees of the 1st Earl of Dudley . However this was perceived as poaching and it led to such controversy that Smith declined the offer and recommended his son , George Samuel Fereday Smith for the post . Fereday Smith was appointed as Deputy Superintendent in March 1837 on a salary of £ 600 a year , half of the salary which had been offered to his father . Loch immediately undertook a reorganisation of the administration and efficiency of the business , restored the agreement with the Old Quay Company to raise freight charges , and improved the facilities for passengers , including the introduction of " swift boats " . By 1837 , the Trustees employed around 3 @,@ 000 people ( including those working in the colliery and in Worsley Yard ) , making it one of the largest employers in the country at the time . Since the death of the Duke the amount of freight carried by the canal had almost trebled ; in 1803 it carried 334 @,@ 495 long tons ( 339 @,@ 863 t ) of goods and in 1836 968 @,@ 795 long tons ( 984 @,@ 341 t ) .
In 1843 a new dock , the Francis Dock , was opened at Runcorn . The late 1830s and early 1840s had seen increased competition between the Bridgewater Canal on the one hand , and other canal companies and the railways on the other . The most dangerous of the rivals was the Mersey and Irwell Navigation Company who started to reduce their rates again in 1840 . This led to a price war between the two canal companies and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway , who had previously cooperated on rates . Eventually , in desperation , the Bridgewater Trustees bought the Mersey and Irwell and took over its ownership on 1 January 1844 . During the same year competition with other canals was further reduced by agreements made with the Ellesmere and Chester Canal Company and with the Anderton Carrying Company . In 1844 the canal made a profit of £ 76 @,@ 410 , the second highest during the time it was administered by the Trustees .
Having seen off competition from other canal companies , the next major threat was to come from the railways . This was the period in the mid @-@ 1840s known as the Railway Mania . The railways competed with the canals in three ways ; by building , or threatening to build , new lines which would be in direct competition with the canals ; by amalgamation into giant companies ( such as the Midland and the London and North Western companies ) , which gave them more political power ; and by taking over ownership of canal companies . On 13 April 1844 The Times newspaper reported that the canal was to be emptied of water , and converted into a railway , although nothing came of this scheme . In 1845 , in return for concessions , the Trustees supported the Grand Junction Railway in its campaign to build a more direct line to Liverpool , which crossed the Mersey over a bridge at Runcorn Gap . However the bill was overthrown in the House of Lords . Competition from the railways and other canals led to a decline in the trading and the profits between 1845 and 1848 , but there was no " disastrous collapse " . During this time the Trustees and their representatives were engaged in vigorous campaigns in Parliament to protect their interests .
By October 1844 a bonding warehouse had been built in Manchester and the first cargo to arrive was announced in a letter to the Manchester Guardian , later printed in The Times :
FIRST ARRIVAL IN THE PORT OF MANCHESTER OF A CARGO OF GOODS FOR BOND
We have great pleasure in recording the first arrival in the Port of Manchester of a vessel , with an entire cargo of wines and spirits removed in bond , and for bonding in Manchester . The vessel , a flat named the Express , was wholly laden with a valuable cargo of wines and spirits , in all about 40 tons weight , belonging to Mr. William Gibb , spirit merchant , of this town , whose active and long @-@ continued exertions in the struggle to obtain the privilege of bonding for this great and important borough are about to be acknowledged in the form of a substantial mark of respect and gratitude by his fellow @-@ townsmen . The Express arrived from Liverpool on Saturday evening ; but it was yesterday morning before she began to unload . She is lying in the Bridgewater Canal , Knott Mill where the Duke 's trustees have constructed a large bonding vault , which Mr. Gibb has taken and had licensed for the purpose , and we believe he is now removing his stock of wine and spirits from other ports to Manchester , for the greater convenience of sampling and sale . The lockers , gaugers , and other officers of Customs were in attendance , superintending the unloading of the vessel and thus have commenced the operations of the Manchester Custom @-@ house . It is a gratifying circumstance that a gentleman who took so prominent a part in the struggle to obtain the boon of bonding for Manchester should be the first to enjoy the fruits of its success . We hope ere long to record the general operation of the system ; though it will require a little time , perhaps , as it must have a beginning . - Manchester Guardian
However , this venture was less successful than expected , as is evidenced by a letter to The Observer later that year , also printed in The Times :
MANCHESTER A BONDING PORT
After the pressing demands which have been made by some of our principal manufacturing towns for the privileges of inland bonded warehouses for goods subject to Customs duties , it would naturally be supposed that the formation of a Custom @-@ house establishment at Manchester would have occasioned a vast quantity of business in that extensive seat of British manufacturers ; but we are informed that the result is very different from what had been expected . Although the system has been introduced into Manchester only as an experiment and a large establishment has been formed entirely of old and experienced officers ; under the impression that the extent of business there would require the constant services of well tried men , we believe that , up to the present period , little trade has passed through the Manchester Custom @-@ house and the officers ' duties are nearly approaching to a sinecure . The total annual expense of this establishment , exclusive of that for the Custom @-@ house and warehouse is £ 2 @,@ 620 . The town council of the borough of Manchester , however , are made liable , under the act of the 7th and 8th of Victoria cap 81 , to the charges of maintaining this establishment , and the public are thereby exonerated from the expense .
- Observer
Between 1849 and 1851 the competition between the Trustees and the railway companies intensified . Agreements and alliances were made and broken . Their major opponents were the London and North Western Railway and the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway who reduced tariffs and took business away from the canals . For the first time the railways carried more trade between Liverpool and the towns of central Lancashire than the canals . The value of the traffic carried by the Bridgewater Canal in 1851 was the lowest in the time it was administered by the Trustees . In 1851 the Earl of Ellesmere hosted a visit to Manchester by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert . They stayed at Worsley Hall , with a view of the canal , and were given a trip between Patricroft railway station and Worsley Hall , on state barges . Large crowds had gathered to cheer the royal party , which apparently frightened the horses drawing the barge so much that they fell into the canal .
The Trustees spent much time between 1851 and 1855 in negotiations to ease the competition , especially that from the London and North Western Railway . The most likely allies seemed to be other railway companies , including the Shrewsbury and Birmingham and the Shrewsbury and Chester railway companies , and the Great Western Railway . Of these , the most likely seemed to be the Great Western Railway who , in their concern to expand northwards were willing to help the Trustees with the carriage of their traffic to the south . However years of negotiations came to no agreement and , in the end , the Trustees ' railway deal was done with the London and North Western Railway , who agreed to cooperate with the onward passage of the Trustees ' traffic .
On 28 June 1855 James Loch , the Superintendent , died and was succeeded by Hon. Algernon Fulke Egerton , Lord Ellesmere 's third son . He was then aged 29 , and had been educated at Harrow and Christ Church , Oxford ; he had been destined for a political life and had no experience of managing coal mines or canals . Since James Loch had been appointed , he had been mainly in control of the management of the Trustees , assisted by his son George Loch . During this time the role of Fereday Smith had been diminished ; initially appointed as Deputy Superintendent , his position was reduced to that of Principal Agent in 1845 . With the arrival of the inexperienced Algernon Egerton , Fereday Smith had a much greater say in the management . During the previous four years the Lochs had been reluctant to invest in improvements to the canal or Runcorn Dock , despite the increasing demand for the passage of goods through the dock , and the profits made during these years became stagnant . Fereday Smith had been keen on expansion and now his opportunity came . He first reduced the top @-@ heavy administration of the Trust , and then took on the planning of the expansion of the business . The steamers owned by the Trustees had been neglected and were in a poor state ; these were repaired or sold .
George Loch , who had been opposed to using the Trustees ' investments for improvements to the canals or docks , died in 1857 . Between 1857 and 1872 the Trustees provided more capital for improvements from their own resources than at any previous time . The Runcorn and Weston Canal was built in 1858 – 59 , providing a connection between Runcorn Docks and the Weaver Navigation . A new half tide dock , the Alfred Dock was opened at Runcorn in 1860 . Electric telegraph was installed in 1861 – 62 .
In 1862 the 2nd Earl of Ellesmere died and his son and heir , the 3rd Earl was a minor , aged 15 . This gave Algernon Egerton even more power to invest the profits of the company in developments . Negotiations were made to increase sea @-@ borne trade , both British and foreign , through the canal . Building started on a new dock at Runcorn in 1867 . Work was carried out in the Mersey estuary around the docks to improve access for vessels . Some of this was carried out in conjunction with the London and North Western Railway who were building a bridge across Runcorn Gap to take their line from Weaver Junction to Liverpool ; the railway paid half the cost of the improvements , amounting to about £ 20 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @.@ 6 million today ) . Improvements were made to the Trustees ' facilities at Liverpool , to the Mersey and Irwell Navigation and to the Bridgewater Canal itself . Agreements were made with the railway companies to cooperate on the transit of goods and the rates of carriage and " the Trustees ' fortunes entered a calmer phase " .
= = Subsequent owners = =
In 1872 the Bridgewater Navigation Company Ltd was formed , and on Monday 9 September the canal was purchased in the names of Sir Edward William Watkin and William Philip Price , respectively chairmen of the Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway and the Midland Railway for £ 1 @,@ 120 @,@ 000 . The canal was sold again in 1885 , when the Manchester Ship Canal Company paid the Bridgewater Navigation Company £ 1 @,@ 710 @,@ 000 for all their property . The construction of the ship canal forced the removal of Barton Aqueduct and the construction of Barton Swing Aqueduct , as the former was too low for the vessels which would use the new canal . In 1907 The Manchester Ship Canal ( Bridgewater Canal ) Act 1907 was passed , permitting coal mining near the canal between Monton Bridge and Leigh , in exchange for which the mine owners were obliged to pay the associated costs of keeping the canal open and navigable .
In 1923 Bridgewater Estates Ltd was formed to acquire the Ellesmere family estate in Worsley . In 1984 Bridgewater Estates Ltd was purchased by a subsidiary of Peel Holdings . In 1987 Highams acquired a majority shareholding of the Manchester Ship Canal Company ( subsequently the shares held by Highams were transferred to Peel Holdings ) . In 1994 the Manchester Ship Canal Company became a wholly owned subsidiary of the Peel Holdings group . In 2004 ownership of the Manchester Ship Canal Company was transferred to the Peel Ports group .
= = Current status = =
The Bridgewater is often considered to be the first true canal in Britain , as it relied upon existing watercourses as sources of water rather than as navigable routes . It now terminates in Runcorn basin , just before the disused flight of 10 locks which ( before the approach road to the Silver Jubilee Bridge was built ) used to lower the canal to the Runcorn Docks on the River Mersey and later , to the Manchester Ship Canal . The old line of locks in Runcorn fell into disuse in the late 1930s , and they were closed under the Ship Canal Act of 1949 and filled in . The Ship Canal Act of 1966 allowed the closure and filling in of the newer line of locks . The gates from this flight of locks were removed and installed at Devizes on the Kennet and Avon Canal . The Duke 's warehouse in Manchester was demolished in 1960 .
The canal has suffered three breaches ; one soon after opening , another in 1971 near the River Bollin aqueduct , and another in the summer of 2005 when a sluice gate failed in Manchester . Cranes are located at intervals along the canal 's length to allow boards to be dropped into slots in the banks . These allow sections of the canal to be isolated in the event of a leak .
The canal now forms an integral part of the Cheshire Ring network of canals . Pleasure craft have been allowed on the canal since 1952 .
The new road crossing of the Mersey now under construction may allow a realignment of the Bridge approach road and the complete restoration of the original flight of locks – thus re @-@ opening the link to Runcorn Docks , the Runcorn and Weston Canal , the River Mersey , the Manchester Ship Canal , and the River Weaver . This would create a new ring route for leisure boats involving the Trent and Mersey Canal , the Anderton Boat Lift and the River Weaver .
The Hulme Locks Branch Canal in Manchester is now disused , and on 26 May 1995 was replaced by the nearby Pomona Lock .
= = = Bridgewater Way = = =
The Bridgewater Way is a scheme to redevelop the canal and make it more accessible to users , particularly cyclists . The 40 @-@ mile development , which includes a new towpath , will form part of the National Cycle and Footpath Network as Regional Route number 82 .
|
= Jules Massenet =
Jules Émile Frédéric Massenet ( French : [ ʒyl emil fʁedeʁik masnɛ ] ; 12 May 1842 – 13 August 1912 ) was a French composer of the Romantic era best known for his operas , of which he wrote more than thirty . The two most frequently staged are Manon ( 1884 ) and Werther ( 1892 ) . He also composed oratorios , ballets , orchestral works , incidental music , piano pieces , songs and other music .
While still a schoolboy , Massenet was admitted to France 's principal music college , the Paris Conservatoire . There he studied under Ambroise Thomas , whom he greatly admired . After winning the country 's top musical prize , the Prix de Rome , in 1863 , he composed prolifically in many genres , but quickly became best known for his operas . Between 1867 and his death forty @-@ five years later he wrote more than forty stage works in a wide variety of styles , from opéra @-@ comique to grand @-@ scale depictions of classical myths , romantic comedies , lyric dramas , as well as oratorios , cantatas and ballets . Massenet had a good sense of the theatre and of what would succeed with the Parisian public . Despite some miscalculations , he produced a series of successes that made him the leading composer of opera in France in the late 19th and early 20th centuries .
Like many prominent French composers of the period , Massenet became a professor at the Conservatoire . He taught composition there from 1878 until 1896 , when he resigned after the death of the director , Ambroise Thomas . Among his students were Gustave Charpentier , Ernest Chausson , Reynaldo Hahn and Gabriel Pierné .
By the time of his death , Massenet was regarded by many critics as old @-@ fashioned and unadventurous although his two best @-@ known operas remained popular in France and abroad . After a few decades of neglect , his works began to be favourably reassessed during the mid @-@ 20th century , and many of them have since been staged and recorded . Although critics do not rank him among the handful of outstanding operatic geniuses such as Mozart , Verdi and Wagner , his operas are now widely accepted as well @-@ crafted and intelligent products of the Belle Époque .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Massenet was born at Montaud , then an outlying hamlet and now a part of the city of Saint @-@ Étienne , in the Loire . He was the youngest of the four children of Alexis Massenet ( 1788 – 1863 ) and his second wife Eléonore @-@ Adelaïde née Royer de Marancour ( 1809 – 1875 ) ; the elder children were Julie , Léon and Edmond . Massenet senior was a prosperous ironmonger ; his wife was a talented amateur musician who gave Jules his first piano lessons . By early 1848 the family had moved to Paris , where they settled in a flat in Saint @-@ Germain @-@ des @-@ Prés . Massenet was educated at the Lycée Saint @-@ Louis and , from either 1851 or 1853 , the Paris Conservatoire . According to his colourful but unreliable memoirs , Massenet auditioned in October 1851 , when he was nine , before a judging panel comprising Daniel Auber , Fromental Halévy , Ambroise Thomas and Michele Carafa , and was admitted at once . His biographer Demar Irvine dates the audition and admission as January 1853 . Both sources agree that Massenet continued his general education at the lycée in tandem with his musical studies .
At the Conservatoire Massenet studied solfège with Augustin Savard and the piano with François Laurent . He pursued his studies , with modest distinction , until the beginning of 1855 , when family concerns disrupted his education . Alexis Massenet 's health was poor , and on medical advice he moved from Paris to Chambéry in the south of France ; the family , including Massenet , moved with him . Again , Massenet 's own memoirs and the researches of his biographers are at variance : the composer recalled his exile in Chambéry as lasting for two years ; Henry Finck and Irvine record that the young man returned to Paris and the Conservatoire in October 1855 . On his return he lodged with relations in Montmartre and resumed his studies ; by 1859 he had progressed so far as to win the Conservatoire 's top prize for pianists . The family 's finances were no longer comfortable , and to support himself Massenet took private piano students and played as a percussionist in theatre orchestras . His work in the orchestra pit gave him a good working knowledge of the operas of Gounod and other composers , classic and contemporary . Traditionally , many students at the Conservatoire went on to substantial careers as church organists ; with that in mind Massenet enrolled for organ classes , but they were not a success and he quickly abandoned the instrument . He gained some work as a piano accompanist , in the course of which he met Wagner who , along with Berlioz , was one of his two musical heroes .
In 1861 Massenet 's music was published for the first time , the Grande Fantasie de Concert sur le Pardon de Ploërmel de Meyerbeer , a virtuoso piano work in nine sections . Having graduated to the composition class under Ambroise Thomas , Massenet was entered for the Conservatoire 's top musical honour , the Prix de Rome , previous winners of which included Berlioz , Thomas , Gounod and Bizet . The first two of these were on the judging panel for the 1863 competition . All the competitors had to set the same text by Gustave Chouquet , a cantata about David Rizzio ; after all the settings had been performed Massenet came face to face with the judges . He recalled :
Ambroise Thomas , my beloved master , came towards me and said , " Embrace Berlioz , you owe him a great deal for your prize . " " The prize , " I cried , bewildered , my face shining with joy . " I have the prize ! ! ! " I was deeply moved and I embraced Berlioz , then my master , and finally Monsieur Auber . Monsieur Auber comforted me . Did I need comforting ? Then he said to Berlioz pointing to me , " He 'll go far , the young rascal , when he 's had less experience ! "
The prize brought a well @-@ subsidised three @-@ year period of study , two @-@ thirds of which was spent at the French Academy in Rome , based at the Villa Medici . At that time the academy was dominated by painters rather than musicians ; Massenet enjoyed his time there , and made lifelong friendships with , among others , the sculptor Alexandre Falguière and the painter Carolus @-@ Duran , but the musical benefit he derived was largely self @-@ taught . He absorbed the music at St Peter 's , and closely studied the works of the great German masters , from Handel and Bach to contemporary composers . During his time in Rome , Massenet met Franz Liszt , at whose request he gave piano lessons to Louise @-@ Constance " Ninon " de Gressy , the daughter of one of Liszt 's rich patrons . Massenet and Ninon fell in love , but marriage was out of the question while he was a student with modest means .
= = = Early works = = =
Massenet returned to Paris in 1866 . He made a living by teaching the piano and publishing songs , piano pieces and orchestral suites , all in the popular style of the day . Prix de Rome winners were sometimes invited by the Opéra @-@ Comique in Paris to compose a work for performance there . At Thomas 's instigation , Massenet was commissioned to write a one @-@ act opéra comique , La grand 'tante , presented in April 1867 . At around the same time he composed a Requiem , which has not survived . In 1868 he met Georges Hartmann , who became his publisher and was his mentor for twenty @-@ five years ; Hartmann 's journalistic contacts did much to promote his protégé 's reputation .
In October 1866 Massenet and Ninon were married ; their only child , Juliette , was born in 1868 . Massenet 's musical career was briefly interrupted by the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 , during which he served as a volunteer in the National Guard alongside his friend Bizet . He found the war so " utterly terrible " that he refused to write about it in his memoirs . He and his family were trapped in the Siege of Paris but managed to get out before the horrors of the Paris Commune began ; the family stayed for some months in Bayonne , in southwestern France .
After order was restored , Massenet returned to Paris where he completed his first large @-@ scale stage work , an opéra comique in four acts , Don César de Bazan ( Paris , 1872 ) . It was a failure , but in 1873 he succeeded with his incidental music to Leconte de Lisle 's tragedy Les Érinnyes and with the dramatic oratorio , Marie @-@ Magdeleine , both of which were performed at the Théâtre de l 'Odéon . His reputation as a composer was growing , but at this stage he earned most of his income from teaching , giving lessons for six hours a day .
Massenet was a prolific composer ; he put this down to his way of working , rising early and composing from four o 'clock in the morning until midday , a practice he maintained all his life . In general he worked fluently , seldom revising , although Le roi de Lahore , his nearest approach to a traditional grand opera , took him several years to complete to his own satisfaction . It was finished in 1877 and was one of the first new works to be staged at the Palais Garnier , opened two years previously . The opera , with a story taken from the Mahabharata , was an immense success and was quickly taken up by the opera houses of eight Italian cities . It was also performed at the Hungarian State Opera House , the Bavarian State Opera , the Semperoper , Dresden , the Teatro Real in Madrid , and the Royal Opera House , Covent Garden , in London . After the first Covent Garden performance , The Times summed the piece up in a way that was frequently to be applied to the composer 's operas : " M. Massenet 's opera , although not a work of genius proper , is one of more than common merit , and contains all the elements of at least temporary success . "
This period was an early high point in Massenet 's career . He had been made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1876 , and in 1878 he was appointed professor of counterpoint , fugue and composition at the Conservatoire under Thomas , who was now the director . In the same year he was elected to the Institut de France , a prestigious honour , rare for a man in his thirties . Camille Saint @-@ Saëns , whom Massenet beat in the election for the vacancy , was resentful at being passed over for a younger composer . When the result of the election was announced , Massenet sent Saint @-@ Saëns a courteous telegram : " My dear colleague : the Institut has just committed a great injustice " . Saint @-@ Saëns cabled back , " I quite agree . " He was elected three years later , but his relations with Massenet remained cool .
Massenet was a popular and respected teacher at the Conservatoire . His pupils included Bruneau , Charpentier , Chausson , Hahn , Leroux , Pierné , Rabaud and Vidal . He was known for the care he took in drawing out his pupils ' ideas , never trying to impose his own . One of his last students , Charles Koechlin , recalled Massenet as a voluble professor , dispensing " a teaching active , living , vibrant , and moreover comprehensive " . According to some writers , Massenet 's influence extended beyond his own students . In the view of the critic Rodney Milnes , " In word @-@ setting alone , all French musicians profited from the freedom he won from earlier restrictions . " Romain Rolland and Francis Poulenc have both considered Massenet an influence on Debussy 's Pelléas et Mélisande ; Debussy was a student at the Conservatoire during Massenet 's professorship but did not study under him .
= = = Operatic successes and failures , 1879 – 96 = = =
Massenet 's growing reputation did not prevent a contretemps with the Paris Opéra in 1879 . Auguste Vaucorbeil , director of the Opéra , refused to stage the composer 's new piece , Hérodiade , judging the libretto either improper or inadequate . Édouard @-@ Fortuné Calabresi , joint director of the Théâtre de la Monnaie , Brussels , immediately offered to present the work , and its première , lavishly staged , was given in December 1881 . It ran for fifty @-@ five performances in Brussels , and had its Italian premiere two months later at La Scala . The work finally reached Paris in February 1884 , by which time Massenet had established himself as the leading French opera composer of his generation .
Manon , first given at the Opéra @-@ Comique in January 1884 , was a prodigious success and was followed by productions at major opera houses in Europe and the United States . Together with Gounod 's Faust and Bizet 's Carmen it became , and has remained , one of the cornerstones of the French operatic repertoire . After the intimate drama of Manon , Massenet once more turned to opera on the grand scale with Le Cid in 1885 , which marked his return to the Opéra . The Paris correspondent of The New York Times wrote that with this new work Massenet " has resolutely declared himself a melodist of undoubted consistency and of remarkable inspiration . " After these two triumphs , Massenet entered a period of mixed fortunes . He worked on Werther intermittently for several years , but it was rejected by the Opéra @-@ Comique as too gloomy . In 1887 he met the American soprano Sibyl Sanderson . He developed passionate feelings for her , which remained platonic , although it was widely believed in Paris that she was his mistress , as caricatures in the journals hinted with varying degrees of subtlety . For her , the composer revised Manon and wrote Esclarmonde ( 1889 ) . The latter was a success , but it was followed by Le mage ( 1891 ) , which failed . Massenet did not complete his next project , Amadis , and it was not until 1892 that he recovered his earlier successful form . Werther finally received its first performance in February 1892 , when the Vienna Hofoper asked for a new piece , following the enthusiastic reception of the Austrian premiere of Manon .
Though in the view of some writers Werther is the composer 's masterpiece , it was not immediately taken up with the same keenness as Manon . The first performance in Paris was in January 1893 by the Opéra @-@ Comique company at the Théâtre Lyrique , and there were performances in the United States , Italy and Britain , but it met with a muted response . The New York Times said of it , " If M. Massenet 's opera does not have lasting success it will be because it has no genuine depth . Perhaps M. Massenet is not capable of achieving profound depths of tragic passion ; but certainly he will never do so in a work like Werther " . It was not until a revival by the Opéra @-@ Comique in 1903 that the work became an established favourite .
Thaïs ( 1894 ) , composed for Sanderson , was moderately received . Like Werther , it did not gain widespread popularity among French opera @-@ goers until its first revival , which was four years after the premiere , by when the composer 's association with Sanderson was over . In the same year he had a modest success in Paris with the one @-@ act Le portrait de Manon at the Opéra @-@ Comique , and a much greater one in London with La Navarraise at Covent Garden . The Times commented that in this piece Massenet had adopted the verismo style of such works as Mascagni 's Cavalleria rusticana to great effect . The audience clamoured for the composer to acknowledge the applause , but Massenet , always a shy man , declined to take even a single curtain call .
= = = Later years , 1896 – 1912 = = =
The death of Ambroise Thomas in February 1896 made vacant the post of director of the Conservatoire . The French government announced on 6 May that Massenet had been offered the position and had refused it . The following day it was announced that another faculty member , Théodore Dubois , had been appointed director , and Massenet had resigned as professor of composition . Two explanations have been advanced for this sequence of events . Massenet wrote in 1910 that he had remained in post as professor out of loyalty to Thomas , and was eager to abandon all academic work in favour of composing , a statement repeated by his biographers Hugh Macdonald and Demar Irvine . Other writers on French music have written that Massenet was intensely ambitious to succeed Thomas , but resigned in pique after three months of manoeuvring , once the authorities finally rejected his insistence on being appointed director for life , as Thomas had been . He was succeeded as professor by Gabriel Fauré , who was doubtful of Massenet 's credentials , considering his popular style to be " based on a generally cynical view of art " .
With Grisélidis and Cendrillon complete , though still awaiting performance , Massenet began work on Sapho , based on a novel by Daudet about the love of an innocent young man from the country for a worldly @-@ wise Parisienne . It was given at the Opéra @-@ Comique in November 1897 , with great success , though it has been neglected since the composer 's death . His next work staged there was Cendrillon , his version of the Cinderella story , which was well received in May 1899 .
Macdonald comments that at the start of the 20th century Massenet was in the enviable position of having his works included in every season of the Opéra and the Opéra @-@ Comique , and in opera houses around the world . From 1900 to his death he led a life of steady work and , generally , success . According to his memoirs , he declined a second offer of the directorship of the Conservatoire in 1905 . Apart from composition , his main concern was his home life in the rue de Vaugirard , Paris , and at his country house in Égreville . He was uninterested in Parisian society , and so shunned the limelight that in later life he preferred not to attend his own first nights . He described himself as " a fireside man , a bourgeois artist " . The main biographical detail of note of his latter years was his second amitié amoureuse with one of his leading ladies , Lucy Arbell , who created roles in his last operas . Milnes describes Arbell as " gold @-@ digging " : her blatant exploitation of the composer 's honourable affections caused his wife considerable distress and even strained Massenet 's devotion ( or infatuation as Milnes characterises it ) . After the composer 's death Arbell pursued his widow and publishers through the law courts , seeking to secure herself a monopoly of the leading roles in several of his late operas .
A rare excursion from the opera house came in 1903 with Massenet 's only piano concerto , on which he had begun work while still a student . The work was performed by Louis Diémer at the Conservatoire , but made little impression compared with his operas . In 1905 Massenet composed Chérubin , a light comedy about the later career of the sex @-@ mad pageboy Cherubino from Mozart 's The Marriage of Figaro . Then came two serious operas , Ariane , on the Greek legend of Theseus and Ariadne , and Thérèse , a terse drama set in the French Revolution . His last major success was Don Quichotte ( 1910 ) , which L 'Etoile called " a very Parisian evening and , naturally , a very Parisian triumph " . Even with his creative powers seemingly in decline he wrote four other operas in his later years – Bacchus , Roma , Panurge and Cléopâtre . The last two , like Amadis , which he had been unable to finish in the 1890s , were premiered after the composer 's death and then lapsed into oblivion .
In August 1912 Massenet went to Paris from his house at Égreville to see his doctor . The composer had been suffering from abdominal cancer for some months , but his symptoms did not seem imminently life @-@ threatening . Within a few days his condition deteriorated sharply . His wife and family hastened to Paris , and were with him when he died , aged seventy . By his own wish his funeral , with no music , was held privately at Égreville , where he is buried in the churchyard .
= = Music = =
= = = Background = = =
In the view of his biographer Hugh Macdonald , Massenet 's main influences were Gounod and Thomas , with Meyerbeer and Berlioz also important to his style . From beyond France he absorbed some traits from Verdi , and possibly Mascagni , and above all Wagner . Unlike some other French composers of the period , Massenet never fell fully under Wagner 's spell , but he took from the earlier composer a richness of orchestration and a fluency in treatment of musical themes .
Although when he chose Massenet could write noisy and dissonant scenes – in 1885 Bernard Shaw called him " one of the loudest of modern composers " – much of his music is soft and delicate . Hostile critics have seized on this characteristic , but the article on Massenet in the 2001 edition of Grove 's Dictionary of Music and Musicians observes that in the best of his operas this sensual side " is balanced by strong dramatic tension ( as in Werther ) , theatrical action ( as in Thérèse ) , scenic diversion ( as in Esclarmonde ) , or humour ( as in Le portrait de Manon ) . "
Massenet 's Parisian audiences were greatly attracted by the exotic in music , and Massenet willingly obliged , with musical evocations of far @-@ flung places or times long past . Macdonald lists a great number of locales depicted in the operas , from ancient Egypt , mythical Greece and biblical Galilee to Renaissance Spain , India and Revolutionary Paris . Massenet 's practical experience in orchestra pits as a young man and his careful training at the Conservatoire equipped him to make such effects without much recourse to unusual instruments . He understood the capabilities of his singers , and composed with close , detailed regard for their voices .
= = = Operas = = =
Massenet wrote more than thirty operas . Authorities differ on the exact total because some of the works , particularly from his early years , are lost and others were left incomplete . Still others , such as Don César de Bazan and Le roi de Lahore , were substantially recomposed after their first productions and exist in two or more versions . Grove 's Dictionary of Music and Musicians lists forty Massenet operas in all , of which nine are shown as lost or destroyed . The " OperaGlass " website of Stanford University shows revised versions as premieres , and The New Grove Dictionary of Opera , does not : their totals are forty @-@ four and thirty @-@ six respectively .
Having honed his personal style as a young man , and sticking broadly with it for the rest of his career , Massenet does not , as some other composers do , lend himself to classification into clearly defined early , middle and late periods . Moreover , his versatility means that there is no plot or locale that can be regarded as typical Massenet . Another respect in which he differed from many opera composers is that he did not work regularly with the same librettists : Grove lists more than thirty writers who provided him with librettos .
The 1954 ( fifth ) edition of Grove said of Massenet , " to have heard Manon is to have heard the whole of him " . In 1994 Andrew Porter called this view preposterous . He countered , " Who knows Manon , Werther and Don Quichotte knows the best of Massenet , but not his range from heroic romance to steamy verismo . " Massenet 's output covered most of the different subgenres of opera , from opérette ( L 'adorable Bel ' -Boul and L 'écureuil du déshonneur – both early , lost pieces ) and opéra @-@ comique such as Manon , to grand opera – Grove categorises Le roi de Lahore as " the last grand opera to have a great and widespread success " . Many of the elements of traditional grand opera are written into later large @-@ scale works such as Le mage and Hérodiade . Massenet 's operas consist of anything from one to five acts , and although many of them are described on the title pages of their scores as " opéra " or " opéra comique " , others have carefully nuanced descriptions such as " comédie chantée " , " comédie lyrique " , " comédie @-@ héroïque " , " conte de fées " , " drame passionnel " , " haulte farce musicale " , " opéra légendaire " , " opéra romanesque " and " opéra tragique " .
In some of his operas , such as Esclarmonde and Le mage , Massenet moved away from the traditional French pattern of free @-@ standing arias and duets . Solos meld from declamatory passages into more melodic form , in a way that many contemporary critics thought Wagnerian . Shaw was not among them : in 1885 he wrote of Manon :
Of Wagnerism there is not the faintest suggestion . A phrase which occurs in the first love duet breaks out once or twice in subsequent amorous episodes , and has been seized on by a few unwary critics as a Wagnerian leit motif . But if Wagner had never existed , Manon would have been composed much as it stands now , whereas if Meyerbeer and Gounod had not made a path for M. Massenet , it is impossible to say whither he might have wandered , or how far he could have pushed his way .
The 21st @-@ century critic Anne Feeney comments , " Massenet rarely repeated musical phrases , let alone used recurrent themes , so the resemblance [ to Wagner ] lies solely in the declamatory lyricism and enthusiastic use of the brass and percussion . " Massenet enjoyed introducing comedy into his serious works , and writing some mainly comic operas . In Macdonald 's view of the comic works , Cendrillon and Don Quichotte succeed , but Don César de Bazan and Panurge are less satisfying than " the more delicately tuned operas such as Manon , Le portrait de Manon and Le jongleur de Notre @-@ Dame , where comedy serves a more complex purpose . "
According to Operabase , analysis of productions around the world in 2012 – 13 shows Massenet as the twentieth most popular of all opera composers , and the fourth most popular French one , after Bizet , Offenbach and Gounod . The most often performed of his operas in the period are shown as Werther ( 63 productions in all countries ) , followed by Manon ( 47 ) , Don Quichotte ( 22 ) , Thaïs ( 21 ) , Cendrillon ( 17 ) , La Navarraise ( 4 ) , Cléopâtre ( 3 ) , Thérèse ( 2 ) , Le Cid ( 2 ) , Hérodiade ( 2 ) , Esclarmonde ( 2 ) , Chérubin ( 2 ) and Le mage ( 1 ) .
= = = Other vocal music = = =
Between 1862 and 1900 Massenet composed eight oratorios and cantatas , mostly on religious subjects . There is a degree of overlap between his operatic style and his choral works for church or concert hall performance . Vincent d 'Indy wrote that there was " a discreet and semi @-@ religious eroticism " in Massenet 's music . The religious element was a regular theme in his secular as well as sacred works : this derived not from any strong personal faith , but from his response to the dramatic aspects of Roman Catholic ritual . The mingling of operatic and religious elements in his works was such that one of his oratorios , Marie @-@ Magdeleine , was staged as an opera during the composer 's lifetime . Elements of the erotic and some implicit sympathy for sinners were controversial , and may have prevented his church works establishing themselves more securely . Arthur Hervey , a contemporary critic not unsympathetic to Massenet , commented that Marie @-@ Magdeleine and the later oratorio Ève ( 1875 ) were " the Bible doctored up in a manner suitable to the taste of impressionable Parisian ladies – utterly inadequate for the theme , at the same time very charming and effective . " Of the four works categorised by Irvine and Grove as oratorios , only one , La terre promise ( 1900 ) , was written for church performance . Massenet used the term " oratorio " for that work , but he called Marie @-@ Magdeleine a " drame sacré " , Ève a " mystère " , and La Vierge ( 1880 ) a " légende sacrée " .
Massenet composed many other smaller @-@ scale choral works , and more than two hundred songs . His early collections of songs were particularly popular and helped establish his reputation . His choice of lyrics ranged widely . Most were verses by poets such as Musset , Maupassant , Hugo , Gautier and many lesser @-@ known French writers , with occasional poems from overseas , including Tennyson in English and Shelley in French translation . Grove comments that Massenet 's songs , though pleasing and impeccable in craftsmanship , are less inventive than those of Bizet and less distinctive than those of Duparc and Fauré .
= = = Orchestral and chamber music = = =
Massenet was a fluent and skilful orchestrator , and willingly provided ballet episodes for his operas , incidental music for plays , and a one @-@ act stand @-@ alone ballet for Vienna ( Le carillon , 1892 ) . Macdonald remarks that Massenet 's orchestral style resembled that of Delibes , " with its graceful movement and bewitching colour " , which was highly suited to classical French ballet . The Méditation for solo violin and orchestra , from Thaïs , is possibly the best known non @-@ vocal piece by Massenet , and appears on many recordings . Another popular stand @-@ alone orchestral piece from the operas is Le dernier sommeil de la Vierge from La Vierge , which has featured on numerous discs since the middle of the 20th century .
A Parisian critic , after seeing La grand ' tante , declared that Massenet was a symphonist rather than a theatre composer . At the time of the British premiere of Manon in 1885 , the critic in The Manchester Guardian , reviewing the work enthusiastically , nevertheless echoed his French confrère 's view that the composer was really a symphonist , whose music was at its best when purely orchestral . Massenet took a wholly opposite view of his talents . He was temperamentally unsuited to writing symphonically : the constraints of sonata form bored him . He wrote , in the early 1870s , " What I have to say , musically , I have to say rapidly , forcefully , concisely ; my discourse is tight and nervous , and if I wanted to express myself otherwise I would not be myself . " His efforts in the concertante field made little mark , but his orchestral suites , colourful and picturesque according to Grove , have survived on the fringes of the repertoire . Other works for orchestra are a symphonic poem , Visions ( 1891 ) , an Ouverture de Concert ( 1863 ) and Ouverture de Phèdre ( 1873 ) . After early attempts at chamber music as a student , he wrote little more in the genre . Most of his early chamber pieces are now lost ; three pieces for cello and piano survive .
= = = Recordings = = =
The only known recording made by Massenet is an excerpt from Sapho , " Pendant un an je fus ta femme " , in which he plays a piano accompaniment for the soprano Georgette Leblanc . It was recorded in 1903 , and was not intended for publication . It has been released on compact disc ( 2008 ) , together with contemporary recordings by Grieg , Saint @-@ Saëns , Debussy and others .
In Massenet 's later years , and in the decade after his death , many of his songs and opera extracts were recorded . Some of the performers were the original creators of the roles , such as Ernest van Dyck ( Werther ) , Emma Calvé ( Sapho ) , Hector Dufranne ( Grisélidis ) , and Vanni Marcoux ( Panurge ) . Complete French recordings of Manon and Werther , conducted by Élie Cohen , were issued in 1932 and 1933 and have been republished on CD . The critic Alan Blyth comments that they embody the original , intimate Opéra @-@ Comique style of performing Massenet .
Of Massenet 's operas , the two best known , Manon and Werther , have been recorded many times , and studio or live recordings have been issued of many of the others , including Cendrillon , Le Cid , Don Quichotte , Esclarmonde , Hérodiade , Le jongleur de Notre @-@ Dame , Le mage , La Navarraise and Thaïs . Conductors on these discs include Sir Thomas Beecham , Richard Bonynge , Riccardo Chailly , Sir Colin Davis , Patrick Fournillier , Sir Charles Mackerras , Pierre Monteux , Sir Antonio Pappano and Michel Plasson . Among the sopranos and mezzos are Dame Janet Baker , Victoria de los Ángeles , Natalie Dessay , Renée Fleming , Angela Gheorghiu and Dame Joan Sutherland . Leading men in recordings of Massenet operas include Roberto Alagna , Gabriel Bacquier , Plácido Domingo , Thomas Hampson , José van Dam , Alain Vanzo and Rolando Villazón .
In addition to the operas , recordings have been issued of several orchestral works , including the ballet Le carillon , the piano concerto in E ♭ , the Fantaisie for cello and orchestra , and orchestral suites . Many individual mélodies by Massenet were included in mixed recitals on record during the 20th century , and more have been committed to disc since then , including , for the first time , a CD in 2012 , exclusively devoted to his songs for soprano and piano .
= = Reputation = =
By the time of the composer 's death in 1912 his reputation had declined , especially outside his native country . In the second edition ( 1907 ) of Grove , J A Fuller Maitland accused the composer of pandering to the fashionable Parisian taste of the moment , and disguising a uniformly " weak and sugary " style with superficial effects . Fuller Maitland contended that to discerning music lovers such as himself the operas of Massenet were " inexpressibly monotonous " , and he predicted that they would all be forgotten after the composer 's death . Similar views were expressed in an obituary in The Musical Times
His early scores are , for the greater part , his best ... Later , and for the plain reason that he never attempted to renovate his style , he sank into sheer mannerism . Indeed , one can but marvel that so gifted a musician , who lacked neither individuality nor skill , should have so utterly succeeded in throwing away his gifts . Success spoiled him ... the actual progress of musical art during the past forty years left Massenet unmoved ... he has taken no part in the evolution of modern music .
Massenet was never entirely without supporters . In the 1930s Sir Thomas Beecham told the critic Neville Cardus , " I would give the whole of Bach 's Brandenburg Concertos for Massenet 's Manon , and would think I had vastly profited by the exchange . " By the 1950s critics were reappraising Massenet 's works . In 1951 Martin Cooper of The Daily Telegraph wrote that Massenet 's detractors , including some fellow composers , were on the whole idealistic , even puritanical , " but few of them have in practice achieved anything so near perfection in any genre , however humble , as Massenet achieved in his best works . " In 1955 Edward Sackville @-@ West and Desmond Shawe @-@ Taylor commented in The Record Guide that , although usually dismissed as an inferior Gounod , Massenet wrote music with a distinct flavour of its own . " He had a gift for melody of a suave , voluptuous and eminently singable kind , and the intelligence and dramatic sense to make the most of it . " The writers called for revivals of Grisélidis , Le jongleur de Notre @-@ Dame , Don Quichotte and Cendrillon , all then neglected . By the 1990s , Massenet 's reputation had been considerably rehabilitated . In The Penguin Opera Guide ( 1993 ) , Hugh Macdonald wrote that though Massenet 's operas never equalled the grandeur of Berlioz 's Les Troyens , the genius of Bizet 's Carmen or the profundity of Debussy 's Pelléas et Mélisande , from the 1860s until the years before the First World War , the composer gave the French lyric stage a remarkable series of works , two of which – Manon and Werther – are " masterpieces that will always grace the repertoire " . In Macdonald 's view , Massenet " embodies many enduring aspects of the belle époque , one of the richest cultural periods in history " . In France , Massenet 's 20th @-@ century eclipse was less complete than elsewhere , but his oeuvre has been revalued in recent years . In 2003 Piotr Kaminsky wrote in Mille et un opéras of Massenet 's skill in translating French text into flexible melodic phrases , his exceptional orchestral virtuosity , combining sparkle and clarity , and his unerring theatrical instinct .
Rodney Milnes , in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera ( 1992 ) , agrees that Manon and Werther have a secure place in the international repertoire ; he counts three others as " re @-@ establishing a toehold " ( Cendrillon , Thaïs and Don Quichotte ) , with many more due for re @-@ evaluation or rediscovery . He concludes that comparing Massenet with the handful of composers of great genius , " It would be absurd to claim that he was anything more than a second @-@ rate composer ; he nevertheless deserves to be seen , like Richard Strauss , at least as a first @-@ class second @-@ rate one . "
|
= Everything in Time =
Everything in Time ( B @-@ sides , Rarities , Remixes ) is a compilation album comprising B @-@ sides , remixes , and rare songs by the American third wave ska band No Doubt , first released on November 23 , 2003 as disc three of No Doubt 's box set , Boom Box , which also contained The Singles 1992 – 2003 , The Videos 1992 – 2003 and Live in the Tragic Kingdom . Everything in Time was later released separately on October 12 , 2004 .
The album 's B @-@ sides and rarities originate in recording sessions for the band 's fourth studio album , Return of Saturn . The first six tracks were used as B @-@ sides for three of the singles released off the album , " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " , " Simple Kind of Life " and " Bathwater " . Everything in Time also includes a remix of the song " New " , also from Return of Saturn , and two remixes of " Rock Steady " , the title track from No Doubt 's fifth studio album , Rock Steady .
The album received little coverage , not being a studio album , although the publications that did cover it gave average or good reviews , both in the box set Boom Box and its in solo release . It charted on the U.S. Billboard 200 album chart at number 182 .
= = Background = =
No Doubt 's fourth studio album , Return of Saturn was recorded between 1998 and 1999 and released on April 11 , 2000 . Over 40 demo tracks were recorded for Return of Saturn , but the list was whittled down to the fourteen for the album 's final composition , four of which were released as singles : " New " , " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " , " Simple Kind of Life " and " Bathwater " . No Doubt released their fifth studio album , Rock Steady , in December 2001 and from it released four singles , " Hey Baby " , " Hella Good " , " Underneath It All " and " Running " between 2001 and 2003 . The album sold 3 million copies and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America .
Later , in April 2003 , No Doubt went into hiatus to take a break to spend time with their families before starting to compile Everything in Time ; The Singles 1992 – 2003 , a greatest hits album featuring songs from their previous studio albums ; and Boom Box , a box set compiling The Singles 1992 – 2003 , Everything in Time , The Videos 1992 – 2003 and Live in the Tragic Kingdom , which would all be released on the same date . The main reason to go into hiatus was that , in early 2003 , lead singer Gwen Stefani started work on her 1980s @-@ inspired new wave / dance @-@ pop music side project , under which she released two solo albums : Love . Angel . Music . Baby. on November 22 , 2004 and The Sweet Escape on December 4 , 2006 .
= = Music = =
The first six tracks on the album are B @-@ sides from No Doubt 's fourth album , Return of Saturn . " Big Distraction " is a B @-@ side to the British CD single release of " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " and appears on the Australian and Japanese versions of Return of Saturn . " Leftovers " is a B @-@ side to the European enhanced and Australian CD single releases of " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " . " Full Circle " is a B @-@ side to the European , European enhanced , and Australian CD single releases of " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " and " Simple Kind of Life " and appears on the Japanese version of Return of Saturn . " Cellophane Boy " is a B @-@ side to the CD single release of " Simple Kind of Life " . " Beauty Contest " is a B @-@ side to the British and German CD single releases of " Simple Kind of Life " and " Bathwater " . " Under Construction " is a B @-@ side to the British CD single releases of " Simple Kind of Life " and " Bathwater " .
" Everything in Time " , " You 're So Foxy " , and " Panic " are outtakes from recording sessions of Return of Saturn , while " New Friend " is a leftover from the Rock Steady recordings . " Sailin ' On " is a cover of the song by Bad Brains , an American hardcore punk band , from their debut album Bad Brains . " Oi to the World " is a cover of the original version by The Vandals , a Californian punk rock band , from their album Oi to the World ! . " I Throw My Toys Around " is a song from the soundtrack of The Rugrats Movie , performed by No Doubt and Elvis Costello .
" New and Approved " is a remix of the song " New " from Return of Saturn . It was a B @-@ side to many of the single releases of " New " . " A Real Love Survives " and " A Rock Steady Vibe " are remixes of the song " Rock Steady " on the album Rock Steady . " A Real Love Survives " features British rapper Ms. Dynamite and " A Rock Steady Vibe " features Sweetie Irie .
= = Critical reception = =
In its 2003 release as part of Boom Box , Everything in Time was described as " certainly worth having " by Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic in a review for the box set . RockMusicReview called the song " Full Circle " , from Everything in Time , one of the highlights of Boom Box . In its 2004 solo release , few critics reviewed Everything in Time because it was not a studio album . However , Laura Sinagra for Blender magazine gave it three stars out of five , saying it contained " endearing , younger examples of the marriage @-@ minded tomboy [ Gwen Stefani ] agonizing over the task of taming restless playboys " . She complimented " New Friend " , " Under Construction " and both versions of " Everything in Time " as " satisfying laments " with " truth @-@ serum lyrics " , and praised Stefani 's " just @-@ a @-@ girl sass " in " Oi to the World " . However , she criticized " Big Distraction " and " Leftovers " , which in her opinion were " pale beside the singles [ The Singles 1992 – 2003 ] " . Both Allmusic and Artistdirect gave the album three stars out of five but neither gave an actual review .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = Release history = =
|
= Tom Driberg =
Thomas Edward Neil Driberg , Baron Bradwell ( 22 May 1905 – 12 August 1976 ) was a British journalist , politician and High Anglican churchman who served as a Member of Parliament ( MP ) from 1942 to 1955 and from 1959 to 1974 . A member of the British Communist Party for more than 20 years , he was first elected to parliament as an Independent , and joined the Labour Party in 1945 . He never held any ministerial office , but rose to senior positions within the Labour Party and was a popular and influential figure in left @-@ wing politics for many years .
The son of a retired colonial officer , Driberg was educated at Lancing and Christ Church , Oxford . After leaving the university without a degree , he attempted to establish himself as a poet before joining the Daily Express as a reporter , later becoming a columnist . In 1933 he began the " William Hickey " society column , which he continued to write until 1943 . He was later a regular columnist for the Co @-@ operative Group newspaper Reynold 's News and for other left @-@ leaning journals . He wrote several books , including biographies of the press baron Lord Beaverbrook and the fugitive British diplomat Guy Burgess . He retired from the House of Commons in 1974 , and was subsequently raised to the peerage as Baron Bradwell , of Bradwell juxta Mare in the County of Essex .
Driberg made no secret of his homosexuality , which he practised throughout his life despite it being a criminal offence in Britain until 1967 ; his ability to avoid any consequences for his risky and often brazen behaviour baffled his friends and colleagues . Always in search of bizarre experiences , Driberg befriended at various times the occultist Aleister Crowley and the Kray twins , along with honoured and respected figures in the worlds of literature and politics . He combined this lifestyle with an unvarying devotion to Anglo @-@ Catholicism . After his death , allegations were published about his role over many years as an MI5 informant , a KGB agent , or both . The extent and nature of Driberg 's involvement with these agencies remain uncertain .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family background and childhood = = =
Driberg was born on 22 May 1905 in Crowborough , a small dormitory town about 40 miles ( 64 km ) south of London . He was the third and youngest of three sons born to John James Street Driberg , a former officer in the Indian Civil Service , and his wife Amy Mary Irving Driberg ( née Bell ) . The Driberg family had immigrated from Holland about 200 years previously ; the Bells were lowland Scots from Dumfriesshire . John Driberg had retired in 1896 after 35 years in Assam , latterly as head of the state 's police , and was 65 years old when his youngest son was born . For Driberg , growing up mostly alone with his elderly parents was a stifling experience ; he would later describe Crowborough as " a place which I can never revisit , or think of , without a feeling of sick horror " .
At the age of eight Driberg began as a day @-@ boy at the Grange school in Crowborough . In his autobiography he mentions in particular two aspects of his time there : learning the " facts of life " from other boys , with extensive experimentation , and his discovery of what he calls " exotic " religion — High Anglicanism . These experiences formed what he called two " conflicting compulsions " , soon to be joined by a third — left @-@ wing politics — to shape the ruling passions of his life .
= = = Lancing = = =
In 1918 , when he was 13 , Driberg left the Grange for Lancing College , the public school on the south coast where , after some initial bullying and humiliation , he was befriended by fellow @-@ pupil Evelyn Waugh . Under Waugh 's sponsorship Driberg joined an intellectual society , the Dilettanti , which promoted literary and artistic activities alongside political debate . He began to write poetry ; his aesthetic education was further assisted by the charismatic J. F. Roxburgh , " a magnetically brilliant teacher " who later became headmaster of Stowe School . Lancing 's Gothic chapel gave Driberg the religious atmosphere he sought , though he found the services disappointingly " moderate " . By 1920 he was inclining to the political left and was in rebellion against his conservative upbringing . Finding the Labour Party too dull and respectable for his radical tastes , he joined the Brighton branch of the newly formed British Communist Party .
After Driberg had risen to responsible positions within the school ( deputy head boy , head librarian , and chief sacristan , among others ) , his Lancing career ended suddenly in the autumn of 1923 , when two boys complained about his sexual overtures . To avoid distressing the widowed Amy Driberg ( John Driberg had died in 1919 ) , the headmaster allowed him to remain in the school for the remainder of the term , stripped of his offices and segregated from all social contact with other boys . At the end of the term he was required to leave , on the pretext that he needed private tuition to pass his Oxford entrance examination which he had failed the previous summer . Back in Crowborough , after several months ' hard application under the guidance of his tutor , the future Lord Justice Pearson , Driberg won a classics scholarship to Christ Church , Oxford .
= = Oxford = =
Oxford in 1924 featured an avant @-@ garde aesthetic movement in which personalities such as Harold Acton , Brian Howard , Cyril Connolly and , a little later , W. H. Auden were leading lights . Driberg was soon immersed in a world of art , politics , poetry and parties : " There was just no time for any academic work " , he wrote later . With Auden , he discovered T. S. Eliot 's The Waste Land , which they read again and again , " with growing awe " . A poem of Driberg 's in the style of Edith Sitwell was published in Oxford Poetry 1926 ; when Sitwell came to Oxford to deliver a lecture , Driberg invited her to have tea with him , and she accepted . After her lecture he found an opportunity to recite one of his own poems , and was rewarded when Sitwell declared him " the hope of English poetry " .
Meanwhile , together with the future historian A. J. P. Taylor , Driberg formed the membership of the Oxford University Communist Party . During the General Strike of May 1926 , most Oxford students supported the government and enrolled as special constables and strike @-@ breakers . A minority , which included the future Labour Party leader Hugh Gaitskell and the future Poet Laureate John Betjeman , sided with the strikers , while Driberg and Taylor offered their services at the British Communist Party 's headquarters in London . The Party showed no urgency to employ them , and Taylor soon left . Driberg , given a job distributing strike bulletins , was arrested by the police before he could begin and was detained for several hours . This ended his active role in the strike . Notwithstanding his extreme left @-@ wing associations , he secured 75 votes ( against the winner 's 152 ) in the 1927 elections for the presidency of the Oxford Union .
Throughout his time at Oxford , Driberg followed his passion for Anglican rituals by regularly attending Mass at Pusey House , an independent religious institution with a mission to " [ restore ] the Church of England 's Catholic life and witness " . In spite of the prevalent Oxford homoerotic ethos , his sexual energies were largely devoted to casual encounters with working @-@ class men , rather than to relationships with his fellow undergraduates . He experienced sexual relations with only one don , whom he met outside the university , unaware of the latter 's identity .
One of Driberg 's elaborate hoaxes was a concert called " Homage to Beethoven " , which featured megaphones , typewriters and a flushing lavatory . Newspaper accounts of this event raised the interest of the occultist Aleister Crowley . Driberg accepted an invitation to lunch with Crowley for the first of several meetings between them , at one of which Crowley nominated Driberg as his successor as World Teacher . Nothing came of the proposal , though the two continued to meet ; Driberg received from Crowley manuscripts and books that he later sold for sizeable sums . The consequence of these various extracurricular involvements was neglect of his academic work ; failure in his final examinations was inevitable , and in the summer of 1927 he left Oxford without a degree .
= = Daily Express columnist = =
= = = " The Talk of London " = = =
After leaving Oxford , Driberg lived precariously in London , attempting to establish himself as a poet while doing odd jobs and pawning his few valuables . Occasionally he had chance encounters with Oxford acquaintances ; Evelyn Waugh 's diary entry for 30 October 1927 records : " I went to church in Margaret Street where I was discomposed to observe Tom Driberg 's satanic face in the congregation " . Driberg had maintained his contact with Edith Sitwell , and attended regular literary tea parties at her Bayswater flat . When Sitwell discovered her protégé 's impoverished circumstances she arranged an interview for him with the Daily Express . After his submission of an article on London 's nightlife , he was engaged in January 1928 for a six @-@ week trial as a reporter ; coincidentally , Waugh had undergone an unsuccessful trial with the same newspaper a few months earlier .
Within a month of beginning his duties , Driberg achieved a scoop with the first national newspaper reports of the activities in Oxford of the American evangelist Frank Buchman , whose movement would in time be known as Moral Re @-@ Armament . Driberg 's reports were generally abrasive , even mocking in tone , and drew complaints from Buchman 's organisation about news bias . The trial period at the Express was extended , and in July 1928 Driberg filed an exclusive report on a society party at the swimming baths in Buckingham Palace Road , where the guests included Lytton Strachey and Tallulah Bankhead . This evidence of Driberg 's social contacts led to a permanent contract with the Express , as assistant to Percy Sewell who , under the name " The Dragoman " , wrote a daily feature called " The Talk of London " . Driberg later defended his association with an inconsequential society column by arguing that his approach was satirical , and that he deliberately exaggerated the doings of the idle rich as a way of enraging working @-@ class opinion and helping the Communist Party .
Driberg used the column to introduce readers to up @-@ and @-@ coming socialites and literary figures , Acton , Betjeman , Nancy Mitford and Peter Quennell among them . Sometimes he introduced more serious causes : capital punishment , modern architecture , the works of D. H. Lawrence and Jacob Epstein , and the lesbian novel The Well of Loneliness by Radclyffe Hall , which had been denounced in the Express editorial columns as " infamous " . By prior arrangement with Waugh , the column included a discreet announcement in September 1930 of Waugh 's conversion to Roman Catholicism ; Driberg was his only guest at the service . He further assisted Waugh in 1932 by giving him space in the column to attack the editor of the Catholic journal The Tablet , after it had described Waugh 's Black Mischief as blasphemous .
= = = As William Hickey = = =
Sewell retired in 1932 , leaving Driberg in sole charge of " The Talk of London " column . He grew increasingly frustrated with the trivial nature of his work . Following the intervention of Express proprietor Lord Beaverbrook , the column was relaunched in May 1933 as " These Names Make News " , and its by @-@ line changed to " William Hickey " , after the 18th century diarist and rake . Driberg described the new feature as " ... an intimate biographical column about ... men and women who matter . Artists , statesmen , airmen , writers , financiers , explorers ... " Historian David Kynaston calls Driberg the " founder of the modern gossip column " , although it soon began to move decisively away from chit @-@ chat and towards social and political issues . The tone of the column was described by Driberg 's ODNB biographer Richard Davenport @-@ Hines as " wry , compassionate , and brimm [ ing ] with ... open @-@ minded intelligence " .
Beaverbrook , who had developed a fondness for Driberg , was amused by the disparity between his columnist 's professed left @-@ wing sympathies and bon vivant lifestyle . The proprietor knew of Driberg 's persistent mismanagement of his personal finances , and on various occasions helped out with loans and gifts . During his time in London , Driberg had continued to indulge his taste for rough , casual sex ; his memoir records many such instances . In the autumn of 1935 he was charged with indecent assault , after an incident in which he had shared his bed with two Scotsmen picked up late one night , in the bohemian district of London which Driberg had christened " Fitzrovia " in the Hickey column . Beaverbrook paid for a leading counsel , J. D. Cassels , and two unimpeachable character witnesses were recruited by the defence . Driberg was acquitted , and Beaverbrook 's influence ensured that the case went unreported by the press . This was the first known instance of what writer Kingsley Amis called the " baffling immunity [ Driberg ] enjoyed from the law and the Press to the end of his days " .
In the latter part of the 1930s Driberg travelled widely : twice to Spain , to observe the Spanish Civil War , to Germany after the Munich Agreement of 1938 , to Rome for the coronation of Pope Pius XII and to New York for the 1939 New York World 's Fair . After the Nazi @-@ Soviet Pact was announced in August 1939 , he informed his readers that there would be " no war this crisis " . Nine days later , after the German invasion of Poland precipitated the Second World War , he apologised for his mistake , and ended his first wartime column with the words " We 're all in it " . His opposition to the Nazi @-@ Soviet Pact and his support for the war in September 1939 may have been the reason for his expulsion from the Communist Party in 1941 . An alternative explanation , proffered later , is that he was reported by Anthony Blunt for passing information on the Party to Maxwell Knight of MI5 . Driberg and Knight were long @-@ standing acquaintances who met frequently and , among other things , shared a mutual interest in the works of Aleister Crowley .
Driberg 's mother had died in July 1939 . With his share of her money and the help of a substantial mortgage , he bought and renovated Bradwell Lodge , a country house in Bradwell @-@ on @-@ Sea on the Essex coast , where he lived and entertained until the house was requisitioned by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in 1940 . He continued to write the Hickey column , not always to his editor 's satisfaction ; his protestations against indiscriminate bombing of German civilians were particularly frowned on . In November 1941 he went to America and was in Washington on Monday 8 December , after the attack on Pearl Harbor , to report President Roosevelt 's speech to Congress announcing America 's entry into the war .
= = Early parliamentary career = =
= = = Independent Member for Maldon , 1942 – 45 = = =
When Driberg returned to Britain in March 1942 he found widespread public dissatisfaction with the government 's conduct of the war . This mood was reflected in a series of parliamentary by @-@ elections in which candidates supporting the wartime coalition government were defeated by Independents — the major parties had agreed to a pact under which they would not contest by @-@ elections in seats held by their respective parties . Driberg , in his column , generally welcomed this trend , while questioning " the merit of some of the candidates likely to get in if the reaction against the Party machines continues " . On 12 May 1942 the death was announced of Sir Edward Ruggles @-@ Brise , the Conservative member for Maldon — the constituency in which Bradwell Lodge was situated . Next day , Driberg requested three weeks ' leave from his column to fight the by @-@ election . Contrary to the belief of prime minister Winston Churchill and others that Driberg was being " run " by Beaverbrook , the Express proprietor was unenthusiastic ; an editorial on 25 May drew attention to Driberg 's individual viewpoint and stated that " The Daily Express does not support his candidature " .
Driberg 's campaign slogan was " A Candid Friend For Churchill " , personally supportive but critical of many of the prime minister 's circle . The lacklustre campaign of his right @-@ wing Conservative opponent helped to secure Driberg a wide range of support , from moderate Conservatives , Liberals and socialists . His fame as " William Hickey " , and his stance as the only candidate with a home in the constituency , gave him a strong local profile . His previous Communist Party associations were not revealed . At the poll , on 25 June , he overturned a previous Conservative majority of 8 @,@ 000 to finish 6 @,@ 000 votes ahead of his opponent . In his war memoirs , Churchill called the result " one of the by @-@ products of Tobruk " — which had fallen to Rommel on 21 June . Waugh , in his diary , remarked that the presentation of Driberg during the by @-@ election merely as a journalist and churchwarden gave " a very imperfect picture of that sinister character " .
On 2 July 1942 Driberg cast his first vote in the House of Commons , in support of Churchill against a rebel motion of censure on the government 's conduct of the war . The rebels ' case was put incompetently , which ensured that the motion gained only 25 votes , as against 477 cast for the government . Driberg delivered his maiden speech on 7 July , in a debate on the use of propaganda . He called for the lifting of the ban on the Communist Party 's newspaper , the Daily Worker , which he saw as a potentially valuable weapon of home propaganda .
In the following months he tabled questions and intervened in debates on behalf of various progressive causes . For example , on 29 September 1942 he asked the prime minister to " make friendly representations to the American military authorities asking them to instruct their men that the colour bar is not a custom in this country " . He continued to write the Hickey column , and used his parliamentary salary to fund a constituency office in Maldon .
In January 1943 , while in Edinburgh to campaign in another by @-@ election , Driberg was caught by a policeman while in the act of fellating a Norwegian sailor . In his own account of the incident Driberg records that he escaped arrest by identifying himself as " William Hickey " and as a member of parliament . These disclosures evidently overawed the constable , who took no further action ; indeed , Driberg says , the incident began a chaste friendship with the officer that endured for more than 10 years . Meanwhile , Beaverbrook had become disenchanted with him , and did not intervene when Arthur Christiansen , the Express editor , sacked the columnist in June 1943 over a story detrimental to a government minister , Andrew Rae Duncan . Driberg subsequently signed up with Reynolds News , a Sunday newspaper owned by the Co @-@ operative Group , and undertook a regular parliamentary column for the New Statesman . He also contributed to a weekly BBC European Service broadcast until , in October 1943 , he was banned after government pressure . He reported the post @-@ D @-@ Day allied advances in France and Belgium as a war correspondent for Reynolds News , and as a member of a parliamentary delegation witnessed the aftermath of the liberation of Buchenwald concentration camp in April 1945 .
= = = Labour Member , 1945 – 55 = = =
In the General election of July 1945 Driberg increased his majority at Maldon to 7 @,@ 727 . Before the election he had joined the Labour Party and had been welcomed by the local constituency party as their candidate . He was thus one of the 393 Labour MPs in the landslide election victory that replaced Churchill as prime minister with Clement Attlee .
Within a few days of his victory , Driberg left for the Far East , to report on the conditions of the allied troops in Burma . The Supreme Allied Commander , Lord Mountbatten , knew him slightly and made him an unofficial temporary special adviser . In this role he met the Patriotic Burmese Forces leader , Aung San , who impressed him as honest and incorruptible , " unlike some of the older Burmese politicians " . Later , he visited Saigon and offered to mediate with Ho Chi Minh , who had recently declared an independent Vietnam state . Driberg later maintained that , had his offer been taken up , he might have prevented the Vietnam War .
Because of his journalism , Driberg was a well @-@ known figure within the Labour Party generally , and in 1949 was elected to the party 's National Executive Committee ( NEC ) . In the February 1950 General Election he was again elected at Maldon , while nationally Labour lost 68 seats , reducing its parliamentary majority to six . With so small a majority , members ' regular attendance in the Commons chamber became important ; however , in August 1950 Driberg left the country for Korea , where Britain had joined the United States in a United Nations military expedition to repel the North Korean invasion of the South . Driberg and a few other left @-@ wing MPs had objected to British involvement ; In his Reynolds News column , Driberg had written of " Tories ( Conservatives ) who ... cannot help baying their delight at the smell of blood in the air " , a comment that caused outrage in parliament among the Conservative members . Whatever his reservations , Driberg 's war dispatches to Reynolds News were strongly supportive of the British troops . He participated in several night operations , and won respect from many of the soldiers for his courage despite , as one Marine put it " being a bit bent " . He was away from parliament for three months , missing many critical House of Commons divisions , and on his return was severely censured by his fellow Labour MPs for neglecting his duties . His general standing in the party was unaffected ; he had been re @-@ elected in absentia to the NEC in September 1950 .
In April 1951 the Labour government was hit by the resignations of three ministers — Aneurin Bevan , the future prime minister Harold Wilson , and John Freeman — over the imposition of prescription charges to pay for an increased armaments programme . Driberg was sympathetic to the rebels , though he tried to find a basis for compromise that would avoid resignations . The former ministers strengthened the small Labour group known as " Keep Left " , in which Driberg was prominent ; the group would henceforth be known as " Bevanites " . In the October 1951 General Election the Labour Party was defeated , and Churchill resumed office ; Driberg held on to his Maldon seat by 704 votes . Through the years of Labour government he had neither received nor sought office , having what historian Kenneth O. Morgan called a " backbench mindset " . He still enjoyed aspects of his parliamentary life , such as in 1953 when he showed the American singing sensation Johnnie Ray round the House of Commons ; his attempts to seduce the singer were politely resisted . However , he needed to earn more money , and in the spring of 1952 responded to a suggestion that he should write a biography of Beaverbrook . The press lord was amenable , and work began in the summer of 1953 . The project extended over several years , by which time Driberg was no longer in parliament ; he had announced in March 1954 that he was standing down from Maldon , which at the General Election of May 1955 fell , as he had expected , to the Conservatives .
= = Marriage = =
On 16 February 1951 Driberg surprised his friends by announcing his engagement to Ena Mary Binfield ( née Lyttelton ) . A former Suffolk county councillor , she worked as an administrator at the Marie Curie Hospital in London and was well known in senior Labour circles ; she had met Driberg in 1949 , at a weekend party given by the government minister George Strauss . According to her son , she was fully aware of Driberg 's sexual preferences , but looked forward to some political excitement , and " thought they could do a useful job as Mr. and Mrs. " Driberg 's motives are less clear , but he told his friend John Freeman that he needed someone to run Bradwell Lodge , to which he had returned in 1946 after its release by the RAF .
At Driberg 's insistence , Ena , a non @-@ practising Jew , was baptised into the Church of England before the wedding at St Mary the Virgin , Pimlico , on 30 June 1951 . The bride entered the church to a chorale arranged from the Labour Party anthem " The Red Flag " ; this was followed by a nuptial mass described by Driberg 's biographer Francis Wheen as " outrageously ornate " . Four hundred guests then attended an elaborate reception at the House of Commons .
In the ensuing years Ena tried hard to adapt to Driberg 's way of life and to control his wayward finances , but with little success . He continued his frequent travels and casual homosexual liaisons , and was hostile to her efforts to control or change any aspect of his life . In 1961 she wrote to him : " I have tried for ten years to make a compromise with you in your extraordinary mode of life and have now given up . " Thereafter they often lived apart , though they never formally separated . Even after a final breach in 1971 , they remained legally married .
= = Later career = =
= = = Out of parliament = = =
On leaving parliament in 1955 , Driberg 's main task was to complete the Beaverbrook biography . Although Beaverbrook had initially promised no interference with the text , he changed his mind when he began to read Driberg 's drafts . In the course of a prolonged disagreement , Beaverbrook accused his biographer of being driven by " malice and hatred " . When the manuscript was finally cleared for publication , much of the objectionable material had been removed ; nevertheless , Beaverbrook used the Daily Express to campaign against the book and denounce its hostile tone . Evelyn Waugh , to whom Driberg sent a copy , expressed disappointment that the work was in fact " a honeyed eulogy " .
In an effort to build his post @-@ parliamentary career , Driberg turned briefly to creative writing , but without success . In his more familiar field of journalism he caused a sensation by flying to Moscow in August 1956 to interview Guy Burgess , the former British diplomat who in 1951 had defected to Russia with his colleague Donald Maclean . The pair had emerged in Moscow in March 1956 , to give a brief press conference . Driberg had known Burgess in the 1940s , and the two shared similar homosexual inclinations ; this acquaintance was sufficient to secure the Moscow interview . On his return home Driberg rapidly wrote a book from the interview material , the serial rights of which were sold to the Daily Mail . Critics drew attention to the book 's relatively sympathetic portrayal of Burgess ; some believed the book had been vetted by the KGB , while others saw it as part of an MI5 plot to trap Burgess into revealing secret information for which he could be prosecuted should he ever return to Britain .
In 1956 Driberg convened a group of Christian socialists that met regularly at the Lamb public house in Bloomsbury to discuss issues such as imperialism , colonialism , immigration and nuclear disarmament . The group 's dispatches , Papers from the Lamb , led to the foundation in 1960 of the Christian Socialist Movement . Although no longer an MP , Driberg remained a member of the Labour Party 's NEC and was active in party affairs . In 1957 , in the face of antagonism from trade union leaders repelled by his lifestyle , he became Labour Party chairman , a largely ceremonial role . He travelled widely during his year in office , generally as a Reynolds News correspondent but using the party title to advantage whenever he could . Thus , in a 1958 visit to Moscow to interview space scientists , he obtained two meetings with Nikita Khrushchev .
In his final speech as chairman , to the party conference in 1958 , Driberg angered the Conservatives and their press supporters by referring to the Tory ideology as not essentially different from the German Herrenvolk philosophy . He had been contemplating for some time a return to the House of Commons , and in February 1959 was adopted as a candidate by the safe Barking constituency . In the General Election of October 1959 , which delivered a 100 @-@ seat majority to Harold Macmillan 's Conservative government , he won at Barking with a majority of exactly 12 @,@ 000 .
= = = Member for Barking , 1959 – 74 = = =
A dominant issue when Driberg returned to Westminster was that of the use or outlawing of nuclear weapons . The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament ( CND ) had been launched on 17 February 1958 , though Driberg 's involvement with the issue predated CND by three years . On 2 March 1955 , in an amendment to a House of Commons motion , he had called for Great Britain to " regain the moral leadership of the world by taking an initiative ... that may lead to the outlawing of ... thermo @-@ nuclear weapons " .
In October 1960 he supported the unilateralist motions passed at the Labour Party conference , and fought unsuccessfully in the NEC for them to be adopted as party policy . The conference motion was reversed the following year , but he continued to pursue the matter in parliament . On 29 May 1962 he urged that Britain not be a party to the renewal of nuclear tests , and in a speech on 23 July he said : " The unilateral abandonment of testing — or , better still , a test ban agreement — would be the most valuable first step towards general and complete disarmament . "
According to his colleague Ian Mikardo , Driberg was less than enthusiastic about his duties in Barking — " a very , very bad constituency MP " . Even his strongest supporters acknowledged that he attended as few local events as possible . In the Commons chamber he was a regular speaker on issues that concerned him , in particular disarmament , church affairs and racial discrimination . He supported the lowering of the voting age to 18 , and the broadcasting of parliamentary debates ; he opposed increases to judges ' salaries , and the extension of Stansted Airport . After the General Election of 1964 , which narrowly returned Labour to power under Harold Wilson , he was not offered a place in the new government , and soon found himself in opposition to Wilson 's policies on Vietnam , the Common Market , immigration and other major issues . He joined with Mikardo and other dissidents to form the " Tribune Group " , with the aim of promoting more left @-@ wing policies . The group 's influence lessened after March 1966 , when in another General Election Wilson increased his majority to 98 .
Driberg embraced enthusiastically the climate of the 1960s and the social and cultural freedoms that the decade introduced . In 1963 he met the Kray twins , prominent London gangland figures , and began a lengthy friendship with them and their associates . In July 1964 two backbench Conservative MPs reported to their Chief Whip that Driberg and Lord Boothby ( a well @-@ known Conservative peer ) had been importuning males at a dog track , and were involved with gangs of thugs .
At parties which Driberg and Boothby attended at the Krays ' flat , " rough but compliant East End lads were served like so many canapés " , according to Wheen . While Driberg avoided publicity , Boothby was hounded by the press and forced to issue a series of denials . After the twins had been convicted of murder in 1969 , Driberg frequently lobbied the Home Office about their prison conditions , requesting that they be given more visits and allowed regular reunions . Driberg was impressed with Mick Jagger , to whom he was introduced in 1965 , and tried hard over a number of years to persuade the singer to take up active Labour politics . He also began a long association with the satirical magazine Private Eye , supplying it with political gossip and , under the pseudonym " Tiresias " , compiling a regular , highly risqué prize cryptic crossword puzzle which on one occasion was won by the wife of the Archbishop of Canterbury .
In 1964 Driberg published a critical study of Moral Re @-@ armament , which brought him attacks from the movement on the basis of his homosexuality and communist past . Although he made money from this book , throughout the 1960s he was beset by financial problems . When Reynolds News , which had evolved into the Sunday Citizen , finally folded in 1967 , he became fully dependent on his parliamentary salary and casual journalism . He had long considered selling Bradwell Lodge , preferably to the National Trust on a basis that would allow him to continue living there . However , the Trust required the property to be mortgage @-@ free and endowed with a substantial fund to cover future repairs , neither of which terms could be arranged . In the event the house remained unsold until 1971 . As the 1970 election approached , Driberg wished to retire from parliament , and asked Wilson to appoint him as ambassador to the Vatican . Wilson refused , citing Driberg 's age — at 65 he was beyond the retirement age for senior diplomats . Against his will , but with few other sources of income available to him , Driberg fought the June 1970 General Election . He was returned for Barking with a comfortable though reduced majority ; nationally , Wilson 's government was defeated by Edward Heath 's Conservatives .
= = Retirement , ennoblement and death = =
Hampered by age and declining health , Driberg became less active politically , and in 1972 was voted off Labour 's NEC . The sale of Bradwell Lodge to a private buyer removed his main burden of debt , and he rented a small flat in the Barbican development in the City of London . In February 1974 , at the age of 68 , he retired from the House of Commons with the intention of writing his memoirs . Still short of income , he first completed a biography of his fellow @-@ journalist Hannen Swaffer , which was indifferently received — " a feeble potboiler " , according to Davenport @-@ Hines . Friends organised an elaborate 70th birthday party for him on 21 May 1975 ; " one duke , two dukes ' daughters , sundry lords , a bishop , a poet laureate — not bad for an old left @-@ wing MP " , Driberg observed to a guest .
In November 1975 he was granted a life peerage , and on 21 January 1976 was introduced to the House of Lords as Baron Bradwell of Bradwell juxta Mare . On 14 April he tabled a motion in the Lords calling on the government to consider the withdrawal of troops from Northern Ireland , but won little support . His health was failing , though he continued to work on his memoirs . His final contribution to the House of Lords was on 22 July , in a debate on entry vouchers for the dependents of immigrants .
Three weeks later , on 12 August 1976 , while travelling by taxi from Paddington to his Barbican flat , he suffered a fatal heart attack . The funeral was held on 19 August at St Matthew 's , Westminster ; he was buried in the cemetery attached to St Thomas 's Church , Bradwell .
= = Allegations of treachery = =
After the publication of his relatively sympathetic portrait of Burgess in 1956 , Driberg had been denounced as a " dupe of Moscow " by some elements of the press . Two years after Driberg 's death , the veteran investigative reporter Chapman Pincher alleged that he had been " a Kremlin agent of sympathy " and a supporter of Communist front organisations . In 1979 Andrew Boyle published The Climate of Treason , which exposed Anthony Blunt and led to a period of " spy mania " in Britain . Boyle 's exhaustive account of the Burgess – Maclean – Philby – Blunt circle mentioned Driberg as a friend of Burgess , " of much the same background , tastes and views " , but made no allegations that he was part of any espionage ring .
In this atmosphere , Pincher published Their Trade is Treachery ( 1981 ) , in which he maintained that Driberg had been recruited by MI5 to spy on the Communist Party while still a schoolboy at Lancing , and that he was later " in the KGB 's pay as a double agent " . Other writers added further details ; the former British Intelligence officer Peter Wright , in Spycatcher ( 1987 ) , alleged that Driberg had been " providing material to a Czech controller for money " . The former Kremlin archivist Vasili Mitrokhin asserted that the Soviets had blackmailed Driberg into working for the KGB by threatening to expose his homosexuality .
The weight of information , and its constant repetition , made an apparently strong case against Driberg , and former friends such as Mervyn Stockwood , the Bishop of Southwark , became convinced that he had indeed betrayed his country . Other friends and colleagues were more sceptical . According to ex @-@ Labour MP Reginald Paget , not even the security services were " lunatic enough to recruit a man like Driberg " , who was famously indiscreet and could never keep a secret . Mitrokhin 's " blackmail " story is questioned by historian Jeff Sharlet , on the grounds that by the 1950s and 1960s Driberg 's homosexuality had been an open secret in British political circles for many years ; he frequently boasted of his " rough trade " conquests to his colleagues . The journalist A. N. Wilson quotes Churchill commenting years before that " Tom Driberg is the sort of person who gives sodomy a bad name " .
Pincher , however , argued that as homosexual acts were criminal offences in Britain until 1967 , Driberg was still vulnerable to blackmail , although he also asserted that the MI5 connection secured Driberg a lifelong immunity from prosecution . Driberg 's colleague Michael Foot denied Pincher 's claim that Margaret Thatcher , when prime minister , had made a secret agreement with Foot to protect Driberg if Foot , in turn , would remain silent about the supposed treachery of Roger Hollis , another of Pincher 's recently dead targets .
Wheen asserts that Pincher was not an objective commentator ; the Labour Party , and its supposed infiltration by Communist agents , had been his target over many years . Pincher 's verdict on Driberg is that " in journalism , in politics and intelligence ... eventually he betrayed everybody " . Wheen argues that Driberg 's greatest vice was indiscretion ; he gossiped about everyone , but " indiscretion is not synonymous with betrayal " . Driberg 's Labour Party colleague , Leo Abse , offers a more complex explanation : Driberg was an adventurer who loved taking risks and played many parts . " Driberg could have played the part of the spy with superb skill , and if the officers of MI5 were indeed inept enough to have attempted to recruit him , then , in turn , Tom Driberg would have gained special pleasure in fooling and betraying them " .
= = Appraisal = =
In his will Driberg had stipulated that at his funeral his friend Gerald Irvine should deliver an " anti @-@ panegyric " in place of the normal eulogy . Irvine obliged , with a detailed assessment of Driberg against the Seven Deadly Sins , finding him guilty of Gluttony , Lust and Wrath , but relatively free from Avarice and Envy and entirely untouched by Sloth . Pride , Irvine maintained , was in Driberg 's case mitigated by " the contrary virtue of humility " . Ena did not attend the funeral ; she gave a single press interview in which she expressed " huge respect for Tom 's journalistic skills , political power and championship of the underdog " . She added that if her admiration for him did not extend to their personal life together , that was a private matter .
Driberg prided himself on being an exception to a rule propounded by Cyril Connolly , that the war between the generations is the one war in which everyone changes sides eventually . Mervyn Stockwood , in his address at the funeral service , praised Driberg as " a searcher for truth " , whose loyalty to the socialist cause was beyond question . This verdict was echoed by Michael Foot , who in a postscript to Driberg 's memoir wrote of Driberg 's " great services " to the Labour Party in the various offices that he occupied . Foot believed that Driberg 's homosexual passion , rather than bringing him fulfilment , had " condemned him to a lifetime of deep loneliness " The Times obituarist described Driberg as " A journalist , an intellectual , a drinking man , a gossip , a high churchman , a liturgist , a homosexual " , the first time , according to journalist Christopher Hitchens , that the newspaper had ever defined a public figure specifically as homosexual .
Nevertheless , Driberg 's incomplete memoir Ruling Passions , when published in June 1977 , was a shock to the public and to some of his erstwhile associates , despite advance hints of the book 's scandalous content . Driberg 's candid revelations of his " cottaging " and his descriptions of casual oral sex were called by one commentator " the biggest outpouring of literary dung a public figure has ever flung into print . " The comedians Peter Cook and Dudley Moore depicted Driberg as a sexual predator , wearing " fine fishnet stockings " and cavorting with a rent boy , in a sketch , " Back of the Cab " , which they recorded in 1977 .
More vituperation followed when Pincher 's allegations of Driberg 's links with the Russian secret service were published in 1981 ; Pincher christened him " Lord of the Spies " . However , Foot dismissed these accusations as typical of the " fantasies of the secret service world that seem to have taken possession of Pincher 's mind " . Foot added that Driberg " had always been much too ready to look forgivingly on Communist misdeeds , but this attitude was combined with an absolutely genuine devotion to the cause of peace " .
In his 2004 biographical sketch Davenport @-@ Hines describes Driberg as " a sincere if eccentric Christian socialist who detested racism and colonialism " , who at the same time " could be pompous , mannered , wayward , self @-@ indulgent , ungrateful , bullying and indiscreet " . As to the apparent contradiction between sincere Christianity and promiscuous homosexuality , Wheen argues that " there had been a recognisable male homosexual subculture in the Anglo @-@ Catholic movement since the late nineteenth century " . This theme is explored in a paper by David Hilliard of Flinders University , who maintains that " the [ 19th century ] conflict between Protestantism and Anglo @-@ Catholicism within the Church of England was ... regularly depicted by Protestant propagandists as a struggle between masculine and feminine styles of religion " .
Driberg throughout his life was a devout Anglo @-@ Catholic ; Wheen suggests that Evelyn Waugh , in Brideshead Revisited , may have had Driberg in mind when the novel 's protagonist Charles Ryder is warned on arrival at Oxford to " beware of Anglo @-@ Catholics — they 're all sodomites with unpleasant accents . "
Driberg was the subject of a play , Tom and Clem , which was staged at London 's Aldwych Theatre in April 1997 . The action takes place during Driberg 's brief visit to the Potsdam Conference in July 1945 , and deals with the contrast of compromise , represented by the pragmatic Clement Attlee , and post @-@ war idealism , personified by Driberg . Michael Gambon 's portrayal of Driberg , as " a slovenly , paunchy Bacchus with a mouth that can suddenly gape like a painfully @-@ hooked fish " , won special praise from The Times critic Benedict Nightingale .
|
= SMS Pommern =
SMS Pommern was one of five Deutschland @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Kaiserliche Marine between 1904 and 1906 . Named after the Prussian province of Pomerania , she was built at the AG Vulcan yard at Stettin , where she was laid down on 22 March 1904 and launched on 2 December 1905 . She was commissioned into the navy on 6 August 1907 . The ships of her class were already outdated by the time they entered the service , being inferior in size , armor , firepower , and speed to the revolutionary new battleship HMS Dreadnought .
After commissioning , Pommern was assigned to the II Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet , where she served throughout her peacetime career and the first two years of World War I. During this period , Pommern participated in several fruitless sorties into the North Sea in attempts to lure out and destroy a portion of the British Grand Fleet . The ship was present at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . She and her sisters briefly engaged the British battlecruisers commanded by David Beatty ; Pommern was hit once by a 12 in ( 30 @.@ 5 cm ) shell from the battlecruiser HMS Indomitable . During the confused night actions in the early hours of 1 June , she was hit by one , or possibly two , torpedoes from the British destroyer HMS Onslaught , which detonated one of Pommern 's 17 @-@ centimeter ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) gun magazines . The resulting explosion broke the ship in half and killed the entire crew . Pommern was the only battleship of either side sunk during the battle .
= = Construction = =
Pommern was ordered under the contract name " O " . She was laid down on 22 March 1904 at the AG Vulcan dockyard in Stettin . She was originally scheduled to be launched on 19 November 1905 , but the water level in the harbor was too low . As a result , the ship could not be launched until 2 December . The Oberpräsident of Pommern , Helmuth von Maltzahn , gave the launching speech . In July 1907 Pommern was transferred to Kiel where she had her main battery of four 28 cm ( 11 in ) guns installed . She was commissioned for trials on 6 August ; during her speed run , she made 18 @.@ 7 knots ( 34 @.@ 6 km / h ; 21 @.@ 5 mph ) , which made her the fastest pre @-@ dreadnought battleship in the world .
The ship was 127 @.@ 6 m ( 418 ft 8 in ) long and had a beam of 22 @.@ 2 m ( 72 ft 10 in ) , and a draft of 8 @.@ 21 m ( 26 ft 11 in ) . Her full @-@ load displacement was 14 @,@ 218 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 993 long tons ) . She was equipped with triple expansion engines that were rated at 17 @,@ 453 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 015 kW ) and a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Steam was provided by twelve Schulz @-@ Thornycroft boilers . In addition to being the fastest ship of her class , Pommern was the most fuel efficient . At a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , she could steam for 5 @,@ 830 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 800 km ; 6 @,@ 710 mi ) . The ship had a peacetime crew of 35 officers and 708 enlisted men , though during military operations , the size of the crew expanded .
Pommern 's primary armament consisted of four 28 cm ( 11 in ) SK L / 40 guns in two twin turrets . She was equipped with fourteen 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) guns mounted in casemates and twenty 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns in pivot mounts . The ship was also armed with six 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , all submerged in the hull . One was in the bow , one in the stern , and four on the broadside . Her armored belt was 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships and she had a 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick armored deck . The main battery turrets had 280 mm ( 11 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Pommern was assigned to the II Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet alongside her sisters . She took part in the annual training cruises and maneuvers with the rest of the High Seas Fleet between 1908 and 1914 . This included fleet training in the Baltic in 1908 and a cruise into the Atlantic the following year . In May 1910 Pommern took part in fleet training in the Kattegat between Denmark and Norway , followed by a cruise to Norway in the summer . At the end of 1910 , the fleet conducted another cruise into the Baltic . The next two years followed a similar pattern , though the summer cruise in 1912 was interrupted by the Agadir Crisis . As a result , the cruise was only into the Baltic . Later in the year Pommern took part in maneuvers off the island of Helgoland in the North Sea .
In July 1914 , about two weeks after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo , Pommern was with the High Seas Fleet during its annual summer cruise to Norway . As a result of rising international tensions , the cruise was cut short and the German fleet was back in Wilhelmshaven by 29 July . At midnight on 4 August , the United Kingdom declared war on Germany . Pommern remained with the High Seas Fleet throughout the first two years of the naval war . At the outbreak of war , the ship and her sisters in the II Battle Squadron were deployed to the mouth of the Elbe River to guard the area from possible British incursions .
Pommern and the rest of the II Battle Squadron then rejoined the High Seas Fleet as part of the battleship support for the battlecruisers in the I Scouting Group that bombarded Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 . During the operation , the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens convinced Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl that he was confronted with the entire Grand Fleet , and so he broke off the engagement and turned for home . Two fruitless fleet advances followed on 17 – 18 and 21 – 23 April 1915 . A third took place on 17 – 18 May , and a fourth occurred on 23 – 24 October .
On 24 – 25 April 1916 , Pommern and her sisters joined the dreadnoughts of the High Seas Fleet to support the battlecruisers , which were again tasked with conducting a raid of the English coast . While en route to the target , the battlecruiser Seydlitz was damaged by a mine . Seydlitz was detached to return home , and the rest of the ships continued with the mission . Due to poor visibility , the battlecruisers conducted a brief bombardment of the ports of Yarmouth and Lowestoft . The operation was quickly called off , which prevented the British fleet from being able to intervene .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the new commander of the High Seas Fleet , immediately planned another foray into the North Sea , but the damage to Seydlitz delayed the operation until the end of May . Pommern remained assigned to the II Battle Squadron , now under the command of Rear Admiral Franz Mauve . The squadron was positioned at the rear of the German line . During the " Run to the North , " Scheer ordered the fleet to pursue the British V Battle Squadron at top speed . The slower Deutschland @-@ class ships could not keep up with the faster dreadnoughts and quickly fell behind .
Later in the evening of the first day of the battle , the hard @-@ pressed battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group were being pursued by their British opponents . Pommern and the other so @-@ called " five @-@ minute ships " came to their aid by steaming in between the opposing battlecruiser squadrons . Pommern could not make out a target in the darkness , though her several of her sisters could . Despite this , their shooting was ineffective . The British battlecruisers scored several hits on the German ships , including one on Pommern by a 12 in ( 30 @.@ 5 cm ) shell fired by Indomitable , forcing her to haul out of line . Admiral Mauve ordered an 8 @-@ point turn to the south to disengage from the British , and they did not follow .
At 3 : 10 on the morning of 1 June , Pommern was torpedoed by the British destroyer Onslaught . At least one torpedo , and possibly a second , struck the ship , detonating one of the 17 cm ammunition magazines . A tremendous explosion broke the ship in half . The stern capsized and remained afloat for at least 20 minutes with her propellers jutting into the air . Hannover , the ship directly astern of Pommern , was forced to haul out of line to avoid the wreck . Pommern 's entire crew of 839 officers and enlisted men were killed when the ship sank . She was the only battleship , pre @-@ dreadnought or dreadnought , in either fleet to be sunk at Jutland ; her loss , coupled with the vulnerabilities of the surviving pre @-@ dreadnoughts , prompted Scheer to leave them behind during the sortie of 18 – 19 August 1916 .
|
= Sleaford =
Sleaford is a market town and civil parish in the North Kesteven district of Lincolnshire , a non @-@ metropolitan county in the east of England . It is on the edge of the fertile Fenlands , about 11 miles ( 18 km ) north @-@ east of Grantham , 16 miles ( 26 km ) west of Boston , and 17 miles ( 27 km ) south of the city and county town of Lincoln . With an estimated resident population of 17 @,@ 671 at the time of the 2011 Census , the town is the largest settlement in North Kesteven , and makes up roughly 15 % of its total population . Bypassed by the A17 and the A15 , it is connected to Lincoln , Newark , Peterborough and King 's Lynn . Sleaford railway station is on the Nottingham to Skegness ( via Grantham ) and Peterborough to Lincoln Lines .
The first settlement formed during the Iron Age where a prehistoric track crossed the River Slea . It was a tribal centre and home to a mint for the Corieltauvi during the 1st centuries BC and AD . Evidence of Roman and Anglo @-@ Saxon settlement has been uncovered , and by the late Saxon period the town was an economic and jurisdictional centre with a court and market . During the medieval period , records differentiate between Old and New Sleaford , the latter emerging in the areas around the present day market place and St Denys ' Church . Sleaford Castle was constructed in the 12th century for the Bishops of Lincoln , who owned the manor . Granted the right to hold a market in the mid @-@ 12th century , New Sleaford developed into a market town and became locally important in the wool trade , while Old Sleaford declined .
From the 16th century , the landowners were the Carre family , who operated tight control over the town , and it grew little in the early modern period . The manor passed from the Carre family to the Hervey family by the marriage of Isabella Carre to John Hervey , 1st Earl of Bristol , in 1688 . The town 's common land and fields were legally enclosed by 1794 , giving ownership mostly to the Hervey family ; this coincided with making the Slea into a canal , and heralded the first steps towards modern industry . The Sleaford Navigation brought economic growth until it was superseded by the railways in the mid @-@ 1850s . In the 20th century , the sale of farmland around Sleaford by Bristol Estates led to the development of large housing estates . The subsequent availability of affordable housing combined with the town 's educational facilities and low crime rates made it an attractive destination for home @-@ buyers . As a result , the town 's population underwent the fastest growth of any town in the county during the 1990s .
Sleaford was primarily an agricultural town until the 20th century , supporting a cattle market , with seed companies , such as Hubbard and Phillips , and Sharpes International Seeds , being established in the late 19th century . The arrival of the railway made the town favourable for malting . Industry has declined , and in 2011 the most common occupations are in wholesale and retail trade , health and social care , public administration and defence and manufacturing . Regeneration of the town centre has led to the redevelopment of the old industrial areas , including the construction of the National Centre for Craft & Design on an old wharf .
= = History = =
= = = Etymology = = =
The earliest records of the place @-@ name Sleaford are found in a charter of 852 as Slioford and in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle as Sliowaford . In the Domesday Book ( 1086 ) , it is recorded as Eslaforde and in the early 13th century as Sliforde . In the 13th century Book of Fees the name appears as Lafford . The name is formed from the Old English words sliow and ford , which together mean ' ford over a muddy or slimy river ' .
= = = Early = = =
Archaeological material from the Bronze Age and earlier has been recovered and excavations have shown that there was unsustained late @-@ Neolithic and Bronze Age human activity in the vicinity . The earliest known permanent settlement dates from the Iron Age and began where a track running northwards from Bourne crossed the River Slea . Although only sparse pottery evidence has been found for the middle Iron Age period , 4 @,@ 290 pellet mould fragments , likely used for minting and dated to 50 BC – AD 50 , have been uncovered south east of the modern town centre , south of a crossing of the River Slea and near Mareham Lane in Old Sleaford . The largest of its kind in Europe , the deposit has led archaeologists to consider that the site in Old Sleaford was probably one of the largest Corieltauvian settlements during this period and may have been a tribal centre .
During the Roman occupation of Britain ( AD 43 – 409 ) , the settlement was " extensive and of considerable importance . " Its location along the fen @-@ edge may have made it economically and administratively significant as a centre for managers and owners of fenland estates . There is evidence to suggest that a road connected Old Sleaford to Heckington ( about 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) east ) , where Roman tile kilns have been uncovered and may imply the presence of a market at Sleaford . When the first roads were constructed by the Romans , Sleaford was bypassed due to it being " less conveniently located " and more " geared to native needs " . A smaller road , Mareham Lane , which the Romans renewed , ran through Old Sleaford , and southwards along the fen edge , towards Bourne . Where it passed through Old Sleaford , excavations have revealed a large stone @-@ built domestic residence , associated farm buildings , corn @-@ driers , ovens and field systems , all from the Roman period , and a number of burials . Other Roman remains , including a burial , have been excavated in the town .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
There is little evidence of continuous settlement between the late Roman and Anglo @-@ Saxon periods but the Saxons did establish themselves eventually . South of the modern town , a 6th – 7th century cemetery has been uncovered containing an estimated 600 burials , many showing signs of pagan burial rites . It is possible that the Anglo @-@ Saxon inhabitants were foederati first brought over by the Romano @-@ Britons to defend settlements from other Saxon invaders . The now ruined Church of St Giles / All Saints at Old Sleaford has been discovered and excavations of the Market Place in 1979 uncovered Anglo @-@ Saxon remains from the 8th – 9th centuries , indicating some form of enclosure with domestic features . The earliest documentary reference to Sleaford is in a charter from the 9th century , when it was owned by Medehamstede Abbey in Peterborough , a Mercian royal foundation . There is little evidence of estate structure until the late Saxon period , but there may have been a market and court in pre @-@ Conquest Sleaford and it was probably an economic and jurisdictional centre for surrounding settlements . The Slea played an important role in the town 's economy : it never ran dry nor froze , and by the 11th century a dozen watermills lined its banks . The mills and others in nearby Quarrington and the lost hamlet of Millsthorpe , constituted the " most important mill cluster in Lincolnshire " .
Later in the Middle Ages , the Romano @-@ British settlement became known as " Old Sleaford " , while " New Sleaford " was used to describe the settlement centred on St Denys ' Church and the Market Place . The Domesday Book ( 1086 ) has two entries under Eslaforde ( Sleaford ) recording land held by Ramsey Abbey and the Bishop of Lincoln . The location of the manors recorded in Domesday is not made clear in the text . One theory endorsed by Maurice Beresford is that they focused on the settlement at Old Sleaford because of evidence that New Sleaford was planted in the 12th century by the bishop to increase his income , which was associated with the construction of Sleaford Castle between 1123 and 1139 . Beresford 's theory has been criticised by the local historians Christine Mahany and David Roffe who have reinterpreted the Domesday material and argued that by 1086 the Bishop 's manor included a church and associated settlement in what became New Sleaford .
The right to hold a fair on the feast day of St Denis was granted by a charter of King Stephen to Alexander , Bishop of Lincoln , in 1136 – 40 . Between 1154 and 1165 , Henry II granted the bishop of Lincoln the right to hold a market at Sleaford ; bishop Oliver Sutton argued in 1281 that his right to hold a market and fair had existed since time immemorial . In 1329 , Edward III confirmed the market and , in 1401 , Henry IV granted the bishop fairs on the feast days of St Denis and St Peter 's Chains . A survey of 1258 is the first to mention burgage tenure ; tenants in the nearby hamlet of Holdingham held tofts with other land , while those in New Sleaford held only tofts , indicating that demesne farming centred on the hamlet . The town later had at least two guilds comparable to those found in developed towns . However , there was no formal charter outlining the town 's freedoms ; it was not a centre of trade and tight control by the bishops meant the economy was primarily geared to serve them . Hence , it retained a strong tradition of demesne farming well into the 14th century . As the economic initiative fell more to the burgesses and middlemen who formed connections with nearby towns , such as Boston , evidence suggests that Sleaford developed a locally important role in the wool trade . In the Lay Subsidy of 1334 , New Sleaford was the wealthiest settlement in the Flaxwell wapentake , with a value of £ 16 0s . 81 / 4d . Meanwhile , Old Sleaford , an " insignificant " place since the end of the Roman period , declined and may have been deserted by the 16th century .
= = = Early modern = = =
During the late 15th and early 16th centuries , the Hussey family owned the manor of Old Sleaford . John Hussey , 1st Baron Hussey of Sleaford was executed for treason for his part in the Lincolnshire Rising . The manor and his residence at Old Place reverted to the Crown and were later sold to Robert Carre . George Carre or Carr from Northumberland had settled in Sleaford by 1522 when he was described as a wool merchant . His son Robert bought Hussey 's land and the castle and manor of New Sleaford from Edward Clinton , 1st Earl of Lincoln . His eldest surviving son Robert , founded Carre 's Grammar School in 1604 , and his youngest son Edward was created a baronet ; his son founded Sleaford Hospital in 1636 . The last male descendent died in 1683 and the heiress , Isabella Carre , married John Hervey , Earl of Bristol , in whose family the estates remained until the 1970s . The Carres and Herveys had a strong influence : in addition to extracting dues from their tenants , they took leading tradesmen to the Exchequer Court to gain legal force behind their monopoly on charging tolls on market and cattle traders and for driving animals through the town .
Industry was slow to take hold , and by the second half of the 18th century , Cogglesford Mill was the only working corn mill in the town . An old mill at the junction of Westgate and Castle Causeway supplied hemp to the growing rope @-@ making business of the Foster and Hill families . As local historian Simon Pawley wrote , " in many respects , things had changed little [ by 1783 ] since the survey of 1692 " , with few of the buildings or infrastructure being improved . Major changes to agriculture and industry took place in the last decade of that century . From the Middle Ages , Sleaford was surrounded by three open fields : North , West and Sleaford Fields . At the enclosure of the open fields in 1794 more than 90 % of the 1 @,@ 096 acres of open land was owned by Lord Bristol . Despite the costs of fencing and re @-@ organising the fields , the system was easier to farm , and cottages were built closer to fields , while the landowner could charge more rent owing to the increased profitability of the land ; those who lost out were the cottagers , who could no longer keep a few animals grazing on the common land at no cost . The process allowed the land boundaries and pathways to be tidied up ; Drove Lane , which ran to Rauceby , was shifted north and straightened .
= = = Industrial = = =
Canalisation of the River Slea began in the 1790s . Canals in England were constructed from the 1760s to make inland trade easier ; Sleaford 's businessmen were keen to benefit from the improved communication they allowed . The Sleaford Navigation opened in 1794 . It facilitated the export of agricultural produce to the Midlands , and the import of coal and oil . Mills along the Slea benefited and wharves were constructed around Carre Street . Between 1829 and 1836 the navigation 's toll rights increased in value by 27 times . The railways emerged in the 19th century as an alternative to canals and arrived at the town in 1857 , when a line from Grantham to Sleaford opened . It made agricultural trade easier and improved communication , but led to the decline of the Navigation Company . Income from tolls decreased by 80 % between 1858 and 1868 ; it made its first loss in 1873 and was abandoned in 1878 . The town 's rural location and transport links meant that the late 19th century saw the rise of two local seed merchants : Hubbard and Phillips , and Charles Sharpe ; the former took over the Navigation Wharves , and the latter was trading in the US and Europe by the 1880s . The railway , Sleaford 's rural location and its artesian wells , were key factors in the development of the 13 @-@ acre Bass & Co maltings complex at Mareham Lane ( 1892 – 1905 ) .
In the first half of the 19th century , Sleaford 's population more than doubled from 1 @,@ 596 in 1801 to 3 @,@ 539 in 1851 . Coinciding with this is the construction or extension of public buildings , often by the local contractors Charles Kirk and Thomas Parry . The gasworks opened in 1839 to provide gas lighting in the town . Sleaford 's Poor Law Union was formed in 1836 to cater for the town and the surrounding 54 parishes . The workhouse was constructed by 1838 and could house 181 inmates . Despite these advances , the slums around Westgate were over @-@ crowded , lacking sanitation and disease @-@ ridden ; the local administration failed to deal with the matter until 1850 , when a report on the town 's public health by the General Board of Health heavily criticised the situation and set up a Local Board of Health to undertake public works . By the 1880s , Lord Bristol had allowed clean water to be pumped into the town , but engineering problems and a reluctance to sell land to house the turbines had delayed the introduction of sewers .
= = = Post @-@ industrial = = =
Although largely undamaged in the First and Second World Wars , Sleaford has close links with the Royal Air Force due to its proximity to several RAF bases , including RAF Cranwell and RAF Waddington . Lincolnshire 's topography — flat and open countryside — and its location on the east of the country made it ideal for the development of Britain 's airfields , constructed in the First World War . Work began on Cranwell in late 1915 ; it was designated an RAF base in 1918 and the RAF College opened in 1920 as he world 's first air academy . The Cranwell branch railway linking Sleaford station to the RAF base opened in 1917 and closed in 1956 . During the Second World War , Lincolnshire was " the most significant location for bomber command " and Rauceby Hospital , south @-@ west of Sleaford , was requisitioned by the RAF as a specialist burns unit which plastic surgeon Archibald McIndoe regularly visited .
In the inter @-@ war period , Sleaford 's population remained static , but the Great Depression in the 1930s caused unemployment to rise . Council @-@ housing developments along Drove Lane proved insufficient to house low @-@ income families after the Westgate slums were cleared in the 1930s so Jubilee Grove opened in that decade to meet the demand . In the post @-@ war period , there were new housing developments at St Giles Avenue , the Hoplands , Russell Crescent , Jubilee Grove , and Grantham Road . Parts of the town were redeveloped : in 1958 , the Bristol Arms Arcade opened , the Corn Exchange was demolished in the 1960s , and the Waterside Shopping Precinct opened in 1973 , as did Flaxwell House , designed to house a department store , though later becoming the national headquarters for Interflora .
By 1979 , the major landowner , Victor Hervey , 6th Marquess of Bristol , heavily in debt , had sold most of his estates in Sleaford and Quarrington and the estate 's office closed in 1989 . Much of the land was sold to property developers and in the following decades saw the construction of residential buildings and a considerable population increase . According to a council report , " the quality of life , low crime rates , relatively low house prices and good @-@ quality education " attracted people to the town . From 1981 to 2011 , Sleaford 's population rose from 8 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 000 ; the growth rate from 1991 to 2001 was the fastest of any town in the county . Its infrastructure struggled to cope , especially with increased traffic congestion ; two bypasses around the town and a one @-@ way system were introduced , a process which Simon Pawley argues accelerated the decline of the High Street . In the early 2000s , the Single Regeneration Budget of £ 15 million granted to Sleaford improved the town centre and funded development of the Hub ( since 2011 , the National Centre for Craft & Design ) in the old Navigation wharves area .
= = Geography = =
= = = Topography = = =
Sleaford is the principal market town in the North Kesteven district of Lincolnshire . The civil parish includes the hamlet of Holdingham to the north east and the village of Quarrington to the south east , both of which merge with the town . The County Council 's State of the Environment Report ( 1994 ) found that roughly three @-@ quarters of Lincolnshire is low @-@ lying , with much of it near sea @-@ level ; Sleaford lies approximately 43 feet ( 13 m ) above sea level close to Lincoln Cliff , a Limestone scarp running north – south through Lindsey and Kesteven . The bedrock under the western half of the town belongs to the Great Oolite Group of Jurassic Sandstone , Limestone and Argillaceous rocks formed 168 − 165 million years ago ; Kellaways and Oxford Clay formations , dated to 165 – 156 million years ago , underlie the eastern half . Alluvium deposits are found along the Slea 's course , and Fen sand and gravel are found to the east and south . The county 's agricultural land is generally of " very good " quality ; as a result , intensive arable and vegetable farming is predominant and pastoral farming declined over the course of the 20th century . Sleaford is on the edge of the Fens , a low @-@ lying region of the East of England which , before drainage from the 17th to the 20th centuries , were marshy and liable to flooding . Draining has revealed nutrient @-@ rich soils and enabled 88 % of the land to be cultivated , especially for arable farming , and most of it is graded amongst the most productive farmland in the country .
= = = Climate = = =
According to the Köppen classification , the British Isles experience a maritime climate characterised by relatively cool summers and mild winters . Lincolnshire 's position on the east of the Isles allows for a sunnier and warmer climate relative to the national average , and it is one of the driest counties in the United Kingdom . Although it may vary depending on altitude and proximity to the coast , the mean average temperature for the East of England is approximately 9 ° C to 10 @.@ 5 ° C ; the highest temperature recorded in the region was 37 @.@ 3 ° C at Cavendish on 10 August 2003 . On average , the region experiences 30 days of rainfall in winter and 25 in summer , with 15 days of thunder and 6 – 8 days of hail per year ; on 25 August 2001 , hail the size of golf balls were reported in Sleaford and other parts of central Lincolnshire . Wind tends to affect the north and west of the country more than the East , and Lincolnshire tends to receive no more than 2 days of gale per year ( where gale is a gust of wind at > 34 knots , sustained for at least 10 minutes ) . Despite this , tornadoes form more often in the East of England than elsewhere in the country ; Sleaford experienced tornadoes in 2006 and 2012 , both of which caused damage to property .
= = Governance = =
= = = Politics = = =
Before 1832 , Sleaford was in the Lincolnshire parliamentary constituency , which encompassed all of the county except for four boroughs . In the 1818 election , 49 of the 2 @,@ 000 people living in New and Old Sleaford and Quarrington qualified to vote . In 1832 , the Reform Act widened the franchise and divided Lincolnshire . Sleaford was in the South Lincolnshire constituency that elected two members to parliament . Following the 1867 reforms , the South Lincolnshire constituency 's borders were redrawn , but Sleaford remained within it . The franchise was widened by the reforms so that roughly 15 % ( 202 ) of males in Sleaford and Quarrington could vote in 1868 . The constituency was abolished in 1885 and the Sleaford constituency was formed . It merged with the Grantham seat in 1918 . In 1997 , Sleaford was reorganised into Sleaford and North Hykeham .
The member returned in 2010 for Sleaford and North Hykeham was the Conservative candidate Stephen Phillips , who replaced Douglas Hogg . Lincolnshire elected a Member of the European Parliament from 1974 until 1994 , and then became part of the Lincolnshire and Humberside South constituency until 1999 ; since then , it has elected members as part of the East Midlands constituency ; from 1999 , there were six members for the East Midlands , but the number was reduced to five in 2009 .
= = = Local government = = =
From the early medieval period , New Sleaford was in the Flaxwell Wapentake and Old Sleaford in the Ashwardhurn Wapentake . Sleaford Poor Law Union , overseen by a Board of Guardians , was established in 1836 . A Local Board of Health was formed in 1851 . Public health was reorganised by the Public Health Act 1872 , which established Urban and Rural Sanitary Districts ( USD or RSD ) ; Sleaford USD covered New and Old Sleaford , Holdingham and Quarrington , while the Sleaford RSD included all other parishes in the Poor Law Union . The Local Government Act 1894 converted the Board of Health and USD into the Sleaford Urban District Council and , in 1899 , the town became the administrative base of Kesteven County Council . A rural district formed in 1894 was abolished in 1931 . In 1973 , Sleaford Urban District merged with the North and East Kesteven districts to form North Kesteven , a district of Lincolnshire ; by statutory instrument , Sleaford civil parish became the urban district 's successor , thus merging Quarrington , New Sleaford , Old Sleaford and Holdingham civil parishes .
Sleaford Town Council , the parish @-@ level local government body beneath the district council is composed of 18 councillors from six wards : Castle , Holdingham , Mareham , Navigation , Quarrington , and Westholme . The Chairman of the Town Council is also the Mayor of Sleaford ; Cllr Keith Dolby is Mayor for 2014 – 15 . The six wards are also represented on North Kesteven District Council , although Mareham and Quarrington are merged into a single ward . Sleaford sends one councillor to Lincolnshire County Council . Sleaford Town Council has offices on Carre Street and the District Council offices are in the Lafford Terrace building on Eastgate , which was purchased by the council in 1934 .
Sleaford Urban District Council was granted a coat of arms on 26 October 1950 and after it was abolished the arms were used by its successor , Sleaford Town Council . The arms are blazoned : Gules on a Chevron Or three Estoiles Sable on a Chief Argent as many Trefoils slipped Vert . The trefoils in the chief are from the arms of the Marquess or Bristol , while the lower portion of the shield is the arms of the Carre family . Its crest is blazoned : On a Wreath of the Colours an Eagle wings extended and head downwards and to the sinister proper holding in the beak an Ear of Wheat stalked and leaved Or , the eagle symbolises Sleaford 's links with the Royal Air Force and the ear of wheat represents agriculture .
= = Public services = =
Policing is provided by the Lincolnshire Police , and fire @-@ fighting by the Lincolnshire Fire and Rescue Service . The police station is on Boston Road , although older premises on Kesteven Street were erected in 1845 and reconstructed in 1912 . The fire station is on Church Lane although plans to move it to East Road by 2016 were approved in 2014 . East Midlands Ambulance Service ( EMAS ) operates from Kesteven Street . The United Lincolnshire Hospitals NHS Trust provides services at three hospitals , Pilgrim Hospital in Boston , Grantham and District Hospital , and Lincoln County Hospital , all of which have 24 @-@ hour accident and emergency departments as of January 2015 .
Mains water and sewerage services are provided by Anglian Water , a former nationalised industry and natural monopoly , privatised in 1989 and regulated by the Water Services Regulation Authority ( OFWAT ) . In 1879 , an Act of Parliament was passed to set up a water company for the town ; pumping machinery was installed and works constructed in 1880 to provide a clean water supply to the town . In 1948 , the council took over the company and in 1962 its operation was handed to the Kesteven Water Board , which was absorbed by the Anglian Water Authority in 1973 .
Lincolnshire County Council promoted a Bill to Parliament to build an electricity generating station which passed in 1900 . It was built at the cost of £ 6 @,@ 700 in 1901 on Castle Causeway and remained there until nationalisation in 1948 . Following nationalisation , electricity was provided by the East Midlands Electricity Board until it was privatised in 1990 ; in 1998 , East Midlands Electricity , the privately owned predecessor company , was purchased by PowerGen . A " virtually carbon neutral " straw @-@ burning power @-@ station at Sleaford opened in 2013 ; capable of supplying electricity to 65 @,@ 000 homes , it is powered by straw bales from farms within a 50 @-@ mile radius . Most electricity generated is fed into the National Grid and the facility provides free heat to public buildings in the town .
Natural Gas was supplied by British Gas , which was privatised in 1986 . Distribution of gas and electricity is the responsibility of the National Grid . The energy markets are regulated by the Office of Gas and Electricity Markets ( OFGEM ) . The Sleaford Gas Light Company was formed in 1838 and the following year , gas lighting was provided and a gasworks was constructed on Eastgate . In 1866 , the company was incorporated ; in 1895 – 96 , the works were rebuilt and lit the town until the company was nationalised in 1948 . Gas ceased to be made here in the 1960s and the original buildings were retained although later extensions were demolished from 1966 to 1968 .
Sleaford Library houses a local and family history section and microfiche machine . It was refurbished in 2010 , but , as of 2014 , was listed by the county council as " undersized " .
= = Economy = =
= = = Employment = = =
Sleaford served the surrounding agricultural communities and the town maintained a weekly market throughout the 19th century and a livestock market on Northgate from 1874 until 1984 . According to a 2010 council report , the public sector was the town 's main employer , along with agriculture and manufacturing . Unemployment was lower than the national average as were wages reflecting pay in the food processing and agricultural industries . At the 2011 Census , the largest group of working @-@ age persons by economic activity are those in full @-@ time employment , who make up 43 @.@ 8 % of this section of the population , while 15 % are part @-@ time employees and 7 @.@ 7 % are self @-@ employed ; 15 % of the working @-@ age population are retired . 4 @.@ 2 % were unemployed , with 40 % of those in long @-@ term unemployment and roughly one third were aged 16 to 24 . The largest socio @-@ economic grouping is those working in lower @-@ tier managerial or administrative roles ( 21 @.@ 9 % ) , followed by semi @-@ routine ( 17 @.@ 8 % ) , routine ( 15 % ) and intermediate ( 12 @.@ 5 % ) occupations ; no other group comprised 10 % or more . In terms of industry , the most common , based on those working in the sector , are wholesale and retail trade ( including automotive repairs ) at 16 @.@ 9 % , health and social care ( 13 @.@ 4 % ) , public administration and defence ( 13 @.@ 3 % ) and manufacturing ( 10 @.@ 9 % ) , with no other groups representing 10 % or more . An unemployment survey of Lincolnshire in 2014 found that the county experienced a decline in unemployment ( based on Jobseekers Allowance claimants ) by 29 % over the preceding 12 months , while the county 's unemployment rate was marginally below the national average .
= = = Regeneration = = =
In 2011 North Kesteven District Council produced a 25 @-@ year strategy to regenerate the town because its rapid growth since the 1990s had outgrown improvements to its infrastructure . It plans future residential developments and outlines ways of improving the town centre . It suggests developing more parking around the centre and reverting parts the one @-@ way system , developing southern Southgate and turning Money 's Yard into an attraction to link with the National Centre for Craft and Design . North Kesteven District Council granted planning permission for a £ 56 m project to redevelop the derelict Bass Maltings site by converting it into residential and retail space and creating about 500 permanent jobs . The development including a supermarket was delayed when the town council opposed a link road through part of the recreation ground . Tesco , who had pledged to invest in a £ 20 million store in the development withdrew in January 2015 following financial set @-@ backs .
= = Transport = =
The A17 road from Newark @-@ on @-@ Trent to King 's Lynn bypasses Sleaford from Holdingham Roundabout to Kirkby la Thorpe . It ran through the town until the bypass opened in 1975 . The Holdingham roundabout connects the A17 to the A15 road from Peterborough to Scawby . It also passed through Sleaford until 1993 , when its bypass was completed . Three roads meet at Sleaford 's market place : Northgate ( B1518 ) , Southgate and Eastgate ( B1517 ) . A one @-@ way system set up in 1994 creates a circuit around the town centre .
The railways arrived in the 19th century . Early proposals to bring a line to Sleaford failed , but in 1852 plans were made to build the Boston , Sleaford and Midland Counties Railway and its Act of Parliament passed in 1853 . The line from Grantham opened in 1857 ; Boston was connected in 1859 , Bourne in 1871 and Ruskington on Great Northern and Great Eastern Joint Railway in 1882 .
Sleaford is a stop on the Peterborough to Lincoln Line and the Poacher Line , from Grantham to Skegness . Grantham , roughly 14 @.@ 8 miles ( 23 @.@ 8 km ) away by road and two stops on the Poacher Line , is a major stop on the East Coast Main Line . Trains from Grantham to London King 's Cross take approximately 1 hour 15 minutes .
The River Slea through the town was converted into use as a canal for much of the 19th century . Plans to canalise it were drawn up in 1773 , but faced opposition from land @-@ owners who feared it might affect the drainage of fens . Plans were approved in 1791 with the support of Brownlow Bertie , 5th Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven who owned estates and quarries that he hoped would benefit . An Act of Parliament passed in 1792 , establishing the Sleaford Navigation , which opened two years later . After falling revenues due to competition from the railways , the navigation company closed in 1878 . The river , although no longer navigable , passes under Carre Street and Southgate . The Nine Foot Drain , also unnavigable , meets the Slea just before Southgate .
= = Demography = =
The resident population at the 2011 Census was 17 @,@ 671 , which accounts for roughly 15 % of the population of the North Kesteven District ; the urban area contained 8 @,@ 690 houses . The town 's population grew by 39 % between 1991 and 2001 , the fastest growth rate of any town in Lincolnshire . The district population is predicted to rise by 29 % between 2008 and 2033 , compared with a national average of 18 % ; in 2013 , county councillors approved plans to build 4 @,@ 500 new homes . A joint planning strategy report found that " This growth has largely been the result of people moving to the area attracted by the quality of life , low crime rates , relatively low house prices and good @-@ quality education . "
The 2011 Census revealed that approximately 93 @.@ 6 % of the town 's resident population were White British ; the second largest ethnic group was White Irish at approximately 3 @.@ 4 % , followed by Asian ( including Asian British ) at 1 @.@ 09 % ; no other ethnic group represented 1 % or more of the population . 88 @.@ 5 % of residents were born in England and 4 @.@ 41 % in other parts of the United Kingdom ; 4 @.@ 3 % were from EU countries , with 2 @.@ 5 % coming from EU member states which joined after 2001 .
Between December 2013 and November 2014 , 1 @,@ 289 criminal acts were reported , of which 43 @.@ 9 % were classed as anti @-@ social behaviour , making it the largest portion of reported crimes . In 2010 , recorded crime levels were amongst the lowest in the country and , for the year ending June 2014 , the crime rate in the North Kesteven district is the lowest in Lincolnshire at 24 @.@ 38 crimes per thousand residents .
= = Religion = =
= = = Population = = =
Most people in the town identify as Christian , although the proportion has declined between the last two censuses . At the 2011 Census , 70 @.@ 3 % of residents identified as Christian , while 21 @.@ 8 % reported no religion , and 6 @.@ 6 % did not state a religion ; no other religious group comprised 1 % or more of the population . The 2001 Census recorded that 81 @.@ 6 % of Sleaford residents identified as Christian , nearly ten percentage points higher than the national figure ( 71 @.@ 8 % ) ; 11 @.@ 5 % of the town 's residents had no religion and 6 % did not disclose a religion .
In the Compton Census ( 1676 ) , New Sleaford had a Conformist population of 576 people , no " Papists " , and 6 Non @-@ conformists . In the 19th century , it had a sizeable Non @-@ conformist population and a large Anglican congregation ; at the 1851 Census of Religious Worship , an estimated 2 @,@ 000 people attended Non @-@ conformist places of worship , while an estimated 600 – 700 people attended Anglican services in the parish . The Wesleyans met in Westgate in the early 19th century ; by 1848 , the congregation had set up in Northgate , an area known for its taverns and poor tenements .
= = = Ecclesiastical history = = =
New Sleaford had a church and priest by the time of the Domesday Book ( 1086 ) and the vicarage was founded in 1274 . During the Commonwealth ( 1649 – 1660 ) , the vicar was expelled and replaced by Puritan ministers , the last of whom was removed following the Restoration in 1660 and replaced with an Anglican clergyman . In 1616 , the vicarage was valued at £ 8 and in 1872 at £ 180 . As of 2015 , the ecclesiastical parish of St Denys , Sleaford , encloses the town of Sleaford and hamlet of Holdingham north of the railway line and does not include Quarrington . It falls within the Lafford Deanery , the Lincoln Archdeaconry and the Diocese of Lincoln . The patron is the Bishop of Lincoln and the incumbent vicar is the Rev. Philip Anthony Johnson , who was instituted in 2013 .
Old Sleaford was in the possession of Ramsey Abbey at the time of Domesday and later Haverholme Priory , and was eventually served by a vicar ; the church was dedicated either to St Giles or to All Saints . At the Dissolution of the Monasteries ( 1536 – 1541 ) , the king took over collection of the tithes , eventually leasing them to Thomas Horseman and then selling them to Robert Carre . In the 17th century , the rectory of Quarrington and the vicarage were combined to form the parish of Quarrington with Old Sleaford ; the current rector of Quarrington is the Rev. Sandra Benham . The parish boundaries of New Sleaford and Quarrington with Old Sleaford were last altered in 1928 .
The prebendary of New Sleaford or Lafford had a seat in the Lincoln Cathedral ; it existed before 1274 and was in the patronage of the bishop . Sleaford 's tithes paid to the prebendary were valued at £ 11 19s . 7d . ( £ 11 @.@ 98 ) in 1616 . After the enclosure of Sleaford 's fields , a farm at Holdingham Anna was allotted to the prebendary in place of the tithes . The Prebendal Court of Sleaford had jurisdiction over New and Old Sleaford and Holdingham to grant administration and probate . The parishes of New and Old Sleaford were in the peculiar jurisdiction of the predendary until 1846 , when they became part of Aswardhurn and Lafford Rural Deanery . In 1866 they were placed in Aswardhurn and Lafford No. 2 Rural Deanery , from 1884 in the Lafford No. 2 Rural Deanery , the Lafford South Rural Deanery from 1910 , and since 1968 , in the Lafford Rural Deanery .
= = = Places of worship = = =
The Anglican parish church is dedicated to St. Denys . The oldest parts date to the late @-@ 12th century and the broach @-@ spire , built around 1220 , is one of the oldest in England . Regular Sunday services are held at the parish church .
Non @-@ conformist meetings took place on Hen Lane ( later Jermyn Street ) from about 1776 . The Congregationalists who met there constructed a chapel on Southgate in 1867 – 68 ; in 1972 , it became Sleaford Reformed Church . Wesleyans first met in the 1790s at the house of Thomas Fawcett on Westgate . They built a chapel nearby in 1802 , which was replaced in 1823 ; it housed the congregation until 1848 when a larger one was built on North Street . It was demolished and replaced by another on the same site in 1972 . A Baptist chapel was built in Old Sleaford in 1811 to house a congregation of 250 , it served the Strict Baptists until possibly the mid @-@ 20th century . The premises have been converted into a house . A Wesleyan Reform Methodist chapel opened in West Banks in 1864 , but since 1896 has been occupied by the Salvation Army .
The Fens were increasingly cultivated after the Napoleonic Wars , prompting migrant Catholic Irish farm @-@ workers to move to the area . By 1879 a Roman Catholic missionary , Father Hermann Sabela , was conducting services in the town . A Catholic school and chapel were built in 1881 on land in Jermyn Street and in 1888 , Our Lady of Good Counsel Roman Catholic Church , opened beside it . The incumbent priest is Father Michael John Bell , who was appointed in 2001 . Mass is held on Sundays and throughout the week .
The Sleaford Muslim Community Association has met in St Deny 's Church Hall since the early 2000s . Plans to build a prayer hall on Station Road were approved in November 2013 . Protests were planned by the English Defence League , but were cancelled .
Sleaford Spiritualist Church opened in about 1956 on Westgate .
= = Education = =
= = = Primary = = =
Sleaford has four primary schools . In 1726 William Alvey bequeathed land to fund teaching children in Sleaford . The school and master 's house for Alvey 's Endowed School , a national school , was built in 1851 . New buildings for the infants ' school were constructed in 1888 . William Alvey Church of England School is housed in the same buildings . It became an academy in 2012 . St Botolph 's School is a Church of England Primary School , which opened at its current site in 2002 . Church Lane School is housed in buildings constructed in 2002 , when the original school house was demolished ; in 2013 , it had c . 201 children on roll . Our Lady of Good Counsel Roman Catholic School had 155 pupils on roll in 2011 .
In 1835 , there were eight day schools and three Sunday schools in New Sleaford and two daily schools in Old Sleaford . An infant school in the old playhouse on Westgate opened in 1855 ; Wesleyan schools attached to the chapel on North Street accommodated up to 200 pupils . In addition to private girls ' schools , short @-@ lived private schools for boys were established by Mr Herring and Charles Boyer in 1851 , Henry Carruthers , and Edwin Reginald Dibben in 1870 in competition with the grammar school . Charles Kirk built a school and chapel at Quarrington in 1867 . It became St Botolph 's Primary School and in 2002 moved to a new site . In 1879 , an art school was established in Duke Street in connection with the Science and Art Department ; by 1896 , two Wesleyan schools and a Catholic school were also in operation .
= = = Secondary = = =
The town has three secondary schools with sixth forms : Carre 's Grammar School , a boys ' grammar school , Kesteven and Sleaford High School , a selective academy girls ' grammar school , and St George 's Academy , formerly St George 's College of Technology , and before that Sleaford ( County ) Secondary Modern School ( mixed non @-@ selective secondary school ) . The grammar schools are selective and pupils are required to pass the Eleven plus exam . St George 's is not selective . The co @-@ educational Joint Sixth Form consortium between Carre 's and St George 's allows pupils to choose subjects taught at either school .
Carre 's Grammar School was founded in 1604 by a bequest of Robert Carre of Aswarby . It has received Specialist Sports and Science statuses , became an academy in 2011 and was judged to be " good " by Ofsted in 2013 , at which time it had 817 pupils , including the co @-@ educational sixth form . Sleaford and Kesteven High School for Girls was established in 1902 . It has specialist art status , became an academy in 2011 and was judged to be " good " by Ofsted in 2013 , at which time there were 825 pupils on roll , including those in the co @-@ educational sixth form . St George 's opened in 1908 as Sleaford Council School . It has received specialist technology college status , converted to an academy in 2010 and operates a satellite school at Ruskington . St George 's had 2 @,@ 247 pupils on roll in 2012 , across both sites and including the sixth form ; when assessed by Ofsted in that year , was judged to be " good " .
= = Culture = =
The National Centre for Craft & Design opened as The Hub in 2003 with support from a Single Regeneration Budget grant . It attracts 90 @,@ 000 visitors on average each year and houses exhibitions of applied and contemporary art . The Playhouse theatre on Westgate was constructed in 1825 , and sold in 1856 to be converted into an infants school and later a library and offices . In 1994 , Sleaford Little Theatre bought and restored it and in 2000 it opened to the public . The Sleaford Picturedrome opened in 1920 ; the cinema closed in 2000 and the building became a snooker hall and then a nightclub that closed in 2008 .
Sleaford Museum Trust was formed in the 1970s to collect and preserve historical artefacts from the town 's history . A Heritage Lottery Fund grant of more than £ 94 @,@ 000 in December 2013 allowed the trust to establish a museum on Southgate , which opened in April 2015 . Sleaford and District Civic Trust was founded in 1972 to " preserve the best features " of the town .
There is a volunteer twinning association , the Sleaford and District Town Twinning Association , which was founded in 1999 . The association has created and maintains links and annual visits with Marquette @-@ lez @-@ Lille in France since 1999 , and with Fredersdorf @-@ Vogelsdorf in Germany since 2009 .
= = = Sport = = =
Sleaford Town F.C. played in the United Counties League Premier Division for the 2014 – 15 season . Formed as Sleaford Amateurs F.C. in 1920 , the club was renamed Sleaford Town in 1968 . In 2007 it moved to its present grounds at Eslaforde Park . Sleaford Rugby FC 's clubhouse opened in 1999 off the A153 . Sleaford Golf Club was founded in 1905 and had roughly 100 members the following year , which increased to 193 in 1911 . The original golf course has been altered . In 2014 , the club had roughly 600 members . Sleaford Cricket Club has grounds at London Road ; the earliest record of the club is in 1803 . The town is also home to Bristol Bowls Club , an all @-@ discipline gymnastics club founded in 1996 . An outdoor lido opened in 1872 on riverside land owned by the Bristol estate but handed over to the community as public baths . Indoor facilities were built in the 20th century and the old lido became Sleaford Leisure Centre . In 2011 Kesteven District Council received a grant of £ 2 @.@ 85 million , to fund reconstruction of the centre and its gym .
= = = Local media = = =
The main radio stations for the county are BBC Radio Lincolnshire , broadcasting on 94 @.@ 9 FM and 104 @.@ 7 FM frequencies , and the commercial station Lincs FM , on 102 @.@ 2 , 96 @.@ 7 and 97 @.@ 6 FM . The town 's local newspapers are the Sleaford Standard ( founded in 1924 ) , the Sleaford Advertiser ( founded in 1980 ) and the Sleaford Target ( founded in 1984 ) . Historically , the Sleaford Gazette operated between 1854 and 1960 ; the Sleaford Journal from at least 1884 until it was incorporated into the Gazette in December 1929 , the Sleaford Telegraph ran from 1888 to 1889 and the Sleaford Guardian was in print for a year from 1945 to 1946 .
= = Landmarks = =
A small number of medieval buildings remain standing in the town . St Denys ' Church and St Botolph 's in Quarrington date to the 12th and 13th centuries respectively , while Sleaford 's half @-@ timbered vicarage is 15th century . St Denys ' Church is noted for its tracery and its stone broach spire is one of the oldest in England . Cogglesford Mill is the only remaining watermill in town and is a testament to the economic importance of the River Slea from the late @-@ Saxon period onwards . The Bishops of Lincoln used the medieval town as a base , constructing the now @-@ ruined Sleaford Castle , and as a means of extracting produce and wealth through demesne farming and by granting a market and limited freedoms to the town . As a result , the oldest areas are the market place and the four roads which meet there : Northgate , Southgate , Eastgate and Westgate ; many 18th and 19th century buildings are found in this area .
Buildings dating from these centuries include William Alvey 's baroque house on Northgate , the Manor House on Northgate inset with medieval masonry , and Sessions House on the Market Place . The Carre family founded the grammar school which was rebuilt in 1834 , the hospital , rebuilt in 1830 , and the almshouses , rebuilt 1857 , while the Victorian builders Charles Kirk and Thomas Parry constructed or added to numerous public buildings and private residences , including Lafford Terrace and their own houses on Southgate and at Westholme .
During the Industrial Revolution , the Slea was canalised in 1794 and the Sleaford Navigation Company constructed offices and wharves along Carre Street . The canal brought trade , while the Gothic @-@ fronted gasworks on Eastgate lit the town from 1839 . Benjamin Handley and Anthony Peacock financed and benefited from the navigation and founded the bank that took over Alvey 's House on Northgate and later added a Baroque extension ; Henry Handley , a Member of Parliament , is commemorated by the Handley Memorial on Southgate , a Gothic monument in the style of an Eleanor Cross . During the 1850s , the railways arrived and the station was built in a Gothic style . Sleaford 's agricultural location and its new transport links encouraged seed trading and malting in the late 19th century : the seed merchant Charles Sharpe 's house , The Pines , is on Boston Road . The massive Bass and Company maltings complex , constructed in brick off Mareham Lane between 1892 and 1905 , is grade II * listed and has a frontage more than 1 @,@ 000 feet long .
= = Sleafordians = =
The Handley family were well @-@ connected with business ; Benjamin Handley was a lawyer , prominent in the Navigation Company and partner in the local bank Peacock , Handley and Kirton . His son , Henry was M.P. for South Lincolnshire ; after his death , the residents erected a monument to him on Southgate . Robert Armstrong Yerburgh the son of Rev Richard Yerburgh , vicar of New Sleaford was twice M.P. for Chester . Sir Thomas Meres , politician was educated at the grammar school . Sir Robert Pattinson was also educated at the grammar was M.P. for Grantham and Sleaford .
The religious controversialist Henry Pickworth was born in New Sleaford and challenged the opponent of Quakerism Francis Bugg to an open debate at Sleaford . John Austin , a religious writer , was educated at the grammar school . William Scoffin served as the town 's Presbyterian minister and preached there for more than forty years , while Benjamin Fawcett , Presbyterian minister , was born and educated at Sleaford . Andrew Kippis , the Presbyterian minister , biographer and Fellow of the Royal Society , attended the Grammar School .
Richard Banister , the oculist , practised for 14 years in Sleaford where he trained in couching cataracts . Henry Andrews astronomer and astrologer , worked in Sleaford during his youth .
The royalist poet Thomas Shipman was educated at Carre 's Grammar School , as was novelist Henry Jackson ; Joseph Smedley , the actor and comedian , built the theatre in 1824 , before settling in the town in 1842 , establishing a printing business and dying in North Street ; and Charles Haslewood Shannon , the artist , was born in the town . The actress and comedian Jennifer Saunders was born in Sleaford . In popular culture , the singer Lois Wilkinson of the Caravelles was born in the town ; glamour model Abi Titmuss grew up in Ruskington and was educated at Kesteven and Sleaford High School ; and Bernie Taupin , Elton John 's songwriter , was born in the town . Eric Thompson who narrated The Magic Roundabout television series , was born in a house on Jermyn Street . In sport , the professional footballer Mark Wallington who played for Leicester City , Derby County and Lincoln City , grew up in Sleaford and , after retiring taught Physical Education at St George 's Academy .
|
= Tsugaru clan =
The Tsugaru clan ( 津軽氏 , Tsugaru @-@ shi ) was a Japanese samurai clan originating in northern Japan , specifically Mutsu Province ( the northeast coast of Honshū ) . A branch of the local Nanbu clan , the Tsugaru rose to power during the Azuchi @-@ Momoyama period . It was on the winning side of the Battle of Sekigahara , and entered the Edo period as a family of lords ( daimyo ) ruling the Hirosaki Domain . A second branch of the family was later established , which ruled the Kuroishi Domain . The Tsugaru survived as a daimyo family until the Meiji Restoration , when Tsugaru Tsuguakira of Hirosaki and Tsugaru Tsugumichi of Kuroishi were relieved of office . Their extended family then became part of the new nobility in the Meiji era .
= = History = =
= = = Origins through 1599 = = =
The Tsugaru clan initially claimed descent from the Kawachi Genji branch of the Minamoto clan ; in later years , this claim of origin would change to the Konoe family , which was a branch of the Fujiwara clan . It was first known as the Ōura clan ( 大浦氏 , Ōura @-@ shi ) , a branch family of the Nanbu clan , which ruled sections of northern Mutsu Province . Relations between the two families soured after the Ōura declared their independence from the Nanbu in 1571 , during the headship of Ōura Tamenobu . He had been vice @-@ district magistrate ( 郡代補佐 , gundai hosa ) under the Nanbu clan 's local magistrate Ishikawa Takanobu ; however , he attacked and killed Ishikawa and began taking the Nanbu clan 's castles . Tamenobu also attacked Kitabatake Akimura ( another local power figure ) and took his castle at Namioka . The Ōura clan 's fight against the Nanbu clan , under Nanbu Nobunao , would continue in the ensuing years . In 1590 , Tamenobu pledged fealty to Toyotomi Hideyoshi ; Hideyoshi confirmed Tamenobu in his holdings . As the Ōura fief had been in the Tsugaru region on the northern tip of Honshū , the family then changed its name to Tsugaru .
= = = The Tsugaru in the Edo era = = =
The Tsugaru clan sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu 's Eastern Army during the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 . Its immediate neighbors also all supported the Eastern Army . After the Tokugawa victory at Sekigahara , the Tsugaru clan was granted an increase in territory , along with permission to keep its existing domain of Hirosaki ( named for the family 's castle town ) . The domain started out small at 45 @,@ 000 koku , before being increased in size to 100 @,@ 000 koku . Tamenobu remained politically active in the early years of the Edo era , mainly in the Kansai area ; he died in Kyoto in 1608 .
The early years of the Edo era were marked by a series of major O @-@ Ie Sōdō disturbances that shook the Tsugaru family : the Tsugaru Disturbance ( 津軽騒動 , Tsugaru @-@ sōdō ) of 1607 , Kōsaka Kurando 's Riot ( 高坂蔵人の乱 , Kōsaka Kurando no ran ) of 1612 , the Funabashi Disturbance ( 船橋騒動 , Funabashi @-@ sōdō ) of 1634 , and the Shōhō Disturbance ( 正保騒動 , Shōhō @-@ sōdō ) of 1647 . In 1821 , there was a foiled plot by Sōma Daisaku , a former retainer of the Nanbu clan , to assassinate the Tsugaru lord ; this stemmed from the old enmity between the two clans .
A major branch of the Tsugaru clan was founded in 1656 , which was first given hatamoto rank , before being promoted to daimyo status in 1809 ; this became the ruling family of the Kuroishi Domain , which immediately bordered its parent family 's domain . A lesser branch was founded by Tsugaru Nobuzumi , the son of the first Kuroishi @-@ Tsugaru family head ; this branch remained hatamoto through the end of the Edo period . The main Tsugaru family 's funerary temple in Hirosaki was located at Chōshō @-@ ji . Though neither Tsugaru daimyo family ever held shogunate office , the Tsugaru of Hirosaki ( together with many of the other domains of northern Honshū ) assisted the shogunate in policing the frontier region of Ezochi ( now Hokkaido ) . In the late Edo period , during the headship of Tsugaru Tsuguakira , the Hirosaki domain 's forces were modernized along western lines .
= = = The Tsugaru clan in the Boshin War = = =
During the Boshin War of 1868 @-@ 69 , the Tsugaru clan first sided with the imperial government , and attacked the forces of the nearby Shōnai Domain . However , it soon switched course , and was briefly a signatory to the pact that created the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei , before backing out , once again in favor of the imperial government . It did not take part in any of the major military action against the imperial army . The Kuroishi branch joined the Hirosaki @-@ Tsugaru in siding with the imperial government . As a result , the entire clan was able to evade the punishment meted out by the government on the northern domains . After northern Honshū was pacified , Tsugaru forces joined the imperial army in attacking the Republic of Ezo at Hakodate . In return for its assistance , the Meiji government granted the Tsugaru family of Hirosaki a 10 @,@ 000 koku increase to its fief . Both branches of Tsugaru daimyo were made imperial governors ( 藩知事 , han chiji ) of their domains in 1869 . Two years later , as with all other daimyo , both Tsugaru lines were relieved of their offices by the abolition of the han system .
= = = Meiji and beyond = = =
In the Meiji era , Tsugaru Tsuguakira , who had been the last daimyo of the main Tsugaru family , was ennobled with the title of count ( hakushaku ) . Tsugaru Tsugumichi , the last daimyo of the Kuroishi @-@ Tsugaru , became a viscount ( shishaku ) . Tsuguakira later worked as a supervisor in the Number 15 National Bank ( 第十五国立銀行 , Dai jūgo kokuritsu ginkō ) , and Tsugumichi became a member of the House of Peers in 1890 . As Tsuguakira was heirless , he adopted Konoe Hidemaro , the son of court noble Konoe Tadafusa , as his heir ; Hidemaro succeeded to headship upon Tsuguakira 's death in 1916 .
Princess Hitachi is a present @-@ day descendant of the main Tsugaru line .
= = Family heads = =
= = = Main line ( Hirosaki ) = = =
= = = Branch line ( Kuroishi ) = = =
= = Notable retainers = =
= = = Hirosaki = = =
|
= Neptunium =
Neptunium is a chemical element with symbol Np and atomic number 93 . A radioactive actinide metal , neptunium is the first transuranic element . Its position in the periodic table just after uranium , named after the planet Uranus , led to it being named after Neptune , the next planet beyond Uranus . A neptunium atom has 93 protons and 93 electrons , of which seven are valence electrons . Neptunium metal is silvery and tarnishes when exposed to air . The element occurs in three allotropic forms and it normally exhibits five oxidation states , ranging from + 3 to + 7 . It is radioactive , poisonous , pyrophoric , and can accumulate in bones , which makes the handling of neptunium dangerous .
Although many false claims of its discovery were made over the years , the element was first synthesized by Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory in 1940 . Since then , most neptunium has been and still is produced by neutron irradiation of uranium in nuclear reactors . The vast majority is generated as a by @-@ product in conventional nuclear power reactors . While neptunium itself has no commercial uses at present , it is widely used as a precursor for the formation of plutonium @-@ 238 , used in radioisotope thermal generators to provide electricity for spacecraft . Neptunium has also been used in detectors of high @-@ energy neutrons .
The most stable isotope of neptunium , neptunium @-@ 237 , is a by @-@ product of nuclear reactors and plutonium production . It , and the isotope neptunium @-@ 239 , are also found in trace amounts in uranium ores due to neutron capture reactions and beta decay .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical = = =
Neptunium is a hard , silvery , ductile , radioactive actinide metal . In the periodic table , it is located to the right of the actinide uranium , to the left of the actinide plutonium and below the lanthanide promethium . Neptunium is a hard metal , having a bulk modulus of 118 GPa , comparable to that of manganese . Neptunium metal is similar to uranium in terms of physical workability . When exposed to air at normal temperatures , it forms a thin oxide layer . This reaction proceeds more rapidly as the temperature increases . Neptunium has been determined to melt at 639 ± 3 ° C : this low melting point , a property the metal shares with the neighboring element plutonium ( which has melting point 639 @.@ 4 ° C ) , is due to the hybridization of the 5f and 6d orbitals and the formation of directional bonds in the metal . The boiling point of neptunium is not empirically known and the usually given value of 4174 ° C is extrapolated from the vapor pressure of the element . If accurate , this would give neptunium the largest liquid range of any element ( 3535 K passes between its melting and boiling points ) .
Neptunium is found in at least three allotropes . Some claims of a fourth allotrope have been made , but they are so far not proven . This multiplicity of allotropes is common among the actinides . The crystal structures of neptunium , protactinium , uranium , and plutonium do not have clear analogs among the lanthanides and are more similar to those of the 3d transition metals .
α @-@ neptunium takes on an orthorhombic structure , resembling a highly distorted body @-@ centered cubic structure . Each neptunium atom is coordinated to four others and the Np – Np bond lengths are 260 pm . It is the densest of all the actinides and the fifth @-@ densest of all naturally occurring elements , behind only rhenium , platinum , iridium , and osmium. α @-@ neptunium has semimetallic properties , such as strong covalent bonding and a high electrical resistivity , and its metallic physical properties are closer to those of the metalloids than the true metals . Some allotropes of the other actinides also exhibit similar behaviour , though to a lesser degree . The densities of different isotopes of neptunium in the alpha phase are expected to be observably different : α @-@ 235Np should have density 20 @.@ 303 g / cm3 ; α @-@ 236Np , density 20 @.@ 389 g / cm3 ; α @-@ 237Np , density 20 @.@ 476 g / cm3 .
β @-@ neptunium takes on a distorted tetragonal close @-@ packed structure . Four atoms of neptunium make up a unit cell , and the Np – Np bond lengths are 276 pm. γ @-@ neptunium has a body @-@ centered cubic structure and has Np – Np bond length of 297 pm . The γ form becomes less stable with increased pressure , though the melting point of neptunium also increases with pressure . The β @-@ Np / γ @-@ Np / liquid triple point occurs at 725 ° C and 3200 MPa .
= = = = Alloys = = = =
Due to the presence of valence 5f electrons , neptunium and its alloys exhibit very interesting magnetic behavior , like many other actinides . These can range from the itinerant band @-@ like character characteristic of the transition metals to the local moment behavior typical of scandium , yttrium , and the lanthanides . This stems from 5f @-@ orbital hybridization with the orbitals of the metal ligands , and the fact that the 5f orbital is relativistically destabilized and extends outwards . For example , pure neptunium is paramagnetic , NpAl3 is ferromagnetic , NpGe3 has no magnetic ordering , and NpSn3 behaves fermionically . Investigations are underway regarding alloys of neptunium with uranium , americium , plutonium , zirconium , and iron , so as to recycle long @-@ lived waste isotopes such as neptunium @-@ 237 into shorter @-@ lived isotopes more useful as nuclear fuel .
One neptunium @-@ based superconductor alloy has been discovered with formula NpPd5Al2 . This occurrence in neptunium compounds is somewhat surprising because they often exhibit strong magnetism , which usually destroys superconductivity . The alloy has a tetragonal structure with a superconductivity transition temperature of − 268 @.@ 3 ° C ( 4 @.@ 9 K ) .
= = = Chemical = = =
Neptunium has five ionic oxidation states ranging from + 3 to + 7 when forming chemical compounds , which can be simultaneously observed in solutions . It is the heaviest actinide that can lose all its valence electrons in a stable compound . The most stable state in solution is + 5 , but the valence + 4 is preferred in solid neptunium compounds . Neptunium metal is very reactive . Ions of neptunium are prone to hydrolysis and formation of coordination compounds .
= = = Atomic = = =
A neptunium atom has 93 electrons , arranged in the configuration [ Rn ] 5f46d17s2 . This differs from the configuration expected by the Aufbau principle in that one electron is in the 6d subshell instead of being as expected in the 5f subshell . This is because of the similarity of the electron energies of the 5f , 6d , and 7s subshells . In forming compounds and ions , all the valence electrons may be lost , leaving behind an inert core of inner electrons with the electron configuration of the noble gas radon ; more commonly , only some of the valence electrons will be lost . The electron configuration for the tripositive ion Np3 + is [ Rn ] 5f4 , with the outermost 7s and 6d electrons lost first : this is exactly analogous to neptunium 's lanthanide homolog promethium , and conforms to the trend set by the other actinides with their [ Rn ] 5fn electron configurations in the tripositive state . The first ionization potential of neptunium was measured to be at most ( 6 @.@ 19 ± 0 @.@ 12 ) eV in 1974 , based on the assumption that the 7s electrons would ionize before 5f and 6d ; more recent measurements have refined this to 6 @.@ 2657 eV .
= = = Isotopes = = =
20 neptunium radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 237Np with a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 14 million years , 236Np with a half @-@ life of 154 @,@ 000 years , and 235Np with a half @-@ life of 396 @.@ 1 days . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives that are less than 4 @.@ 5 days , and the majority of these have half @-@ lives that are less than 50 minutes . This element also has at least four meta states , with the most stable being 236mNp with a half @-@ life of 22 @.@ 5 hours .
The isotopes of neptunium range in atomic weight from 225 @.@ 0339 u ( 225Np ) to 244 @.@ 068 u ( 244Np ) . Most of the isotopes that are lighter than the most stable one , 237Np , decay primarily by electron capture although a sizable number , most notably 229Np and 230Np , also exhibit various levels of decay via alpha emission to become protactinium . 237Np itself , being the beta @-@ stable isobar of mass number 237 , decays almost exclusively by alpha emission into 233Pa . All of the known isotopes except one that are heavier than this decay exclusively via beta emission . The lone exception , 240mNp , exhibits a rare ( > 0 @.@ 12 % ) decay by isomeric transition in addition to the beta emission . 237Np eventually decays to form bismuth @-@ 209 and thallium @-@ 205 , unlike most other common heavy nuclei which decay into isotopes of lead . This decay chain is known as the neptunium series .
The isotopes neptunium @-@ 235 , -236 , and -237 are predicted to be fissile ; only neptunium @-@ 237 's fissionability has been experimentally shown , with the critical mass being about 60 kg , only about 10 kg more than that of the commonly used uranium @-@ 235 . Calculated values of the critical masses of neptunium @-@ 235 , -236 , and -237 respectively are 66 @.@ 2 kg , 6 @.@ 79 kg , and 63 @.@ 6 kg : the neptunium @-@ 236 value is even lower than that of plutonium @-@ 239 . In particular 236Np also has a low neutron cross section . Despite this , a neptunium atomic bomb has never been built : uranium and plutonium have lower critical masses than 235Np and 237Np , and 236Np is difficult to purify as it is not found in quantity in spent nuclear fuel and is nearly impossible to separate in any significant quantities from its parent 237Np .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Since all isotopes of neptunium have half @-@ lives that are many times shorter than the age of the Earth , any primordial neptunium should have decayed by now . After only about 80 million years , the concentration of even the longest lived isotope , 237Np , would have been reduced to less than one @-@ trillionth ( 10 − 12 ) of its original amount ; and even if the whole Earth had initially been made of pure 237Np ( and ignoring that this would be well over its critical mass of 60 kg ) , 2100 half @-@ lives would have passed since the formation of the Solar System , and thus all of it would have decayed . Thus neptunium is present in nature only in negligible amounts produced as intermediate decay products of other isotopes .
Trace amounts of the neptunium isotopes neptunium @-@ 237 , -239 , and -240 are found naturally as decay products from transmutation reactions in uranium ores . In particular , 239Np and 237Np are the most common of these isotopes ; they are directly formed from neutron capture by uranium @-@ 238 atoms . These neutrons come from the spontaneous fission of uranium @-@ 238 , naturally neutron @-@ induced fission of uranium @-@ 235 , cosmic ray spallation of nuclei , and light elements absorbing alpha particles and emitting a neutron . The half @-@ life of 239Np is very short , although the detection of its much longer @-@ lived daughter 239Pu in nature in 1951 definitively established its natural occurrence . In 1952 , 237Np was identified and isolated from concentrates of uranium ore from the Belgian Congo : in these minerals , the ratio of neptunium @-@ 237 to uranium is less than or equal to about 10 − 12 to 1 . Finally , the short @-@ lived 240Np occurs as an intermediate in the decay chain of primordial 244Pu .
Most neptunium ( and plutonium ) now encountered in the environment is due to atmospheric nuclear explosions that took place between the detonation of the first atomic bomb in 1945 and the ratification of the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963 . The total amount of neptunium released by these explosions and the few atmospheric tests that have been carried out since 1963 is estimated to be around 2500 kg . The overwhelming majority of this is composed of the long @-@ lived isotopes 236Np and 237Np since even the moderately long @-@ lived 235Np ( half @-@ life 396 days ) would have decayed to less than one @-@ billionth ( 10 − 9 ) its original concentration over the intervening decades . An additional very small amount of neptunium , created by neutron irradiation of natural uranium in nuclear reactor cooling water , is released when the water is discharged into rivers or lakes . The concentration of 237Np in seawater is approximately 6 @.@ 5 × 10 − 5 millibecquerels per liter : this concentration is between 0 @.@ 1 % and 1 % that of plutonium .
Once in the environment , neptunium generally oxidizes fairly quickly , usually to the + 4 or + 5 state . Regardless of its oxidation state , the element exhibits a much greater mobility than the other actinides , largely due to its ability to readily form aqueous solutions with various other elements . In one study comparing the diffusion rates of neptunium ( V ) , plutonium ( IV ) , and americium ( III ) in sandstone and limestone , neptunium penetrated more than ten times as well as the other elements . Np ( V ) will also react efficiently in pH levels greater than 5 @.@ 5 if there are no carbonates present and in these conditions it has also been observed to readily bond with quartz . It has also been observed to bond well with goethite , ferric oxide colloids , and several clays including kaolinite and smectite . Np ( V ) does not bond as readily to soil particles in mildly acidic conditions as its fellow actinides americium and curium by nearly an order of magnitude . This behavior enables it to migrate rapidly through the soil while in solution without becoming fixed in place , contributing further to its mobility . Np ( V ) is also readily absorbed by concrete , which because of the element 's radioactivity is a consideration that must be addressed when building nuclear waste storage facilities . When absorbed in concrete , it is reduced to Np ( IV ) in a relatively short period of time . Np ( V ) is also reduced by humic acid if it is present on the surface of goethite , hematite , and magnetite . Np ( IV ) is absorbed efficiently by tuff , granodiorite , and bentonite ; although uptake by the latter is most pronounced in mildly acidic conditions . It also exhibits a strong tendency to bind to colloidal particulates , an effect that is enhanced when in soil with a high clay content . The behavior provides an additional aid in the element 's observed high mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Background and early claims = = =
When the first periodic table of the elements was published by Dmitri Mendeleev in the early 1870s , it showed a " — " in place after uranium similar to several other places for then @-@ undiscovered elements . Other subsequent tables of known elements , including a 1913 publication of the known radioactive isotopes by Kasimir Fajans , also show an empty place after uranium .
Up to and after the discovery of the final component of the atomic nucleus , the neutron in 1932 , most scientists did not seriously consider the possibility of elements heavier than uranium . While nuclear theory at the time did not explicitly prohibit their existence , there was little evidence to suggest that they did . However , the discovery of induced radioactivity by Irène and Frédéric Joliot @-@ Curie in late 1933 opened up an entirely new method of researching the elements and inspired a small group of Italian scientists led by Enrico Fermi to begin a series of experiments involving neutron bombardment . Although the Joliot @-@ Curies ' experiment involved bombarding a sample of 27Al with alpha particles to produce the radioactive 30P , Fermi realized that using neutrons , which have no electrical charge , would most likely produce even better results than the positively charged alpha particles . Accordingly , in March 1934 he began systematically subjecting all of the then @-@ known elements to neutron bombardment to determine whether others could also be induced to radioactivity .
After several months of work , Fermi 's group had tentatively determined that lighter elements would disperse the energy of the captured neutron by emitting a proton or alpha particle and heavier elements would generally accomplish the same by emitting a gamma ray . This latter behavior would later result in the beta decay of a neutron into a proton , thus moving the resulting isotope one place up the periodic table . When Fermi 's team bombarded uranium , they observed this behavior as well , which strongly suggested that the resulting isotope had an atomic number of 93 . Fermi was initially reluctant to publicize such a claim , but after his team observed several unknown half @-@ lives in the uranium bombardment products that did not match those of any known isotope , he published a paper entitled Possible Production of Elements of Atomic Number Higher than 92 in June 1934 . In it he proposed the name ausonium ( atomic symbol Ao ) for element 93 , after the Greek name Ausonia ( Italy ) .
Several theoretical objections to the claims of Fermi 's paper were quickly raised ; in particular , the exact process that took place when an atom captured a neutron was not well understood at the time . This and Fermi 's accidental discovery three months later that nuclear reactions could be induced by slow neutrons cast further doubt in the minds of many scientists , notably Aristid von Grosse and Ida Noddack , that the experiment was creating element 93 . While von Grosse 's claim that Fermi was actually producing protactinium was quickly tested and disproved , Noddack 's proposal that the uranium had been shattered into two or more much smaller fragments was simply ignored by most because existing nuclear theory did not include a way for this to be possible . Fermi and his team maintained that they were in fact synthesizing a new element , but the issue remained unresolved for several years .
Although the many different and unknown radioactive half @-@ lives in the experiment 's results showed that several nuclear reactions were occurring , Fermi 's group could not prove that element 93 was being created unless they could isolate it chemically . They and many other scientists attempted to accomplish this , including Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner who were among the best radiochemists in the world at the time and supporters of Fermi 's claim , but they all failed . Much later , it was determined that the main reason for this failure was because the predictions of element 93 's chemical properties were based on a periodic table which lacked the actinide series . This arrangement placed protactinium below tantalum , uranium below tungsten , and further suggested that element 93 , at that point referred to as eka @-@ rhenium , should be similar to the group 7 elements , including manganese and rhenium . Thorium , protactinium , and uranium , with their dominant oxidation states of + 4 , + 5 , and + 6 respectively , fooled scientists into thinking they belonged below hafnium , tantalum , and tungsten , rather than below the lanthanide series , which was at the time viewed as a fluke , and whose members all have dominant + 3 states ; neptunium , on the other hand , has a much weaker , more unstable + 7 state , with + 4 and + 5 being the most stable . Upon finding that plutonium and the other transuranic elements also have dominant + 3 and + 4 states , along with the discovery of the f @-@ block , the actinide series was firmly established .
While the question of whether Fermi 's experiment had produced element 93 was stalemated , two additional claims of the discovery of the element appeared , although unlike Fermi , they both claimed to have observed it in nature . The first of these claims was by Czech engineer Odolen Koblic in 1934 when he extracted a small amount of material from the wash water of heated pitchblende . He proposed the name bohemium for the element , but after being analyzed it turned out that the sample was a mixture of tungsten and vanadium . The other claim , in 1938 by Romanian physicist Horia Hulubei and French chemist Yvette Cauchois , claimed to have discovered the new element via spectroscopy in minerals . They named their element sequanium , but the claim was discounted because the prevailing theory at the time was that if it existed at all , element 93 would not exist naturally . However , as neptunium does in fact occur in nature in trace amounts , as demonstrated when it was found in uranium ore in 1952 , it is possible that Hulubei and Cauchois did in fact observe neptunium .
Although by 1938 some scientists , including Niels Bohr , were still reluctant to accept that Fermi had actually produced a new element , he was nevertheless awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in November 1938 " for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation , and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons " . A month later , the almost totally unexpected discovery of nuclear fission by Hahn , Meitner , and Otto Frisch put an end to the possibility that Fermi had discovered element 93 because most of the unknown half @-@ lives that had been observed by Fermi 's team were rapidly identified as fission products .
= = = Discovery = = =
As research on nuclear fission progressed in early 1939 , Edwin McMillan at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory of the University of California , Berkeley decided to run an experiment bombarding uranium using the powerful 60 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 52 m ) cyclotron that had recently been built at the university . The purpose was to separate the various fission products produced by the bombardment by exploiting the enormous force that the fragments gain from their mutual electrical repulsion after fissioning . Although he did not discover anything of note from this , McMillan did observe two new beta decay half @-@ lives in the uranium trioxide target itself , which meant that whatever was producing the radioactivity had not violently repelled each other like normal fission products . He quickly realized that one of the half @-@ lives closely matched the known 23 @-@ minute decay period of uranium @-@ 239 , but the other half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 3 days was unknown . McMillan took the results of his experiment to chemist and fellow Berkeley professor Emilio Segrè to attempt to isolate the source of the radioactivity . Both scientists began their work using the prevailing theory that element 93 would have similar chemistry to rhenium , but Segrè rapidly determined that McMillan 's sample was not at all similar to rhenium . Instead , when he reacted it with hydrogen fluoride ( HF ) with a strong oxidizing agent present , it behaved much like members of the rare earths . Since these elements comprise a large percentage of fission products , Segrè and McMillan decided that the half @-@ life must have been simply another fission product , titling the paper " An Unsuccessful Search for Transuranium Elements " .
However , as more information about fission became available , the possibility that the fragments of nuclear fission could still have been present in the target became more remote . McMillan and several scientists , including Philip H. Abelson , attempted again to determine what was producing the unknown half @-@ life . In early 1940 , McMillan realized that his 1939 experiment with Segrè had failed to test the chemical reactions of the radioactive source with sufficient rigor . In a new experiment , McMillan tried subjecting the unknown substance to HF in the presence of a reducing agent , something he had not done before . This reaction resulted in the sample precipitating with the HF , an action that definitively ruled out the possibility that the unknown substance was a rare earth . Shortly after this , Abelson , who had received his graduate degree from the university , visited Berkeley for a short vacation and McMillan asked the more able chemist to assist with the separation of the experiment 's results . Abelson very quickly observed that whatever was producing the 2 @.@ 3 @-@ day half @-@ life did not have chemistry like any known element and was actually more similar to uranium than a rare earth . This discovery finally allowed the source to be isolated and later , in 1945 , led to the classification of the actinide series . As a final step , McMillan and Abelson prepared a much larger sample of bombarded uranium that had a prominent 23 @-@ minute half @-@ life from 239U and demonstrated conclusively that the unknown 2 @.@ 3 @-@ day half @-@ life increased in strength in concert with a decrease in the 23 @-@ minute activity through the following reaction :
<formula> ( The times are half @-@ lives . )
This proved that the unknown radioactive source originated from the decay of uranium and , coupled with the previous observation that the source was different chemically from all known elements , proved beyond all doubt that a new element had been discovered . McMillan and Abelson published their results in a paper entitled Radioactive Element 93 in the Physical Review on May 27 , 1940 . They did not propose a name for the element in the paper , but they soon decided on the name neptunium since Neptune is the next planet beyond Uranus in our solar system .
= = = Subsequent developments = = =
It was also realized that the beta decay of 239Np must produce an isotope of element 94 ( now called plutonium ) , but the quantities involved in McMillan and Abelson 's original experiment were too small to isolate and identify plutonium along with neptunium . The discovery of plutonium had to wait until the end of 1940 , when Glenn T. Seaborg and his team identified the isotope plutonium @-@ 238 .
Neptunium 's unique radioactive characteristics allowed it to be traced as it moved through various compounds in chemical reactions , at first this was the only method available to prove that its chemistry was different from other elements . As the first isotope of neptunium to be discovered has such a short half @-@ life , McMillan and Abelson were unable to prepare a sample that was large enough to perform chemical analysis of the new element using the technology that was then available . However , after the discovery of the long @-@ lived 237Np isotope in 1942 by Glenn Seaborg and Arthur Wahl , forming weighable amounts of neptunium became a realistic endeavor . Early research into the element was somewhat limited because most of the nuclear physicists and chemists in the United States at the time were focused on the massive effort to research the properties of plutonium as part of the Manhattan Project . Research into the element did continue as a minor part of the project and the first bulk sample of neptunium was isolated in 1944 .
Much of the research into the properties of neptunium since then has been focused on understanding how to confine it as a portion of nuclear waste . Because it has isotopes with very long half @-@ lives , it is of particular concern in the context of designing confinement facilities that can last for thousands of years . It has found some limited uses as a radioactive tracer and a precursor for various nuclear reactions to produce useful plutonium isotopes . However , most of the neptunium that is produced as a reaction byproduct in nuclear power stations is considered to be a waste product .
= = Production = =
= = = Synthesis = = =
The vast majority of the neptunium that currently exists on Earth was produced in artificial nuclear reactions . Neptunium @-@ 237 is the most commonly synthesized isotope due to it being the only one that both can be created via neutron capture and also has a half @-@ lifelong enough to allow weighable quantities to be easily isolated . As such , it is by far the most common isotope to be utilized in chemical studies of the element .
When an 235U atom captures a neutron , it is converted to an excited state of 236U . About 81 % of the excited 236U nuclei undergo fission , but the remainder decay to the ground state of 236U by emitting gamma radiation . Further neutron capture creates 237U which has a half @-@ life of 7 days and thus quickly decays to 237Np through beta decay . During beta decay , the excited 237U emits an electron , while the atomic weak interaction converts a neutron to a proton , thus creating 237Np .
<formula>
237U is also produced via an ( n , 2n ) reaction with 238U . This only happens with very energetic neutrons .
237Np is the product of alpha decay of 241Am , which is produced through neutron irradiation of uranium @-@ 238 .
Heavier isotopes of neptunium decay quickly , and lighter isotopes of neptunium cannot be produced by neutron capture , so chemical separation of neptunium from cooled spent nuclear fuel gives nearly pure 237Np . The short @-@ lived heavier isotopes 238Np and 239Np , useful as radioactive tracers , are produced through neutron irradiation of 237Np and 238U respectively , while the longer @-@ lived lighter isotopes 235Np and 236Np are produced through irradiation of 235U with protons and deuterons in a cyclotron .
Artificial 237Np metal is usually isolated through a reaction of 237NpF3 with liquid barium or lithium at around 1200 ° C and is most often extracted from spent nuclear fuel rods in kilogram amounts as a by @-@ product in plutonium production .
2 NpF3 + 3 Ba → 2 Np + 3 BaF2
By weight , neptunium @-@ 237 discharges are about 5 % as great as plutonium discharges and about 0 @.@ 05 % of spent nuclear fuel discharges . However , even this fraction still amounts to more than fifty tons per year globally .
= = = Purification methods = = =
Recovering uranium and plutonium from spent nuclear fuel for reuse is one of the major processes of the nuclear fuel cycle . As it has a long half @-@ life of just over 2 million years , the alpha emitter 237Np is one of the major isotopes of the minor actinides separated from spent nuclear fuel . Many separation methods have been used to separate out the neptunium , operating on small and large scales . The small @-@ scale purification operations have the goals of preparing pure neptunium as a precursor of metallic neptunium and its compounds , and also to isolate and preconcentrate neptunium in samples for analysis .
Most methods that separate neptunium ions exploit the differing chemical behaviour of the differing oxidation states of neptunium ( from + 3 to + 6 or sometimes even + 7 ) in solution . Among the methods that are or have been used are : solvent extraction ( using various extractants , usually multidentate β @-@ diketone derivatives , organophosphorus compounds , and amine compounds ) , chromatography using various ion @-@ exchange or chelating resins , coprecipitation ( possible matrices include LaF3 , BiPO4 , BaSO4 , Fe ( OH ) 3 , and MnO2 ) , electrodeposition , and biotechnological methods . Currently , commercial reprocessing plants use the Purex process , involving the solvent extraction of uranium and plutonium with tributyl phosphate .
= = Chemistry and compounds = =
= = = Solution chemistry = = =
When it is in an aqueous solution , neptunium can exist in any of its five possible oxidation states ( + 3 to + 7 ) and each of these show a characteristic color . The stability of each oxidation state is strongly dependent on various factors , such as the presence of oxidizing or reducing agents , pH of the solution , presence of coordination complex @-@ forming ligands , and even the concentration of neptunium in the solution .
In acidic solutions , the neptunium ( III ) to neptunium ( VII ) ions exist as Np3 + , Np4 + , NpO +
2 , NpO2 +
2 , and NpO +
3 . In basic solutions , they exist as the oxides and hydroxides Np ( OH ) 3 , NpO2 , NpO2OH , NpO2 ( OH ) 2 , and NpO3 −
5 . Not as much work has been done to characterize neptunium in basic solutions . Np3 + and Np4 + can easily be reduced and oxidized to each other , as can NpO +
2 and NpO2 +
2 .
Neptunium ( III )
Np ( III ) or Np3 + exists as hydrated complexes in acidic solutions , Np ( H
2O ) 3 + n . It is a dark blue @-@ purple and is analogous to its lighter congener , the pink rare earth ion Pm3 + . In the presence of oxygen , it is quickly oxidized to Np ( IV ) unless strong reducing agents are also present . Nevertheless , it is the second @-@ least easily hydrolyzed neptunium ion in water , forming the NpOH2 + ion . Np3 + is the predominant neptunium ion in solutions of pH 4 – 5 .
Neptunium ( IV )
Np ( IV ) or Np4 + is pale yellow @-@ green in acidic solutions , where it exists as hydrated complexes ( Np ( H
2O ) 4 + n ) . It is quite unstable to hydrolysis in acidic aqueous solutions at pH 1 and above , forming NpOH3 + . In basic solutions , Np4 + tends to hydrolyze to form the neutral neptunium ( IV ) hydroxide ( Np ( OH ) 4 ) and neptunium ( IV ) oxide ( NpO2 ) .
Neptunium ( V )
Np ( V ) or NpO +
2 is green @-@ blue in aqueous solution , in which it behaves as a strong Lewis acid . It is a stable ion and is the most common form of neptunium in aqueous solutions . Unlike its neighboring homologues UO +
2 and PuO +
2 , NpO +
2 does not spontaneously disproportionate except at very low pH and high concentration :
2 NpO +
2 + 4 H + ⇌ Np4 + + NpO2 +
2 + 2 H2O
It hydrolyzes in basic solutions to form NpO2OH and NpO
2 ( OH ) −
2 .
Neptunium ( VI )
Np ( VI ) or NpO2 +
2 , the neptunyl ion , shows a light pink or reddish color in an acidic solution and yellow @-@ green otherwise . It is a strong Lewis acid and is the main neptunium ion encountered in solutions of pH 3 – 4 . Though stable in acidic solutions , it is quite easily reduced to the Np ( V ) ion , and it is not as stable as the homologous hexavalent ions of its neighbours uranium and plutonium ( the uranyl and plutonyl ions ) . It hydrolyzes in basic solutions to form the oxo and hydroxo ions NpO2OH + , ( NpO
2 )
2 ( OH ) 2 +
2 , and ( NpO
2 )
3 ( OH ) +
5 .
Neptunium ( VII )
Np ( VII ) is dark green in a strongly basic solution . Though its chemical formula in basic solution is frequently cited as NpO3 −
5 , this is a simplification and the real structure is probably closer to a hydroxo species like [ NpO
4 ( OH )
2 ] 3 − . Np ( VII ) was first prepared in basic solution in 1967 . In strongly acidic solution , Np ( VII ) is found as NpO +
3 ; water quickly reduces this to Np ( VI ) . Its hydrolysis products are uncharacterized .
= = = Hydroxides = = =
The oxides and hydroxides of neptunium are closely related to its ions . In general , Np hydroxides at various oxidation levels are less stable than the actinides before it on the periodic table such as thorium and uranium and more stable than those after it such as plutonium and americium . This phenomenon is because the stability of an ion increases as the ratio of atomic number to the radius of the ion increases . Thus actinides higher on the periodic table will more readily undergo hydrolysis .
Neptunium ( III ) hydroxide is quite stable in acidic solutions and in environments that lack oxygen , but it will rapidly oxidize to the IV state in the presence of air . It is not soluble in water . Np ( IV ) hydroxides exist mainly as the electrically neutral Np ( OH ) 4 and its mild solubility in water is not affected at all by the pH of the solution . This suggests that the other Np ( IV ) hydroxide , Np ( OH ) −
5 , does not have a significant presence .
Because the Np ( V ) ion NpO +
2 is very stable , it can only form a hydroxide in high acidity levels . When placed in a 0 @.@ 1 M sodium perchlorate solution , it does not react significantly for a period of months , although a higher molar concentration of 3 @.@ 0 M will result in it reacting to the solid hydroxide NpO2OH almost immediately . Np ( VI ) hydroxide is more reactive but it is still fairly stable in acidic solutions . It will form the compound NpO3 · H2O in the presence of ozone under various carbon dioxide pressures . Np ( VII ) has not been well @-@ studied and no neutral hydroxides have been reported . It probably exists mostly as [ NpO
4 ( OH )
2 ] 3 − .
= = = Oxides = = =
Three anhydrous neptunium oxides have been reported , NpO2 , Np2O5 , and Np5O8 , though some studies have stated that only the first two of these exist , suggesting that claims of Np5O8 are actually the result of mistaken analysis of Np2O5 . However , as the full extent of the reactions that occur between neptunium and oxygen has yet to be researched , it is not certain which of these claims is accurate . Although neptunium oxides have not been produced with neptunium in oxidations as high as those possible with the adjacent actinide uranium , neptunium oxides are more stable at lower oxidation levels . This behavior is illustrated by the fact that NpO2 can be produced by simply burning neptunium salts of oxyacids in air .
The greenish @-@ brown NpO2 is very stable over a large range of pressures and temperatures and does not undergo phase transitions at low temperatures . It does show a phase transition from face @-@ centered cubic to orthorhombic at around 33 @-@ 37GPa , although it returns to is original phase when pressure is released . It remains stable under oxygen pressures up to 2 @.@ 84 MPa and temperatures up to 400 ° C. Np2O5 is black @-@ brown in color and monoclinic with a lattice size of 418 × 658 × 409 picometres . It is relatively unstable and decomposes to NpO2 and O2 at 420 @-@ 695 ° C. Although Np2O5 was initially subject to several studies that claimed to produce it with mutually contradictory methods , it was eventually prepared successfully by heating neptunium peroxide to 300 @-@ 350 ° C for 2 – 3 hours or by heating it under a layer of water in an ampoule at 180 ° C.
Neptunium also forms a large number of oxide compounds with a wide variety of elements , although the neptunate oxides formed with alkali metals and alkaline earth metals have been by far the most studied . Ternary neptunium oxides are generally formed by reacting NpO2 with the oxide of another element or by precipitating from an alkaline solution . Li5NpO6 has been prepared by reacting Li2O and NpO2 at 400 ° C for 16 hours or by reacting Li2O2 with NpO3 · H2O at 400 ° C for 16 hours in a quartz tube and flowing oxygen . Alkali neptunate compounds K3NpO5 , Cs3NpO5 , and Rb3NpO5 are all created by a similar reaction :
NpO2 + 3 MO2 → M3NpO5 ( M = K , Cs , Rb )
The oxide compounds KNpO4 , CsNpO4 , and RbNpO4 are formed by reacting Np ( VII ) ( [ NpO
4 ( OH )
2 ] 3 − ) with a compound of the alkali metal nitrate and ozone . Additional compounds have been produced by reacting NpO3 and water with solid alkali and alkaline peroxides at temperatures of 400 - 600 ° C for 15 – 30 hours . Some of these include Ba3 ( NpO5 ) 2 , Ba2NaNpO6 , and Ba2LiNpO6 . Also , a considerable number of hexavelant neptunium oxides are formed by reacting solid @-@ state NpO2 with various alkali or alkaline earth oxides in an environment of flowing oxygen . Many of the resulting compounds also have an equivalent compound that substitutes uranium for neptunium . Some compounds that have been characterized include Na2Np2O7 , Na4NpO5 , Na6NpO6 , and Na2NpO4 . These can be obtained by heating different combinations of NpO2 and Na2O to various temperature thresholds and further heating will also cause these compounds to exhibit different neptunium allotropes . The lithium neptunate oxides Li6NpO6 and Li4NpO5 can be obtained with similar reactions of NpO2 and Li2O .
A large number of additional alkali and alkaline neptunium oxide compounds such as Cs4Np5O17 and Cs2Np3O10 have been characterized with various production methods . Neptunium has also been observed to bond with oxides of many additional elements in groups 3 through 7 , although these are much less well studied .
= = = Halides = = =
Although neptunium halide compounds have not been nearly as well studied as its oxides , a fairly large number have been successfully characterized . Of these , neptunium fluorides have been the most extensively researched , largely because of their potential use in separating the element from nuclear waste products . Four binary neptunium fluoride compounds , NpF3 , NpF4 , NpF5 , and NpF6 , have been reported . The first two are fairly stable and were first prepared in 1947 through the following reactions :
NpO2 + 1 ⁄ 2 H2 + 3 HF → NpF3 + 2 H2O ( 400 ° C )
NpF3 + 1 ⁄ 2 O2 + HF → NpF4 + 1 ⁄ 2 H2O ( 400 ° C )
Later , NpF4 was obtained directly by heating NpO2 to various temperatures in mixtures of either hydrogen fluoride or pure fluorine gas . NpF5 is much more difficult to create and most known preparation methods involve reacting NpF4 or NpF6 compounds with various other fluoride compounds . NpF5 will decompose into NpF4 and NpF6 when heated to around 320 ° C.
NpF6 or neptunium hexafluoride is extremely volatile , as are its adjacent actinide compounds uranium hexafluoride ( UF6 ) and plutonium hexafluoride ( PuF6 ) . This volatility has attracted a large amount of interest to the compound in an attempt to devise a simple method for extracting neptunium from spent nuclear power station fuel rods . NpF6 was first prepared in 1943 by reacting NpF3 and gaseous fluorine at very high temperatures and the first bulk quantities were obtained in 1958 by heating NpF4 and dripping pure fluorine on it in a specially prepared apparatus . Additional methods that have successfully produced neptunium hexafluoride include reacting BrF3 and BrF5 with NpF4 and by reacting several different neptunium oxide and fluoride compounds with anhydrous hydrogen fluorides .
Four neptunium oxyfluoride compounds , NpO2F , NpOF3 , NpO2F2 , and NpOF4 ; have been reported although none of them have been extensively studied . NpO2F2 is a pinkish solid and can be prepared by reacting NpO3 · H2O and Np2F5 with pure fluorine at around 330 ° C. NpOF3 and NpOF4 can be produced by reacting neptunium oxides with anhydrous hydrogen fluoride at various temperatures . Neptunium also forms a wide variety of fluoride compounds with various elements . Some of these that have been characterized include CsNpF6 , Rb2NpF7 , Na3NpF8 , and K3NpO2F5 .
Two neptunium chlorides , NpCl3 and NpCl4 , have been characterized and although several attempts to create NpCl5 have been made , they have not been successful . NpCl3 is created by reducing neptunium dioxide with hydrogen and carbon tetrachloride ( CCl4 ) and NpCl4 by reacting a neptunium oxide with CCl4 at around 500 ° C. Other neptunium chloride compounds have also been reported , including NpOCl2 , Cs2NpCl6 , Cs3NpO2Cl4 , and Cs2NaNpCl6 . Neptunium bromides NpBr3 and NpBr4 have also been created ; the latter by reacting aluminium bromide with NpO2 at 350 ° C and the former in an almost identical procedure but with zinc present . The neptunium iodide NpI3 has also been prepared by the same method as NpBr3 .
= = = Chalcogenides , pnictides , and carbides = = =
Neptunium chalcogen and pnictogen compounds have been well studied primarily as part of research into their electronic and magnetic properties and their interactions in the natural environment . Pnictide and carbide compounds have also attracted interest because of their presence in the fuel of several advanced nuclear reactor designs , although the latter group has not had nearly as much research as the former .
Chalcogenides
A wide variety of neptunium sulfide compounds have been characterized , including the pure sulfide compounds NpS , NpS3 , Np2S5 , Np3S5 , Np2S3 , and Np3S4 . Of these , Np2S3 , prepared by reacting NpO2 with hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfide at around 1000 ° C , is the most well @-@ studied and three allotropic forms are known . The α form exists up to around 1230 ° C , the β up to 1530 ° C , and the γ form , which can also exist as Np3S4 , at higher temperatures . NpS can be created by reacting Np2S3 and neptunium metal at 1600 ° C and Np3S5 can be prepared by the decomposition of Np2S3 at 500 ° C or by reacting sulfur and neptunium hydride at 650 ° C. Np2S5 is made by heating a mixture of Np3S5 and pure sulfur to 500 ° C. All of the neptunium sulfides except for the β and γ forms of Np2S3 are isostructural with the equivalent uranium sulfide and several , including NpS , α − Np2S3 , and β − Np2S3 are also isostructural with the equivalent plutonium sulfide . The oxysulfides NpOS , Np4O4S , and Np2O2S have also been created , although the latter three have not been well studied . NpOS was first prepared in 1985 by vacuum sealing NpO2 , Np3S5 , and pure sulfur in a quartz tube and heating it to 900 ° C for one week .
Neptunium selenide compounds that have been reported include NpSe , NpSe3 , Np2Se3 , Np2Se5 , Np3Se4 , and Np3Se5 . All of these have only been obtained by heating neptunium hydride and selenium metal to various temperatures in a vacuum for an extended period of time and Np2Se3 is only known to exist in the γ allotrope at relatively high temperatures . Two neptunium oxyselenide compounds are known , NpOSe and Np2O2Se , are formed with similar methods by replacing the neptunium hydride with neptunium dioxide . The known neptunium telluride compounds NpTe , NpTe3 , Np3Te4 , Np2Te3 , and Np2O2Te are formed by similar procedures to the selenides and Np2O2Te is isostructural to the equivalent uranium and plutonium compounds . No neptunium − polonium compounds have been reported .
Pnictides and carbides
Neptunium nitride ( NpN ) was first prepared in 1953 by reacting neptunium hydride and ammonia gas at around 750 ° C in a quartz capillary tube . Later , it was produced by reacting different mixtures of nitrogen and hydrogen with neptunium metal at various temperatures . It has also been created by the reduction of neptunium dioxide with diatomic nitrogen gas at 1550 ° C. NpN is isomorphous with uranium mononitride ( UN ) and plutonium mononitride ( PuN ) and has a melting point of 2830 ° C under a nitrogen pressure of around 1 MPa . Two neptunium phosphide compounds have been reported , NpP and Np3P4 . The first has a face centered cubic structure and is prepared by converting neptunium metal to a powder and then reacting it with phosphine gas at 350 ° C. Np3P4 can be created by reacting neptunium metal with red phosphorus at 740 ° C in a vacuum and then allowing any extra phosphorus to sublimate away . The compound is non @-@ reactive with water but will react with nitric acid to produce Np ( IV ) solution .
Three neptunium arsenide compounds have been prepared , NpAs , NpAs2 , and Np3As4 . The first two were first created by heating arsenic and neptunium hydride in a vacuum @-@ sealed tube for about a week . Later , NpAs was also made by confining neptunium metal and arsenic in a vacuum tube , separating them with a quartz membrane , and heating them to just below neptunium 's melting point of 639 ° C , which is slightly higher than the arsenic 's sublimation point of 615 ° C. Np3As4 is prepared by a similar procedure using iodine as a transporting agent . NpAs2 crystals are brownish gold and Np3As4 is black . The neptunium antimonide compound NpSb was created in 1971 by placing equal quantities of both elements in a vacuum tube , heating them to the melting point of antimony , and then heating it further to 1000 ° C for sixteen days . This procedure also created trace amounts of an additional antimonide compound Np3Sb4 . One neptunium @-@ bismuth compound , NpBi , has also been reported .
The neptunium carbides NpC , Np2C3 , and NpC2 ( tentative ) have been reported , but have not characterized in detail despite the high importance and utility of actinide carbides as advanced nuclear reactor fuel . NpC is a non @-@ stoichiometric compound , and could be better labelled as NpCx ( 0 @.@ 82 ≤ x ≤ 0 @.@ 96 ) . It may be obtained from the reaction of neptunium hydride with graphite at 1400 ° C or by heating the constituent elements together in an electric arc furnace using a tungsten electrode . It reacts with excess carbon to form pure Np2C3 . NpC2 is formed from heating NpO2 in a graphite crucible at 2660 – 2800 ° C.
= = = Other inorganic = = =
Hydrides
Neptunium reacts with hydrogen in a similar manner to its neighbor plutonium , forming the hydrides NpH2 + x ( face @-@ centered cubic ) and NpH3 ( hexagonal ) . These are isostructural with the corresponding plutonium hydrides , although unlike PuH2 + x , the lattice parameters of NpH2 + x become greater as the hydrogen content ( x ) increases . The hydrides require extreme care in handling as they decompose in a vacuum at 300 ° C to form finely divided neptunium metal , which is pyrophoric .
Phosphates , sulfates , and carbonates
Being chemically stable , neptunium phosphates have been investigated for potential use in immobilizing nuclear waste . Neptunium pyrophosphate ( α @-@ NpP2O7 ) , a green solid , has been produced in the reaction between neptunium dioxide and boron phosphate at 1100 ° C , though neptunium ( IV ) phosphate has so far remained elusive . The series of compounds NpM2 ( PO4 ) 3 , where M is an alkali metal ( Li , Na , K , Rb , or Cs ) , are all known . Some neptunium sulfates have been characterized , both aqueous and solid and at various oxidation states of neptunium ( IV through VI have been observed ) . Additionally , neptunium carbonates have been investigated to achieve a better understanding of the behavior of neptunium in geological repositories and the environment , where it may come into contact with carbonate and bicarbonate aqueous solutions and form soluble complexes .
= = = Organometallic = = =
A few organoneptunium compounds are known and chemically characterized , although not as many as for uranium due to neptunium 's scarcity and radioactivity . The most well known organoneptunium compounds are the cyclopentadienyl and cyclooctatetraenyl compounds and their derivatives . The trivalent cyclopentadienyl compound Np ( C5H5 ) 3 · THF was obtained in 1972 from reacting Np ( C5H5 ) 3Cl with sodium , although the simpler Np ( C5H5 ) could not be obtained . Tetravalent neptunium cyclopentadienyl , a reddish @-@ brown complex , was synthesized in 1968 by reacting neptunium ( IV ) chloride with potassium cyclopentadienide :
NpCl4 + 4 KC5H5 → Np ( C5H5 ) 4 + 4 KCl
It is soluble in benzene and THF , and is less sensitive to oxygen and water than Pu ( C5H5 ) 3 and Am ( C5H5 ) 3 . Other Np ( IV ) cyclopentadienyl compounds are known for many ligands : they have the general formula ( C5H5 ) 3NpL , where L represents a ligand . Neptunocene , Np ( C8H8 ) 2 , was synthesized in 1970 by reacting neptunium ( IV ) chloride with K2 ( C8H8 ) . It is isomorphous to uranocene and plutonocene , and they behave chemically identically : all three compounds are insensitive to water or dilute bases but are sensitive to air , reacting quickly to form oxides , and are only slightly soluble in benzene and toluene . Other known neptunium cyclooctatetraenyl derivatives include Np ( RC8H7 ) 2 ( R = ethanol , butanol ) and KNp ( C8H8 ) · 2THF , which is isostructural to the corresponding plutonium compound . In addition , neptunium hydrocarbyls have been prepared , and solvated triiodide complexes of neptunium are a precursor to many organoneptunium and inorganic neptunium compounds .
= = = Coordination complexes = = =
There is much interest in the coordination chemistry of neptunium , because its five oxidation states all exhibit their own distinctive chemical behavior , and the coordination chemistry of the actinides is heavily influenced by the actinide contraction ( the greater @-@ than @-@ expected decrease in ionic radii across the actinide series , analogous to the lanthanide contraction ) .
= = = = Solid state = = = =
Few neptunium ( III ) coordination compounds are known , because Np ( III ) is readily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen while in aqueous solution . However , sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate can reduce Np ( IV ) to Np ( III ) , stabilizing the lower oxidation state and forming various sparingly soluble Np ( III ) coordination complexes , such as Np
2 ( C
2O
4 )
3 · 11H2O , Np
2 ( C
6H
5AsO
3 )
3 · H2O , and Np
2 [ C
6H
4 ( OH ) COO ]
3 .
Many neptunium ( IV ) coordination compounds have been reported , the first one being ( Et
4N ) Np ( NCS )
8 , which is isostructural with the analogous uranium ( IV ) coordination compound . Other Np ( IV ) coordination compounds are known , some involving other metals such as cobalt ( CoNp
2F
10 · 8H2O , formed at 400 K ) and copper ( CuNp
2F
10 · 6H2O , formed at 600 K ) . Complex nitrate compounds are also known : the experimenters who produced them in 1986 and 1987 produced single crystals by slow evaporation of the Np ( IV ) solution at ambient temperature in concentrated nitric acid and excess 2 @,@ 2 ′ -pyrimidine .
The coordination chemistry of neptunium ( V ) has been extensively researched due to the presence of cation – cation interactions in the solid state , which had been already known for actinyl ions . Some known such compounds include the neptunyl dimer Na
4 ( NpO
4 )
2C
12O
12 · 8H2O and neptunium glycolate , both of which form green crystals .
Neptunium ( VI ) compounds range from the simple oxalate NpO
2C
2O
4 ( which is unstable , usually becoming Np ( IV ) ) to such complicated compounds as the green ( NH
4 )
4NpO
2 ( CO
3 )
3 . Extensive study has been performed on compounds of the form M
4AnO
2 ( CO
3 )
3 , where M represents a monovalent cation and An is either uranium , neptunium , or plutonium .
Since 1967 , when neptunium ( VII ) was discovered , some coordination compounds with neptunium in the + 7 oxidation state have been prepared and studied . The first reported such compound was initially characterized as Co ( NH
3 )
6NpO
5 · nH2O in 1968 , but was suggested in 1973 to actually have the formula [ Co ( NH
3 )
6 ] [ NpO
4 ( OH )
2 ] · 2H2O based on the fact that Np ( VII ) occurs as [ NpO
4 ( OH )
2 ] 3 − in aqueous solution . This compound forms dark green prismatic crystals with maximum edge length 0 @.@ 15 – 0 @.@ 4 mm .
= = = = In aqueous solution = = = =
Most neptunium coordination complexes known in solution involve the element in the + 4 , + 5 , and + 6 oxidation states : only a few studies have been done on neptunium ( III ) and ( VII ) coordination complexes . For the former , NpX2 + and NpX +
2 ( X
= Cl , Br ) were obtained in 1966 in concentrated LiCl and LiBr solutions , respectively : for the latter , 1970 experiments discovered that the NpO3 +
2 ion could form sulfate complexes in acidic solutions , such as NpO
2SO +
4 and NpO
2 ( SO
4 ) −
2 ; these were found to have higher stability constants than the neptunyl ion ( NpO2 +
2 ) . A great many complexes for the other neptunium oxidation states are known : the inorganic ligands involved are the halides , iodate , azide , nitride , nitrate , thiocyanate , sulfate , carbonate , chromate , and phosphate . Many organic ligands are known to be able to be used in neptunium coordination complexes : they include acetate , propionate , glycolate , lactate , oxalate , malonate , phthalate , mellitate , and citrate .
Analogously to its neighbours , uranium and plutonium , the order of the neptunium ions in terms of complex formation ability is Np4 + > NpO2 +
2 ≥ Np3 + > NpO +
2 . ( The relative order of the middle two neptunium ions depends on the ligands and solvents used . ) The stability sequence for Np ( IV ) , Np ( V ) , and Np ( VI ) complexes with monovalent inorganic ligands is F − > H
2PO −
4 > SCN − > NO −
3 > Cl − > ClO −
4 ; the order for divalent inorganic ligands is CO2 −
3 > HPO2 −
4 > SO2 −
4 . These follow the strengths of the corresponding acids . The divalent ligands are more strongly complexing than the monovalent ones . NpO +
2 can also form the complex ions [ NpO +
2M3 + ] ( M =
Al , Ga , Sc , In , Fe , Cr , Rh ) in perchloric acid solution : the strength of interaction between the two cations follows the order Fe > In > Sc > Ga > Al . The neptunyl and uranyl ions can also form a complex together .
= = Applications = =
= = = Precursor in plutonium production = = =
An important of use of 237Np is as a precursor in plutonium production , where it is irradiated with neutrons to create 238Pu , an alpha emitter for radioisotope thermal generators for spacecraft and military applications . 237Np will capture a neutron to form 238Np and beta decay with a half @-@ life of just over two days to 238Pu .
<formula>
238Pu also exists in sizable quantities in spent nuclear fuel but would have to be separated from other isotopes of plutonium . Irradiating neptunium @-@ 237 with electron beams , provoking bremsstrahlung , also produces quite pure samples of the isotope plutonium @-@ 236 , useful as a tracer to determine plutonium concentration in the environment .
= = = Weapons = = =
Neptunium is fissionable , and could theoretically be used as fuel in a fast neutron reactor or a nuclear weapon , with a critical mass of around 60 kilograms . In 1992 , the U.S. Department of Energy declassified the statement that neptunium @-@ 237 " can be used for a nuclear explosive device " . It is not believed that an actual weapon has ever been constructed using neptunium . As of 2009 , the world production of neptunium @-@ 237 by commercial power reactors was over 1000 critical masses a year , but to extract the isotope from irradiated fuel elements would be a major industrial undertaking .
In September 2002 , researchers at the Los Alamos National Laboratory briefly created the first known nuclear critical mass using neptunium in combination with shells of enriched uranium ( uranium @-@ 235 ) , discovering that the critical mass of a bare sphere of neptunium @-@ 237 " ranges from kilogram weights in the high fifties to low sixties , " showing that it " is about as good a bomb material as [ uranium @-@ 235 ] . " The United States Federal government made plans in March 2004 to move America 's supply of separated neptunium to a nuclear @-@ waste disposal site in Nevada .
= = = Physics = = =
237Np is used in devices for detecting high @-@ energy ( MeV ) neutrons .
= = Role in nuclear waste = =
Neptunium accumulates in commercial household ionization @-@ chamber smoke detectors from decay of the ( typically ) 0 @.@ 2 microgram of americium @-@ 241 initially present as a source of ionizing radiation . With a half @-@ life of 432 years , the americium @-@ 241 in an ionization smoke detector includes about 3 % neptunium after 20 years , and about 15 % after 100 years .
Neptunium @-@ 237 is the most mobile actinide in the deep geological repository environment . This makes it and its predecessors such as americium @-@ 241 candidates of interest for destruction by nuclear transmutation . Due to its long half @-@ life , neptunium will become the major contributor of the total radiotoxicity in 10 @,@ 000 years . As it is unclear what happens to the containment in that long time span , an extraction of the neptunium would minimize the contamination of the environment if the nuclear waste could be mobilized after several thousand years .
= = Biological role and precautions = =
Neptunium does not have a biological role , as it has a short half @-@ life and occurs only in small traces naturally . Animal tests showed that it is not absorbed via the digestive tract . When injected it concentrates in the bones , from which it is slowly released .
Finely divided neptunium metal presents a fire hazard because neptunium is pyrophoric ; small grains will ignite spontaneously in air at room temperature .
= = Literature = =
Guide to the Elements – Revised Edition , Albert Stwertka , ( Oxford University Press ; 1998 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 508083 @-@ 1
Lester R. Morss , Norman M. Edelstein , Jean Fuger ( Hrsg . ) : The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements , Springer @-@ Verlag , Dordrecht 2006 , ISBN 1 @-@ 4020 @-@ 3555 @-@ 1 .
Ida Noddack ( 1934 ) . " Über das Element 93 " . Zeitschrift für Angewandte Chemie 47 ( 37 ) : 653 – 655 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1002 / ange.19340473707.
Eric Scerri , A Very Short Introduction to the Periodic Table , Oxford University Press , Oxford , 2011 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 958249 @-@ 5 .
|
= Michael ( Glee ) =
" Michael " is the eleventh episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the fifty @-@ fifth overall . Written by co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy and directed by Alfonso Gomez @-@ Rejon , the episode aired on Fox in the United States on January 31 , 2012 . It is a special tribute episode to Michael Jackson , and features eight of his songs as a solo artist , and one he sang as part of The Jackson 5 .
Reviews were widely varied for the episode : some felt it was the best of the third season to date , and others were quite critical , though the overall mix was somewhat more positive than negative . A number of reviewers noted that tribute episodes have tended to be light on plot , though several felt that this episode had surmounted the usual storyline problems that had plagued past tributes .
The episode 's musical performances were viewed more favorably , with many of the nine performances given high praise , including " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , " Human Nature " , " Smooth Criminal " , and " Scream " , the last of these primarily for Kevin McHale 's dancing . Five of the songs — the first three above plus " Bad " and " Black or White " — charted on the Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian Hot 100 , while the other four were also released as singles but did not chart .
Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 9 @.@ 07 million American viewers and received a 3 @.@ 7 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership was up over 20 % from the previous episode , " Yes / No " .
= = Plot = =
Glee club members Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) , Santana ( Naya Rivera ) and Brittany ( Heather Morris ) are disappointed that they missed their chance to sing Michael Jackson 's music at Sectionals , so director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) says that New Directions might include Jackson for the upcoming Regionals competition . Blaine ( Darren Criss ) performs " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " to demonstrate his suggested number . However , he mentions this possibility to Sebastian Smythe ( Grant Gustin ) , the new captain of the Dalton Academy Warblers and a Regionals competitor , and Sebastian later announces that the Warblers , who will be performing first , will also be doing Jackson 's music . New Directions challenges the Warblers for the right to perform Jackson , and they meet in a parking garage at night and compete to " Bad " . At the end of the number , Sebastian throws a slushie at Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) but Blaine interposes himself : he is hit in the face and badly injured .
Finn ( Cory Monteith ) asks Rachel ( Lea Michele ) for her answer to his proposal since he has waited the three days she requested , but she is not ready , so he agrees to wait longer . Rachel asks Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) for advice , and Quinn advises her to refuse and leave her past behind . Quinn has done so , and she has been accepted at Yale ; she sings " Never Can Say Goodbye " to former boyfriends Puck ( Mark Salling ) , Finn and Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) , and to the glee club . Sam calls Mercedes to the auditorium and asks her to sing with him — they have never duetted in glee club . She refuses and starts to leave , but he begins " Human Nature " and she joins in . Afterward , they kiss .
Blaine 's cornea was deeply scratched in the incident and he needs surgery . The club wants revenge on Sebastian ; Kurt says he should be expelled from Dalton , but Will asks them to let the system handle it . Artie ( Kevin McHale ) refuses : he is fed up with being told it will get better and says it should be better now , and leaves . Despite wanting revenge , Kurt is unwilling to use violence , so Santana goes to Dalton and accuses Sebastian of lying about the composition of the damaging slushie . He challenges her to a duel : the song " Smooth Criminal " . He admits after they finish that he rigged the slushie with rock salt , and hits her with an unadulterated one . Santana secretly recorded the encounter , and plays her evidence to New Directions , who in turn invite the Warblers to their auditorium , show them that they " get " Jackson better by performing " Black or White " , and reveal to the Warblers the proof that Sebastian deliberately tried to injure one of them .
Kurt 's father Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) takes Kurt out of class to hand him his letter from NYADA . Kurt opens it and discovers to his elation he is a finalist for admission ; Burt is overcome with pride . Kurt tells Rachel , only to discover that she has not received any letter from the school ; Rachel dissolves in tears . Finn later sings " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " to Rachel , and she tells him she loves him and that she accepts his proposal . She ultimately does get a finalist letter from NYADA and tells Kurt , to his joy , but she has not yet told Finn .
= = Production = =
Executive producers Ryan Murphy and Brad Falchuk had been mentioning since before the second season ended that they were planning another big tribute episode that they had been wanting to do since the first season , but would not reveal the name of the artist . On December 6 , 2011 , the same day that they were airing the " Hold On to Sixteen " episode that featured three Jackson family songs , Murphy announced that they had finally obtained the rights to do a Michael Jackson tribute episode .
The episode was written by Murphy and directed by Alfonso Gomez @-@ Rejon , who had most recently directed Asian F. Filming had begun by December 12 , 2011 , and was interrupted by a two @-@ week holiday vacation . Both of the last two shooting days before the vacation began , December 15 and 16 , ran a couple of hours past midnight , with the final night not ending until three in the morning . Filming had not yet completed when the twelfth episode , with guest star Ricky Martin , began filming on January 5 , 2012 , the third day after the holiday vacation ended . The two episodes continued in parallel until the final Michael Jackson number was shot on January 13 , 2012 , over a month after filming began and the same day that the thirteenth episode commenced filming .
It had been announced late in the summer that Darren Criss , who plays Blaine Anderson , would be starring on Broadway in How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying from January 3 through 22 , 2012 , with rehearsals beginning there a couple of weeks before his debut . At the time , the reports said he would be missing " an episode and a half of Glee " . The final scene filmed before the holiday break was the first song in the episode , for which Criss sang lead , and he filmed several scenes in the episode in those last four days . He is singing lead on the song " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . Criss spent five weeks in New York City , the last three starring in How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying from January 3 through 22 , 2012 .
The Dalton Academy Warblers return in this episode , and perform " Bad " with New Directions , which was shot on location in a " parking garage just outside the Paramount Studio gates " . On the previous day , several members of New Directions did their first location shoots in the building used for Dalton Academy . The Warblers shot their own number , " I Want You Back " by The Jackson 5 with Gustin on lead vocal , but the song was omitted from the final cut of the episode . This was the second time in the third season that ten musical performances were shot for an episode but only nine were ultimately included : Rivera 's rendition of " Santa Baby " was cut from the episode two before this one , " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " . " I Want You Back " , like " Santa Baby " before it , was nevertheless released as a single , and on August 3 , 2012 , Murphy released the originally filmed scene including it uploaded to his YouTube page . The Warblers number had already run into difficulties earlier in production : it was originally planned to be Jackson 's " Rock with You " , but there were problems clearing the rights , so " I Want You Back " was selected and filmed instead . Gustin and Rivera performed " Smooth Criminal " with on @-@ screen musical guests 2Cellos , Luka Šulić and Stjepan Hauser , who became famous when their instrument @-@ only two @-@ cello cover of the piece received over three million views on YouTube in its first two weeks . The arrangement used for the performance is based on the 2Cellos version .
The remaining six songs that are covered in the episode include " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " , performed by Michele and Monteith ; The Jackson 5 's " Never Can Say Goodbye " , sung by Agron ; " Ben " sung by Colfer , Michele and Monteith ; " Black or White " featuring Riley , Rivera , Michele , McHale and Colfer ; " Human Nature " sung by Riley and Overstreet ; and the Michael and Janet Jackson song " Scream " , performed by McHale and Harry Shum , Jr . " Human Nature " was originally reported as being part of a mash @-@ up with Nat King Cole 's " Nature Boy " , but the song as performed is the Jackson song alone . All ten songs recorded — the nine in the episode plus " I Want You Back " which was ultimately cut — have been released as singles , available for download .
Recurring guest stars in the episode include Kurt 's father Burt Hummel ( O 'Malley ) , glee club members Sam Evans ( Overstreet ) and Rory Flanagan ( Damian McGinty ) , and Dalton Academy Warbler Sebastian Smythe ( Gustin ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Michael " was first broadcast on January 31 , 2012 in the United States on Fox . It received a 3 @.@ 7 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and attracted 9 @.@ 07 million American viewers during its initial airing , an increase of over 20 % from the 3 @.@ 1 / 8 rating / share and 7 @.@ 50 million viewers of the previous episode , " Yes / No " , which was broadcast on January 17 , 2012 . In Canada , 1 @.@ 84 million viewers watched the episode on the same day as its American premiere . It was the tenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , up two slots and 14 % from the 1 @.@ 61 million viewers who watched " Yes / No " two weeks earlier .
In the United Kingdom , " Michael " first aired on March 8 , 2012 , and was watched on Sky 1 by 682 @,@ 000 viewers . Viewership was down over 15 % from " Yes / No " , which attracted 805 @,@ 000 viewers when it aired the week before . In Australia , " Michael " was broadcast on February 24 , 2012 . It was watched by 535 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the thirteenth most @-@ watched program of the night , down from eleventh the week before . The viewership was down nearly 4 % from the previous episode , " Yes / No " , which was seen by 556 @,@ 000 viewers .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode was given a widely varied reception by reviewers , ranging from Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone , who called it " season three 's best episode so far " , to BuddyTV 's John Kubicek , who described the episode as " just plain silly and ridiculous " , though the overall mix was somewhat more positive than negative . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal wrote that " the episode was well paced , well sung and well danced " , though he was unhappy with the concluding number , and Entertainment Weekly 's Joseph Brannigan Lynch said the episode " contained some of this season 's best dramatic and musical performances " . Crystal Bell of HuffPost TV stated that she was " a little underwhelmed " by the episode , which " never quite lived up to the greatness that is Michael Jackson " . IGN 's Robert Canning gave the episode a " great " 8 out of 10 , and characterized it as " more than just a theme episode " in which he was " connecting to characters " that had not " grabbed " him since the first season .
MTV 's Kevin P. Sullivan summarized the episode as follows : " When all was said and done , it was another tribute episode , something that can 't be uttered by a Glee fan without a sigh and an eye roll . " Bell noted that tribute episodes usually mean that " all sense of plot continuity " is forgone , but that this one ranked " at the top of all of the other Glee tribute episodes because even though it was absurd at times , at least there was a plot — and it kind of made sense " . Futterman was more complimentary and described it as the " most effortless tribute episode yet " , and Canning wrote that " with songs we know and love and storylines that actually connected and delivered some meaningful and moving moments " it was " more than just a theme episode " . Jen Chaney of The Washington Post , however , thought that it was very much like previous tributes in that it also " featured scattered plot lines engineered to include as many songs by said artists as possible " and also " glorified their respective pop stars ’ images to an absurd degree " . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff also noted the glorification of Jackson , and noted " every time the show turns into an episode about Michael Jackson , it stops dead in its tracks entirely " . He stated that what was " weird " about the episode was that " what didn ’ t work was the spectacle , while what did work were the smaller , character @-@ based stories " which " provided a spine some of the other spectacle @-@ oriented episodes have lacked " . Futterman was one of many reviewers who took note of a new feature of this tribute episode when she commented on the " initial whiff of product placement and forced timing " related to the " Immortal World Tour " dialogue . Rae Votta of Billboard thought the inclusion a " brilliant bit of marketing synergy " , but TVLine 's Michael Slezak called it " ridiculously unsubtle product @-@ placement " .
Although Rachel 's decision to accept Finn 's proposal of marriage was greeted with skepticism , Canning spoke for many when he stated that her " arc in the episode was her best in a while " with " some compelling moments " . He also cited the " fantastically true advice " from Quinn , and VanDerWerff thought the scene " was going along great until the last 10 seconds " of that advice . Bell praised as " believable " the scene where Rachel " breaks down in front of Kurt " , and Slezak said he " loved that scene of Kurt holding his sobbing friend in front of the lockers " . Kurt 's scene with his father was Bell 's " favorite scene " which she said was " an incredibly touching moment between father and son . It was perfect . " Flandez also called Burt " perfect " for " delivering the NYADA envelope to his son " , and The Hollywood Reporter 's Lesley Goldberg described his scene as " another great Burt gem " .
Kubicek characterized the fact that Sebastian was not arrested for injuring Blaine as " an absurd plot twist " . He criticized Kurt for withholding the evidence and wrote , " Santana 's plan isn 't vicious or mean , it 's getting justice . Sebastian committed a crime and he should pay for it . " Slezak thought the decision as to whether the police would be given Santana 's evidence should have been Blaine 's to make , and Lynch posited that " a talk with the police " might teach Sebastian " that violent actions have legal consequences " . Chaney was incredulous at Will 's statements to the glee club on the matter , especially , " Unless you have proof that he tampered with the slushie , the police aren ’ t getting involved . " Kubicek called Artie 's anger that led to " Scream " a story arc that " goes nowhere and was just a poorly written excuse to do that song " , but Votta was impressed that " we learn more about Artie 's frustration in this fantasy scene than we have in 3 seasons " . Canning wrote that " as extraneous as the extended " Scream " segment was , the build up to that moment was perfect " .
= = = Music and performances = = =
The episode 's musical performances were given a better reception than the episode as a whole , though there were some dissenting voices , and not every song was received with the same enthusiasm . Slezak described the episode as " jam @-@ packed with terrific song @-@ and @-@ dance numbers " , and Votta wrote that " the musical numbers themselves were strong , fantastical and poignant to the story " . Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times declared , " The music was good ; the dancing , better . " Chaney wrote that " too many " of the musical numbers were " weak imitations " , which was reflected in her grading : her median grade for the nine numbers was a " C + " , and her highest grade was a single " B + " .
The first song was " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , which Bell said " was a fun homage to Michael Jackson , and it set the tone for the rest of the episode " . Futterman said that Blaine 's " slick showmanship " made him a " natural for lead vocals " , and Slezak called it " the best use of Darren Criss ' voice on Glee in quite some time " and gave it an " A − " . Lynch also gave it an " A − " , and said Criss " captured the excitement and the spunky bravado of the original " . Sullivan was another fan of " the sheer awesomeness of Darren Criss " on the song , and characterized it as " a tribute that 's more respectful than any other in the episode " . Chaney dissented from the general approval ; she gave it a " C + " and wrote that " the number was appropriately big and splashy , but musically , it sounded like all the funk had been drained right out of it " . She described " Bad " similarly as she gave it a " C − " : " this tune also sounded noticeably defunkified " . Sullivan was also unimpressed ; he wrote that the performance let " the world know what ' Bad ' sounds like after it 's drained of every ounce of danger " . Lynch gave it a " B " and wrote that " as silly as a choreographed gang fight between teenagers in a parking lot sounds ( and was ) , the choreography was crisp and the attitude was a lot of fun " . Slezak also praised the fight choreography , and stated that he " got chills " when Santana sang the chorus , and gave the song a " B + " . Futterman noted the " interesting twist " in the song 's arrangement " thanks to the Warblers ' penchant for a cappella " , and said that " Artie and Santana " began their battle for " vocal MVP of the episode " with " Bad " . Votta described the number as " up there with the Dreamgirls performance from earlier this season as one of the strangest and best things Glee has done " .
Kevin McHale 's performance as Artie in " Scream " inspired several reviewers , including Kate Stanhope of TV Guide and Bell , to write of their regret that McHale could not dance more often on the show . Reiter called him " a sorely underused Glee resource " and called the number " the best dance moment " of the episode , and Bell declared , " I have one word for this number : Epic . " Flandez called it a " phenomenal job " , and Stanhope cited " killer performances " by McHale on this number and others as evidence that with Artie only a junior " there is life " in New Directions after McKinley 's current seniors graduate . Lynch called the number " awesome " and gave it an " A + " , and Goldberg described it as " a perfect example of what the show looks like when it 's firing on all cylinders " ; both reviewers praised the dancing of both performers . Chaney wrote that the performance " lacked the energy and genuine aggression of the original Michael / Janet Jackson collaboration , although at least Kevin McHale and Harry Shum Jr. got to show off their dance skills " , and gave it a " C " . She felt that " Never Can Say Goodbye " , to which she gave a " B − " , " worked much better than every track that preceded it " because it adapted the song to the show " instead of trying to out @-@ Jackson Jackson " . Lynch called it " a nice summation of her character 's journey , but not vocally impressive enough to justify listening to outside of the episode " and gave it a " B " . Bell described it as a " blah performance " , but Stanhope said it was " sweet and reflective " . Futterman wrote that it was " a tune well @-@ suited for Quinn 's sultry voice and the flipped meaning she gives the lyrics " , and Slezak had a similar take : he gave it an " A " and called it a " remarkably lovely fit " for her voice .
Votta and Futterman both said that Sam and Mercedes sounded " great together " on " Human Nature " , and Futterman also complimented their individual voices — " hers restrained and soulful , his rock @-@ tinged and raw " — and summarized , " It 's a crisp , well @-@ executed cover " . Most other reviewers also noted how good their voices sounded together , including Chaney , who gave the song a " B − " , and Bell , who called their harmonies " out @-@ of @-@ this @-@ world amazing " . Lynch and Slezak each praised the tenderness in Riley 's vocals ; Lynch gave the song an " A " , and Slezak an " A − " . " Ben " , however , received far more mixed commentary , and several reviewers felt it was odd to , as Chaney put it , sing a song about a rat " to a guy who isn 't named Ben and was wearing an eye patch " , which Futterman called " a little creepy " and VanDerWerff , more bluntly , " fucking weird " . Despite this , Chaney gave the song a " B " , one of her highest grades of the night , in part because it gave Colfer " an excuse to hit those ' You ’ ve got a friend in me ' high notes " , while Futterman noted that he " does well in the high range " , and praised the verses by Rachel and Finn . Bell , however , called the song " a snooze @-@ fest " , and Slezak was very unhappy with the " interminable rendition " which he graded a " D " . In December 2012 , TV Guide listed the rendition as one of Glee 's worst performances .
" Smooth Criminal " was the most highly praised number of the night . Both Slezak and Lynch gave it an " A + " : the former called it " an instant Glee classic " that " had me on the edge of my musical chair from start to finish " , and Lynch wrote , " Santana declared herself the winner , but the actual victors were 2Cellos , the real @-@ life Croatian cellists whose manic intensity stole the scene . " Slezak was similarly impressed by 2Cellos — " this was really a duet between Santana and those amazing black cellos " — and Futterman called them " furiously awesome " and said of the song , " It 's the perfect soundtrack for the show 's slickest villains : Santana wails , Sebastian channels his Chuck Bass and we are sold . " Bell described it as " easily one of the best performances of the night " and added " Santana was flawless " . Chaney dissented from the acclaim with a " D " grade .
Slezak described the duet of " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " as " really pretty " , and Chaney said that " Lea Michele ... sang this Jackson love song in the loveliest possible fashion with Cory Monteith " . Votta wrote that " Finn sounds the best he 's sounded " , and Futterman noted that Finn held " his own against Rachel , vocally " — she liked the fact that it was Finn singing to Rachel instead of the usual other way around and was " grateful to the Glee team for assigning plot @-@ relevant songs " . Lynch felt that the song " seemed to slow down the otherwise wonderfully paced episode " and would have preferred it if they had cut the song and " kept the Warblers ' version of ' I Want You Back ' instead " . He was more enthusiastic about " Black or White " , which he characterized as " musically awesome but dramatically confusing " and graded an " A − " . Futterman said that " Artie once again nails the MJ impression " , and Goldberg declared that the " chorus with Santana leading charge and Artie 's rap " were " spot on " . Bell agreed that the song showed that " Artie is still New Directions ' go @-@ to rapper " , but noted that she did not feel that New Directions had successfully demonstrated that they " knew the true meaning of Michael Jackson " . Chaney was unenthusiastic and gave the song a " C " , while Flandez had more negative opinion than hers : " Sebastian Smythe got our reaction right : a slow @-@ handed clap " .
= = = Chart history = = =
Of the nine cover versions of Michael Jackson 's music , all of which were released as singles , five debuted on US and Canadian top 100 charts , and ranked in the same order in both countries . " Smooth Criminal " debuted in the US at number twenty @-@ six on the Billboard Hot 100 , with sales of 108 @,@ 000 ; only nine songs sold more digital downloads that week . " Human Nature " debuted at number fifty @-@ six , " Black or White " at number sixty @-@ four , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " at number seventy @-@ eight and " Bad " at number eighty . " Smooth Criminal entered the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart at number twenty @-@ eight , and was followed by " Human Nature " at number sixty @-@ two , " Black or White " at number sixty @-@ nine , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " at number eighty @-@ eight and " Bad " at number ninety .
|
= George Mikan =
George Lawrence Mikan , Jr . ( June 18 , 1924 – June 1 , 2005 ) , nicknamed Mr. Basketball , was an American professional basketball player for the Chicago American Gears of the National Basketball League ( NBL ) and the Minneapolis Lakers of the NBL , the Basketball Association of America ( BAA ) and the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . Invariably playing with thick , round spectacles , the 6 ft 10 in ( 2 @.@ 08 m ) , 245 pounds ( 111 kg ) Mikan is seen as one of the pioneers of professional basketball , redefining it as a game of so @-@ called big men with his prolific rebounding , shot blocking , and his talent to shoot over smaller defenders with his ambidextrous hook shot , the result of his namesake Mikan Drill .
Mikan had a successful playing career , winning seven NBL , BAA , and NBA championships , an All @-@ Star MVP trophy , and three scoring titles . He was a member of the first four NBA All @-@ Star games , and the first six All @-@ BAA and All @-@ NBA Teams . Mikan was so dominant that he caused several rule changes in the NBA , among them , the introduction of the goaltending rule , the widening of the foul lane — known as the " Mikan Rule " — and the creation of the shot clock .
After his playing career , Mikan became one of the founders of the American Basketball Association ( ABA ) , serving as commissioner of the league . He was also vital for the forming of the Minnesota Timberwolves . In his later years , Mikan was involved in a long @-@ standing legal battle against the NBA , fighting to increase the meager pensions for players who had retired before the league became lucrative . In 2005 , Mikan died after a long battle with diabetes .
For his feats , Mikan was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1959 , made the 25th and 35th NBA Anniversary Teams of 1970 and 1980 , and was elected one of the NBA 's 50 Greatest Players ever in 1996 . Since April 2001 , a statue of Mikan shooting his trademark hook shot graces the entrance of the Timberwolves ' Target Center .
= = Early years = =
George Mikan was born in Joliet , Illinois , as an American of Croatian descent . As a boy , he shattered one of his knees so badly that he was kept in bed for a year and a half . In 1938 , Mikan attended the Chicago Archbishop Quigley Preparatory Seminary and originally wanted to be a priest , but then moved back home to finish at Joliet Catholic . Mikan did not seem destined to become an athlete . When Mikan entered Chicago 's DePaul University in 1942 , he stood 6 ' 10 " , weighed 245 pounds , moved awkwardly because of his frame , and wore thick glasses for his near @-@ sightedness .
= = DePaul University = =
However , Mikan met 28 @-@ year @-@ old rookie DePaul basketball coach Ray Meyer , who saw potential in the bright and intelligent , but also clumsy and shy , freshman . Put into perspective , Meyer 's thoughts were revolutionary , because at the time it was believed that tall players were too awkward to ever play basketball well . In the following months , Meyer transformed Mikan into a confident , aggressive player who took pride in his height rather than being ashamed of it . Meyer and Mikan worked out intensively , and Mikan learned how to make hook shots accurately with either hand . This routine would become later known as the Mikan Drill . In addition , Meyer made Mikan punch a speed bag , take dancing lessons , and jump rope to make him a complete athlete .
From his first National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) college games for DePaul on , Mikan dominated his peers . He intimidated opponents with his size and strength , was unstoppable on offense with his hook shot , and soon established a reputation as one of the hardest and grittiest players in the league , often playing through injuries and punishing opposing centers with hard fouls . In addition , Mikan also surprised the basketball world with his unique ability of goaltending , i.e. jumping so high that he swatted the ball away before it could pass the hoop . In today 's basketball , touching the ball after it reaches its apogee is a violation , but in Mikan 's time it was legal because people thought it was impossible anyone could reach that high . " We would set up a zone defense that had four men around the key and I guarded the basket " , Mikan later recalled his DePaul days . " When the other team took a shot , I 'd just go up and tap it out . " As a consequence , the NCAA and later the NBA , outlawed goaltending . One of the few opposing centers to have any success against Mikan was Bob Kurland , a seven @-@ footer from Oklahoma A & M.
Mikan was named the Helms NCAA College Player of the Year twice in 1944 and 1945 and an All @-@ American three times , leading DePaul to the NIT title in 1945 , which was as prestigious as the NCAA tournament at the time . Mikan led the nation in scoring with 23 @.@ 9 points per game in 1944 – 45 and 23 @.@ 1 in 1945 – 46 . When DePaul won the 1945 National Invitation Tournament , Mikan was named Most Valuable Player for scoring 120 points in three games , including 53 points in a 97 – 53 win over Rhode Island , equalling the score of the entire Rhode Island team .
= = Professional playing career = =
= = = Chicago American Gears ( 1946 – 47 ) = = =
After the end of the 1945 – 46 college season , Mikan signed with the Chicago American Gears of the National Basketball League , a predecessor of the modern NBA . He played with them for 25 games at the end of the 1946 – 47 NBL season , scoring 16 @.@ 5 points per game as a rookie . Mikan led the Gears to the championship of the World Basketball Tournament , where he was elected Most Valuable Player after scoring 100 points in five games , and also voted into the All @-@ NBL Team .
However , before the start of the 1947 – 48 NBL season , Maurice White , the president of the American Gear Company and the owner of the American Gears NBL team , pulled the team out of the league . White planned to create a 24 @-@ team league called the Professional Basketball League of America , in which he owned all the teams and arenas . However , the league folded after just a month , and the players of White 's teams were equally distributed among the 11 remaining NBL franchises . As a consequence , every team had a 9 @.@ 09 % chance of landing Mikan , who ended up on the Minneapolis Lakers , playing for coach John Kundla .
= = = Minneapolis Lakers ( 1947 – 56 ) = = =
In his first season with the Lakers , Mikan led the league in scoring with 1 @,@ 195 points , becoming the first and only NBL player to score more than 1 @,@ 000 points in an NBL season . He was named league MVP , and the Lakers won the NBL title .
The following year , the Lakers and three other NBL franchises jumped to the fledgling Basketball Association of America . Mikan led his new league in scoring , and again set a single @-@ season scoring record . The Lakers defeated the Washington Capitols in the 1949 BAA Finals .
In 1949 , the BAA and NBL merged to form the NBA . The new league started the inaugural 1949 – 50 NBA season , featuring 17 teams , with the Lakers in the Central Division . Mikan again was dominant , averaging 27 @.@ 4 points per game and 2 @.@ 9 assists per game and taking another scoring title ; Alex Groza of Indianapolis Olympians was the only other player to break the 20 @-@ point @-@ barrier that year . After comfortably leading his team to an impressive 51 – 17 record and storming through the playoffs , Mikan 's team played the 1950 NBA Finals against the Syracuse Nationals . In Game 1 , the Lakers beat Syracuse on their home court when Lakers reserve guard Bob Harrison hit a 40 @-@ foot buzzer beater to give Minneapolis a two @-@ point win . The team split the next four games , and in Game 6 , the Lakers won 110 – 95 and won the first @-@ ever NBA championship . Mikan scored 31 @.@ 3 points per game in the playoffs .
In the 1950 – 51 NBA season , Mikan was dominant again , scoring a career @-@ best 28 @.@ 4 points per game in the regular season , again taking the scoring crown , and had 3 @.@ 1 assists per game . In that year , the NBA introduced a new statistic : rebounds . In this category , Mikan also stood out ; his 14 @.@ 1 rebounds per game ( rpg ) was only second to the 16 @.@ 4 rpg of Dolph Schayes of Syracuse . In that year , Mikan participated in one of the most notorious NBA games ever played . When the Fort Wayne Pistons played against his Lakers , the Pistons took a 19 – 18 lead . Afraid that Mikan would mount a comeback if he got the ball , the Pistons passed the ball around without any attempt to score a basket . With no shot clock invented yet to force them into offense , the score stayed 19 – 18 to make it the lowest @-@ scoring NBA game of all time . This game was an important factor in the development of the shot clock , which was introduced four years later . Mikan had scored 15 of the Lakers ' 18 points , thus scoring 83 @.@ 3 % of his team 's points , setting an NBA all @-@ time record . In the post season , Mikan fractured his leg before the 1951 Western Division Finals against the Rochester Royals . With Mikan hardly able to move all series long , the Royals won 3 – 1 . Decades later , in 1990 , Mikan recalled that his leg was taped with a plate ; however , despite effectively hopping around the court on one foot , he said he still averaged 20 @-@ odd points per game .
In the 1951 – 52 NBA season , the NBA decided to widen the foul lane under the basket from 6 feet to 12 feet . As players could stay in the lane for only three seconds at a time , it forced big men like Mikan to post @-@ up from double the distance . A main proponent of this rule was New York Knicks coach Joe Lapchick , who regarded Mikan as his nemesis , and it was dubbed " The Mikan Rule " . While Mikan still scored an impressive 23 @.@ 8 points per game , it was a serious reduction from his 27 @.@ 4 points per game the previous season , and his field goal percentage sank from .428 to .385 . He still pulled down 13 @.@ 5 rebounds per game , asserting himself as a top rebounder , and logged 3 @.@ 0 assists per game . Mikan also had a truly dominating game that season , in which he scored a personal @-@ best 61 points in a double overtime victory against the Rochester Royals . At the time , it was the second @-@ best performance in league history behind Joe Fulks ' 63 @-@ point score in 1949 , and Mikan 's output more than doubled that of his teammates , whose output that game totaled 30 points . In the 1952 NBA All @-@ Star Game , Mikan had a strong performance with 26 points and 15 rebounds in a West loss . Later that season , the Lakers reached the 1952 NBA Finals and were pitted against the New York Knicks . This qualified as one of the strangest Finals series in NBA history , as neither team could play on their home court in the first six games . The Lakers ' Minneapolis Auditorium was already booked , and the Knicks ' Madison Square Garden was occupied by the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus . Instead , the Lakers played in St. Paul and the Knicks in the damp , dimly lit 69th Regiment Armory . Perpetually double @-@ teamed by Knicks ' Nat Clifton and Harry Gallatin , Mikan was unable to assert himself and it was more Vern Mikkelsen 's credit that the first six games were split . In the only true home game , Game 7 in the Auditorium , the Lakers won 82 – 65 and edged the Knicks 4 – 3 , winning the NBA title and earning themselves $ 7 @,@ 500 to split among the team .
During the 1952 – 53 NBA season , Mikan averaged 20 @.@ 6 points and a career @-@ high 14 @.@ 4 rebounds per game , the highest in the league , as well as 2 @.@ 9 assists per game . In the 1953 NBA All @-@ Star Game , Mikan was dominant again with 22 points and 16 rebounds , winning that game 's MVP Award . The Lakers made the 1953 NBA Finals , and again defeated the Knicks 4 – 1 .
In the 1953 – 54 NBA season , the now 29 @-@ year @-@ old Mikan slowly declined , averaging 18 @.@ 1 points , 14 @.@ 3 rebounds and 2 @.@ 4 assists per game . Under his leadership , the Lakers won another NBA title in the 1954 NBA Finals , making it their third @-@ straight championship and fifth in six years ; the only time they lost had been when Mikan fractured his leg . From an NBA perspective , the Minneapolis Lakers dynasty has only been convincingly surpassed by the eleven @-@ title Boston Celtics dynasty of 1957 – 69 . At the end of the season , Mikan announced his retirement . He later said : " I had a family growing , and I decided to be with them . I felt it was time to get started with the professional world outside of basketball . " Injuries also were a factor , as Mikan had sustained 10 broken bones and 16 stitches in his career , often having to play through these injuries .
Without Mikan , the Lakers made the playoffs , but were unable to reach the 1955 NBA Finals . In the middle of the 1955 – 56 NBA season , Mikan returned to the Lakers lineup . He played in 37 games , but his long absence had affected his play . He averaged only 10 @.@ 5 points , 8 @.@ 3 rebounds and 1 @.@ 3 assists , and the Lakers lost in the first round of the playoffs . At the end of the season , Mikan retired for good . His 10 @,@ 156 points were a record at the time ; he was the first NBA player to score 10 @,@ 000 points in a career . He was inducted into the inaugural Basketball Hall of Fame class of 1959 and was declared the greatest player of the first half of the century by The Associated Press .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
In 1956 , Mikan was the Republican candidate for the United States Congress in Minnesota 's 3rd congressional district . He challenged incumbent Representative Roy Wier in a closely fought race that featured a high voter turnout . Despite the reelection of incumbent Republican President Dwight Eisenhower , the inexperienced Mikan lost by a close margin of 52 % to 48 % . Wier received 127 @,@ 356 votes to Mikan 's 117 @,@ 716 . Returning to the legal profession , Mikan was frustrated , after hoping for an influx of work . For six months , Mikan did not get any assignments at all , leaving him in financial difficulties that forced him to cash in on his life insurance .
Problems also arose in Mikan 's professional sports career . In the 1957 – 58 NBA season , Lakers coach John Kundla became general manager and persuaded Mikan to become coach of the Lakers . However , this was a failure , as the Lakers endured a 9 – 30 record until Mikan stepped down and returned coaching duties to Kundla . The Lakers ended with a 19 – 53 record , to record one of the worst seasons in their history . After this failure , Mikan then concentrated on his law career , raising his family of six children , successfully specializing in corporate and real estate law , and buying and renovating buildings in Minneapolis .
In 1967 , Mikan returned to professional basketball , becoming the first commissioner of the American Basketball Association , a rival league to the NBA . In order to lure basketball fans to his league , Mikan invented the league 's characteristic red @-@ white @-@ and @-@ blue ABA ball , which he thought more patriotic , better suited for TV , and more crowd @-@ pleasing than the brown NBA ball , and instituted the three @-@ point line . Mikan resigned from the ABA in 1969 .
In the mid @-@ 1980s , Mikan headed a task force with a goal of returning professional basketball to Minneapolis , decades after the Lakers had moved to Los Angeles to become the Los Angeles Lakers , and after the ABA 's Minnesota Muskies and Minnesota Pipers had departed . This bid was successful , leading to the inception of a new franchise in the 1989 – 90 NBA season , the Minnesota Timberwolves .
In 1994 , Mikan became the part @-@ owner and chairman of the board of the Chicago Cheetahs , a professional roller hockey team based in Chicago , Illinois , that played in Roller Hockey International . The franchise folded after their second season .
In his later years , Mikan suffered from diabetes and failing kidneys , and eventually , his illness caused his right leg to be amputated below the knee . When his medical insurance was cut off , Mikan soon found himself in severe financial difficulties . He fought a long and protracted legal battle against the NBA and the NBA Players ' Union , protesting the $ 1 @,@ 700 / month pensions for players who had retired before 1965 , the start of the so @-@ called " big money era " . According to Mel Davis of the National Basketball Retired Players Union , this battle kept him going , because Mikan hoped to be alive when a new collective bargaining agreement would finally vindicate his generation . In 2005 , however , his condition worsened .
= = Legacy = =
Mikan is lauded as the pioneer of Modern Age basketball . He was the original center , who scored 11 @,@ 764 points , an average of 22 @.@ 6 per game , retired as the all @-@ time leading scorer and averaged 13 @.@ 4 rebounds and 2 @.@ 8 assists in 520 NBL , BAA and NBA games . As a testament to his fierce playing style , he also led the league three times in personal fouls . He won seven NBL , BAA , and NBA championships , an All @-@ Star MVP trophy , and three scoring titles , and was a member of the first four NBA All @-@ Star games and the first six All @-@ BAA and All @-@ NBA Teams . As well as being declared the greatest player of the first half of the century by The Associated Press , Mikan was on the Helms Athletic Foundation all @-@ time All @-@ American team , chosen in a 1952 poll , was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1959 , made the 25th and 35th NBA Anniversary Teams of 1970 and 1980 and was elected one of the NBA 50 Greatest Players in 1996 . Mikan 's impact on the game is also reflected in the Mikan Drill , today a staple exercise of " big men " in basketball .
When superstar center Shaquille O 'Neal became a member of the Los Angeles Lakers , Mikan appeared on a Sports Illustrated cover in November 1996 with O 'Neal and Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , calling Abdul @-@ Jabbar and Mikan the " Lakers legends " to whom O 'Neal was compared . Since April 2001 , a statue of Mikan shooting his trademark hook shot graces the entrance of the Minnesota Timberwolves ' Target Center . In addition , a banner in the Staples Center commemorates Mikan and his fellow Minneapolis Lakers . He is also honored by a statue and an appearance on a mural in his hometown of Joliet , Illinois .
= = = Rule changes = = =
Mikan became so dominant that the NBA had to change its rules of play in order to reduce his influence , such as widening the lane from six to twelve feet ( " The Mikan Rule " ) . He also played a role in the introduction of the shot clock ; and in the NCAA , his dominating play around the basket led to the outlawing of defensive goaltending . Mikan was a harbinger of the NBA 's future , which would be dominated by tall , powerful players .
As an official , Mikan is also directly responsible for the ABA three @-@ point line which was later adopted by the NBA ; the existence of the Minnesota Timberwolves ; and the multi @-@ colored ABA ball , which still lives on as the " money ball " in the NBA All @-@ Star Three @-@ Point Contest .
= = Personal life = =
In 1947 , he married his girlfriend Patricia , who remained his wife for the next 58 years until he died . Mikan fathered six children , sons Larry , Terry , Patrick and Michael , and daughters Trisha and Maureen . All his life , Mikan was universally seen as the prototypical " gentle giant " , tough and relentless on the court , but friendly and amicable in private life . He was also the older brother of Ed Mikan , another basketball player for both DePaul and the BAA .
= = = Death = = =
Mikan died in Scottsdale , Arizona , on June 1 , 2005 , of complications from diabetes and other ailments . His son Terry reported that his father had undergone dialysis three times a week , four hours a day , for the last five years . He was interred at Lakewood Cemetery in Minneapolis .
Mikan 's death was widely mourned by the basketball world , and also brought media attention to the financial struggles of several early @-@ era NBA players . Many felt that the current players of the big @-@ money generation should rally for larger pensions for the pre @-@ 1965 predecessors in upcoming labor negotiations . Shaquille O 'Neal paid for Mikan 's funeral . He said : " Without number 99 [ Mikan ] , there is no me . " Before Game 5 of the 2005 Eastern Conference Finals between the Heat and the Detroit Pistons , there was a moment of silence to honor Mikan . Bob Cousy remarked that Mikan figuratively carried the NBA in the early days and single @-@ handedly made the league credible and popular . The 2005 NBA Finals between the Pistons and the San Antonio Spurs was dedicated to Mikan .
|
= Harry Strom =
Harry Edwin Strom ( July 7 , 1914 – October 2 , 1984 ) was the ninth Premier of Alberta , Canada , from 1968 to 1971 . His two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years as Premier were the last of the thirty @-@ six @-@ year Social Credit dynasty , as his defeat by Peter Lougheed saw its replacement by a new era Progressive Conservative government . He is remembered as an honest , decent man who lacked the political skills of his predecessor , Ernest Manning , or of Lougheed .
Alberta 's first native @-@ born Premier , Strom was born in Burdett , Alberta . He worked most of his young adult life on the family farm , and was also actively involved in his church . After a stint in municipal politics , he ran for the Legislative Assembly of Alberta in the 1955 provincial election , and was elected . In 1962 , Manning appointed him to his cabinet as Minister of Agriculture , a position he held until 1967 when he was appointed Minister of Municipal Affairs . When Manning decided to resign in 1968 , Strom became a candidate to succeed him , and finished on top of a six candidate field .
As Premier , Strom undertook a number of initiatives , especially in education and youth @-@ related fields , but was politically ineffective . He lacked both charisma and an overriding sense of purpose , and his government gradually lost popularity . In the 1971 election , his government was handily defeated by Lougheed 's Progressive Conservatives . Strom served as opposition leader for two years , but soon relinquished the position and did not seek re @-@ election in 1975 . After leaving politics , Strom returned to farming . He died in 1984 .
= = Early life = =
Strom was born in Burdett , Alberta , on July 7 , 1914 . His parents , Nils Hjalmar Strom ( 1877 – 1928 ) and Elna Maria Olivia Ekensteen ( 1883 – 1969 ) , were second generation Swedish Canadians . He attended school in Burdett before moving to Calgary to attend high school at East Calgary High School and Calgary Technical High School , where he studied mechanics . In 1931 , he received a certificate from the Provincial Institute of Technology and Art . His father died the same year , and Strom returned home to help his mother with the operation of the family farm .
On October 27 , 1938 , Strom married Ruth Johnson , with whom he would have six children — Howard , Faith , Beverly , Brian , Ronald , and Arlene . The family attended the Evangelical Free Church of Canada in Bow Island until 1962 . There , Strom served as Sunday school teacher , deacon , and board chair , in addition to his twenty years of involvement with the church 's Overseas Missions Board . Besides his activities with the church , Strom was involved in the Forty Mile Rural Electrification Association , the Burdett Home and School Association , and the Agricultural Improvement Association of Burdett .
= = Entry into politics = =
In 1943 , Harry Strom was elected to the council of the County of Forty Mile No. 8 in southern Alberta . He served on local school boards at around the same time .
= = = MLA and cabinet minister = = =
In the 1955 provincial election , Strom ran as the Social Credit candidate in Cypress , where the incumbent , Social Crediter James Underdahl , was not seeking re @-@ election . He easily defeated his only opponent , Liberal Joe Flaig , and was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta . He would be re @-@ elected to this seat in each of the 1959 , 1963 , 1967 , and 1971 elections , always winning more than 60 % of the vote .
In October 1962 , Premier Ernest Manning appointed Strom Minister of Agriculture . In this capacity , he undertook a series of initiatives related to water use , including developing an agreement with Saskatchewan and Manitoba of the use of water emanating from the eastern slopes of Alberta 's Rocky Mountains . He also passed a series of legislation , including the Soil Conservation Act and Crop Insurance Act , and undertook a major departmental organization . The Alberta Agriculture Hall of Fame , which inducted Strom in 1985 , credited him with expanding the use of irrigation in the province and for being a key figure leading up to the signing of a 1973 cost @-@ sharing agreement on the subject with the federal government . He also served as Minister of Municipal Affairs for the last five months of the Manning government .
= = = Leadership election = = =
When Manning decided to retire in 1968 , he called a key group of senior ministers to his office to advise them of his decision . This group includes Strom , Treasurer Anders Aalborg , Industry Minister Russ Patrick , Education Minister Randy McKinnon . Aalborg was the natural choice to succeed Manning , but he had health problems and declined to run . Strom had no desire for the job and rejected any suggestion from the others that he be a candidate .
This rejection was not to last : a group of influential young Social Crediters , including the Premier 's son Preston , started a movement to draft Strom . They settled on him because he was personally popular among party members and because he had displayed an openness to new ideas in the past . Strom accepted their overtures , but as late as a week before he announced his candidacy he was still offering to step aside in favour of another candidate of the young Turks ' choice .
Strom 's campaign theme was " the social development of Alberta " , and this general theme encompassed such diverse policy planks as a citizens ' committee on constitutional reform , a head start program for disadvantaged youth , commissions on the future of urban planning and education , an expansion of the role of backbenchers in policy development , and the opening of a branch of the Premier 's office in Calgary . Though he entered as the favourite , a poll in spring 1969 showed him running second of five candidates behind Minister of Transportation Gordon Taylor . However , he had the strongest organization of any candidate , thanks in large part to his young backers , and overcame this deficit by the fall .
At the convention , Strom won a large plurality on the first ballot , finishing with nearly three times of the votes of the second place Taylor . Though the third place Raymond Reierson threw his support to the Transportation Minister before the second ballot , the results on this were decisive : Strom gained the support of more than a hundred new delegates and won a clear majority .
= = Premier = =
Harry Strom became Premier December 12 , 1968 and served until the 1971 election , when his government was defeated by Peter Lougheed 's Progressive Conservatives . This tenure makes him the fourth shortest @-@ serving former Premier in Alberta 's history , after Dave Hancock , Jim Prentice , and Richard G. Reid .
= = = Policy initiatives = = =
Many of Strom 's policy initiatives revolved around education and youth . He created the Alberta Service Corps , which allowed young Albertans to work summers on public services and environmental projects for remuneration , and which was one of several models for the federal government 's later Katimavik program . In response to increasing use of illicit drugs by Alberta youth , his government , led by Education Minister Bob Clark , inserted anti @-@ narcotics messages into the province 's school curriculum . Strom implemented trial kindergarten programs in Edmonton and Calgary — the Calgary program , provided jointly by an inner @-@ city community association and the Mount Royal College , has been called one of Canada 's first public @-@ private partnerships . His interest in educational matters was perhaps best exemplified by his government 's Commission on Educational Planning , which travelled the province to solicit Albertans ' views and whose final report , A Choice of Futures , was credited by Barr as setting " the tone and direction for education in Alberta for the next generation " . The Strom government also made substantial reforms to Alberta 's post @-@ secondary education system , expanding distance learning through the creation of Athabasca University and laying the foundation 's for ACCESS television , and effectively creating the province 's College ( as distinct from University ) system . This latter move led to the creation of Grant MacEwan College .
Strom also took a number of non @-@ educational policy initiative , such as naming Jim Henderson as the province 's first Environment Minister . Other priorities were the reform of the Premier 's Office and the establishment of an Intergovernmental Affairs Secretariat , converted by Peter Lougheed 's government into a full ministry under Don Getty . In 1970 , the government established the Alberta Alcoholism and Drug Abuse Commission .
= = = Leadership style = = =
Strom resisted leadership and saw himself as a conciliator , charged with maintaining unity among his cabinet and caucus . Soon after becoming Premier , Strom chief of staff Don Hamilton and strategist Owen Anderson scheduled strategy meetings with agendas drawn from Strom 's leadership platform . The meetings did not lead to action , and some began to grumble that " talking about decisions was a form of action " . According to Barr , Hamilton eventually started using the same agenda every week , with only the date changed , and Strom did not notice .
Strom was not an effective speaker and often would not look at the text of his speeches until he was delivering them . Realizing this , Hamilton once handed him a folder with nothing but a paper reading " Sock it to ' em , Harry " before the Premier was to give a speech at the University of Alberta . The Premier opened the folder and , as he became visibly alarmed , gratefully received the real speech when an aide brought it to him .
Strom also resisted calling an early election to give his government a fresh mandate , despite Hamilton 's impassioned advocacy for this course of action . He was no more positive towards Anderson 's proposals for a radical overhaul of the party , including the computerization of political data ( such as voting trends , demographic shifts , and polling results ) and the purchase of an office building to make the party a profit and free it from the need for fundraising . The ideas that Strom did not reject outright were referred to committees and study groups where they were watered down or shelved .
Despite these failings , Strom was recognized as possessing a number of virtues : he was kind , considerate , and honest . Most of all , he was humble : he had not sought the party leadership and notoriously asked after being repeatedly addressed as " Premier " at his first cabinet meeting why it could not " just be plain ' Harry ' anymore " . When travelling to Ottawa , he stayed at the un @-@ posh Skyline Hotel and ate meals in its basement cafeteria , where he ordered bread and pea soup for $ 0 @.@ 25 . On final analysis , Barr concludes that this temperament , commendable though it may be , was unsuited to running the government of an emerging economic powerhouse .
= = = Defeat = = =
Though the legislature 's mandate from the 1967 election was not due to expire until May 1972 , five years after it started , convention in Canadian politics is for legislatures to be dissolved every four years or less . Accordingly , Strom resolved to call an election in 1971 , sometime between May and September . After considering the spring , in the hopes that the planting season would have farmers feeling optimistic and therefore inclined to support the incumbent government , Strom finally settled on August 30 ( partly out of concerns that farmers would resent an election called in the middle of the planting or harvest seasons ) . A campaign committee was assembled , and recommended a budget of $ 580 @,@ 000 .
The party recruited star candidates , including Calgary alderman George Ho Lem and former Calgary Stampeder star Don Luzzi ( Edmonton alderman and future mayor Cec Purves was defeated in his bid to win the Social Credit nomination in Edmonton @-@ Strathcona from Strathcona Centre incumbent Joseph Donovan Ross ) , but was handicapped in these efforts by Strom 's unwillingness to offer cabinet posts or other incentives to potential new candidates . Strom 's lack of personal charisma was also a liability : tellingly , of the large budget recommended by the central committee , only $ 72 @,@ 000 was recommended for use on television advertising , where Strom did not shine . The party tried to revitalize the Premier 's image through publicity movies , though efforts were mixed . In one , which was pulled after a single showing , Strom appeared scowling in his living room , urging Albertans to lower their expectations of government . Another , produced by Tommy Banks and showing Strom in a variety of settings talking about the province 's changing face , was more successful .
The campaign did not give Social Credit partisans much reason for optimism . Strom did not draw the crowds that Progressive Conservative Peter Lougheed did , although an August 25 rally in Edmonton 's Jubilee Auditorium featuring speeches by Strom and Manning was full . After criticizing the Conservatives ' medicare platform , which promised free medicare to Albertans older than 65 , as spendthrift , Strom announced Social Credit 's barely cheaper alternative : medicare to Albertans older than 65 for one dollar per month . The Edmonton Journal , which had earlier published a poll showing that a plurality of Edmontonians intended to vote P.C. , endorsed Lougheed for Premier . Election night saw Social Credit defeated , taking 25 seats to the P.C.s ' 49 . Though Social Credit 's share of the vote had only slipped slightly , Lougheed benefited from a substantial reduction in the New Democrats ' vote and a near @-@ collapse of the Liberals ' . The party was also decimated in the province 's two largest cities , losing all of its seats in Edmonton and all but five in Calgary .
Strom conceded defeat in Edmonton and returned home to Medicine Hat .
= = Out of office and legacy = =
Strom continued as Social Credit leader , serving as leader of the opposition , until 1972 , when he resigned and was replaced by Werner Schmidt . He continued in the legislature until the 1975 election , in which he did not seek re @-@ election . After leaving politics , he returned to his farm and his involvement with his church . He died of cancer October 2 , 1984 , and was buried in Medicine Hat .
In honour of his political services , Strom received honorary Doctor of Laws degrees from the University of Calgary ( 1969 ) , the University of Lethbridge ( 1979 ) , and the University of Alberta ( 1980 ) . While several of his acts as premier had consequences extending well beyond his term , today he is largely forgotten , though he experienced a brief resurgence in name recognition in 2007 . That year , critics of Ed Stelmach compared Stelmach to Strom , with the insinuation being that Stelmach was destined to lose the next election and be the last of the Progressive Conservative dynasty in the same way that Strom was the last of the Social Credit dynasty . In the end , it would not be until the 2015 provincial election under the leadership of Jim Prentice that the Progressive Conservatives would be defeated , with some pundits also comparing Prentice to Strom .
Ruth Strom , his wife died in 2011 .
= = Electoral record = =
= = = As party leader = = =
= = = As MLA = = =
= = = Party leadership contests = = =
|
= Wind It Up ( Gwen Stefani song ) =
" Wind It Up " is a song by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani . Originally written for inclusion on Stefani 's Harajuku Lovers Tour 2005 , the song was later recorded for her second solo studio album , The Sweet Escape ( 2006 ) , due to favorable reception . The track contains an interpolation of The Sound of Music song " The Lonely Goatherd " .
" Wind It Up " was negatively received by music critics , who criticized the song 's use of yodeling and found the track to be over the top . It was released as the album 's lead single on October 31 , 2006 and reached the top 20 in most music markets . The accompanying music video , which became popular on stations such as Total Request Live , was directed by Sophie Muller and takes influence from The Sound of Music .
= = Background and writing = =
In July 2005 , Stefani began writing and recording material with Pharrell Williams in Miami , Florida . During one of their sessions , they penned " Wind It Up " for a September 2005 fashion show revealing the 2006 collection of Stefani 's fashion line L.A.M.B.
Stefani asked DJ Jeremy Healy to create a mashup of the song and " The Lonely Goatherd " , a song from the 1959 Rodgers and Hammerstein musical and 1965 film The Sound of Music . Stefani considered The Sound of Music her favorite film , and she had wanted to incorporate a beat to one of its songs all her life . Stefani commented , " I literally cried , and I 'm not exaggerating , when I heard the mash @-@ up . " Williams , however , did not like the addition of yodeling and The Sound of Music to the track .
The lyrics are not narrative , and Stefani stated , " A song like ' Wind It Up ' isn 't about anything . " In the song , Stefani discusses how boys watch girls dance . The song includes a reference to Stefani 's fashion line , with Stefani going , " They like the way that L.A.M.B. is going ' cross my shirt " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Wind It Up " received negative reviews by contemporary pop music critics . Entertainment Weekly 's Michael Slezak found the bassline " rubbery " and criticized the song for lacking a melody as well as its reference to Stefani 's own clothing line . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated that The Neptunes had forced the sampling " into one of their typical minimalist tracks , over which Gwen spouts off clumsy material @-@ minded lyrics touting her fashion line and her shape " . Bill Lamb of About.com rated the song three and a half stars , giving it " high marks for entertainment value " , but commented that it sounded like a retread of " Rich Girl " from Stefani 's debut album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . Charles Merwin of Stylus Magazine was mixed on the track , writing that " it 's preventing something far less interesting from getting played . " John Murphy from musicOMH panned the track as " just horrible , and possibly the worst start to an album this year " . Spence D. from IGN characterized the song as " a bugged out Sound Of Music bhangra blitz that sounds like part M.I.A. and part Julie Andrews " .
Many criticized the inclusion of yodeling and " The Lonely Goatherd " sample . In a review for Rolling Stone , Rob Sheffield called the track " yodel @-@ trocious " and argued that " the problem isn 't the Swiss Miss motif so much as the fourth @-@ rate Neptunes track . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian was pleased with the track , describing the yodeling as " off @-@ her @-@ head " , and referred to the track as " a pinnacle of madness " . IndieLondon 's Jack Foley noted " Wind It Up " as a highlight of The Sweet Escape and called it " Stefani 's gift that she can take something that , on paper , sounds cheesy and make it utterly , utterly cool . " USA Today 's Ken Barnes , however , found the track " campy " and " a tacky attempt at sexiness " , adding that the combination of yodeling and the interpolation was " awkward " . Alex Miller of the NME also found the song campy , commenting that its " dumb sexual bravado has all the sophistication of a teenage boy 's wet dream " , and compared the yodeling , interpolation , and " erotic rap " to " a trench foot which screams for amputation from the tracklisting " .
In the face of criticism , Stefani has defended the track :
I knew some people wouldn 't get it but I think I am enough down the line to not care . The people that did get it are Sound Of Music fans and really got a lot of pleasure from it . I still think it 's brilliant and I stand by it . Why can 't you do something weird for a while ? These songs are all about having fun , silly records that are to be enjoyed and not taken too seriously .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Wind It Up " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 40 on the issue dated November 18 , 2006 , becoming Stefani 's highest debut on the chart , both solo and as a member of No Doubt . It peaked four weeks later at number six and remained on the chart for 18 weeks . It peaked at number seven on the Pop 100 chart , but was less successful on the Pop 100 Airplay chart , only reaching number 19 . The single performed well in clubs , reaching number five on the Hot Dance Club Play chart , and peaked at number 18 on the Mainstream Top 40 chart .
" Wind It Up " met similar success in Europe , reaching number five on the European Hot 100 Singles . The single debuted at number eight on the UK Singles Chart , selling 10 @,@ 381 downloads in its first week . The following week , it rose to number three ( behind Take That 's " Patience " and Cliff Richard 's " 21st Century Christmas " ) with 17 @,@ 706 copies sold , earning Stefani her second highest @-@ peaking single in the United Kingdom after " The Sweet Escape " . It had less success across the continent , reaching the top 10 in Belgium , the Czech Republic , Finland , Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands , and Norway , and the top 20 in Austria , France , Sweden , and Switzerland .
The song was generally successful elsewhere . In Australia , " Wind It Up " debuted at number eight on the ARIA Singles Chart and spent its first seven weeks within the top 10 . It peaked at number five in its fifth week on the run , spending 19 weeks on the chart , and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . The track topped the New Zealand Singles Chart in its third and fourth week , and stayed on the chart for 20 weeks altogether . Three years later , on March 14 , 2010 , the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) certified " Wind It Up " gold .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was directed by Sophie Muller . Although it does not follow a substantial plot , it features outfits and scenes inspired by The Sound of Music . Stefani and her Harajuku Girls are often dancing in front of fields of flowers and a background of key @-@ like symbols composed of two G 's placed back to back . In a scene mimicking The Sound of Music , Stefani portrays Maria von Trapp while the dancers , dressed in pajamas , portray her children and jump on a bed . In another scene , Stefani uses curtains to create sailor suits for the Harajuku Girls . Stefani also appears as a nun and an orchestra conductor . One scene uses smoke to create the illusion that Stefani is a submerged escape artist searching for a key . She pulls the key , a symbol of " the sweet escape " , from her mouth as an allusion to performances by escapologist Harry Houdini . The song 's title is often visualized by a colorful sign that reads " wind it up " . Another video was produced in 3 @-@ D , but this version was never released . After seeing the video , Jimmy Iovine , co @-@ founder of Interscope Records , decided to work with James Cameron to produce other 3 @-@ D music presentations .
The video was successful on music video television programs . " Wind It Up " was first aired November 10 , 2006 on MTV , and it premiered on the station 's top @-@ 10 chart program Total Request Live four days later . The video debuted at number eight on the countdown and reached a peak at number two . After its November 17 debut on MuchMusic 's Countdown , it reached number two for the week of January 26 , 2007 . In a review of the music video , The Guardian 's Anna Pickard poked fun at the number of personas that appear in the video , referring to some of them as " Nunzilla " , " Gweninatrix " , and " CinderGwennie " , and commented that " your speakers have a mute setting for good reason . "
= = Track listings = =
UK , German , and Australian CD single
" Wind It Up " ( Main Mix ) – 3 : 11
" Wind It Up " ( Original Neptunes Mix ) – 3 : 08
German CD maxi single
" Wind It Up " ( Main Mix ) – 3 : 11
" Wind It Up " ( Original Neptunes Mix ) – 3 : 08
" Wind It Up " ( Instrumental Mix ) – 3 : 02
" Wind It Up " ( video ) – 3 : 11
UK 12 " single
A1 . " Wind It Up " ( Main Mix ) – 3 : 11
A2 . " Wind It Up " ( Original Neptunes Mix ) – 3 : 08
B1 . " Wind It Up " ( Instrumental Main Mix ) – 3 : 11
B2 . " Wind It Up " ( Instrumental Neptunes Mix ) – 3 : 10
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Sweet Escape .
= = Charts = =
|
= Tropical Storm Podul ( 2013 ) =
Tropical Storm Podul , known in the Philippines as Tropical Depression Zoraida , was a weak but destructive tropical cyclone that affected the Philippines shortly after the devastating Typhoon Haiyan . The 31st named storm of the 2013 Pacific typhoon season , Podul developed as a tropical depression on November 11 between Palau and the Philippine island of Mindanao . The system moved west @-@ northwestward and struck Davao Oriental in Mindanao on November 12 , bringing heavy rainfall that killed two people and disrupted relief efforts following Haiyan . After crossing the Philippines , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Podul on November 14 . Shortly thereafter , the storm struck southeastern Vietnam , and its circulation dissipated on November 15 . In Vietnam , Podul produced heavy rainfall that resulted in severe flooding . The storm damaged or destroyed 427 @,@ 258 houses , and overall damage was estimated at 1 @.@ 5 trillion ₫ ( 2013 Vietnamese dong , $ 72 million 2013 USD ) . Podul killed 42 people in the country and caused 74 injuries .
= = Meteorological history = =
On November 9 , an area of disorganized convection , or thunderstorms , persisted about 1175 km ( 730 mi ) southeast of Palau . The system consisted of a broad circulation , affected to its detriment by moderate wind shear . Moving west @-@ northwestward , the convection persisted and organized into the circulation , indicative of an increased potential for tropical cyclogenesis . Late on November 10 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) , meaning the agency anticipated a tropical depression would develop within 24 hours . Shortly thereafter , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) initiated advisories on Tropical Depression Zoraida after the system entered its area of responsibility of the agency . At 1200 UTC on November 11 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated that a tropical depression formed about halfway between Palau and the Philippine island of Mindanao , although operationally the agency had classified the system two days prior .
After passing south of Palau , the system 's circulation became more broad and its convection became less organized , despite decreased wind shear . Early on November 12 , the depression made landfall on Mindanao in Davao Oriental province . Shortly thereafter , PAGASA discontinued advisories on Zoraida , declaring that the depression degenerated into a low pressure area . By contrast , the JMA continued monitoring the depression as it moved through the Philippines and into the Sulu Sea . On November 13 , the center crossed over Palawan island into the South China Sea . At 1200 UTC the next day , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Podul about 275 km ( 170 mi ) east of the Vietnam coast . Around the same time , the JTWC began issuing warnings on the system as a tropical depression 32W , noting that convection had rapidly increased over the circulation . The agency also mentioned the continued presence of wind shear , although warm water temperatures and moderate outflow were expected to allow intensification . Although the JMA estimated peak 10 – minute winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , the JTWC only estimated tropical depression @-@ force 1 – minute winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) .
Late on November 14 , Podul made landfall in southeastern Vietnam near Phan Rang – Tháp Chàm and quickly weakened into a tropical depression . The JTWC assessed the circulation was dissipating near the coast , and the JMA declared Podul dissipated at 1200 UTC on November 15 . Operationally , the agency tracked the system into the Gulf of Thailand , and the Thai Meteorological Department tracked Podul to near the Malay Peninsula on November 16 , before ceasing advisories on the storm . The remnants later redeveloped into Cyclonic Storm Helen in the Bay of Bengal , which later struck southeastern India on November 22 before dissipating .
= = Preparations and impact = =
The Guam National Weather Service warned of the potential of heavy rainfall and high surf for Palau and nearby Yap island . While passing south of Palau , the system produced light winds of about 28 km / h ( 17 mph ) .
Late on November 10 , as the system moved into the Philippine area of responsibility , PAGASA issued the Public Storm Warning Signal Number 1 for seven areas in Mindanao , indicating the potential for winds between 30 – 60 km / h ( 20 – 35 mph ) . Over the next day these warnings were extended to cover three provinces in Luzon , eight provinces in Visayas and twenty @-@ one provinces in Mindanao . On Cebu Island , officials ordered schools to close during the storm 's passage . After the extreme damage due to Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines , the depression that became Podul affected the same areas just days later , which affected rescue work . The depression caused additional difficulties in travel and communications . In addition to causing a landslide in Monkayo , flooding from the depression covered roads and forced about 1 @,@ 000 families to evacuate . In Davao del Norte , the depression resulted in river flooding that killed two people .
In Vietnam , Podul produced heavy rainfall , peaking at 973 mm ( 38 @.@ 3 in ) in two districts in Quảng Ngãi Province . The rains caused flooding that forced over 78 @,@ 000 people to flee their homes , including 1 @,@ 400 the resort town Hội An where floodwaters reached 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) deep . High volumes of flooding caused water to be released from reservoirs , which some local officials credited for the widespread flooding . About 260 km ( 160 mi ) of canals and dykes were washed away during the storm . The high rainfall increased water levels along rivers , with the Ba River in Gia Lai Province reaching 410 mm ( 16 in ) higher than the record set in 1981 . Flooding also damaged over 6 @,@ 000 ha ( 15 @,@ 000 acres ) of crops , mostly to rice . Podul damaged or flooded about 280 @,@ 000 m2 ( 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of roadways and bridges , resulting in traffic jams , and halted three train lines . The storm damaged or destroyed 427 @,@ 258 houses , and overall damage was estimated at 1 @.@ 5 trillion ₫ ( 2013 Vietnamese dong , $ 72 million 2013 USD ) . Throughout Vietnam , Podul killed 42 people and injured 74 others . By November 20 , the floods began receding from most locations . Newspapers described the flooding as the worst in Vietnam since 1999 . After the storm , the Vietnamese provincial governments assisted in rebuilding houses and roads .
|
= Washington State Route 213 =
State Route 213 ( SR 213 ) is the shortest state highway in the U.S. state of Washington . The 0 @.@ 35 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 56 km ) long unsigned highway serves Malott , a community in Okanogan County . Extending from U.S. Route 97 ( US 97 ) over the Okanogan River via a bridge to First Avenue in Malott , the roadway is semi @-@ complete , as state law designates that the road should extend to SR 20 southwest of Okanogan . First appearing in a map in 1954 , SR 213 originated as a branch of Primary State Highway 16 ( PSH 16 ) in 1959 and later SR 20 Spur in 1964 . SR 20 Spur became SR 213 in 1973 because another SR 20 Spur was recently established in Anacortes .
= = Route description = =
SR 213 originates at an intersection with U.S. Route 97 ( US 97 ) south of Malott . Traveling northwest and turning northeast , the unsigned roadway crosses the Cascade and Columbia River Railroad and the Okanogan River near the confluence of the Okanogan River and Loup Loup Creek . After crossing the Okanogan River , the highway enters Malott and terminates at First Avenue , although state law dictates that eventually the road will be extended to SR 20 southwest of Okanogan . An estimated daily average of 740 motorists utilized SR 213 in 2008 .
= = History = =
SR 213 originated as a minor road that connected U.S. Route 97 ( US 97 ) to the area south of the Okanogan River and Malott ; the road first appeared on a map in 1954 . In 1959 , the Washington State Legislature passed a law that created a branch of Primary State Highway 16 ( PSH 16 ) that extended from PSH 16 near Okanogan to US 97 in Malott to take effect on July 1 , 1961 . By 1963 , US 97 was realigned south of the Okanogan River and the PSH 16 branch was extended across the river . During a highway renumbering in 1964 , PSH 16 became SR 20 and the branch of PSH 16 became SR 20 Spur . In 1973 , SR 20 Spur became SR 213 , while another SR 20 Spur was established in Anacortes . Beginning in 2008 , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) has been maintaining a short , 0 @.@ 35 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 56 km ) long segment of the proposed SR 213 as the a state route . The highway between Malott and SR 20 will be eventually built as state law dictates it .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Okanogan County .
|
= M @-@ 10 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 10 is a state trunkline highway in the Metro Detroit area of Michigan in the United States . The southernmost portion follows Jefferson Avenue in downtown Detroit , and the southern terminus is at the intersection of Jefferson and M @-@ 3 ( Randolph Street ) next to the entrance to the Detroit – Windsor Tunnel . The northern terminus is in West Bloomfield Township at the intersection with Orchard Lake Road . The highway has several names as it runs through residential and commercial areas of the west side of Detroit and into the suburb of Southfield . It is called the John C. Lodge Freeway , The Lodge , James Couzens Highway and Northwestern Highway .
M @-@ 10 was built in segments through the late 1950s and early 1960s . It carried several different names before the entire route was finally officially named the John C. Lodge Freeway in 1987 . The freeway has carried a few other highway designations . The southern segment was part of US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) and the whole thing was later renumbered Business Spur Interstate 696 ( BS I @-@ 696 ) . From 1970 until 1986 , it was part of US 10 , and the freeway has been M @-@ 10 since . The non @-@ freeway segment that runs between I @-@ 696 in Southfield and Orchard Lake Road was previously numbered M @-@ 4 . M @-@ 10 was named after John C. Lodge , an influential Detroiter and Mayor of Detroit from 1927 – 28 .
= = Route description = =
Running about 22 @.@ 8 miles ( 36 @.@ 7 km ) in the Metro Detroit area , M @-@ 10 runs roughly northwest – southeast from Downtown Detroit into the northern suburbs in Oakland County . The entire length of the highway is listed as a part of the National Highway System , a system of roads importance to the nation 's economy , defense and mobility . As a state trunkline highway , the roadway is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) , and it includes approximately 18 @.@ 5 miles ( 29 @.@ 8 km ) of freeway . M @-@ 10 has six lanes from Detroit to Inkster Road in Farmington Hills , where it drops to four ; a few segments have eight lanes for short distances between interchanges . According to the department , 28 @,@ 964 vehicles use M @-@ 10 on average near on Jefferson Avenue in Detroit , and 139 @,@ 800 vehicles do so between US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) and Lahser Road in Southfield , the lowest and highest traffic counts along the highway in 2013 , respectively .
= = = Detroit = = =
M @-@ 10 starts at the corner of Jefferson Avenue and Randolph Street in Downtown Detroit , an intersection that also marks the southern end of M @-@ 3 and the western end of Business Spur I @-@ 375 . This intersection is also the access to the Detroit – Windsor Tunnel between the Renaissance Center and the Old Mariners ' Church . From here , M @-@ 10 runs west @-@ southwesterly parallel to the Detroit River on Jefferson Avenue past Hart Plaza . At the intersection with Woodward Avenue , M @-@ 10 transitions onto the John C. Lodge Freeway , which runs under Cobo Center , home of the North American International Auto Show each January . The freeway turns north @-@ northwesterly and away from the Detroit River next to Joe Louis Arena . North of the Cobo Center curve , M @-@ 10 forms the boundary between Downtown Detroit to the east and the Corktown neighborhood to the west . The freeway has a pair of service drives as it leaves the commercial areas near the MGM Grand Detroit and the interchange with I @-@ 75 ( Fisher Freeway ) .
North of I @-@ 75 , M @-@ 10 forms the border between North Corktown ( west ) and Midtown Detroit ( east ) . The freeway passes the MotorCity Casino at at the interchange with Grand River Avenue . The rest of its route in the part of the city passes through residential zones . Near the interchange with I @-@ 94 ( Edsel Ford Freeway ) , M @-@ 10 passes the campus of Wayne State University . North of I @-@ 94 , the Lodge Freeway is the border between the West Side and New Center . This area is residential on either side of the freeway north of the campus of the Henry Ford Hospital . North of Clairmont Avenue , M @-@ 10 curves to the northwest before resuming its north @-@ northwesterly course near Chicago Boulevard . North of Webb Avenue , the freeway follows the western city limits of Highland Park , an enclave within the city of Detroit . M @-@ 10 intersects M @-@ 8 where it transitions between Davison Avenue and the Davison Freeway on the western edge of Highland Park before the Lodge Freeway curves around to run due west .
M @-@ 10 runs for about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) on this due westward course before it intersects Wyoming Avenue and turns northwest . The frontage roads change names from John C. Lodge Service Drive to James Couzens Freeway at the Wyoming Avenue interchange . The freeway continues for another 3 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) with interchanges for local streets in this part of Detroit , including 7 Mile Road . At the interchange with M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) , the freeway crosses out of Detroit and Wayne County into Southfield in Oakland County .
= = = Oakland County = = =
The service drives change names again to Northwestern Highway upon crossing into Oakland County . The east side of M @-@ 10 is flanked by the Northland Shopping Center and a campus of Oakland Community College ; the west side is residential . About 1 1 ⁄ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 0 km ) into Southfield , M @-@ 10 intersects the northern end of M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Freeway ) and 9 Mile Road . The adjacent properties are mostly residential , but there are some commercial areas centered around the various Mile Roads , such as the campus of Lawrence Technological University at 10 Mile Road . Near Lahser and 11 Mile roads , M @-@ 10 meets I @-@ 696 ( Reuther Freeway ) and US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) in a complex interchange called the Mixing Bowl . This interchange spans over two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) near the American Center . The carriageways for I @-@ 696 run in the median of M @-@ 10 while partial interchanges connect to Lahser and Franklin roads on either end of the various ramps that connect to I @-@ 696 and US 24 .
Northwest of this interchange , M @-@ 10 transitions to a boulevard with Michigan lefts . Called just Northwestern Highway , M @-@ 10 runs through suburban residential areas of Southfield . At the intersection with Inkster Road , the highway clips the southwest corner of the city of Franklin and enters the northeastern corner of Farmington Hills . The roadway is lined with commercial properties while just behind them are residential subdivisions and two golf courses . At the intersection with 14 Mile Road , Northwestern Highway crosses into West Bloomfield Township , and 1 ⁄ 4 mile ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) further on , the highway ends at Orchard Lake Road .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designations = = =
In 1919 , the state numbered its highways for the first time . In the initial allocation of numbers , M @-@ 10 was assigned to a highway that started at the Ohio state line south of Monroe , ran northeasterly along Telegraph Road into Dearborn and turned easterly into Detroit . From there , the highway turned north along Woodward Avenue through Pontiac and Dixie Highway through Flint and Saginaw to Bay City . Then M @-@ 10 ran along the Saginaw Bay to Standish and turned to follow the Lake Huron shoreline , with some substantial deviations inland . The highway generally followed the lakeshore as far north as Alpena and Rogers City , and from there , M @-@ 10 ran due west through Onaway before turning north into Cheboygan . The last section of M @-@ 10 followed the Lake Huron shoreline to Mackinaw City , where it terminated . This designation lasted until November 11 , 1926 , when the United States Numbered Highway System was created . In Michigan 's initial allocation of highways , four new designations replaced M @-@ 10 : US 24 from the state line north to Dearborn , US 112 between Dearborn and Detroit , US 10 from Detroit to Saginaw , and US 23 from Saginaw to Mackinaw City . At the time , no M @-@ 10 designation was reassigned to any other roads .
The second iteration of M @-@ 10 was designated in 1929 on a much shorter segment of the original M @-@ 10 through the Flint area , serving as a business connection for the city as the through route , US 10 , bypassed it on the east . It was later redesignated as Business US 10 ( Bus . US 10 ) in 1941 , and then as Bus . M @-@ 54 in 1962 before being turned back to local control in 1974 .
= = = Current designation = = =
During the 1950s , the Lodge Freeway was proposed to run from Detroit as far as the Fenton – Clio Expressway ( US 23 ) at Fenton . The intersection with the Edsel Ford Freeway , next to Wayne State University was built in 1953 and was the first full freeway @-@ to @-@ freeway interchange built in the United States . The freeway was dedicated on November 7 , 1957 , and opened without any state trunkline designation between downtown and the Wyoming Curve . The section from the Edsel Ford Freeway ( now I @-@ 94 ) into downtown Detroit was designated as US 12 by the middle of 1960 .
The freeway was then redesignated Business Spur I @-@ 696 ( BS I @-@ 696 ) in 1962 , and the next year the freeway was extended northwesterly along James Couzens Highway and Northwestern Highway into Southfield , connecting with the completed first phase of I @-@ 696 that opened in 1963 @-@ 64 . That designation remained until 1970 when US 10 was shifted off Woodward Avenue to follow the Lodge Freeway between downtown Detroit and Telegraph Road , replacing the BS I @-@ 696 designation .
An extension to the Northwestern Highway was again proposed in 1966 to connect with the proposed I @-@ 275 extension . The I @-@ 275 project was then cancelled in 1977 . The section of Northwestern Highway under state control between the West Bloomfield Township – Farmington Hills border into Southfield was numbered M @-@ 4 in 1979 .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) petitioned the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials in the mid @-@ 1980s to truncate US 10 to Bay City . The request was approved on October 11 , 1985 , and the signage was changed the next year . After the change , the Lodge Freeway was redesignated M @-@ 10 . The non @-@ freeway Northwestern Highway , until then designated M @-@ 4 , was also renumbered as M @-@ 10 . The southernmost portion of the Lodge Freeway was also initially redesignated as a portion of BS I @-@ 375 from I @-@ 75 south . By the next year however , the southern end of M @-@ 10 was moved to the corner of Jefferson and Randolph , placing all of the Lodge Freeway as part of M @-@ 10 .
From 2006 to 2007 , the Lodge underwent major reconstruction to ease traffic congestion in the metro area , temporarily closing down much of the freeway . The $ 133 million project ( equivalent to $ 155 million in 2015 ) included concrete pavement reconstruction and rehabilitation , new barrier walls , repairs or replacements to 50 bridges , upgrades to 22 ramps , utility upgrades , and replacement of freeway signs between Lahser Road in Southfield and Jefferson Avenue in Detroit .
= = Memorial highway names = =
Starting in 1924 , officials in southeastern Michigan proposed building a highway from Detroit to run northwesterly across the state to Ludington , bisecting the angle created by Woodward and Grand River avenues . This roadway was named Northwestern Highway when it was built in 1929 to an endpoint at 14 Mile Road . Further construction on Northwestern Highway was halted by the Great Depression .
The freeway segment northwest of Wyoming Avenue to the county line was previously known as James Couzens Highway after the street it replaced . That street was named after the death of James J. Couzens . Couzens was a former Commissioner of Detroit 's Department of Street Railways from 1913 through 1915 , after which he served as Police Commissioner from 1916 until 1918 . He was Mayor of Detroit from 1919 until 1922 and United States Senator from Michigan from 1922 until his death on October 22 , 1936 . During his years of public service , he is said not to have accepted a salary , giving it all to charity . After his death , Detroit renamed its section of Northwestern Highway after Couzens .
John C. Lodge was a member of the constitutional convention which drafted the Michigan Constitution of 1908 , a former member of the Michigan Legislature and Detroit alderman and councilman . He later served as Mayor of Detroit in 1918 – 1919 before returned to the City Common Council from 1932 to 1947 . He was then elected to the Wayne County Board of Supervisors from 1948 until 1950 . In total , he held elective office longer than anyone in city history . He died on February 6 , 1950 , and the future Lodge Freeway was named in his honor on January 20 , 1953 . The entire freeway , including segments previously named for James Couzens and the Northwestern Highway was named the John C. Lodge Freeway in 1987 , although the service drives retained their original names .
= = Exit list = =
|
= Vanaja ( film ) =
Vanaja is a 2006 Indian Telugu @-@ language drama film written and directed by Rajnesh Domalpalli on a story that constituted his Master of Fine Arts thesis at Columbia University . The film was made on a shoestring budget using a cast of non @-@ professional first @-@ timers for two and a half months .
The film stars Mamatha Bhukya as the title character : a 15 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of a poor fisherman set in the backdrop of a rustic state of Andhra Pradesh in Southern India . She learns Kuchipudi , a classical Indian dance form , while being employed at a local landlady 's house . All seems to be going well for her until sexual chemistry evolves between her and the landlady 's son , and this eventually leads her being raped by him . The ensuing pregnancy disrupts her simple life , and she must choose how to deal with the child .
Vanaja was screened at several international festivals such as the Toronto International Film Festival and the Berlin International Film Festival , among others . It was nominated for the Diesel Discovery Award at the former and won the Best First Feature award at the latter . Beside this , it won several jury prizes at other film festivals , and was nominated for the Best First Feature and Best Cinematography awards at the Independent Spirit Awards . Vanaja found favour with many international critics as well . Roger Ebert ranked it among the five best foreign language films of 2007 . It runs for 111 minutes in with subtitles in English .
= = Plot = =
Vanaja ( Mamatha Bhukya ) is the 15 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of Somayya ( Ramachandriah Marikanti ) , a poor , low caste fisherman from rural Andhra Pradesh . Somayya struggles to support his family due to dwindling catches at sea and mounting debts . One day , Vanaja and her teenage friend Lacchi ( Bhavani Renukunta ) watch a theatrical performance by a former Kuchipudi ( a native classical Indian dance form ) great , Rama Devi ( Urmila Dammannagari ) . The sequence of events lead to a soothsayer predicting to Vanaja that she will be a great dancer . With permission from her father , she goes to work in the house of the local landlady Rama Devi with the hope of learning Kuchipudi . While she is employed as a farmhand , she is entrusted with tending the chickens . When she gets caught playfully chasing them , she lies to conceal her pranks . Her vivaciousness and spunk soon catch the landlady ’ s eye . To keep her out of trouble , Rama Devi soon promotes her to a kitchen underhand where she meets Rama Devi ’ s cook , the old , crusty and extremely loyal Radhamma ( Krishnamma Gundimalla ) .
After settling down at the landlady 's house , Vanaja gets invited to play a game of ashta chamma ( a leisurely game in rural towns of Andhra Pradesh ) against the landlady . Knowing that losing isn ’ t the mistress ’ s forte , she deliberately gives up her game . This gesture , in turn , eventually secures her the landlady ’ s mentorship , first in music and then in dance . Vanaja excels at these art forms and seems to be on a steadily ascending path until the arrival of Shekhar ( Karan Singh ) , the landlady 's 23 @-@ year @-@ old son , from the United States . Shekhar is a handsome , muscular young man who is running for an office in the local government . Sexual chemistry is ignited between Shekhar and Vanaja ( still a minor at 15 ) when flirtation and sexual innuendo bloom .
In the meanwhile , her father 's fishing boat is taken away by creditors . He sinks into a state of sadness and begins to drink away their savings . On one occasion , Vanaja ’ s superior intellect pits her against Shekhar in a public incident which ultimately humiliates him in front of his mother . Matters escalate , and one day Vanaja is raped by Shekhar . She eventually loses her job when she becomes pregnant . She gives birth to a boy , much against Rama Devi ’ s wishes who would have liked her to abort the foetus . Vanaja hopes that the physical evidence of the child will be proof of the rape and that somehow Shekhar will be brought to justice . However , Shekhar has no desire to marry Vanaja because she is from a lower caste . In the end Rama Devi and Shekhar gain possession of the child , who will grow up to be an upper caste boy .
= = Cast = =
Mamatha Bhukya as Vanaja
Urmila Dammannagari as Rama Devi
Ramachandriah Marikanti as Somayya
Krishnamma Gundimalla as Radhamma
Karan Singh as Shekhar
Bhavani Renukunta as Lacchi
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Director Rajnesh Domalpalli graduated with bachelor 's and master 's degrees in electrical engineering in 1984 and 1986 . While working on his bachelor 's degree at the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay , he wrote short stories . One of his stories , The Dowry , was twice selected for broadcast by BBC World Service while he was in graduate school . During schooling , he was introduced to south Indian classical music , especially on the veena , and followed this up with years of training on the vocals .
While he was working as a software engineer in Silicon Valley , California , he pursued filmmaking and graduated with a Master of Fine Arts degree from Columbia University .
A short synopsis , including a character and a conflict study of Vanaja , was Domalpalli 's project submission in his first semester at the Columbia University in fall of 2001 . The story was inspired by a child 's scream upon being separated from her mother in Sophie 's Choice . Over the next three semesters , however , the story veered from its original focus of mother @-@ child separation to what Domalpalli later described as a study of " elements of class distinction and conflict that continue to infuse our society and culture even today . " Referring to its emphasis , he said the film was also about " fading institutions of folk art , old buildings that are collapsing , things which we should be protecting — which are a part of our heritage . " Speaking of the need for preservation of Indian culture and heritage , he said that making the film was an opportunity to emphasize the Indian folk arts , too .
= = = Filmmaking = = =
With the early version of the script being ready at the end of his fourth semester , Domalpalli 's initial intent was to find financing for the film in India and then in the United States . However , he could not find financing . Domalpalli decided to select non @-@ professionals and train them in a year . In the United States , producers voiced similar concerns over the marketability of the film and what they referred to as " its lack of cohesion . " Beside this , Domalpalli 's inexperience in filmmaking added to their concerns . Recalling initial hurdles , Domalpalli later said , " it was only when I showed my professors a rough cut of the film , and they approved , that purse strings finally came loose . " It eventually constituted the thesis for his master 's degree .
He imbibed socio @-@ cultural ethos from his upbringing in several rural areas of Andhra Pradesh , and this prompted him to make the movie in the Telugu language . In 2004 , he began filming with a meagre sum of USD 20000 provided by his mother Latha Domalpalli , the eventual film producer . Referring to filming the burrakatha ( a story telling technique used in southern India ) scene at the beginning of the film , Domalpalli said :
If you talk to people who perform a Burrakatha , you will see a huge difference in the way the older generation performs the art vis @-@ à @-@ vis the way the way the younger generation performs it ... This has happened because of the advent of television . Burrakatha is a long @-@ format art form . The point we are making is that if we don 't protect these folk arts , they will be on their way out .
The producers faced a stiff challenge in securing a rural bungalow to serve as the landlady 's mansion . Even after obtaining a building as the best possible fit in the coastal town of Bobbili , infestation of snakes and bats posed a problem for the crew . In addition , the building was not strong enough to support the filming equipment . Under these circumstances , the makeshift production designers refurbished the building with space for chicken coops and goat pens as required by the script . To make the space look inhabited , local help was sought for trampling the ground with their livestock . The local people wanted to act as extras in exchange for providing farming tools , bullock carts and other material . As a result , the crew had to ensure that these extras didn 't look into the camera during filming .
" Given the rural nature of the story , and the tendency of most local acting to lean towards the theatrical , it was clear that non @-@ actors drawn from hutments , labor camps and the vast Indian middle class were the right choice , " said Domalpalli , referring to his choice of casting . In addition , the inclusion of Radhamma 's character was to bring a natural feel for the film . Her behavior such as the way she " sits , stands , moves , grunts and groans — that is the way people from a village talk and behave ... You would immediately recognize a person who served you breakfast ... That makes a point . "
Referring to the challenges faced in casting , he said that while they were canvassing local people for auditions , they were warding off rumors that they were after the people 's kidneys . When placing a newspaper advertisement for the landlady 's character did not seem viable , they advertised for household help instead . Upon seeing this , Urmila Dammannagari turned up for the interview with Domalpalli . Inadvertently , their conversation veered toward the film and the real motive behind the advertisement became evident . Though initially shocked and despite the fact that she had to commute 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) from her house to the location , she took up the role . Professionally Krishnamma Gundimalla , who played the role of Radhamma , carried bricks on her head as a construction worker . On the other hand , Ramachandriah Marikanti , who plays Vanaja 's fisherman father , was a municipal sweeper and worked as a security guard .
For casting Vanaja and Lacchi , he said that they met approximately 2500 children , interviewed about 260 , and finally selected two from a shortlist of five to play the roles of Vanaja and Lacchi . Parents of these children were distrustful of them because their wards would have to frequently commute to Domalpalli 's house for acting lessons for at least a year . Domalpalli felt that " to convince people to devote so much of their children 's time and energy was hard enough , but to find the right combination of intelligence , commitment and talent as well was probably the steepest cliff they had to climb . " While visiting schools for identifying the child cast , Mamatha Bhukya at first was not selected because her hair was short . But after she sang a song on Mahatma Gandhi , she was selected for the role . Srinivas Devarakonda , a disciple of well @-@ known Kuchipudi guru Vempati Chinna Satyam , taught Mamatha the classical dance form for a year in the basement of Domalpalli 's house . Due to this sustained effort , she altered her ambitions from becoming a doctor to an actress and a Kuchipudi dancer . Bhavani Renukunta was chosen for Lacchi 's role after an interview at the Hyderabad office of Varija Films , the company that handled the publicity .
Suriname @-@ born Milton Kam , who had shot 10 feature films and more than 50 short films , was chosen as the director of photography . Since Domalpalli 's experience was limited to short video films with a different aspect ratio , he was shocked to look through the Super 16mm lens the day they commenced the shoot . However , Kam helped him to stay composed during the production .
Domalpalli used Carnatic music for the background score . This featured the violin @-@ playing of B. S. Narayanan , a student of renowned Carnatic violinist T. N. Krishnan . Narayanan played the popular Jayadeva Ashtapadi " Sa virahe " , having retuned it in the mode or rāga known as " Behag " .
Domalpalli used " janapada geetalu " in the film ; folk songs that are rarely heard . To record these songs for the film , Domalpalli and his crew traveled to towns and villages in rural Andhra .
= = Release and reception = =
The film was released in the United States on 31 August 2007 . After being screened at over 100 film festivals in 49 countries , Vanaja has won 24 international awards and 2 nominations . The Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) , the body that governs the Oscars , invited the screenplay to be placed in the permanent archives of the Margaret Herrick Library . The DVD , which released on 8 March 2008 , has subtitle options in English . Besides interviews with Domalpalli and Bhukya , unedited dance sequences and several short films of Domalpalli , the DVD is available in 16 : 9 Anamorphic widescreen , Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 Surround , widescreen and NTSC format . While reviewing it , Jeffrey Kauffman from DVD Talk observed that though most of the film was made using natural lighting situations , the color and saturation quality was excellent . Further , the reviewer was quite favourable about the use of exotic sounds right from birds to the instruments .
= = = Special screenings and awards = = =
On 11 September 2006 , Vanaja first premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival . The same year , it won an Honorable Mention for the Golden Starfish Award at the Hamptons International Film Festival . It won the Best Narrative Film award at the Indo @-@ American Arts Council Film Festival . Following that , it was showcased at the International Film Festival of India and the International Film Festival of Kerala by the end of 2006 .
At the film 's screening at the 2007 Berlin Film Festival , it won a standing ovation from the audience , bringing Mamatha Bhukya to tears and emotionally affecting Rajnesh Domalpalli . The film won the Best First Feature award at this festival . The same year , Vanaja received a special international jury prize at the Cairo International Film Festival , Best Feature at the Memphis International Film Festival , Best International Film at the Sacramento International Film Festival , and a Platinum award at the WorldFest @-@ Houston International Film Festival . It received a special mention for the grand jury prize at the Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles , the Miloš Macourek Award in special recognition for a feature film for youth at the Zlín International Film Festival , an Achievement Award at the Newport Beach Film Festival , and a special jury prize for Best Production Design at the RiverRun International Film Festival . It won the prize for Best Cinematography at the Rhode Island International Film Festival , the first prize in the live @-@ action feature film category at the Chicago International Children 's Film Festival , and the Camério Meilleur Long Métrage / Starlink Aviation award at the Carrousel international du film de Rimouski . In addition , the film won also won an award for the best live @-@ action film at the International Young Audience Film Festival . Bhukya won the best actress award at the Asian Festival of First Films . It was chosen as one of 13 " key films " when the Locarno International Film Festival focused on India in 2011 .
= = = Reviews = = =
The film received an overall positive response from critics and was particularly noted for the theme and for Mamatha Bhukya 's performance . The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 85 % based on 26 critic reviews with an average rating of 7 / 10 . Roger Ebert described Bhukya as " a natural star , her eyes and smile illuminating a face of freshness and delight . " Writing about Vanaja , he added that " there are the glorious colors of saris and room decorations , the dazzle of dance costumes and the dusty landscape that somehow becomes a watercolor by Edward Lear , with its hills and vistas , its oxen and elephants , its houses that seem part of the land . In this setting , Domalpalli tells his story with tender precision , and never an awkward moment . " Ebert listed it among the top five foreign films of 2007 . According to Laura Kern from The New York Times , the film " is a coming @-@ of @-@ age tale that is engrossing , if slightly overlong , and absolutely timeless , unfolding against an antiquated class system that sadly stands firm in rural areas of India to this day . "
A review in Variety called it " a film that touches the heartstrings as it brings home the cruel class distinctions that poison Indian societ , " and said it " is more than a children 's film , despite revolving around a central character of 14 . Its social message , linked to the story of a poor farm girl who aspires to be a dancer , never feels forced , and the moral issues it depicts are realistically complex . " Commenting on its commercial feasibility , the review concluded that " while that might not translate into obvious box office potential , art house appeal is there for distributors willing to seek out a market . " The Chicago Tribune wrote :
It 's a touching , believable , often funny but ultimately sad tale of how one class can take advantage of another , even in the guise of patronizing benevolence . Though sometimes shifting abruptly in time , Vanaja is an arresting story of modern @-@ day hardship and class exploitation , recalling Charles Dickens as well as Western fairy @-@ tale lore . Domalpalli 's settings are ultra @-@ real in detail and color , from the crude , almost feudal deprivations of Vanaja 's dirt @-@ floor background to the stately rituals and autocratic entitlement of the well @-@ to @-@ do .
Speaking of Bhukya 's performance , the San Francisco Chronicle writes , " Bhukya delivers an entrancing and natural performance , deftly balancing both the wide @-@ eyed childishness of a young girl with the dawning awareness of life 's darker possibilities . She 's also an accomplished dancer , which she proves at several points in the film . " It adds , " can this wonder @-@ filled film truly be not only Domalpalli 's first feature , but originally part of a thesis submission at Columbia University ? Both in the film 's writing and direction , Domalpalli displays maturity , wisdom and a loving sense of visual and character detail . " Marc Savlov of The Austin Chronicle proclaimed , " director Domalpalli , who , with his debut feature , turned in what may well be the best Columbia University master 's thesis ever . " The Hartford Courant also claimed like the Chicago Tribune that the film would remind the Western audience of Charles Dickens , and further stated that it " ... gives a detailed sense of place and shows a mastery of story telling . The themes of fate and class resonate and the work of the amateur players is remarkably moving . "
Despite the generally positive reception , some critics differed in their opinion of the content and depiction . The New York Post criticised the film saying that " there 's enough mush in the Indian melodrama Vanaja to fill an entire season of a TV soap opera , " adding that toward its ending , the " viewers will be bored stiff by ( the ) long , tedious film " . Though the " narrative meanders ... [ it ] evokes village life with stark authenticity , " said a review by Time Out .
|
= New York and New Jersey campaign =
The New York and New Jersey campaign was a series of battles for control of New York City and the state of New Jersey in the American Revolutionary War between British forces under General Sir William Howe and the Continental Army under General George Washington in 1776 and the winter months of 1777 . Howe was successful in driving Washington out of New York City , but overextended his reach into New Jersey , and ended the active campaign season in January 1777 with only a few outposts near the city . The British held New York harbor for the rest of the war , using it as a base for expeditions against other targets .
First landing unopposed on Staten Island on July 3 , 1776 , Howe assembled an army composed of elements that had been withdrawn from Boston in March following their failure to hold that city , combined with additional British troops , as well as Hessian troops rented from several German principalities . Washington had New England soldiers as well as regiments from states as far south as Virginia . Landing on Long Island in August , Howe defeated Washington in the largest battle of the war , but the Continental Army was able to retreat to Manhattan under cover of darkness and fog . Washington suffered a series of defeats in Manhattan , with the exception of a victory at Harlem Heights , but was nevertheless chased north to White Plains , New York . At that point Howe returned to Manhattan to capture forces Washington had left in the north of that island .
Washington and much of his army crossed the Hudson River into New Jersey , and retreated all the way across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania , shrinking due to ending enlistment periods , desertions , and poor morale . Howe ordered his troops into winter quarters in December , establishing a chain of outposts from New York to Burlington , New Jersey . Washington , in a tremendous boost to American morale , launched a successful strike against the Trenton garrison after crossing the icy Delaware River , prompting Howe to withdraw his chain of outposts back to New Brunswick and the coast near New York , while Washington established his winter camp at Morristown . During the remaining winter months , both sides skirmished frequently as the British sought forage and provisions .
Britain maintained control of New York City and some of the surrounding territory until the war ended in 1783 , using it as a base for operations elsewhere in North America . In 1777 , General Howe launched a campaign to capture Philadelphia , leaving General Sir Henry Clinton in command of the New York area , while General John Burgoyne led an attempt to gain control of the Hudson River valley from Quebec that failed at Saratoga . Northern New Jersey was the scene of skirmishing between the opposing forces for the rest of the war .
= = Background = =
When the American Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775 , British troops were under siege in Boston . They defeated Patriot forces in the Battle of Bunker Hill , suffering very high casualties . When news of this expensive British victory reached London , General William Howe and Lord George Germain , the British official responsible , determined that a " decisive action " should be taken against New York City using forces recruited from throughout the British Empire as well as troops hired from small German states .
General George Washington , recently named by the Second Continental Congress as the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Continental Army , echoed the sentiments of others that New York was " a post of infinite importance " , and began the task of organizing military companies in the New York area when he stopped there on his way to take command of the siege of Boston . In January 1776 Washington ordered Charles Lee to raise troops and take command of New York 's defenses . Lee had made some progress on the city 's defenses when word arrived in late March 1776 that the British army had left Boston after Washington threatened them from heights south of the city . Concerned that General Howe was sailing directly to New York , Washington hurried regiments from Boston , including General Israel Putnam , who commanded the troops until Washington himself arrived in mid @-@ April . At the end of April , Washington dispatched General John Sullivan with six regiments to the north to bolster the faltering Quebec campaign .
General Howe , rather than moving against New York , withdrew his army to Halifax , Nova Scotia , and regrouped while transports full of British troops , shipped from bases around Europe and intended for New York , began gathering at Halifax . In June he set sail for New York with the 9 @,@ 000 men assembled there , before all of the transports arrived . German troops , primarily from Hesse @-@ Kassel , as well as British troops from Henry Clinton 's ultimately unsuccessful expedition to the Carolinas , were to meet with Howe 's fleet when it reached New York . General Howe 's brother , Admiral Lord Howe , arrived at Halifax with further transports after the general sailed , and immediately followed .
When General Howe arrived in the outer harbor of New York , the ships began sailing up the undefended Narrows between Staten Island and Long island on July 2 , and started landing troops on the undefended shores of Staten Island that day . Washington learned from prisoners taken that Howe had landed 10 @,@ 000 men , but was awaiting the arrival of another 15 @,@ 000 . General Washington , with a smaller army of about 19 @,@ 000 effective troops , lacked significant intelligence on the British force and plans , and was uncertain exactly where in the New York area the Howes intended to strike . He consequently split the Continental Army between fortified positions on Long Island , Manhattan and other mainland locations , and also established a " Flying Camp " in northern New Jersey . This was intended as a reserve force that could support operations anywhere along the Jersey shore of the Hudson .
= = Capture of New York City = =
The Howe brothers had been granted authority as peace commissioners by Parliament , with limited powers to pursue a peaceful resolution to the conflict . King George III was not optimistic about the possibility of a peace , " yet I think it right to be attempted , whilst every act of vigour is unremittingly carried on " . Their powers were limited to granting of " general and special pardons " and to " confer with any of his Majesty 's subjects " . On July 14 , pursuant to these powers , Admiral Howe sent a messenger with a letter addressed to " George Washington , Esq . " across the harbor . Washington 's adjutant , Joseph Reed , politely informed the messenger that no person with that title was in their army . Admiral Howe 's aide wrote that " the Punctilio of an Address " should not have prevented the letter 's delivery , and Howe was said to be visibly annoyed by the rejection . A second request , addressed to " George Washington , Esq . , etc . " was similarly rejected , although the messenger was told that Washington would receive one of Howe 's adjutants . In that fruitless meeting , held July 20 , Washington pointed out that the limited powers the Howe brothers had been given were not of much use , as the rebels had done no wrong requiring an amnesty .
In late August , the British transported about 22 @,@ 000 men ( including 9 @,@ 000 Hessians ) from Staten Island to Long Island . In the Battle of Long Island on August 27 , 1776 , the British outflanked the American positions , driving the Americans back to their Brooklyn Heights fortifications . General Howe then began to lay siege to the works , but Washington skillfully managed a nighttime retreat through his unguarded rear across the East River to Manhattan Island . Howe then paused to consolidate his position and consider his next move .
During the battle , the British had captured General John Sullivan . Admiral Howe convinced him to deliver a message to Congress in Philadelphia , and released him on parole . Washington also gave his permission , and on September 2 Sullivan told the Congress that the Howes wanted to negotiate , and had been given much broader powers to treat than those they actually held . This created a diplomatic problem for Congress , which did not want to be seen as aggressive , which is how some representatives felt a direct rejection of the appeal would appear . Consequently , Congress agreed to send a committee to meet with the Howes in a move they did not think would bear any fruit . On September 11 , the Howe brothers met with John Adams , Benjamin Franklin , and Edward Rutledge in the Staten Island Peace Conference . It had exactly the outcome the Americans expected .
During this time , Washington , who had previously been ordered by Congress to hold New York City , was concerned that he might have escaped one trap for another , since the army was still vulnerable to being surrounded on Manhattan . To keep his escape routes open to the north , he placed 5 @,@ 000 troops in the city ( which then only occupied the lower portion of Manhattan ) , and took the rest of the army to Harlem Heights . In the first recorded use of a submarine in warfare , he also attempted a novel attack on the Royal Navy , launching the Turtle in a failed attempt to sink the HMS Eagle , Admiral Howe 's flagship .
On September 15 , General Howe landed about 12 @,@ 000 men on lower Manhattan , quickly taking control of New York City . The Americans withdrew to Harlem , where they skirmished the next day , but held their ground . Rather than attempting to dislodge Washington from his strong position a second time , Howe again opted for a flanking maneuver . Landing troops with some opposition in October in Westchester County , he sought once again to encircle Washington . To defend against this move , Washington withdrew most of his army to White Plains , where after a short battle on October 28 he retreated further north . This isolated the remaining Continental Army troops in upper Manhattan , so Howe returned to Manhattan and captured Fort Washington in mid November , taking almost 3 @,@ 000 prisoners .
Four days later , November 20 , Fort Lee , across the Hudson River from Fort Washington , was also taken . Washington brought much of his army across the Hudson into New Jersey , but was immediately forced to retreat by the aggressive British advance .
General Howe , after consolidating British positions around New York harbor , detached 6 @,@ 000 men under the command of two of his more difficult subordinates , Henry Clinton , and Hugh , Earl Percy to take Newport , Rhode Island ( which they did without opposition on December 8 ) , while he sent General Lord Cornwallis to chase Washington 's army through New Jersey . The Americans withdrew across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania in early December .
= = Reactions = =
The outlook of the Continental Army — and thus the revolution itself — was bleak . " These are the times that try men 's souls " , wrote Thomas Paine in The American Crisis . Washington 's army had dwindled to fewer than 5 @,@ 000 men fit for duty and would be significantly reduced after enlistments expired at the end of the year . Spirits were low , popular support was wavering , and Congress had abandoned Philadelphia , fearing a British attack . Washington ordered some of the troops that returned from the failed invasion of Quebec to join him , and also ordered General Lee 's troops , which he had left north of New York City , to join him . Lee , whose relationship with Washington was at times difficult , made excuses and only traveled as far as Morristown , New Jersey . When Lee strayed too far from his army on December 12 , his exposed position was betrayed by Loyalists , and a British company led by Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton surrounded the inn where he was staying and took him prisoner . Lee 's command was taken over by John Sullivan , who finished marching the army to Washington 's camp across the river from Trenton .
The capture of Lee presented the Howes with a problematic prisoner . As with a number of other Continental Army leaders , he had previously served in the British Army . Because of this the Howes at first treated him as a deserter , with threats of military punishment . However , Washington intervened , tying the treatment of Lee to the treatment of prisoners he held . Lee was ultimately treated well , and apparently offered the British commanders advice on how to win the war . Because the Americans did not have a prisoner of comparable rank , Lee remained a prisoner in New York until 1778 , when was exchanged for Richard Prescott .
The failure of the Continental Army to hold New York also brought about a rise in Loyalist activity , as the city became a haven for refugee supporters of the Crown from elsewhere across the country . The British actively recruited in New York and New Jersey to build regiments of provincial militia , with some success . Loyalists in these areas may have been motivated by seeing elements of the rebel army head home after their enlistments ended . One New York Patriot militia leader wrote that thirty of his men , rather than reenlisting with him , had instead signed up with the enemy . On November 30 Admiral Howe offered amnesty to anyone that had taken up arms against the Crown , provided they swore an oath to it . Washington responded with his own proclamation suggesting that those who did not renounce such oaths should immediately go behind British lines . As a result , New Jersey became a civil battlefield , with militia activity as well as spying and counterspying continuing for the rest of the war .
News of the capture of New York was favorably received in London , and General Howe was awarded the Order of the Bath for his work . Combined with news of the recovery of Quebec , circumstances suggested to British leaders that the war could be ended with one more year 's campaigning . News of Admiral Howe 's amnesty proclamation was met with some surprise , as its terms were more lenient than the hardliners in the government expected . Politicians opposed to the war pointed out that the proclamation failed to mention the primacy of the Parliament . Furthermore , the Howes were criticized for failing to keep Parliament informed of the various peace efforts they embarked on .
= = Howe 's strategy = =
With the campaign at an apparent conclusion for the season , the British established a chain of outposts stretching from Perth Amboy to Bordentown and entered winter quarters . They controlled much of New York and New Jersey and were in a good position to resume operations in the spring , with the rebel capital of Philadelphia in striking distance . Howe detached General Clinton with 6 @,@ 000 men to occupy Newport , Rhode Island as a base for future operations against Boston and Connecticut ( Clinton occupied Newport in early December without opposition . ) Howe then sketched a campaign for the following year in a letter to Lord Germain : 10 @,@ 000 men at Newport , 10 @,@ 000 for an expedition to Albany ( to meet an army descending from Quebec ) , 8 @,@ 000 to cross New Jersey and threaten Philadelphia , and 5 @,@ 000 to defend New York . If additional foreign forces were available , operations could also be considered against the southern states .
= = Washington 's counterstrike = =
While worrying over how to hold his army together , Washington organized attacks on the relatively exposed British outposts , which were as a result continually on edge due to ongoing militia and army raids . German commanders Carl von Donop and Johann Rall , whose brigades were at the end of the chain of outposts , were frequent targets of these raids , but their repeated warnings and requests for support from General James Grant were dismissed .
Beginning in mid @-@ December , Washington planned a two @-@ pronged attack on Rall 's outpost in Trenton , with a third diversionary attack on Donop 's outpost in Bordentown . The plan was aided by the fortuitous presence of a militia company that drew Donop 's entire 2 @,@ 000 @-@ man force away from Bordentown to the south that resulted in a skirmish at Mount Holly on December 23 . The consequence of this action was that Donop was not in a position to assist Rall when Washington 's attack on Trenton took place . On the night of December 25 – 26 , Washington and 2 @,@ 400 men stealthily crossed the Delaware and surprised Rall 's outpost the following morning , killing or capturing nearly 1 @,@ 000 Hessians . This action not only significantly boosted the army 's morale ; it also brought Cornwallis out of New York . He reassembled an army of more than 6 @,@ 000 men , and marched most of them against a position Washington had taken south of Trenton . Leaving a garrison of 1 @,@ 200 at Princeton , Cornwallis then attacked Washington 's position on January 2 , 1777 , and was three times repulsed before darkness set in . During the night Washington once again stealthily moved his army , going around that of Cornwallis with the intention of attacking the Princeton garrison .
Hugh Mercer , leading the American advance guard , encountered British soldiers from Princeton under the command of Charles Mawhood . The British troops engaged Mercer and in the ensuing battle , Mercer was mortally wounded . Washington sent reinforcements under General John Cadwalader , which were successful in driving Mawhood and the British from Princeton , with many of them fleeing to Cornwallis in Trenton . The British lost more than one quarter of their force in the battle , and American morale rose with the victory .
The defeats convinced General Howe to withdraw most of his army from New Jersey , only leaving outposts at New Brunswick and Perth Amboy . Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown , having retaken most of the state from the British . However , provisions for both armies were limited , and commanders on both sides sent out parties to forage for food and other supplies . For the next few months , they engaged in a forage war , in which each targeted the foraging parties of the other . This led to numerous skirmishes and minor confrontations including the Battle of Millstone . The British also sniped with each other over the subject of provisions . Lord Percy resigned his command after a series of disagreements with Howe came to a head over the ability of the Newport station to provide forage to the New York and New Jersey forces .
= = Aftermath = =
The British gained control of New York harbor and the surrounding agricultural areas , and held New York City and Long Island until the war ended in 1783 . The Americans suffered significant casualties and lost important supplies , but Washington managed to retain the core of his army and avoid a decisive confrontation that could have ended the war . With the bold strokes of Trenton and Princeton , he had regained initiative and boosted morale . The areas around New York City in New York , New Jersey , and Connecticut were an ongoing battleground for the rest of the war .
The early reports that General Howe sent to his superiors in London concerning the battles at Trenton and Princeton attempted to minimize their significance , blaming Rall for Trenton , and trying to recast Princeton as a nearly successful defense . Not everyone was fooled by his accounts , in particular Lord Germain . In a letter to the Hessian General Leopold Philip von Heister Germain wrote that " the officer who commanded [ the forces at Trenton ] and to whom this misfortune is to be attributed has lost his life by his rashness . " Heister in turn had to report the loss to his ruler , Frederick II , Landgrave of Hesse @-@ Kassel , with the news that not only had an entire brigade been lost , but sixteen regimental colors and six cannon as well . The news reportedly enraged Frederick , who broadly suggested that Heister return home ( which he did , turning over command of the Hessian forces to Wilhelm von Knyphausen ) . Frederick also ordered extensive inquiries into the events of 1776 , that took place in New York from 1778 to 1782 . These inquiries created a unique archive of materials about the campaign .
The news of Washington 's successes reached Paris at a critical time . Britain 's ambassador to France , Lord Stormont , was preparing complaints to France 's foreign minister , the Comte de Vergennes , concerning the semi @-@ secret financial and logistical support France had been giving to the rebels . Stormont had learned that supplies bound for America were to be shipped under French flags , where they had previously sent under American colors . He wrote that the French court was extremely happy with the news , and that the French diplomatic position noticeably hardened : " that M. de Vergennes is hostile in his heart and anxious for the success of the Rebels I have not a shadow of a doubt . "
= = Next steps = =
The British planned two major operations for the 1777 campaign season . The first was an ambitious plan to gain control of the Hudson River valley , whose central thrust was a move along Lake Champlain by the army from Quebec under General John Burgoyne . Execution of this plan ultimately failed , ending with the surrender of Burgoyne 's army at Saratoga , New York , in October . The second operation was General Howe 's plan to take Philadelphia , which , after a difficult start , met with success in September .
Washington 's strategy in 1777 continued to be a basically defensive one . He successfully fended off an attempt by Howe to draw him into a general engagement in northern New Jersey , but was unable to prevent Howe 's later success taking Philadelphia . He did send material help to General Horatio Gates , who was tasked with defending against Burgoyne 's movements . Major General Benedict Arnold and Daniel Morgan 's riflemen all played a notable role in the defeat of Burgoyne , following which France entered the war .
= = Legacy = =
In the urban environments of Manhattan , Brooklyn , and Trenton there are plaques and other memorials placed to commemorate the actions that took place in and around those locations . The Princeton Battlefield and Washington 's Crossing are National Historic Landmarks , with state parks also preserving all or part of the locations where events of this campaign occurred in those areas . Morristown National Historical Park preserves locations occupied by the Continental Army during the winter months at the end of the campaign .
|
= Sauganash Hotel =
Sauganash Hotel ( originally Eagle Exchange Tavern ) is a former hotel ; regarded as the first hotel in Chicago , Illinois . It was located at Wolf Point in the present day Loop community area at the intersection of the north , south and main branches of the Chicago River . The location at West Lake Street and North Wacker Drive ( formerly Market Street ) was designated a Chicago Landmark on November 6 , 2002 . The hotel changed proprietors often in its twenty @-@ year existence and briefly served as Chicago 's first theater . It was named after Billy Caldwell , an interpreter in the British Indian Department .
= = History = =
Mark and Monique Beaubien , the owners and builders of the hotel , were French Indian traders . In 1826 they moved to Chicago on the advice of Mark 's brother Jean , who lived at Fort Dearborn . The Beaubiens settled in a small cabin on Wolf 's Point and continued their trade with the Indians . They built a tavern on the east bank of the south branch of the Chicago River at the point where the north and south branches meet . The tavern was named Eagle Exchange Tavern . In 1831 , they added a frame to the log structure to create Chicago 's first hotel , the Sauganash Hotel . When completed , it was one of only two residential structures on the south side of the main branch of the Chicago River , the other being that of Col. John B. Beaubien , Mark 's brother . The settlement had only twelve houses at the time . The hostelry immediately became famous , and when reconstructed later became the city 's largest and finest hotel . Immediately adjacent to the hotel 's public bar was Chicago 's first drug store .
The Greek Revival trim of the new hotel contrasted with the other eleven buildings of Chicago . The symmetry of its facade was typical to contemporary Greek Revival practiced on the East Coast . Juliette Kinzie , who came to Chicago from Connecticut in 1831 , described it as " a pretentios white two @-@ story building , with bright blue wood shutters , the admiration of all the little circle at Wolf Point " . The hostelry 's clientele transcended race , with natives and settlers enjoying each other 's company .
The flow of travelers and settlers intensified with the end of the Black Hawk War in 1832 . In 1833 the hotel housed election of the first town trustees of the newly formed Town of Chicago . Beaubien kept the Hotel until 1834 and during his ownership he regularly entertained guests with his violin . On August 18 , 1835 , two years after the Potawatomi natives signed the treaty agreeing to be moved to a reservation beyond the Mississippi River in northwestern Missouri , they selected 800 braves to perform their last war dance parade on a path that passed in front of the hotel . In 1835 , a Mr. Davis assumed control of the hotel , which subsequently had a series of proprietors . The building briefly served as Chicago 's first theater , and hosted the first Chicago Theatre company in November 1837 in an abandoned dining room . By 1839 , it returned to service as a hotel , but was destroyed by fire in 1851 , and subsequently torn down . The Wigwam was built in its place nine years later .
= = Honoree = =
Billy Caldwell " Sauganash " , who served as an interpreter for the Indian Agents , was the honoree of the hotel . Born in approximately 1780 , " Sauganash " was an Indian half @-@ breed , whose father was Colonel Caldwell , an Irish officer in the British Army stationed at Detroit ; his mother was a Pottawatomi . He was schooled at a Jesuit school in Detroit , where he learned English and French . Caldwell learned several Indian dialects . Billy Caldwell 's Indian Name was " Straight Tree " , but he was known by " Sauganash " , meaning Englishman in the Potawatomi language . As a warrior , Sauganash was under the influence of Tecumseh until his death and he became a Captain in the British Indian Department .
= = Theater = =
In 1834 ( three years before Chicago incorporated as a city ) , the hotel hosted the first professional public performance in Chicago at a cost of $ .50 ( $ 11 @.@ 85 today ) for adults and $ .25 for children . The show promised a wide variety of talents including ventriloquism . In the following two years , several traveling showmen performed at the hotel . In 1837 , the Chicago Theater , which was the first local theater company , set up shop in the hotel 's abandoned dining room . Co @-@ managers Harry Isherwood and Alexander McKinzie procured an amusement license for the company from the city council , and it began performing a different billed show every night starting in late October or early November for approximately six weeks . The plays included titles The Idiot Witness , The Stranger , and The Carpenter of Rouen . Production of The Stranger took place in the dining room of the hotel . Following a six @-@ week engagement , the company went on tour until the following spring , when it returned to a different local venue .
|
= Ed the Happy Clown =
Ed the Happy Clown is a graphic novel by Canadian cartoonist Chester Brown . Its title character is a large @-@ headed , childlike children 's clown who undergoes one horrifying affliction after another . The story in is a dark , humorous mix of genres and features scatological humour , sex , body horror , extreme graphic violence , and blasphemous religious imagery . Central to the plot are a man who cannot stop defecating ; the head of a miniature , other @-@ dimensional Ronald Reagan attached to the head of Ed 's penis ; and a female vampire who seeks revenge on her adulterous lover who had murdered her to escape his sins .
The surreal , largely improvised story began with a series of unrelated short strips that Brown went on to tie into a single narrative . Brown first serialized it in his comic book Yummy Fur , and the first , incomplete collected edition in 1989 , titled Ed the Happy Clown : A Yummy Fur Book . Shortly after , Brown became unsatisfied with the direction of the serial ; he brought it to an abrupt end in the eighteenth issue of Yummy Fur and turned to autobiography . A second edition titled Ed the Happy Clown : The Definitive Ed Book appeared in 1992 with an altered ending and most of the later parts of the series eliminated . The contents of this edition were re @-@ serialized with extensive endnotes in 2005 – 2006 as a nine @-@ issue Ed the Happy Clown series and collected as Ed the Happy Clown : A Graphic @-@ Novel in 2012 .
The story is seen by many critics as a highlight of the 1980s North American alternative comics scene . It has left an influence on contemporary alternative cartoonists such as Daniel Clowes , Seth , and Dave Sim , and has won a Harvey and other awards . Canadian film director Bruce McDonald has had the rights since 1991 to make an Ed movie , but the project has struggled to find financial backing .
= = Background = =
Brown grew up in Châteauguay , Quebec , a Montreal suburb with a large English @-@ speaking minority . He was an introverted youth attracted to comic books from a young age . He aimed at a career drawing superhero comics , but was unsuccessful in getting work with Marvel or DC Comics after graduating from high school . He moved to Toronto and discovered underground comix and the small @-@ press community .
By the early 1980s Marvel and DC had come to dominate comic @-@ book publishing in North America , and comic shops became the main places of purchase , with a clientele of dedicated comics fans . During this time , a trend towards greater ambition and expressiveness was developing on the fringes , such as Dave Sim 's long Cerebus series and the avant @-@ garde graphics magazine Raw in which the serialization of Art Spiegelman 's graphic novel Maus appeared . Brown was to find himself in the alternative comics scene that grew throughout the decade .
Brown was feeling himself in a creatively stagnant period when he came across a book on Surrealism : Wallace Fowley 's The Age of Surrealism ( 1950 ) . The book motivated Brown to work on an improvised minicomic series which he called Yummy Fur and self @-@ published from 1983 .
= = Content = =
Ed suffers one indignity after another as the plot gets grimmer and more surreal . His bizarre misfortunes include having the tip of his penis replaced by the head of a miniature , talking Ronald Reagan from another universe . Ed 's adventures featured encounters with penis @-@ worshipping pygmies , flesh @-@ eating rats , Martians , Frankenstein 's monster , and other characters from traditional genre fiction . The story unfolds with a black @-@ comedic sensibility topped with Christian symbolism . Despite his ordeals — being imprisoned for a crime he did not commit , falling in love with a vampire — Ed remains a gentle , childlike innocent , with a Candide @-@ like optimism . The story has had more than one ending and is a challenge to summarize .
= = = Summary = = =
The children 's hospital Ed is about to visit burns down with all the children in it . A number of apparently unrelated short gag strips appear before Brown begins to tie the narrative together into one plot .
Ed is imprisoned when he finds hospital janitor Chet Doodley 's severed hand and the police assume Ed had taken it . In the prison a man is unable stop defecating and his faeces fill the jail , engulfing all , including Ed . When Ed emerges he finds the head of his penis replaced with the head of a miniature Ronald Reagan from Dimension X — a world much like Ed 's but whose people are tiny . Dimension X has dumped its waste into a trans @-@ dimensional portal , which turns out to be the anus of the man who could not stop defecating . Reagan 's body remains in Dimension X , and the professor who discovered the portal travels to Ed 's dimension to find the head , making contact with the authorities of Ed 's world .
Chet believes the loss of his hand is due to his unfaithfulness to his wife ; as a child his mother read Chet the story of a Saint Justin who cuts off his right hand to avoid sinning , and Chet assumes his lost hand is a like punishment from God . He tries to atone for it by killing his girlfriend , Josie , in the woods . Penis @-@ worshipping , rat @-@ eating pygmy cannibals drag the bodies of both Josie and Ed into the sewers . As they are about to sever Ed 's penis Josie reanimates in time to save him . The two attempt to escape from the sewers when they are accidentally shot by a mother – daughter team of pygmy hunters . Josie dies again , and her disembodied spirit learns from the ghost of Chet 's sister that she has become a vampire .
The professor from Dimension X and members of the staff of the Adventures in Science TV show find Ed and the President and bring them to the TV studio . The discovery is big news , and the professor and the President make a TV appearance . When it is discovered that the people of Dimension X are homosexual or bisexual the professor is put to a violent death , and Ed and the body of Josie are put in confinement . The studio is invaded by the pygmies when they recognize their " Penis God " on television . Josie 's spirit returns to her body , and she and Ed escape and make their way to the hospital where Chet works . Josie gets her revenge by seducing Chet and killing him before he is able to repent , thus sending him to Hell .
Ed is one of a number of men secretly kidnapped to provide another , Bick Backman , with a penis transplant — a larger one to please his wife . Out of the lineup of unconscious men , Ed 's penis with the President 's head on it stands out and is chosen for Backman . After the operation , Mounties raid the hospital and , finding Reagan , take Backman and leave Ed , who has had a larger penis sewn on in the President 's place . The hospital hands Ed over to Mrs Backman , claiming he is her husband . Though suspicious , she accepts Ed — and his newly transplanted penis .
= = = = Endings = = = =
The ending that appeared in Yummy Fur has not appeared in book editions . In it , Mrs Backman takes Ed home , but her children are not convinced he is their father . After he spends some time in the house they decide " he 's way better than the other one " . There is a resemblance between Ed and Mrs Backman , and it is revealed they were twins separated at birth . While at church , the Backman children are kidnapped by stone aliens and are saved by Frankenstein 's monster , who brings them to Washington , D.C. where they find their kidnapped real father . Josie and Ed 's zombie friend rescues the Backmans . Ed has his clown makeup restored and reverts to his cheerful self . When he goes to visit Josie , he learns her apartment building has burned down , and she was the only casualty . Her charred skeleton is brought out , clutching an unburnt severed hand .
The alternate ending from the 1992 and later versions drops most of the story that follows Chet 's death , replacing it with 17 new pages . In this version , Chet 's severed hand visits Josie 's apartment at night and rolls up her window shade . As she is a vampire , the sunlight in the morning burns her to death while she sleeps , and she and Chet are reunited in the flames of Hell .
= = = Primary characters = = =
Ed
A big @-@ headed , childlike clown with Candide @-@ like optimism , despite the hardships his creator puts him through . He is a passive protagonist to and around whom events occur . He spends much of the story with the head of a miniature Ronald Reagan from another dimension for a penishead . He later discovers , after having the president severed from his penis and having a new one attached , that he has a long @-@ lost twin sister in Becky Backman . Brown considers Ed to be an " adult who 's pre @-@ adolescent " , whose sexuality is not fully formed .
Chet Doodley
A janitor working at a hospital , he is plagued with guilt over cheating on his wife after his hand falls off for no apparent reason . After having a dream in which a statue of the Virgin Mary turns into his girlfriend , Josie , and has sex with him , he murders Josie while having sex with her by stabbing her in the back in the woods . Josie , who becomes a vampire afterwards , hunts him down and eventually breaks his neck , sending him to Hell . " Chet " is short for " Chester " , and Douglas Wolk sees Chet as perhaps a stand @-@ in for Brown himself , though Brown denies any autobiographical elements in the story . Brown has stated he had a phobia of losing his hand , as it would end his ability to draw , and so named the character " Chet " .
Josie
Chet 's beautiful former girlfriend , who becomes a vampire " for actively engaging in a grievous sin " for committing adultery with her boyfriend Chet , when he murders her by stabbing her in the back . Her vampire self ends up saving Ed from having his penis decapitated by pygmy cannibals , and eventually tracks down Chet and kills him , sending him to Hell . In an alternate ending , she finds herself in Hell as well , eternally embracing Chet while being consumed by fire .
Ronald Reagan
Though bearing the American president 's name and position , the diminutive Reagan bears no resemblance to his namesake . He comes from Dimension X , and his head becomes attached to the end of Ed 's penis after falling into an interdimensional portal . The president 's body remains in Dimension X , where people are much smaller than in Ed 's , and are homosexual .
Brown had intended to use Ed Broadbent , a left @-@ wing politician of the Canadian New Democratic Party ( NDP ) , but changed it to the right @-@ wing Reagan as he believed Broadbent would have been too obscure to his American readers . He later regretted the decision and said he could have included an explanation . The idea of a talking penis has appeared in a number of other comics , such as The Talking Head ( 1990 ) by Paolo Baciliero and Pete Sickman @-@ Garner 's Young Tim .
= = Analysis = =
Ed spans a range of Brown 's interests , from political skepticism to scatological humour to vampires and werewolves . The story is dark and surreal , desperate and humorous .
Christian elements especially — largely sacriligeous — are prominent in the book . They are at first innocuous and unimportant : a zombie named Christian , another character who believes he has found Christ 's face on a piece of adhesive tape . With the fourth issue of Yummy Fur , Brown 's surreal take on Christianity becomes central : the cover depicts the Virgin Mary holding not just the infant Christ , but also a severed hand . Within is the story of Saint Justin , whose amputation becomes a key motif : Chet loses his own hand and finds another ; his own appears mysteriously under Ed 's pillow . Only by praying for forgiveness for his adultery and by murdering his lover is Chet 's hand miraculously restored . According to the Lives of the Saints , the fictional Saint Justin severed his own hand , but in another version Brown presents , Justin 's wife cuts it off with a woodaxe when she catches her husband masturbating after rejecting her advances . The altered ending from 1992 has both Josie and Chet reunited in Hell , and the ghost of Chet 's sister becomes a devil . As Brown mixes surreal sacrilege with the sort of moralism that compels him to condemn Josie for her bloody revenge , Brian Evenson calls Brown " deft at muddying the waters in a way that makes it very hard to pin him down as either belieever or satirist , as either anti @-@ religionist or apologist " .
While not part of the Ed story , Brown had been serializing straight adaptations in Yummy Fur of the Gospels of Mark and of Matthew during most of Ed 's run . R. Fiore called these adaptations " the best exploration of Christian mythology since Justin Green 's Binky Brown " , comparing Chet 's excessive Christian guilt with the " almost childlike retelling " of Mark . Yummy Fur readers also found " I Live in the Bottomless Pit " , a short strip in which a man discovers the Antichrist , who after millennia underground has forgotten his mission — a paradoxical one , as he states his orders were from God .
Ed prominently features transgressive content including nudity , graphic violence , racist imagery , blasphemy , and profanity . Brown grew up in a strictly Baptist household in which he was not allowed to swear , as depicted in Brown 's graphic novel I Never Liked You ( 1994 ) . Brown challenged his own anxieties by tackling subjects such as scatological humour . Imagery such as the recurring Pygmy characters and their " ooga booga " language , Chris Lanier asserted , reinforce " old colonial imaging of ' third world natives ' " .
= = Style = =
According to comics historian John Bell , " Brown arrived in print almost fully formed as an artist " . His style , while showing the influence of artists such as Robert Crumb , Harold Gray , and Jack Kirby , was distinct from his predecessors . He continued to mature as an artist and draughtsman throughout the run of Ed , showing enormous growth from the beginning to end of the graphic novel .
Unlike most cartoonists , Brown does not compose his pages , but draws each panel on separate sheets of paper and assembles them into pages afterwards . The panels in Ed were on 5 @-@ by @-@ 5 @-@ inch ( 13 cm × 13 cm ) squares of cheap typewriter paper , which he placed on a block of wood on his lap in lieu of a drawing board . He used a number of different drawing tools , including Rapidograph technical pens , markers , crowquill pens and ink brushes . He had some photocopies printed from his pencilled work , which he found both faster to produce and more spontaneous in feel .
Brown worked freely , without ruling lines or lettering . Usually he roughly sketched the artwork with a light blue pencil , then elaborated it with an HB pencil , at which stage he has said " most of the work [ was ] done " . Brown inked the pre @-@ Vortex stories with a brush ; when he committed himself to a regular schedule , he felt inking with a brush would be too slow , and switched to cheap markers or pencils to increase his productivity . He continued to use a brush to fill in blacks and to letter his dialogue balloons . Brown came to favour the quality of the brush again toward the end of the story 's run , but found it slow to work with and thus used it less than he would have preferred . By photocopying before sending the artwork to the printer , Brown could ensure that the copy printed from was sufficiently black .
While he occasionally scripted certain pages or scenes , more frequently he did not , and often wrote dialogue only after having drawn the artwork . Brown did not plan out the stories , though he might have certain ideas prepared . Some ideas he found carried him for up to two to three issues of Yummy Fur . Brown used of flashback scenes different perspectives to alter the story to his needs — for example , when Brown revisited the scene of Josie 's murder , he placed Ed behind a bush , linking the two characters ' fates . When he had originally done the murder scene , he says he did not " know that Ed was over in the bushes a couple feet away " .
Brown found himself dissatisfied with much of the work , and later abandoning about a hundred printed pages which he intends not to have reprinted . He found that the improvisational method did not work well with Underwater in the 1990s ; after cancelling that series he turned to carefully scripting out his stories , beginning with Louis Riel .
= = = Influences = = =
When Brown started Ed , he was largely influenced by the comics he had grown up with , especially monster stories from Marvel Comics such as Werewolf by Night and Frankenstein 's Monster by artists such as Mike Ploog , and from DC Comics such as Swamp Thing by artists such as Bernie Wrightson and Jim Aparo .
Since graduating from high school , Brown had been inching towards underground comix , starting with the work of Richard Corben and especially Moebius in Heavy Metal , and eventually getting over his disgust over Robert Crumb 's sex @-@ laden comics to become a huge fan of the Zap and Weirdo artist . He says the book that finally pulled him over into the underground was The Apex Treasury of Underground Comics , which included Crumb as well as Art Spiegelman 's original short " Maus " story . He was also affected by Will Eisner 's graphic novel , A Contract with God . Brown had already been an Eisner fan , but this book was different , " something that wasn 't about a character with a mask on his face " . He started drawing in a more underground style , and submitting work to Raw , Last Gasp and Fantagraphics . The work was rejected from these publishers for one reason or another , and Brown was eventually convinced by his friend Kris Nakamura , who was active in the Toronto small press scene , to take it and self @-@ publish it . His minicomic , Yummy Fur , was the result , and included the earliest instalments of the Ed the Happy Clown story .
The book also drew inspiration from pulp science fiction , religious literature and television clichés . Harold Gray 's comic strip Little Orphan Annie had an effect on Brown after he discovered some Annie reprint books in the early 1980s . This was to be a primary influence on later work of Brown 's such as Louis Riel .
= = Publication = =
The story began in July 1983 in the second issue of Brown 's original Yummy Fur minicomic , the seven issues of which were reprinted in 1986 – 87 in the first three issues of the Vortex Comics @-@ published Yummy Fur . Ed ran in the first eighteen issues of Yummy Fur , along other features , such as Brown 's Gospel adaptations . Brown envisioned Ed as an ongoing character in the vein of Marvel and DC comic @-@ book characters . In the late 1980s he came to feel restricted by the character ; inspired by the revealing autobiographical work of Julie Doucet and Joe Matt and the simple cartooning of fellow Toronto cartoonist Seth , Brown turned to autobiography .
While Ed was the main feature of Yummy Fur until Brown switched to autobiographical comics in 1990 , it was juxtaposed against straight adaptations of the gospels of Mark and Matthew , which filled up the rest of the Yummy Fur issues starting with issue # 4 .
In 2004 Brown set to work on a revised Ed ; he pencilled a number of pages , but stopped when he came to believe the new version was no better than the original . Drawn and Quarterly — Brown 's publisher since 1991 — reissued the contents of the Definitive Ed collection in a nine issue series on smaller @-@ sized pages from 2005 to 2006 titled Ed the Happy Clown , with new covers , previously unpublished art and extensive commentary by Brown . The contents came mainly from issues two through twelve , and some from issue seventeen . About 80 pages — a third of the original Ed material — remains uncollected , including the entire 24 @-@ page ending that appeared in issue eighteen .
The first collection , Ed the Happy Clown : A Yummy Fur Book , appeared in 1989 from Vortex Comics before Brown decided to end the story . It collects the Ed stories up to the twelfth issue of Yummy Fur and includes a cartoon foreword scripted by Harvey Pekar and drawn by Brown . It was this edition that in 1990 won Brown one of his two Harvey Awards , for Best Graphic Album , and a UK Comic Art Award the same year for Best Graphic Novel / Collection .
The second edition came from Vortex in 1992 , after Brown had taken Yummy Fur to Drawn and Quarterly . Bill Marks had it labelled The Definitive Ed Book for marketing reasons . The edition reprinted what was in the first edition with an altered ending and some material from Yummy Fur # 17 , and excluded most of the material in the series from after Chet 's death .
In June 2012 , Drawn and Quarterly published a third edition , Ed the Happy Clown : A Graphic @-@ Novel , reprinting the contents of the Ed series of a few years earlier , including somewhat modified endnotes and annotations . It had a new introduction by Brown , replacing those by Pekar and Solomos in the previous editions . Compared to those editions , it was printed on higher @-@ quality paper with higher contrast in the printing , and the artwork was reduced in size . Brown subtitled the book with a hyphen : " graphic @-@ novel " . This reflects Brown 's distaste yet reluctant acceptance of the term , as its usage had by then become widespread . Brian Evenson sees this as a Brown @-@ like eccentricity and a gesture emphasizing the equal importance Brown places on both word and image . The book was a bestseller .
The 2012 edition also included a ten @-@ page story called " The Door " , which Brown redrew from an anonymous public domain story from a horror comic book . In the story , a couple go through a door in a funhouse which leads through a passage in which they get lost for years . Their clothes disintegrate over that time , exposing their genitals , until they finally come across another door — one that leads them to Hell . Brown wrote he found the original story truly horrifying , as the couple had done nothing apparent to deserve their fate . He had originally intended to incorporate it into the Ed story , but capriciously veered off in another narrative direction .
The artwork appeared at its largest in the Vortex Yummy Fur issues ; it was somewhat smaller in the minicomics and first two collected editions . The artwork was smallest in the 2012 Drawn and Quarterly edition , a size Brown considered ideal , stating , " The smaller the better , as long as the words are still legible . " The 2012 edition also had wider page margins and gutters between the images .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Ed was seen by many critics a high point of the early alternative comics scene in the 1980s , echoes of which can be seen in such later surrealistic graphics novels as Like a Velvet Glove Cast in Iron by Daniel Clowes and Black Hole by Charles Burns . The story won praise from The Comics Journal and mainstream publications such as The Village Voice and Rolling Stone , which placed Ed on an early @-@ 1990s " Hot " list . Time placed Ed at seventh on its list of " All Time Top Ten Graphic Novels " , while publisher and critic Kim Thompson placed Ed 27th on his top 100 comics of the 20th Century , and editor and critic Tom Spurgeon called Ed " one of the three best alt @-@ comix serials of all time " . The book appeared in Gene Kannenberg 's 500 Essential Graphic Novels ( 2008 ) .
Ed had a large impact on a number of Brown 's contemporaries , including fellow Canadians Dave Sim and Seth , the latter of whom was taken in by the ambitiousness of Brown 's storytelling , saying " Those brilliant sequences where he would show a situation and then return to it later from a different perspective , like the death of Josie , really blew me away " — and Dave Cooper , who called Ed " the most perfect book ever " . Others who cite Ed as an influence on their work include Daniel Clowes , Chris Ware , Craig Thompson , Matt Madden , Eric Reynolds and the Canadian cartoonists Alex Fellows , whose Canvas shows the influence of Ed , and Bryan Lee O 'Malley , who calls Brown " a Golden God " and whose Lost at Sea was heavily influenced by Ed . Anders Nilsen calls Ed " completely amazing and one of the best comics ever " , placing it in his top five comic books , and citing it as a major influence on his spontaneous Big Questions .
Critic Chris Lanier placed Ed in a tradition that included Like a Velvet Glove Cast in Iron , Max Andersson 's Pixy , and Eric Drooker 's Flood ! ; he wrote that symbols appear with such frequency and importance in these works as to suggest significance , while remaining symbolically empty . He finds predecessors for these works in German Dada and the Theatre of the Absurd . Reviewer Brad McKay found Ed " both hopeless and funny , a trick moviemakers like Tim Burton and Todd Solondz wish they could pull off more regularly " .
D. Aviva Rothschild likened the story to " staring at six @-@ day @-@ old roadkill " . Brown 's father was too offended to keep reading after the fifth minicomic issue , " Ed and the Beanstalk " .
In Yummy Fur # 4 , there was a scene in which a fictional " Saint Justin " masturbates after putting off his wife 's advances . In one panel " Saint Justin " had just ejaculated all over his hand , his penis in full view and his semen @-@ covered hand clearly visible behind it . Vortex publisher Bill Marks had the panel covered up with another illustration after discussing it with Brown . Brown agreed to this censorship , but was " annoyed " by it . Marks later called it a mistake that he would not make again , and when Brown included a scene in the following issue of the Ronald Reagan penishead vomiting Marks made no objection , and all future collections of Ed have the original uncensored panel . The censored portion of the panel was covered with a note delivered by a rabbit that Brown often used as a surrogate self ; the message read :
" Sorry folks but this picture of a penis ejaculating onto a hand has been censored . If any of you want to see this page as I originally drew it send me a self addressed envelope ( and an age statement ) care of Vortex Comics and I 'll send you a photocopy . "
Brown has said that perhaps 100 to 200 readers sent requests for the uncensored panel .
In stores , Yummy Fur was often wrapped in plastic with " adults only " labels on it . It is not known if Ed or Yummy Fur were banned from any stores , but Diamond , the largest American comics distributor , stopped carrying it for a time in 1988 . A publisher discovered that boxes of its feminist publication were lined with discarded pages of Yummy Fur , included pages in which Chet stabs Josie while having sex with her . The publisher lodged a complaint with the Ontario @-@ based printer , which informed Vortex it would no longer handle Yummy Fur . The third issue of the Drawn and Quarterly Ed series was seized at the Canadian border , but was later deemed admissible .
Critic R. Fiore initially found the 1992 ending disappointing , but changed his mind 2012 , saying the sad ending gave Ed " an emotional punch that it wouldn 't otherwise have " . Cartoonists such as Craig Thompson at first found the story off @-@ putting , but later came to admire it . Critic Douglas Wolk wrote that it is not surprising that Brown had not settled on one conclusion to the story , as that " would mean some kind of narrative closure " , while Ed 's premise is that " everything makes sense as a big picture eventually , but nothing can be relied on from moment to moment " .
In 2014 , Uncivilized Books published Ed Vs . Yummy Fur Brian Evenson . The book details the differences between the various versions of the Ed narrative .
= = = Awards = = =
= = Other media = =
Canadian filmmaker Bruce McDonald has had the rights since 1991 to adapt Ed to film , for which he has planned to use Yummy Fur as the title . Such a film could use stop @-@ motion animation , but the project has yet to get off the ground . At one point McDonald hoped to have Macaulay Culkin star as Ed , Rip Torn as Ronald Reagan and Drew Barrymore as Nancy Reagan . In 2000 , it was reported that the movie would have a budget of $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , but it was unable to get the financial backing . A script was written by Don McKellar , and later with John Frizzell .
The City of Toronto commissioned Brown to do as part of their Live with Culture campaign ; the strip in Now magazine for six weeks in 2007 . In one episode a zombie and his human girlfriend attend a screening of McDonald 's still @-@ unmade adaptation of Ed . The same year , McDonald placed Brown 's graphic novel in scenes in his film The Tracey Fragments .
= = = = Books = = = =
= = = = Journals and magazines = = = =
= = = = Other sources = = = =
|
= Lilioid monocots =
Lilioid monocots ( lilioids , liliid monocots , petaloid monocots , petaloid lilioid monocots ) is an informal name used for a grade ( grouping of taxa with common characteristics ) of five monocot orders ( Petrosaviales , Dioscoreales , Pandanales , Liliales and Asparagales ) in which the majority of species have flowers with relatively large , coloured tepals . This characteristic is similar to that found in lilies ( " lily @-@ like " ) . Petaloid monocots refers to the flowers having tepals which all resemble petals ( petaloid ) . The taxonomic terms Lilianae or Liliiflorae have also been applied to this assemblage at various times . From the early nineteenth century many of the species in this group of plants were put into a very broadly defined family , Liliaceae sensu lato or s.l. ( lily family ) . These classification systems are still found in many books and other sources . Within the monocots the Liliaceae s.l. were distinguished from the Glumaceae .
The development of molecular phylogenetics , cladistic theory and phylogenetic methods in the 1990s resulted in a dismemberment of the Liliaceae and its subsequent redistribution across three lilioid orders ( Liliales , Asparagales and Dioscoreales ) . Subsequent work has shown that two other more recently recognized orders , Petrosaviales and Pandanales also segregate with this group , resulting in the modern concept of five constituent orders within the lilioid monocot assemblage . This has resulted in treating monocots as three informal groups , alismatid , lilioid and commelinid monocots . The lilioids are paraphyletic in the sense that commelinids form a sister group to Asparagales .
= = Description = =
= = = True lilioids = = =
The descriptive term " petaloid lilioid monocot " relates to the conspicuous petal @-@ like ( petaloid ) tepals which superficially resemble true lilies ( Lilium ) . Morphologically , the petaloid or lilioid monocots can be considered to possess five groups ( pentacyclic ) of three @-@ fold ( trimerous ) whorls . Lilioid monocots all have flowers which can be considered to have been derived from a lily @-@ like flower with six relatively similar tepals , and six stamens . The typical lilioid gynoecium has three carpels fused into a superior trilocular ( three @-@ chambered ) superior ovary , axile placentation , a single hollow style , and several ovules with anatropous orientation in one or two rows per locule and nectaries at the base .
However , floral synapomorphy ( shared characteristics ) is rare since most conform to the general monocot pattern . This pattern is ancestral ( plesiomorphic ) for the lilioid monocots . Structural monosymmetry is rare , except for Orchidaceae .
Various trends are apparent among the lilioids , notably a change to an inferior ovary and a reduction of the number of stamens to three . In some groups ( such as the genus Trillium in the Liliaceae ) , the tepals have become clearly differentiated , so that the flower has three coloured petals and three smaller green sepals . Almost all lilioid monocots retain at least three petal @-@ like tepals . Since some commelinids ( e.g. Tradescantia ) have petaloid flowers , the term ' lilioid ' is a more accurate one for the group which excludes them , since the term petaloid monocot is still occasionally used in describing commelinids . The morphological concept of petaloid monocots has been equated with " animal @-@ attracting " ( that is , for pollination ) as opposed to wind @-@ pollinating plants ( such as grasses ) that have evolved very different floral structures . Pollen structure shows that of the two main tapetum types , secretory and plasmodial , the lilioid monocots are nearly all secretory .
= = = Comparison with other monocot orders = = =
In the orders that branched off before the lilioid monocots , the Acorales and Alismatales , flowers differ in several ways . In some cases , like Acorus ( Acorales ) , they have become insignificant . In others , like Butomus ( Alismatales ) , they have six coloured tepals , and so could be called ' petaloid ' , but stamens and carpels are more numerous than in the lilioid monocots .
The later evolved commelinids have various kinds of flower , few of which are ' lily @-@ like ' . In the order Poales , comprising grasses , rushes and sedges , flowers are either petal @-@ less or have small , unshowy petals . Many Zingiberales species have brightly coloured and showy flowers . However , their apparent structure is misleading . For example , the six tepals of cannas are small and hidden under expanded and brightly coloured stamens or staminodes which resemble petals and may be mistaken for them .
= = History = =
= = = Morphological definitions = = =
In one of the earliest monocot taxonomies , that of John Lindley ( 1830 ) , the grouping corresponding to the lilioid monocots was the " tribe " Petaloideae . In Lindley 's system the monocots consisted of two tribes , the Petaloideae , and the Glumaceae ( the grasses and sedges ) . Lindley divided the Petaloideae into 32 " orders " ( roughly corresponding to families ) and the Glumaceae into two further orders . Various successive taxonomies of the monocots also emphasized the grouping of species with petaloid ( undifferentiated ) perianths , such as Bentham and Hooker 's Coronarieæ and Hutchinson 's Corolliferae ( " Corolla bearing " ) ( 1936 ) . Hence the concept that there was a natural grouping of monocots whose flowers were predominantly petaloid , gave notion to the term " petaloid monocots " . The core group of petaloids were the Liliaceae , hence " lilioid monocots " .
The term " lilioid monocot " or lilioid " has had widely varying interpretations . One of the narrower applications is " lily @-@ like " monocots , meaning the two orders Asparagales and Liliales , but the term has also been applied to Takhtajan 's superorder Lilianae , the whole of Liliales , or restricted to Cronquist 's broadly defined Liliaceae . Although " petaloid " and " lilioid " have often been used interchangeably , as Heywood points out , some usages of " petaloid monocot " , particularly in horticulture , are so broad as to be almost meaningless in that it had been used to refer to all species with conspicuous petals or perianth segments ( tepals ) , which would cover a broad swathe of families ( he estimated three dozen across many orders ) . Other authors have defined it equally broadly as " having two whorls of tepals ( sepals and petals ) that are petal @-@ like " .
As Kron and Chase stated in 1995 , this taxonomic unit had been in a considerable state of flux , with significant variation between the systems of Cronquist ( 1981 ) , Thorne ( 1983 , 1992 ) , and Dahlgren ( 1985 ) . When classification systems were based on morphological characters alone , lilioid species which clearly departed from the " lily " pattern were easily placed into separate families . For example , the Amaryllidaceae contained species whose flowers had six stamens and an inferior ovary . The Iridaceae contained those with three stamens and an inferior ovary . The remaining taxa were put together in a very broadly defined Liliaceae , usually refereed to as Liliaceae sensu lato ( s.l. ) . The Cronquist system 's definition , for example , is the broadest of all . Rolf Dahlgren and colleagues were responsible for one of the most radical reorganisation of families , and in their 1985 monocot monograph defined the two orders ( Asparagales and Liliales ) which contain the bulk of monocot geophytes , as constituting the lilioid monocots .
The development of DNA sequencing and the use of genetic data in determining relationships between species of monocots confirmed what many taxonomists had long suspected : Liliaceae s.l. was highly polyphyletic . The family was demonstrated to include a significant number of unrelated groups , which belonged to quite separate families and even orders . For instance some genera such as Hyacinthus , previously placed in Liliaceae s.l. , were reclassified in families within Asparagales ( in this case Asparagaceae ) . In 1995 Chase et al. reviewed the understanding of the lilioids and equated them to Dahlgreen 's Liliiflorae , which they designated as superorder Lilianae . They pointed out that the understanding of the phylogenetics of this group was critical for the establishment of a monocot classification . They also noted that while many authors treated this group as monophyletic ( having a common ancestor ) , a closer reading of their texts revealed evidence of paraphyly ( excluding some descendants of a common ancestor ) . For instance , Dahlgren had based monophyly on a single synapomorphy , that of a petaloid perianth , yet in discussing his Lilliflorae admitted it was undoubtedly paraphyletic . Dahlgren treated the monocots as split between ten superorders and placed five orders ( Dioscoreales , Asparagales , Liliales , Melanthiales , Burmanniales and Orchidales ) in his Liliiflorae .
= = = Phylogenetic era = = =
In the 1995 study by Chase et al. referred to above , which was the largest yet to use purely molecular data , the results demonstrated paraphyly of the lilioids . However , because their data contradicted purely morphological phylogenies they were reluctant to draw definite conclusions as to the monophyly of this group . They identified four major clades of monocots . They named these alismatids , aroids , stemonoids and dioscoreoids , in addition to Acorus , and a core group of Asparagales , Liliales and commelinoids . They based the names of these groups on the closest corresponding superorders and orders of Dahlgren , with the exception of stemonoids ( based on Stemonaceae for which there was no obvious equivalent ) .
There was no clear clade corresponding to Dahlgren 's Liliiflorae , whose families were distributed amongst the aroids and dioscoreoids . Of Dahlgren 's Liliiflorae , the Dioscoreales largely grouped into dioscoreoids , with the exception of Stemonaceae . The Asparagales formed two major groupings , which they labelled " higher " and " lower asparagoids " , and included both the Iridaceae and Orchidaceae from Dahlgren 's Liliales . On the other hand , a number of families from three other orders ( Asparagales , Dioscoreales , Melanthiales ) segregated together with the remaining Liliales families . Genera from Dahlgren 's Melanthiales were found in both dioscoreoids and the redefined Liliales . Finally Dahlgren 's Burmanniales were found to belong with the dioscoreoids . Some Asparagales taxa were also found amongst the commelinoids . The stemonoids were formed from Stemonaceae and other families from a variety of orders , including Pandanaceae ( which alone formed Dahlgren 's Pandaniflorae ) .
In an attempt to resolve the apparent differences between morphological and molecularly defined trees , a combined analysis was undertaken which confirmed superorder Liliiflorae as monophyletic , provided that a few modifications were undertaken . These included the removal of two tribes of Melanthiaceae ( Melanthiales ) and the inclusion of three additional families ( Cyclanthaceae , Pandanaceae and Velloziaceae ) from other superorders . This newly and more narrowly redefined Lilianae / Liliiflorae contained three orders , Aparagales , Liliales and Dioscoreales ( which now included the stemonoids ) . This analysis also allowed for the establishment of a single synapomorphy , although this time by the presence of an inferior ovary . Significantly , the authors noted that it was no wonder the authors of angiosperm classifications had been exasperated by the Lilianae .
= = = Angiosperm Phylogeny Group = = =
These findings , presented at the first Monocot Conference in 1993 , with the addition of several studies that had become available in the interim , formed the basis of the 1998 consensus Angiosperm Phylogeny Group ( APG ) ordinal scheme . Among other things , the Alismatales were expanded and new orders such as Acorales ( a placement for Acorus ) and Pandanales ( which now represented the stemonoids as well as new families ) added . While not formally assigning any supraordinal ranks , the classification did recognize an informal grouping of monocot orders as the commelinoids . Otherwise the APG recognized only six monocot orders ( Acorales , Alismatales , Asparagales , Dioscoreales , Liliales and Pandanales ) . The last four were however grouped together in the resulting cladogram and most closely represent the concept of lilioids , although this left some unplaced monocot families , including Corsiaceae and Petrosaviaceae .
Simultaneous with the release of the 1998 APG classification were two events : the publication of Kubitzki 's major monograph on the monocots and the Second Monocot Conference . Kubitzki defined superorder Lilianae as all monocots except superorders Commelinae , Alismatanae and the Acoraceae , that is the four orders Asparagales , Liliales , Dioscoreales and Pandanales . The Monocot Conference devoted an entire section to Systematics of the Lilioids and included an update of their previous research by Chase and colleagues . On this occasion the latter felt that there was now enough data to put forward a definitive classification , defining the Lilioids as comprising the four orders placed in Lilianae by Kubitzki . Rudall and colleagues ( 2002 ) followed Chase ( 2000 ) , in using the term " lilioid monocots " and again noting unresolved polytomy between these four orders and the remaining monocot clades ( commelinids and Petrosaviaceae ) , although at that time the Petrosaviaceae were still unplaced .
There was now enough new data to justify revising the APG system , and a new classification was issued in 2003 . Although this resulted in changes within the orders , it did not affect the relationship between them . Lilioid monocots were discussed but not formally recognized ( commelinids , renamed from commelinoids , being the only supraordinal grouping in the monocots to be named ) and Petrosaviaceae remained unplaced . The second version of the APG coincided with the third Monocot Conference ( 2003 ) , the findings from which , using additional molecular markers , helped to resolve some of the remaining questions regarding relationships within this assemblage . Petrosaviaceae was shown to be included in what Chase refers to as " liliids " and placed in order Petrosaviales , while Dioscoreales and Pandanales were demonstrated to be sister clades . Rapid advances in understanding monocot relationships necessitated the release of another revision of the APG classification ( 2009 ) , which incorporated these advances . Further definition of the relationships between lineages using multiple markers is continuing .
Textbooks and other sources produced in the last century are inevitably based on older classifications . Publications using versions of the APG system are now appearing and the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families from the Royal Botanic Gardens , Kew now uses the APG III system , as does the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website and hence the classification of the lilioid monocots shown in the cladogram below . The Kew botanists treat the monocots as falling into three major groupings : alismatid monocots ( Acorales , Alismatales ) , lilioid monocots ( the five other non @-@ commelinid monocots ) and commelinid monocots . They also organize their monocot research into two teams I : Alismatids and Lilioids and II : Commelinids . A similar approach is taken by Judd in his Plant systematics .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
The cladogram shown below displays the orders of Lilianae sensu Chase & Reveal ( monocots ) based on molecular phylogenetic evidence . Lilioid monocot orders are bracketed , namely Petrosaviales , Dioscoreales , Pandanales , Liliales and Asparagales . These constitute a paraphyletic assemblage , that is groups with a common ancestor that do not include all direct descendants ( in this case commelinids which are a sister group to Asparagales ) ; to form a clade , all the groups joined by thick lines would need to be included . While Acorales and Alismatales have been collectively referred to as " alismatid monocots " , the remaining clades ( lilioid and commelinid monocots ) have been referred to as the " core monocots " . The relationship between the orders ( with the exception of the two sister orders ) is pectinate , that is diverging in succession from the line that leads to the commelinids . Numbers indicate crown group ( most recent common ancestor of the sampled species of the clade of interest ) divergence times in mya ( million years ago ) .
While this is the most commonly understood relationship , Davis et al . ( 2013 ) using a combination of plastid genomes have suggested that if Asparagales is treated sensu stricto by excluding its largest and most atypical family , Orchidaceae then Aparagales sensu APG may not be monophyletic and that Orchidaceae and Liliales may be sister groups , and in turn are the sister of Asparagales . However , their data produced conflicting models . Zeng et al . ( 2014 ) using nuclear genes also found evidence for a sister relationship between Asparagales and Liliales . Although divergence time estimates within the lilioids have varied considerably , they were also able to obtain molecular clock estimates for the origin of the lilioids at approximately 125 mya ( Cretaceous period ) . On the other hand , a large data set using a combined analysis of nuclear , mitochondrial and plastid genes together with nuclear phytochrome C was in agreement with the earlier APG relationships .
= = Subdivision = =
Five orders make up the lilioid monocots .
Petrosaviales Takht . ( 1997 )
Dioscoreales R.Br. ( 1835 )
Pandanales R.Br. ex Bercht . & J.Presl ( 1820 )
Liliales Perleb ( 1826 )
Asparagales Link 1829
|
= Nunney Castle =
Nunney Castle is a medieval castle at Nunney in the English county of Somerset . Built in the late 14th century by Sir John Delamare on the profits of his involvement in the Hundred Years War , the moated castle 's architectural style , possibly influenced by the design of French castles , has provoked considerable academic debate . Remodelled during the late 16th century , Nunney Castle was damaged during the English Civil War and is now ruined . English Heritage maintain the site as a tourist attraction . The architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner has described Nunney as " aesthetically the most impressive castle in Somerset . "
= = History = =
= = = 14th century = = =
Nunney Castle was built near the village of Nunney in Somerset by Sir John Delamare . Delamare had been a soldier during the Hundred Years War with France , where he had made his fortune . He obtained a licence to crenellate from Edward III to build a castle on the site of his existing , unfortified manor house in 1373 and set about developing a new , substantial fortification .
The resulting castle centred on a stone tower @-@ keep , measuring 60 feet by 24 feet ( 18 m by 7 m ) internally and 54 feet ( 16 m ) tall , with four round corner @-@ towers . The tower @-@ keep had eight @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) thick walls made from Lias Oolite ashlar stone and was designed around three floors . The corner towers had conical roofs and prominent machicolations . The ground floor of the tower @-@ house included the kitchen and other service areas . The functions of the first and second floors are uncertain ; one theory is that the first floor was another service area , with the hall on the second floor ; another approach argues that the first floor formed the hall , and the second floor living accommodation ; a minority view proposes that the first floor was an armoury . The third floor was used as living accommodation for the owning family . The original design had a number of windows and fireplaces on the upper floors , but the hall would have been relatively dark and the stairs were inconveniently narrow .
The tower @-@ keep had a modest entrance , which was reached by a draw @-@ bridge that lay across the surrounding moat , which initially reached right up to the base of the castle . A simple , 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 6 m ) high bailey wall , with minimal defensive value , surrounded the moat , which was in contrast wide , 10 @-@ foot ( 3 m ) deep , and would have been difficult for an attacker to drain . On the east side of the castle Nunney Brook was used as a line of defence rather than a bailey wall .
Historians , such as Adrian Pettifer and Stuart Rigold , previously believed that the design of Nunney was heavily influenced by the French castle designs that Delamare would have seen on his military campaigns . Nunney closely resembles the Bastille in Paris , for example , and the machicolations are typical of those found in French castles . Nunney was considered a conservative , even slightly backward design and probably built to protect against French invasion . Historians such as Robert Liddiard and Matthew Johnson are now less certain . Nunney is regarded as a bold , striking design , similar in many ways to those at Herstmonceux or Saltwood Castle . Whilst Nunney does resemble many French castles , there is no direct evidence that it was built in imitation of these designs , and indeed there are other English castles , such as Mulgrave and Dudley , that have a similar structure to Nunney 's . Nunney Castle may be better understood instead as characteristic of a wider range of tower @-@ keeps built in England during the period , designed , as Nigel Pounds puts it , " to allow very rich men to live in luxury and splendour . "
= = = 15th - 16th centuries = = =
Nunney Castle was inherited by John 's son , Philip Delamere , and grandson , Elias , before passing by marriage into the Poulet family following Elias ' probable death during Henry V 's campaigns in France . Sir John Poulet and his son John , and grandson , also called John , held the castle during most of the 15th century , but their primary residence was Basing Castle in Hampshire rather than Nunney . William Paulet , the Marquess of Winchester , was the final member of the family to own the castle ; after his death in 1572 it passed rapidly through several owners and in 1577 was sold by Swithun Thorpe to John Parker , who only kept it for a year before selling it to Richard Prater , at a cost of £ 2 @,@ 000 . The castle was redeveloped in the second half of the 16th century , probably by the Praters : the windows were enlarged to let in more light ; a grand staircase was built in one of the towers ; a Catholic altar was installed , and a revetment , or terrace , was built around the inside of the moat , leaving it 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wide .
= = = 17th - 19th centuries = = =
Nunney Castle continued to be owned by the Roman Catholic Prater family into the 17th century . In 1642 the English Civil War broke out between the rival factions of Parliament and the king ; like many Catholics , Colonel Richard Prater supported Charles I. As the war progressed the Royalist situation deteriorated , however , and the south @-@ west became one of the few remaining Royalist strongholds ; Nunney Castle was garrisoned in anticipation of Parliamentary attack and took in a number of refugees , including many Catholics . In September 1645 a Parliamentary army under the command of Lord Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell advanced into Somerset , taking Sherborne , Cary and Shepton Mallet before turning to Nunney . Two regiments of soldiers with cannons surrounded the castle on 18 September ; when Richard Prater refused to surrender , the cannons opened fire on the north side of the castle , breaching the castle wall . Richard continued to resist , hoisting a flag with a Catholic crucifix on it above the castle to taunt the besiegers , but two days later the garrison surrendered .
Due to the damage caused by the cannon , the castle escaped the slighting , or deliberate damaging , that occurred to many other castles at the end of the civil war . Nonetheless , Richard Prater was forbidden to return to the castle , despite his promises to support Parliament , and his son , George Prater , only recovered Nunney from its interim owners after Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 . The castle declined and was sold by the Praters to William Whitchurch around 1700 . During the 18th century the building was still in a reasonable condition and in 1789 an order was received make it ready to receive French prisoners , although it is unlikely they ever arrived .
= = = 20th - 21st centuries = = =
By the 20th century , Nunney Castle was increasingly ruined and covered in thick ivy . As a result , on 25 December 1910 a portion of the damaged north wall entirely collapsed — most of the fallen stone was stolen by local people . In 1926 , with the fabric of the castle under threat , the owner , Robert Bailey @-@ Neale , transferred the property to the Commissioner of Works , who began a programme of restoration work . The castle is now run by English Heritage as a tourist attraction and is a scheduled monument . The architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner has described the castle as " aesthetically the most impressive castle in Somerset . "
|
= John Newham =
Air Marshal John William " Jake " Newham , AC ( born 30 November 1930 ) is a retired senior commander of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . He served as Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) from 1985 until 1987 . Joining the RAAF in 1951 , he flew Gloster Meteor jets with No. 77 Squadron in the Korean War in 1953 , and subsequently de Havilland Vampires with No. 78 Wing on garrison duty in Malta . From 1958 to 1960 , he served with No. 3 Squadron , operating CAC Sabres during the Malayan Emergency . He took charge of No. 3 Squadron in 1967 , when it re @-@ equipped with the Dassault Mirage III supersonic fighter . His commands in the early 1970s included the Aircraft Research and Development Unit , RAAF Base Laverton , and No. 82 Wing , the last @-@ mentioned during its first years operating the long @-@ delayed General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber . He was appointed Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in March 1984 , and CAS in May the following year . His tenure as CAS coincided with the release of the Dibb Report on Australia 's defence capabilities , and the controversial transfer of the RAAF 's battlefield helicopters to the Australian Army . Newham retired from the Air Force in July 1987 and became a company director .
= = Early career = =
John William Newham , known as " Jake " , was born in Cowra , New South Wales , and educated at Cowra High School . After matriculating , he worked as a clerk in the Commonwealth Bank , and joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in February 1951 . He underwent flying training at RAAF Base Point Cook , Victoria , and graduated as a sergeant pilot in July 1952 . Following fighter training , he saw operational service in the Korean War , flying Gloster Meteor jets with No. 77 Squadron from February to September 1953 . He later recalled that his first sortie was as wingman to a Royal Air Force flight lieutenant : " We flew up past P 'yongyang and he showed me enemy gun locations by arranging for them to shoot at us " .
Having been commissioned as a pilot officer midway through his Korean service , Newham 's next posting was with No. 78 ( Fighter ) Wing on Malta , where he flew de Havilland Vampires until 1955 . The wing had been on garrison duty in Malta since July 1952 , and Newham was one of five Korean War veterans who replaced pilots posted back to Australia . He married Jo Cranston in 1956 ; the couple had two daughters and a son . By November 1957 , Newham had been promoted to flight lieutenant and was undergoing conversion training on the CAC Sabre . From 1958 to 1960 he served in Malaya with No. 3 Squadron , whose Sabres conducted operations against communist guerrillas in the final years of the Malayan Emergency .
= = Rise to senior command = =
Newham attended RAAF Staff College , Canberra , from January to December 1964 . He then served as Chief Flying Instructor at No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales , taking temporary command of the unit as a squadron leader from July 1965 to April 1966 . That August , he commenced conversion training on the Dassault Mirage III supersonic jet fighter . Promoted to wing commander , from July 1967 to October 1968 he led No. 3 Squadron at Williamtown as it re @-@ equipped with the Mirage . In 1971 , Newham was appointed commanding officer of the Aircraft Research and Development Unit . The following year he became Officer Commanding RAAF Base Laverton , Victoria .
By now a group captain , Newham was appointed Officer Commanding No. 82 Wing at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , in 1973 . He formed the RAAF Washington Flying Unit at McClellan Air Force Base , California , on 31 March to ferry the first twelve ( out of a total order of twenty @-@ four ) General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bombers to Australia . On 1 June , Newham led the first three F @-@ 111s in to land at Amberley , a gala occasion attended by the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Defence , Lance Barnard , the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal Charles Read , the Air Officer Commanding Operational Command , Air Vice Marshal Brian Eaton , and a large media contingent . Newham later recalled that " our air force cred went up in the area and in the world with that aeroplane " . Read ordered Newham to operate the F @-@ 111 with great caution initially , well within limits , lest the long @-@ delayed and controversial aircraft suffer greater damage to its reputation through early attrition . Despite Newham 's protests over the plane 's capabilities , the restrictions remained in place until 1975 . That year he was appointed Staff Officer Operations at Headquarters Operational Command ( OPCOM ) .
= = Senior command and later life = =
Newham was promoted air commodore in 1976 and became Senior Air Staff Officer at OPCOM , serving through the following year . In 1978 he attended the Royal College of Defence Studies , London , and was made Director General of Operational Requirements in 1979 . In this capacity he visited Israel to investigate air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling operations , coming away favourably impressed : " the Israelis had more match practice than anybody around at the time . The experience gave me confidence in operational judgments . " He was promoted air vice marshal and appointed Chief of Air Force Operations in March 1980 , effective from April , and served on the Chief of the Air Staff Advisory Committee . In 1982 he was posted to the United States as the Head of Australian Defence Staff in Washington , D.C. Returning to Australia , Newham became Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in March 1984 . He was appointed an Officer of the Order of Australia on 11 June for services to the RAAF .
Promoted to air marshal , Newham became Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) on 21 May 1985 , succeeding Air Marshal David Evans . Newham initially endorsed the Federal government 's 1986 Review of Australia 's Defence Capabilities , otherwise known as the Dibb Report , but shortly afterwards publicly criticised its " understanding of the application of air power " and " debatable judgments " , especially its lukewarm attitude to the employment of the F @-@ 111s for strategic strike . At a conference the same year , he reiterated the RAAF 's position that " defensive action may prevent defeat , but wars can be won only by offensive action " . On 9 June , he was raised to Companion of the Order of Australia for service to the RAAF , " particularly as Chief of the Air Staff " . Newham 's term as CAS was also marked by the Federal government 's decision to transfer the RAAF 's battlefield helicopters to the Australian Army , against the recommendation of an independent committee . According to Air Force historians Alan Stephens and Keith Isaacs , " Newham protected the best interests of the Australian Defence Force by getting on with the business of effecting the transfer , notwithstanding the deep disappointment within his own service . In February 1987 , OPCOM ( subsequently Air Command ) was restructured into Force Element Groups ( FEGs ) , large functional organisations that supplanted the earlier concept of all @-@ powerful air base commands , to which every unit on a base reported . Initially established on a one @-@ year trial basis , the FEGs have remained in place .
Newham completed his tenure as CAS on 3 July 1987 and was succeeded by Air Marshal Ray Funnell . Retiring from the Air Force , he became Director of Helitech Industries . On 23 July 1998 , he was among those present when the Korean Ambassador to Australia awarded his government 's Presidential Unit Citation to No. 77 Squadron . Newham was one of ten surviving veterans of the squadron belatedly presented with the US Air Medal in Canberra on 27 June 2011 , for meritorious service in the Korean War .
|
= Parasaurolophus =
Parasaurolophus ( / ˌpærəsɔːˈrɒləfəs / PARR @-@ ə @-@ saw @-@ ROL @-@ ə @-@ fəs or / ˌpærəˌsɔːrəˈloʊfəs / PARR @-@ ə- SAWR @-@ ə @-@ LOH @-@ fəs ; meaning " near crested lizard " in reference to Saurolophus ) is a genus of ornithopod dinosaur that lived in what is now North America during the Late Cretaceous Period , about 76 @.@ 5 – 74 @.@ 5 million years ago . It was a herbivore that walked both as a biped and a quadruped . Three species are recognized : P. walkeri ( the type species ) , P. tubicen , and the short @-@ crested P. cyrtocristatus . Remains are known from Alberta ( Canada ) , and New Mexico and Utah ( USA ) . The genus was first described in 1922 by William Parks from a skull and partial skeleton found in Alberta .
Parasaurolophus was a hadrosaurid , part of a diverse family of Cretaceous dinosaurs known for their range of bizarre head adornments . This genus is known for its large , elaborate cranial crest , which at its largest forms a long curved tube projecting upwards and back from the skull . Charonosaurus from China , which may have been its closest relative , had a similar skull and potentially a similar crest . Visual recognition of both species and sex , acoustic resonance , and thermoregulation have been proposed as functional explanations for the crest . It is one of the rarer hadrosaurids , known from only a handful of good specimens .
= = Description = =
Like most dinosaurs , the skeleton of Parasaurolophus is incompletely known . The length of the type specimen of P. walkeri is estimated at 9 @.@ 5 m ( 31 ft ) , and its weight is estimated at 2 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 2 @.@ 8 short tons ) . Its skull is about 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 ft 3 in ) long , including the crest , whereas the type skull of P. tubicen is over 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) long , indicating a larger animal . Its single known forelimb was relatively short for a hadrosaurid , with a short but wide shoulder blade . The thighbone measures 103 cm ( 41 in ) long in P. walkeri and is robust for its length when compared to other hadrosaurids . The upper arm and pelvic bones were also heavily built .
Like other hadrosaurids , it was able to walk on either two legs or four . It probably preferred to forage for food on four legs , but ran on two . The neural spines of the vertebrae were tall , as was common in lambeosaurines ; tallest over the hips , they increased the height of the back . Skin impressions are known for P. walkeri , showing uniform tubercle @-@ like scales but no larger structures .
= = = Skull = = =
The most noticeable feature was the cranial crest , which protruded from the rear of the head and was made up of the premaxilla and nasal bones . William Parks , who named the genus , hypothesized that a ligament ran from the crest to the notch to support the head , and cited the presence of possibly pathological notch as evidence . Although this idea seems unlikely , Parasaurolophus is sometimes restored with a skin flap from the crest to the neck . The crest was hollow , with distinct tubes leading from each nostril to the end of the crest before reversing direction and heading back down the crest and into the skull . The tubes were simplest in P. walkeri , and more complex in P. tubicen , where some tubes were blind and others met and separated . While P. walkeri and P. tubicen had long crests with only slight curvature , P. cyrtocristatus had a short crest with a more circular profile .
= = Classification = =
As its name implies , Parasaurolophus was initially thought to be closely related to Saurolophus because of its superficially similar crest . However , it was soon reassessed as a member of the lambeosaurine subfamily of hadrosaurids — Saurolophus is an hadrosaurine . It is usually interpreted as a separate offshoot of the lambeosaurines , distinct from the helmet @-@ crested Corythosaurus , Hypacrosaurus , and Lambeosaurus . Its closest known relative appears to be Charonosaurus , a lambeosaurine with a similar skull ( but no complete crest yet ) from the Amur region of northeastern China , and the two may form a clade Parasaurolophini . P. cyrtocristatus , with its short , rounder crest , may be the most basal of the three known Parasaurolophus species , or it may represent subadult or female specimens of P. tubicen .
The following cladogram is after the 2007 redescription of Lambeosaurus magnicristatus ( Evans and Reisz , 2007 ) :
= = Discovery and naming = =
Meaning " near crested lizard " , the name Parasaurolophus is derived from the Greek para / παρα " beside " or " near " , saurus / σαυρος " lizard " and lophos / λοφος " crest " . It is based on ROM 768 , a skull and partial skeleton missing most of the tail and the hind legs below the knees , which was found by a field party from the University of Toronto in 1920 near Sand Creek along the Red Deer River in Alberta , Canada . These rocks are now known as the Campanian @-@ age Upper Cretaceous Dinosaur Park Formation . William Parks named the specimen P. walkeri in honor of Sir Byron Edmund Walker , Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Royal Ontario Museum . Parasaurolophus remains are rare in Alberta , with only one other partial skull from ( probably ) the Dinosaur Park Formation , and three Dinosaur Park specimens lacking skulls , possibly belonging to the genus . In some faunal lists , there is a mention of possible P. walkeri material in the Hell Creek Formation of Montana , a rock unit of late Maastrichtian age . This occurrence is not noted by Sullivan and Williamson in their 1999 review of the genus , and has not been further elaborated upon elsewhere . It is possible that the fossil specimen could be an undescribed lambeosaurine .
In 1921 , Charles H. Sternberg recovered a partial skull ( PMU.R1250 ) from what is now known as the slightly younger Kirtland Formation in San Juan County , New Mexico . This specimen was sent to Uppsala , Sweden , where Carl Wiman described it as a second species , P. tubicen , in 1931 . The specific epithet is derived from the Latin tǔbǐcěn " trumpeter " . A second , nearly complete P. tubicen skull ( NMMNH P @-@ 25100 ) was found in New Mexico in 1995 . Using computed tomography of this skull , Robert Sullivan and Thomas Williamson gave the genus a monographic treatment in 1999 , covering aspects of its anatomy and taxonomy , and the functions of its crest . Williamson later published an independent review of the remains , disagreeing with the taxonomic conclusions .
John Ostrom described another good specimen ( FMNH P27393 ) from New Mexico as P. cyrtocristatus in 1961 . It includes a partial skull with a short , rounded crest , and much of the postcranial skeleton except for the feet , neck , and parts of the tail . Its specific name is derived from the Latin curtus " shortened " and cristatus " crested " . The specimen was found in either the top of the Fruitland Formation or , more likely , the base of the overlying Kirtland Formation . The range of this species was expanded in 1979 , when David B. Weishampel and James A. Jensen described a partial skull with a similar crest ( BYU 2467 ) from the Campanian @-@ age Kaiparowits Formation of Garfield County , Utah . Since then , another skull has been found in Utah with the short / round P. cyrtocristatus crest morphology .
= = = Species = = =
Parasaurolophus is known from three certain species , P. walkeri , P. tubicen , and P. cyrtocristatus . All of them can be distinguished from each other , and have many differences . The first named species , therefore the type , is P. walkeri . One certain specimen , from the Dinosaur Park Formation is referred to it , but many more are almost certainly referable . Like stated above , it is different from the other two species , with it having a simpler internal structure than P. tubicen , a straighter crest and different internal structuring than P. cyrtocristatus .
The next named species is P. tubicen , which is the largest of the Parasaurolophus species . It lived in New Mexico , where three specimens are known , and can be differentiated from its other species . It possesses a long and straight crest , with a very complex interior compared to the other species . All known specimens of P. tubicen come from the De @-@ Na @-@ Zin Member of the Kirtland Formation .
In 1961 , the third species , P. cyrtocristatus was named by John Ostrom . Its three known specimens , have been found in the Fruitland and Kaiparowits formations from Utah and New Mexico . The second specimen , the first known from the Kaiparowits Formation , was originally unassigned to a specific taxon . Of the Parasaurolophus species , P. cyrtocristatus it is the smallest , and has the most curved crest . Because of its possession of the two above features , it has often been speculated that it was a female of P. walkeri or P. tubicen , which were males , although P. tubicen lived approximately a million years later . As noted by Thomas Williamson , the type material of P. cyrtocristatus is about 72 % the size of P. tubicen , close to the size at which other lambeosaurines are interpreted to begin showing definitive sexual dimorphism in their crests ( ~ 70 % of adult size ) . Even though many scientists have supported the possible fact of P. cyrtocristatus being a female , many other studies have found that it is not , because of the differences in age , distribution , and the large differences in the crest and its internal structure .
A study published in PLoS ONE in 2014 found that one more species could be referred to Parasaurolophus . This study , led by Xing , found Charonosaurus jiayensis was actually nested deeply inside Parasaurolophus , which created the new species P. jiayensis . If this species is indeed inside Parasaurolophus , then the genus lasted until the K @-@ Pg extinction , and is known from two continents .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
As a hadrosaurid , Parasaurolophus was a large bipedal / quadrupedal herbivore , eating plants with a sophisticated skull that permitted a grinding motion analogous to chewing . Its teeth were continually being replaced ; they were packed into dental batteries containing hundreds of teeth , only a relative handful of which were in use at any time . It used its beak to crop plant material , which was held in the jaws by a cheek @-@ like organ . Vegetation could have been taken from the ground up to a height of around 4 m ( 13 ft ) . As noted by Bob Bakker , lambeosaurines have narrower beaks than hadrosaurines , implying that Parasaurolophus and its relatives could feed more selectively than their broad @-@ beaked , crestless counterparts .
= = = Growth = = =
Parasaurolophus is known from many adult specimens , and a juvenile described in 2013 . The juvenile was discovered in the Kaiparowits Formation in 2009 . Excavated by the joint expedition by The Webb Schools and Raymond M. Alf Museum of Paleontology ( RAM ) , the juvenile has been identified as around only one year old when it died . Referred to Parasaurolophus sp . , the juvenile , under specimen number RAM 14000 , is the most complete , as well as youngest Parasaurolophus ever found , and measures 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) . This individual fits neatly into the currently known Parasaurolophus growth stages , and lived approximately 75 million years ago . Even though no complete skull of the intermediate age between RAM 14000 and adult Parasaurolophus has been found yet , a partial braincase of about the right size is known . At 25 % of the total adult size , the juvenile show that crest growth of Parasaurolophus began sooner than in related genera , such as Corythosaurus . It has been suggested that Parasaurolophus adults bore such large crests , especially when compared to the related Corythosaurus , because of this difference in age between when their crests started developing . Its age also means that Parasaurolophus had an very fast growth , which took place in about a year . The crest of the juvenile is not long and tubular like the adults , but low and hemispherical .
The skull of RAM 14000 is almost complete , with the left side only lacking a piece of the maxilla . However , the skull was split down the middle by erosion , possibly when it was resting on the bottom of a river bed . The two sides are displaced slightly , with some bones of the right being moved off the main block , also by erosion . After reconstruction , the skull viewed from the side resembles other juvenile lambeosaurines found , being roughly a trapezoid in shape .
A partial cranial endocast for RAM 14000 was reconstructed from CT scan data , the first ever for a Parasaurolophus of any ontogenetic stage . The endocast was reconstructed in two sections , one on the portion of the braincase articulated with the left half of the skull and the remainder on the disarticulated portion of the braincase . Their relative position was then approximated based on cranial landmarks and comparison with other hadrosaurids . Because of weathering , many of the smaller neural canals and foramina could not be identified for certain .
= = = Cranial crest = = =
Many hypotheses have been advanced as to what functions the cranial crest of Parasaurolophus performed , but most have been discredited . It is now believed that it may have had several functions : visual display for identifying species and sex , sound amplification for communication , and thermoregulation . It is not clear which was most significant at what times in the evolution of the crest and its internal nasal passages .
= = = = Differences in crests = = = =
As for other lambeosaurines , it is believed that the cranial crest of Parasaurolophus changed with age and was a sexually dimorphic characteristic in adults . James Hopson , one of the first researchers to describe lambeosaurine crests in terms of such distinctions , suggested that P. cyrtocristatus , with its small crest , was the female form of P. tubicen . Thomas Williamson suggested it was the juvenile form . Neither hypothesis became widely accepted . As only six good skulls , one juvenile braincase , and one recently discovered juvenile skull are known , additional material will help clear up these potential relationships . Williamson noted that in any case , juvenile Parasaurolophus probably had small , rounded crests like P. cyrtocristatus , that probably grew faster as individuals approached sexual maturity . Recent restudy of a juvenile braincase previously assigned to Lambeosaurus , now assigned to Parasaurolophus , provides evidence that a small tubular crest was present in juveniles . This specimen preserves a small upward flaring of the frontal bones that was similar to but smaller than what is seen in adult specimens ; in adults , the frontals formed a platform that supported the base of the crest . This specimen also indicates that the growth of the crest in Parasaurolophus and the facial profile of juvenile individuals differed from the Corythosaurus @-@ Hypacrosaurus @-@ Lambeosaurus model , in part because the crest of Parasaurolophus lacks the thin bony ' coxcomb ' that makes up the upper portion of the crest of the other three lambeosaurines .
= = = = Rejected function hypotheses = = = =
Many early suggestions focused on adaptations for an aquatic lifestyle , following the hypothesis that hadrosaurids were amphibious , a common line of thought until the 1960s . Thus , Alfred Sherwood Romer proposed it served as a snorkel , Martin Wilfarth that it was an attachment for a mobile proboscis used as a breathing tube or for food gathering , Charles M. Sternberg that it served as an airtrap to keep water out of the lungs , and Ned Colbert that it served as an air reservoir for prolonged stays underwater .
Other proposals were more physical in nature . As mentioned above , William Parks suggested that it was joined to the vertebrae with ligaments or muscles , and helped with moving and supporting the head . Othenio Abel proposed it was used as a weapon in combat among members of the same species , and Andrew Milner suggested that it could be used as a foliage deflector , like the helmet crest ( called a ' casque ' ) of the cassowary . Still other proposals made housing specialized organs the major function . Halszka Osmólska suggested that it housed salt glands , and John Ostrom suggested that it housed expanded areas for olfactory tissue and much improved sense of smell of the lambeosaurines , which had no obvious defensive capabilities . One unusual suggestion , made by creationist Duane Gish , is that the crest housed chemical glands that allowed it to throw jets of chemical " fire " at enemies , similar to the modern @-@ day bombardier beetle .
Most of these hypotheses have been discredited or rejected . For example , there is no hole at the end of the crest for a snorkeling function . There are no muscle scars for a proboscis and it is dubious that an animal with a beak would need one . As a proposed airlock , it would not have kept out water . The proposed air reservoir would have been insufficient for an animal the size of Parasaurolophus . Other hadrosaurids had large heads without needing large hollow crests to serve as attachment points for supporting ligaments . Also , none of the proposals explain why the crest has such a shape , why other lambeosaurines should have crests that look much different but perform a similar function , how crestless or solid @-@ crested hadrosaurids got along without such capabilities , or why some hadrosaurids had solid crests . These considerations particularly impact hypotheses based on increasing the capabilities of systems already present in the animal , such as the salt gland and olfaction hypotheses , and indicate that these were not primary functions of the crest . Additionally , work on the nasal cavity of lambeosaurines shows that olfactory nerves and corresponding sensory tissue were largely outside the portion of the nasal passages in the crest , so the expansion of the crest had little to do with the sense of smell .
= = = = Temperature regulation hypothesis = = = =
The large surface area and vascularization of the crest also suggests a thermoregulatory function . The first to propose the cranial crests of lambeosaurines related to temperature regulation was Wheeler ( 1978 ) . He proposed that there was a nerve connection between the crest and the brain , so that the latter could be cooled by the former . The next people to publish a related idea were Maryanska and Osmólska , who realized that like modern lizards , dinosaurs could have possessed salt glands , and cooled off by osmo @-@ regulation . In 2006 Evans published an argument about the functions of lambeosaurine crests , and supported why this could be a causing factor for the evolution of the crest .
= = = = Behavioural hypotheses = = = =
Parasaurolophus is often hypothesized to have used its crest as a resonating chamber to produce low frequency sounds to alert other members of a group or its species . This function was originally suggested by Wiman in 1931 when he described P. tubicen . He noted that the crests internal structures are similar to those of a swan , and theorized that an animal could use its elongated nasal passages to create noise . However , the nasal tubes of Hypacrosaurus , Corythosaurus , and Lambeosaurus are much more variable and complicated than the airway of Parasaurolophus . A large amount of material and data supports the hypothesis that the large , tubular crest of Parasaurolophus was a resonating chamber . Weishampel in 1981 suggested that Parasaurolophus made noises ranging between the frequencies 55 and 720 Hz , although there was some difference in the range of individual species because of the crest size , shape , and nasal passage length , most obvious in P. cyrtocristatus ( interpreted as a possible female ) . Hopson found that there is anatomical evidence that hadrosaurids had strong hearing . There is at least one example , in the related Corythosaurus , of a slender stapes ( reptilian ear bone ) in place , which combined with a large space for an eardrum implies a sensitive middle ear . Furthermore , the hadrosaurid lagena is elongate like a crocodilian 's , indicating that the auditory portion of the inner ear was well @-@ developed . Based on similarity of hadrosaurid inner ears to those of crocodiles , he also proposed that adult hadrosaurids were sensitive to high frequencies , such as their offspring might produce . According to Weishampel , this is consistent with parents and offspring communicating .
Computer modeling of a well @-@ preserved specimen of P. tubicen , with more complex air passages than those of P. walkeri , has allowed the reconstruction of the possible sound its crest produced . The main path resonates at around 30 Hz , but the complicated sinus anatomy causes peaks and valleys in the sound . The other main behavioural theory is that the crest was used for intra @-@ species recognition . This means that the crest could have been used for species recognition , as a warning signal , and for other , non @-@ sexual uses . These could have been some of the reasons crests evolved in Parasaurolophus and other hadrosaurids . Instead , social and physiological functions have become more supported as function ( s ) of the crest , focusing on visual and auditory identification and communication . As a large object , the crest has clear value as a visual signal , and sets this animal apart from its contemporaries . The large size of hadrosaurid eye sockets and the presence of sclerotic rings in the eyes imply acute vision and diurnal habits , evidence that sight was important to these animals . If , as is commonly illustrated , a skin frill extended from the crest to the neck or back , the proposed visual display would have been even showier . As is suggested by other lambeosaurine skulls , the crest of Parasaurolophus likely permitted both species identification ( such as separating it from Corythosaurus or Lambeosaurus ) and sexual identification by shape and size .
= = = Paleopathology = = =
Parasaurolophus walkeri is known from one specimen which might contain a pathology . The skeleton shows a v @-@ shaped gap or notch in the vertebrae at the base of the neck . Originally thought to be pathologic , Parks published a second interpretation of this , as a ligament attachment to support the head . The crest would attach to the gap via muscles or ligaments , and be used to support the head while bearing a frill , like predicted to exist in some hadrosaurids . One other possibility , is that during preparation , the specimen was damaged , creating the possible pathology . The notch , however , is still considered more likely to be a pathology , even though some illustrations of Parasaurolophus restore the skin flap .
Another possible pathology was noticed by Parks , and from around the notch . In the fourth , fifth , and sixth vertebrae , directly anterior to the notch , the neural spines were damaged . The fourth had an obvious fracture , with the other two possessing a swelling at the base of the break .
= = Paleoecology = =
= = = Alberta = = =
Parasaurolophus walkeri , from the Dinosaur Park Formation , was a member of a diverse and well @-@ documented fauna of prehistoric animals , including well @-@ known dinosaurs such as the horned Centrosaurus , Chasmosaurus , and Styracosaurus ; fellow duckbills Gryposaurus and Corythosaurus ; tyrannosaurid Gorgosaurus ; and armored Edmontonia , Euoplocephalus and Dyoplosaurus . It was a rare constituent of this fauna . The Dinosaur Park Formation is interpreted as a low @-@ relief setting of rivers and floodplains that became more swampy and influenced by marine conditions over time as the Western Interior Seaway transgressed westward . The climate was warmer than present @-@ day Alberta , without frost , but with wetter and drier seasons . Conifers were apparently the dominant canopy plants , with an understory of ferns , tree ferns , and angiosperms .
Some of the less common hadrosaurs in the Dinosaur Park Formation of Dinosaur Provincial Park , such as Parasaurolophus , may represent the remains of individuals who died while migrating through the region . They might also have had a more upland habitat where they may have nested or fed . The presence of Parasaurolophus and Kritosaurus in northern latitude fossil sites may represent faunal exchange between otherwise distinct northern and southern biomes in Late Cretaceous North America . Both taxa are uncommon outside of the southern biome , where , along with Pentaceratops , they are predominate members of the fauna .
= = = New Mexico = = =
In the Fruitland Formation of New Mexico , P. cyrtocristatus shared its habitat with other ornithischians and theropods . Specifically , its contemporaries were the ceratopsian Pentaceratops sternbergii ; the pachycephalosaur Stegoceras novomexicanum ; and some unidentified fossils belonging to Tyrannosauridae , ? Ornithomimus , ? Troodontidae , ? Saurornitholestes langstoni , ? Struthiomimus , Ornithopoda , ? Chasmosaurus , ? Corythosaurus , Hadrosaurinae , Hadrosauridae , and Ceratopsidae . When Parasaurolophus existed , the Fruitland Formation was swampy , positioned in the lowlands , and close to the shore of the Cretaceous Interior Seaway . The lowermost part of the Fruitland Formation is just younger than 75 @.@ 56 ± 0 @.@ 41 mya , with the uppermost boudary dating to 74 @.@ 55 ± 0 @.@ 22 mya .
Existing slightly later than the species from the Fruitland Formation , P. tubicen is also found in New Mexico , in the Kirtland Formation . Numerous vertebrate groups are from this formation , including fishes , crurotarsans , ornithischians , saurischians , pterosaurs , and turtles . The fishes are represented by the two species Melvius chauliodous and Myledalphus bipartitus . The crurotarsans include Brachychampsa montana and Denazinosuchus kirtlandicus . Ornithischians from the formation are represented by the hadrosaurids Anasazisaurus horneri , Naashoibitosaurus ostromi , Kritosaurus navajovius , and P. tubicen ; the ankylosaurids Ahshislepelta minor and Nodocephalosaurus kirtlandensis ; the ceratopsians Pentaceratops sternbergii and Titanoceratops ouranos ; and the pachycephalosaurs Stegoceras novomexicanum and Sphaerotholus goodwini . Saurischians include the tyrannosaurid Bistahieversor sealeyi ; the ornithomimid Ornithomimus sp . ; and the troodontid " Saurornitholestes " robustus . One pterosaur is known , named Navajodactylus boerei . Turtles are fairly plentiful , and are known from Denazinemys nodosa , Basilemys nobilis , Neurankylus baueri , Plastomenus robustus. and Thescelus hemispherica . Unidentified taxa are known , including the crurotarsan ? Leidyosuchus , and the theropods ? Struthiomimus , Troodontidae and Tyrannosauridae . The beginning of the Kirtland Formation dates to 74 @.@ 55 ± 0 @.@ 22 mya , with the formation ending at around 73 @.@ 05 ± 0 @.@ 25 mya .
= = = Utah = = =
Argon @-@ argon radiometric dating indicates that the Kaiparowits Formation was deposited between 76 @.@ 6 and 74 @.@ 5 million years ago , during the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous period . During the Late Cretaceous period , the site of the Kaiparowits Formation was located near the western shore of the Western Interior Seaway , a large inland sea that split North America into two landmasses , Laramidia to the west and Appalachia to the east . The plateau where dinosaurs lived was an ancient floodplain dominated by large channels and abundant wetland peat swamps , ponds and lakes , and was bordered by highlands . The climate was wet and humid , and supported an abundant and diverse range of organisms . This formation contains one of the best and most continuous records of Late Cretaceous terrestrial life in the world .
Parasaurolophus shared its paleoenvironment with other dinosaurs , such as dromaeosaurid theropods , the troodontid Talos sampsoni , ornithomimids like Ornithomimus velox , tyrannosaurids like Albertosaurus and Teratophoneus , armored ankylosaurids , the duckbilled hadrosaur Gryposaurus monumentensis , the ceratopsians Utahceratops gettyi , Nasutoceratops titusi and Kosmoceratops richardsoni and the oviraptorosaurian Hagryphus giganteus . Paleofauna present in the Kaiparowits Formation included chondrichthyans ( sharks and rays ) , frogs , salamanders , turtles , lizards and crocodilians . A variety of early mammals were present including multituberculates , marsupials , and insectivorans .
|
= Action of 24 June 1801 =
The Action of 24 June 1801 was a minor naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars . A British ship of the line , HMS Swiftsure under Captain Benjamin Hallowell was passing westwards through the Southern Mediterranean near Cape Derna when it encountered a much larger French squadron under Contre @-@ Amiral Honoré Ganteaume that was also returning westwards after a failed attempt to reinforce the besieged French garrison in Egypt . Although Hallowell immediately recognised the danger his vessel was in and turned to flee , the French ships were much faster and soon closed with his ship . At 14 : 00 , three French vessels were within long gunshot and Hallowell decided that his only hope of escape lay in disabling the three ships before the rest of the French squadron could join the engagement . Turning towards the enemy , Hallowell found that his sluggish ship was unable to respond rapidly to French manoeuvres and within two hours Swiftsure was surrounded . Threatened with complete destruction and unable to escape , the British captain surrendered .
The action was a rare victory for the French in the Mediterranean Sea , which had been largely under British control since the French Mediterranean Fleet had been destroyed in 1798 at the Battle of the Nile . This had trapped the French army in Egypt on the African side of the Mediterranean , and all efforts to reinforce and resupply them had ended in failure , including three separate expeditions by Ganteaume 's squadron . Swiftsure was later commissioned into the French Navy and fought at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 , where the ship was recaptured by the British and rejoined the Royal Navy . Hallowell was subsequently court martialed for the loss of his ship , but was honourably acquitted and returned to naval service .
= = Background = =
On 1 August 1798 , during the Battle of the Nile , a British fleet under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson destroyed the French Mediterranean Fleet at Aboukir Bay on the Egyptian coast . The battle completely reversed the strategic situation in the Mediterranean : British forces had evacuated the region in 1796 after the Treaty of San Ildefonso brought Spain into the war on the French side , but they were now able to return in large numbers . As French maritime lines of communication were cut , the French Armée d 'Orient under General Napoleon Bonaparte became trapped in Egypt . Unable to return to Europe by sea , the army attempted and failed to pass overland through Palestine and was subsequently abandoned by Bonaparte , who returned to France with his closest advisors in the frigates Muiron and Carrère in November 1799 , promising to send reinforcements to the forces that remained in North Africa .
By 1801 , the Armée d 'Orient was on the verge of collapse . No supplies or support had arrived from France , their commander Jean Baptiste Kléber had been assassinated , and a British invasion was impending . Frustrated at his failure to assist his men in Egypt , Bonaparte ordered a squadron of ships of the line to sail from Brest in January 1801 under the command of Contre @-@ Amiral Honoré Ganteaume . This force was instructed to sail to the Eastern Mediterranean and land over 5 @,@ 000 troops at Alexandria . In February , Ganteaume 's force reached Toulon , the admiral concerned that his ships would be outnumbered further east where the British expeditionary force was gathering . Bonaparte sent him back to sea to complete the operation but again he returned , driven back by bad weather and a patrolling British squadron off Sicily under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren . On 27 April Ganteaume made a third attempt to reach Egypt , and reached Benghazi before pressure from larger British forces under Admiral Lord Keith drove his squadron back westwards . On 24 June , Ganteaume 's ships were retreating along the North African coast , passing close to Cape Derna .
Also in the region was the British 74 @-@ gun ship of the line HMS Swiftsure under Captain Benjamin Hallowell , a veteran of the Battle of the Nile three years earlier . Swiftsure was passing slowly along the North African coast after being detached from Keith 's fleet to join Warren 's squadron off Malta , escorting a small convoy en route . Hallowell 's ship was understrength as more than 80 men had been removed from the ship for service in Egyptian waters and illness rendered another 59 unfit for duty , while the vessel itself was in a poor state of repair and leaking badly . Progress had been slow , and a northeasterly wind had also significantly delayed Hallowell 's passage . When he learned from a passing vessel that there was a French squadron in the region , he ordered the convoy to separate and sailed for Malta alone in an effort to join Warren more rapidly and warn him of Ganteaume 's return . At 03 : 30 on 24 June his lookouts sighted sails to the southwest . Hallowell immediately assumed that the distant ships were the enemy and he turned away from the French and tacked into the wind . By 05 : 30 , lookouts on the nearest French ships , the ships of the line Jean Bart and Constitution had spotted the distant British vessel and were ordered to give chase .
= = Battle = =
The French ships followed Swiftsure by tacking into the wind and a complicated chase developed , with Jean Bart and Constitution maintaining the pressure on the slow moving British vessel , while the rest of Ganteaume 's squadron used the prevailing wind to push far ahead of the ongoing chase before tacking at 08 : 00 across Hallowell 's intended course . Unless Hallowell could escape the trap , his ship would be caught between the two French divisions and overwhelmed . For six hours Hallowell continued his efforts to escape , but the French ships were too fast , Ganteaume 's force passing some distance ahead of the British ship and then turning back towards him so that by 14 : 00 Swiftsure was at serious risk of being surrounded . Hallowell determined that his only option was to attempt to drive though those ships of Ganteaume 's division that blocked his passage to leeward , the ships of the line Indivisible ( under Pierre @-@ Paulin Gourrège ) and Dix @-@ Août ( under Louis @-@ Marie Le Gouardin ) and the frigate Créole .
At 15 : 00 , with the detached division rapidly approaching from astern , Hallowell turned his ship towards the ships sailing ahead of Swiftsure and attempted to pass across the stern of the rearmost ship in an effort to rake and disable it , creating enough confusion to mask an escape . The manoeuvere was recognised by the French captains , and all three vessels turned to face the British ship as it approached . By 15 : 30 the ships of the line had opened a mutual fire , during which the faster French warships were able to easily outmanoeuvere the lumbering Swiftsure . At 16 : 37 , after more than an hour of fruitless firing at long range , the arrival of Jean Bart and Constitution within gunshot convinced Hallowell that further resistance was hopeless and he struck his flag to signal his surrender .
Swiftsure had taken significant damage to its masts , rigging and sails during the exchange of fire , a deliberate ploy by the French captains to limit the ship 's movement and prevent its escape . This had minimised casualties on deck by distracting the gunfire , and as a result only two men were killed and eight wounded , two of whom subsequently also died . French losses were more severe , with four casualties on Indivisible and six killed and 23 wounded on Dix @-@ Août , although neither ship was significantly damaged in the action .
= = Aftermath = =
Ganteaume 's fleet remained off the Cape Derna for the next six days , performing repairs to the captured vessel to make it seaworthy . Detachments of sailors were taken from all of the ships in the squadron and transferred to the prize , and on 30 June Ganteaume 's force was ready to sail northwest once again , eventually reaching Toulon without further incident on 22 July . Ganteaume used the capture of Swiftsure to excuse the failure of his effort to reinforce Egypt , which was invaded and captured by a British expeditionary force in the spring and summer of 1801 . While in captivity , Hallowell wrote a letter that was published in Britain praising the treatment he and his men had received while prisoners of war under Ganteaume , and he and his officers were released on parole the following month . On 18 August they faced a court martial on board HMS Genereux at Port Mahon in Minorca to investigate the loss of their ship , and were all honourably cleared of any blame . He was also praised for detaching the convoy , which otherwise might have also been lost . Hallowell subsequently returned to naval service in 1803 at the start the Napoleonic Wars , operating in the Caribbean and Mediterranean and eventually becoming a rear @-@ admiral in 1811 . Swiftsure , one of only five British ships of the line to be captured by the French during the entire war , was subsequently commissioned into the French Navy and remained in service for the next four years until recaptured at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 .
|
= Burton v. United States =
Burton v. United States is the name of two appeals to the Supreme Court of the United States by Senator Joseph R. Burton ( R @-@ KS ) following his conviction for compensated representation of a party in a proceeding in which the United States was interested : Burton v. United States , 196 U.S. 283 ( 1905 ) and Burton v. United States , 202 U.S. 344 ( 1906 ) . Burton was convicted of acting as counsel to Rialto Grain and Securities Company in the United States Postmaster General 's investigation of Rialto for mail fraud .
On Burton 's first appeal , the Supreme Court reversed his convictions because venue and vicinage could not be proper in the Eastern District of Missouri on the sole ground that Burton 's bank sent the check to St. Louis after he cashed it . Further , the Court cited the prejudicial refusal of jury instructions . After Burton was retried and convicted , the Court affirmed , inter alia , on the ground that the agreement between Burton and Rialto had occurred in St. Louis .
Burton was the first defendant convicted under § 1782 of the Revised Statutes , 40 years after its 1864 enactment . Burton and his supporters argued that he was selectively prosecuted , on the orders of President Theodore Roosevelt , for political reasons . Burton also became the first member of the United States Senate to be convicted of public corruption , in fact the first member of the Senate to be convicted of any crime . The next year , Senator John H. Mitchell ( R @-@ OR ) was convicted under the same statute for his role in the Oregon land fraud scandal .
= = Background = =
= = = Rialto Co . ' s matter = = =
In 1872 , Congress created the crime of mail fraud . Rev. Stat . § 3929 authorized the United States Postmaster General , " upon evidence satisfactory to him " that mail fraud was being committed , to instruct the post master at the fraudster 's local post office to return registered mail addressed to the fraudster to the sender with the word " Fraudulent " written or stamped on the envelope . In 1895 , this authority was extended to all mail . Further , Rev. Stat . § 4041 authorized the Postmaster to also bar suspected fraudsters from cashing postal money orders .
The Rialto Grain and Securities Company , whose principal place of business was in St. Louis , Missouri , was under investigation by the Postmaster for mail fraud . The Postmaster had received two complaints and forwarded them for investigation on November 7 , 1902 . State courts were also investigating complaints from investors against Rialto . Hugh C. Dennis , the President of Rialto , and other officers had been criminally indicted , but ( at the time of Burton 's indictment ) none had been convicted . As of Burton 's indictment , Dennis had been once acquitted in federal court and four indictments were pending against him in state courts . For a time , Rialto 's offices had been closed due to a judicial attachment by its creditors .
= = = Burton 's representation = = =
That same month — while the two were in Illinois , en route from St. Louis to Chicago — former state judge Thomas B. Harlan , the general counsel of Rialto , arranged to hire Senator Joseph R. Burton ( R @-@ KS ) , a lawyer , to appear before the Postmaster as counsel for Rialto in connection with these investigations for a monthly salary of $ 500 . When the general counsel returned to St. Louis on November 18 , he communicated Burton 's offer to Rialto and Rialto accepted . Rialto notified Burton of its acceptance by telegram to him in Washington that same day .
Burton informed Rialto by mail that he had learned of the two complaints from the Postmaster , arranged for himself to be notified of any future complaints , and arranged to represent Rialto in a hearing before the Postmaster before any sanctions would issue . Burton continued to represent Rialto before the Postmaster , and draw his monthly salary , for five months . Burton 's intervention was successful , and the Postmaster 's investigation was ceased without the entry of a fraud order .
Rialto paid Burton by monthly checks for the first four months . Burton received the first check on November 22 . Burton indorsed and deposited the checks at Riggs National Bank in Washington , D.C. , which in turn sent the checks to Rialto 's bank , the Commonwealth Trust Company in St. Louis , Missouri , for payment . The last $ 500 was paid in cash to Burton in person , at Rialto 's office in St. Louis , on March 26 , 1903 , after which Burton 's representation of Rialto terminated .
= = = Indictment = = =
A federal grand jury in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri was already investigating the Brooks Brokerage Company , with which Dennis , the President of Rialto , was associated . Witnesses against Burton at the grand jury included Chief Post Office Inspector William E. Cochran , Dennis , and W.B. Mehaney , the Vice President of Rialto . About two weeks before Burton 's indictment , the grand jury came into possession of the checks from Rialto to Burton .
Burton was indicted on January 24 , 1904 , in the Eastern District of Missouri , on nine counts of violating Rev. Stat . § 1782 . Section 1782 ( enacted 1864 ) provided , in relevant part :
No Senator . . . after his election and during his continuance in office . . . shall receive or agree to receive any compensation whatever , directly or indirectly , for any services rendered , or to be rendered , to any person , either by himself or another , in relation to any proceeding . . . controversy . . . or other matter or thing in which the United States is a party , or directly or indirectly interested , before any Department . . . whatever . Every person offending against this section shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor , and shall be imprisoned not more than two years , and fined not more than ten thousand dollars , and shall , moreover , by conviction therefor , be rendered forever thereafter incapable of holding any office of honor , trust , or profit under the Government of the United States .
The first and second counts of the indictment pertained to the receipt of the final cash payment from Rialto with reference to two separate interests of the United States . The third count pertained to receipt of the final cash payment from Mahaney . The sixth , seventh , eighth , and ninth counts of the indictment pertained to the receipt of the four check for the first four months .
Burton arguably could not have been arrested at the time of his indictment because Congress was in session . Article One provides that Senators and Representatives " shall in all Cases , except Treason , Felony and Breach of the Peace , be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses , and in going to and returning from the same . " But , Burton voluntarily surrendered . On January 24 , Burton and his wife departed for St. Louis .
= = = Trial and conviction = = =
Judge Elmer Bragg Adams , sitting as the United States Circuit Court for the Eastern District of Missouri , presided over Burton 's trial . Former state judge Chester H. Krum appeared as Burton 's attorney . Assistant U.S. Attorney Horace Dyer acted as prosecutor .
In his opening statement , Krum argued that Burton had only agreed to act as general counsel and to allow his name to be placed in Rialto 's literature , and that the agreement explicitly provided that Burton would never represent Rialto before any federal agency .
On March 23 , the prosecution began its case in chief . Post Office Department employees identified the letters of complaint received against Rialto . Ernest H. Kastor , of a St. Louis advertising firm , testified that he introduced Burton to Dennis and Harlan in November 1902 . Witnesses said that the agreement was as Krum described and that the pay was agreed as $ 2 @,@ 500 in $ 500 installments . Dyer read into evidence the letter from Burton to Rialto .
The prosecution 's case continued on March 24 . Inspector Cochran testified that Burton had attempted to discuss the case with him the day his indictment was made public . Cochran refused to discuss it . Reporter J.H. Aubere testified that he had interviewed Burton that day , and that Burton had denied practicing before the Post Office . Hector McRea , the Controller of Rialto , testified to a meeting between Mahaney and Burton , where Burton 's representation was ended because the matter before the Post Office had concluded . Inspector Cochran was recalled to state that his conversation with Burton took place before Aubere 's interview . Further , Cochran testified that , on February 5 , 1902 , Burton had told him that he wished to represent Rialto before the Department for a fee , having been assured by other Senators that such conduct was common and legal . Burton also told Cochran that he needed to repay a disputed debt of $ 70 @,@ 000 . Finally , Mahaney testified that , on the day he personally paid Burton $ 500 , Burton advised Rialto to destroy its correspondence with him and that two such letters were destroyed . Thereafter , the prosecution rested .
The defense case commenced on March 25 . The third count of the indictment was quashed as duplicative with the first . Burton testified that he had accepted Rialto 's employment due to personal financial reversals . Burton testified that his duties would include acting as a criminal defense attorney for Dennis , but would not include any activity in Washington . Burton testified that he received notice of his appointment from Harlan on November 20 , 1902 , and that he had only contacted the Post Office to notify them of his intent to defend Dennis in a criminal case . He explained that he only asked to be notified of complaints against Rialto so that he could terminate his association with them should any arise .
After the jury returned deadlocked 11 @-@ 1 , Judge Adams delivered an Allen charge . Soon afterwards , the jury returned a verdict that failed to address the third count in the indictment , so the Judge Allen ordered the jury to return to deliberations without reading the verdict . On March 28 , 1904 , after forty @-@ one total hours of deliberation , the jury convicted Burton on five counts — counts one , two , six , eight , and nine — but acquitted on count three . Burton 's convictions would have authorized a maximum sentence of 10 years imprisonment and a $ 50 @,@ 000 fine .
Burton asked that the jury be polled , and each stated that the verdict was his own . Burton moved for a new trial . Judge Adams indicated that he would accept a supersedeas bond of $ 5 @,@ 000 , and Burton was not sentenced . Burton became the first defendant ever convicted under § 1782 , more than 40 years after its enactment .
Burton had a right to appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit , but instead opted for a direct appeal to the Supreme Court . On July 2 , Judge Adams certified Burton 's direct appeal on the grounds that Burton was convicted of an " infamous offense . " Burton posted a $ 10 @,@ 000 bond . On July 11 , Justice Brewer allowed the direct appeal .
= = Burton I ( 1905 ) = =
Before the Supreme Court , on November 30 and December 1 , 1904 , Burton was represented by ( former judge ) John Forrest Dillon and ( future Solicitor General ) Frederick William Lehmann at oral argument , with Harry Hubbard and W.H. Rossington also on the brief . Solicitor General Henry M. Hoyt represented the United States .
On January 16 , 1905 , the Court overturned Burton 's convictions .
= = = Sufficiency of the indictment and the evidence = = =
Without any discussion of the merits , 5 @-@ 4 , the Court held that the indictment stated offenses under § 1782 and that the evidence was sufficient for the jury to have convicted Burton . Justices Harlan , Brown , McKenna , Holmes , and Day were in the majority ; Chief Justice Fuller , and Justices Peckham , Brewer , and White , were in dissent .
= = = Venue and vicinage = = =
Article III provides that : " The Trial of all Crimes , except in Cases of Impeachment , shall be by Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed . " The Vicinage Clause of the Sixth Amendment provides that : " In all criminal prosecutions , the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial , by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed , which district shall have been previously ascertained by law . . . . "
Burton argued that both constitutional provisions were violated because the crime had not occurred in the Eastern District of Missouri . Justice Peckham , writing for the entire Court except for Justice Harlan in dissent , reversed Burton 's convictions on these grounds . The Court held that Burton 's negotiation of the check in Washington , D.C. did not constitute conduct by Burton in St. Louis ( the site of the drawee bank ) . In other words , whatever the Washington , D.C. bank did with the check afterwards , it did for itself , not as Burton 's agent . " From the time of the delivery of the check by the defendant to the bank it became the owner of the check ; it could have torn it up or thrown it in the fire or made any other use or disposition of it which it chose , and no right of defendant would have been infringed . " Thus , the Court held that it was error for the trial judge to have submitted the question of the " understanding . . . between the defendant and the bank " to the jury . In support of this argument , the Court cited several of its own precedents concerning negotiable instrument law , as well as cases from the House of Lords and the courts of New York and Massachusetts .
In a single paragraph , the Court rejected the application of the continuing offense doctrine , which had been codified in Rev. Stat . § 731 . " This is not a case of the commencement of a crime in one district and its completion in another , so that under the statute the court in either district has jurisdiction . There was no beginning of the offense in Missouri . The payment of the money was in Washington , and there was no commencement of that offense when the officer of the Rialto Company sent the checks from St. Louis to defendant . The latter did not thereby begin an offense in Missouri . "
Justice Harlan dissented on this ground . " As between the accused and his client , " Harlan argued , " he was not , in any true sense , compensated for the services alleged to have been rendered in violation of the statute , until by payment of the checks by the St. Louis bank he was relieved of all liability to the Riggs National Bank arising from his indorsing the checks to it . " Harlan concluded that the majority had " sacrificed substance to mere form , " illustrating the Latin maxim " Qui haeret in litera haeret in cortice . "
= = = Refused jury instructions = = =
By the same 8 @-@ 1 majority , the Court found a separate and independent ground for the reversal of Burton 's convictions . Burton had requested certain jury instructions , which the trial judge had delivered . But , along with the requested instructions , the trial judge had stated that : " [ These instructions were ] asked by counsel for the defendant to give certain declarations here , and while I think they have , in the main , been covered by the charge , yet I will give them to you . . . . These are abstract propositions of law , which I give in connection with the charge , as perhaps more fully amplifying it . I am willing to give them , inasmuch as they are asked , and they contain general propositions of law . "
After the jury returned deadlocked 11 @-@ 1 , the trial judge delivered an Allen charge . At this point , the judge refused Burton 's request to instruct the jury that the earlier requested instructions stood on the same footing as the other instructions . The Court held that this was reversible error .
Harlan also dissented from this ground for reversal , arguing that Burton was not substantially prejudiced .
Further , the Court disapproved of the judge 's having asked the jury for the proportions of their deadlock ( even though he did not ask how many were for conviction and how many were for acquittal ) . In Brasfield v. United States ( 1926 ) , citing Burton , the Court held that such was reversible error , regardless of whether the defendant objected in the trial court .
= = Retrial = =
Burton was reindicted , still in the circuit court Eastern District of Missouri , on April 13 , 1905 , and arraigned on June 4 before Judge John Henry Rogers , of the Western District of Arkansas , sitting by designation . The new indictment had eight counts . The first , second , fourth , sixth , and eighth counts charged that Burton had agreed to receive compensation from Rialto . The third , fifth , and seventh counts charged that Burton had actually received compensation from Rialto . The counts different only in the interest of the United States which was alleged to have been involved in the matter . Counts four and five were dismissed before trial . Unlike the first indictment , the second alleged that Burton had received $ 500 in person in St. Louis . The first indictment alleged only compensated representation , the second indictment also alleged an agreement to do so .
While the indictment was pending , Burton was robbed in Chicago and his wallet was recovered in a mail box by postal employees . Before Burton 's second trial , the Department of Justice learned that Burton had also collected $ 14 @,@ 000 for representing the Chickasaw before the Interior Department : $ 5 @,@ 000 of which was paid directly to him , and $ 9 @,@ 000 of which was paid to his brother Z.R. Burton .
The trial date was originally set for October 3 , and subpoenas to witnesses — many of whom resided in Washington , D.C. — issued on September 12 . Judge Willis Van Devanter ( a future Supreme Court justice ) , of the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit presided over Burton 's second trial . On November 20 , Assistant U.S. Attorney Dyer gave the opening statement for the prosecution and Lehmann for the defense . As in the first trial , Lehmann argued that Burton 's intent was to represent Dennis ( now deceased ) in a criminal case .
On November 21 , the prosecution introduced the letters , telegrams , and checks into evidence . On November 22 , Harland testified that Burton had stated : " I am not going to do anything inconsistent with my duty as a Senator . " Mahaney testified to the in @-@ person payment and the destruction of the letters at Burton 's request on March 22 , 1902 . Inspector Cochran testified that Burton represented Rialto before him .
On November 26 , 1905 , after two hours of deliberation , the jury convicted Burton on the six remaining counts : counts one , two , three , six , seven , and eight . Burton was sentenced on the sixth and seventh counts only ( because some of the counts involved the same transactions ) . Burton was sentenced to six months imprisonment in a county jail and a $ 2 @,@ 000 fine on the sixth count and six months imprisonment and a $ 500 fine on the seventh count . In addition , he was " rendered forever hereafter incapable of holding any office of honor , trust or profit under the Government of the United States . "
= = Burton II ( 1906 ) = =
The second time before the Court , on April 3 – 4 , 1906 , Burton was again represented by Dillon and Lehmann , plus Bailey P. Waggener , again with Hubbard and Rossington on the brief , plus W. Knox Haynes and W.P. Hackney . All together , Burton was represented by a team of ten lawyers , led by Dillon . Waggener delivered the argument in chief , assisted by Lehmann . Assistant Attorney General ( and future judge ) Charles Henry Robb represented the United States .
On May 21 , 1906 , the Supreme Court upheld Burton 's convictions . That same day , another of Burton 's lawyers , former Senator John Mellen Thurston , filed a petition for rehearing , which operated as a 60 day continuance , and in effect stayed the matter much longer because the Court was set to adjourn until October .
= = = Separation of powers = = =
Article One provides : " Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections , Returns and Qualifications of its own Members . . . . Each House may . . . punish its Members for disorderly Behavior , and , with the Concurrence of two @-@ thirds , expel a Member . "
Burton argued that § 1782 was an unconstitutional violation of the separation of powers because the Senate 's power to punish its members was exclusive . Burton 's brief compared the ban on legislators practicing before executive agencies to a ban on the President lobbying legislators for legislation . The New York Times called this " one of the most interesting efforts to get a new meaning out of the Constitution that has appeared for some time . " A later article noted that , " [ t ] he decision is especially interesting because of the large array of legal talent in the case and the ingenious argument made by Bailey Wagner [ sic ] of Topeka that the Senate is the judge of the qualifications of its own members . . . . "
The Court unanimously rejected this argument . The Court cited earlier laws prohibiting members of Congress from practicing before the United States Court of Claims and from entering into contracts with the United States . Further , the Court noted that " [ t ] he proper discharge of those duties does not require a Senator to appear before an executive Department in order to enforce his particular views , or the views of others , in respect of matters committed to that Department for determination . "
Burton also argued that that the provision rendering those convicted under § 1782 " incapable of holding any office of honor , trust or profit under the Government of the United States " unconstitutionally infringed on the Qualifications Clause . The Court dodged this question by holding that the provision would not bar a convicted defendant from serving in the Senate because Senators ( at the time ) were elected by the state legislatures .
= = = Interests of the United States = = =
Burton next argued that the indictment was insufficient because the Postmaster 's decision to return mail addressed to suspected fraudsters back to senders and to bar suspected fraudsters from cashing money orders was not a " proceeding . . . controversy . . . or other matter or thing in which the United States is . . . directly or indirectly interested . " The Court rejected this argument , 6 @-@ 3 . Although the Court admitted that the United States had no pecuniary interest in the proceeding , it argued :
The United States was the real party in interest on one side , while the Rialto Company was the real party in interest on the other side . If the Postmaster General did not represent the United States , whom did he represent ? . . . [ I ] t is , we think , a mistake to say that the United States was not interested , directly or indirectly , in protecting its property , that is , its mails and postal facilities , against improper and illegal use . . . . "
Justice Brewer , joined by Justices White and Peckham dissented on this point . They argued that the statute applied only to the pecuniary interests of the United States . These justices were among the four ( in addition to Chief Justice Fuller ) who would have held the indictment insufficient in Burton I , presumably for this reason . The dissenters argued that the majority 's interpretation would find the United States interested in any administrative proceeding , thus rendering the statutory words " before any Department , court martial , bureau , officer , or any civil , military , or naval commission whatever " to be mere surplussage . Further , the dissent cited the Reconstruction Era legislative history pointing towards a narrower interpretation .
= = = Sufficiency of the evidence = = =
Burton next argued that the evidence was insufficient to support his conviction . Reviewing the evidence , the Court rejected this argument .
= = = Separate offenses of agreeing and receiving = = =
Section 1782 provided that " No Senator . . . shall receive or agree to receive any compensation . . . . " Burton argued that he could not simultaneously be charged with separate offenses for agreeing to receive compensation and actually receiving compensation for the same transaction . The Court rejected this argument . The Court stated that Burton 's interpretation " does violence to [ the statute 's ] words , " emphasizing the word " or . "
Justice McKenna disagreed with this holding . Thus , he concurred only in the affirmance of the charges alleging receipt , not the charges alleging agreement .
= = = Double jeopardy = = =
Burton next argued that his prosecution violated the Double Jeopardy Clause . Specifically , Burton argued that his acquittal on the third count in the first trial barred his conviction on the third and seventh counts in the second trial . The Court rejected this argument . The Court held that the earlier and later counts did not describe the same offense because they named the payor as Mahaney and Rialto , respectively .
= = = Venue and vicinage = = =
Finally , Burton argued that the Eastern District of Missouri was an unconstitutional venue and vicinage ( an argument that the Court had accepted in Burton I ) . This time , the Court rejected the argument . The Court held that the agreement had occurred in St. Louis ( as the jury had been instructed that it was required to find ) based on Rialto 's acceptance in St. Louis , the telegram , and the letter . The Court bolstered this view by citation to its own and other precedents concerning offer and acceptance in contract law . The Court further cited its earlier precedents holding that the venue provision of Article III does not require the physical presence of the defendant in the forum state .
= = Aftermath = =
Burton remained a Senator while each of his appeals were pending . Allegedly , his colleagues made it known that they would move to expel him if he appeared in the Senate . However , Burton did appear in the Senate after his conviction . On April 6 , 1904 , Burton appeared to push for appropriations for the acquisition of land in the Adirondacks and Catskills . On January 22 , 1906 , Burton appeared in the Senate chamber again , for 30 seconds , in order to be eligible for $ 1 @,@ 000 in travel reimbursements from the federal government .
Burton 's term was due to expire on March 4 , 1907 . After his conviction was finally affirmed , a resolution to expel Burton from the Senate was referred to the United States Senate Committee on Privileges and Elections on May 22 , 1906 . Burton resigned from office on June 4 , 1906 , before the Senate could act .
Burton served five months of his six @-@ month sentence in the Iron County Jail in Ironton , Missouri . In March 1907 , he returned to Abilene .
= = Role of President Roosevelt = =
Contemporary rumor held that Burton 's indictment had been ordered by President Theodore Roosevelt . Although Joseph W. Folk , the Circuit Attorney for the City of St. Louis ( and future Governor of Missouri ) , had recently visited with the President and Attorney General , the New York Times reported that " there was not a word in either of those interviews about the Burton case . "
Burton himself alleged that Roosevelt had orchestrated his prosecution in March 23 , 1907 speech in Abilene , Kansas after his release from prison . Burton pointed out that his was the first prosecution under § 1782 and that numerous other public officials before him had potentially violated it , under the interpretation that prevailed in the Supreme Court .
Burton and Roosevelt had a complicated history . Burton , as a leader at the 1900 Republican National Convention , was perhaps instrumental in Roosevelt 's securing his party 's nomination . Roosevelt 's last appointment to the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit ( whose jurisdiction , at the time , included appeals from Kansas ) had been William Cather Hook , a choice favored by Burton 's political opponents : Senator Chester I. Long ( R @-@ KS ) and Governor Willis J. Bailey ( R @-@ KS ) . When the next vacancy opened on the Eighth Circuit , Burton and his allies favored the appointment of Charles Blood Smith . D.W. Mulvane was unsuccessful in pressing Smith 's candidacy in a June 1903 meeting with Roosevelt .
Earlier that year , while accompanying Roosevelt on a visit to Kansas , Burton told Roosevelt about his project to create a reproduction of Jerusalem at the time of Christ 's birth for the St. Louis World 's Fair . Roosevelt gave Burton a letter praising the exhibit , which Burton in turn published by facsimile in a magazine advertisement for the sale of stock in the exhibit . The White House received a letter from the magazine inquiring into the authenticity of the letter on the same day that Mulvane returned for a second meeting to press Smith 's appointment . Roosevelt was enraged , demanded the return of the letter , and declared that " from now on Burton would be considered politically a Democratic Senator , as far as patronage is concerned . " " The President 's indignation knew no bounds . He had never been so grossly and humiliatingly deceived during his incumbency in office . "
Burton was also in a " long standing feud " with Fourth Assistant Postmaster ( and future Senator ) Joseph L. Bristow , whom Burton had lobbied Roosevelt ( and his predecessor , William McKinley ) to replace . Roosevelt refused to remove Bristow except for cause , and in any case refused to appoint one of Burton 's friends to replace him .
Another issue with which Burton clashed with Roosevelt was reciprocity with Cuba . Burton cited this issue in his Abilene speech . In order to force concessions from Roosevelt , Burton had joined with Senators from beet sugar states . Although Burton publicly spoke against a treaty with Cuba , he repeatedly privately informed Roosevelt that he would support the ratification of the treaty . According to the New York Times , " [ t ] he history of Burton 's manoeuvres at this time will never be fully told . "
|
= ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun =
" ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " is a song by American recording artist Britney Spears , taken from her first greatest hits album Greatest Hits : My Prerogative ( 2004 ) . The song was produced by Bloodshy & Avant and originally recorded for In the Zone . It was released as a digital download on August 17 , 2004 , prior to the album 's release . The track has drawn comparisons to No Doubt 's single " Hella Good " as well as 1970s American funk bands . Lyrically , the songs refers to having a good time at a party . " ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " received mixed reviews from critics , some naming it one of the best songs in the compilation , while others dismissed its lyrical content . The song was featured on the soundtrack of the 2011 film Bridesmaids .
= = Background = =
" ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " was originally recorded for Spears 's fourth studio album , In the Zone ( 2003 ) . The song was written by Spears , Michelle Bell , Christian Karlsson , Pontus Winnberg , Henrik Jonback , and was produced by Bloodshy & Avant . The song was first included as a bonus track in the European version of the In the Zone DVD . In the United States , the track was a free download in the Wal @-@ Mart edition of In the Zone , due to an exclusive deal with Wal @-@ Mart and Sony Connect . When the deal ended in mid @-@ 2004 , Jive Records released the song on the iTunes Store and Rhapsody on August 17 , 2004 . " ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " peaked at number seven on the iTunes chart while it was speculated to be in the tracklist of Greatest Hits : My Prerogative . The song was featured on the soundtrack of the 2011 film Bridesmaids .
= = Composition = =
" ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " is composed in the key of G minor with 108 beats per minute . It has a dance @-@ oriented beat that has been compared by Jennifer Vineyard of MTV and Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic to No Doubt 's 2002 single " Hella Good " . Spears 's vocal range spans from the high @-@ tone of G3 to the low @-@ tone of Eb5 . The track features mainly guitar and bass , along with string arrangements and 1970s synthesizers reminiscent of Zapp and The Gap Band . Its lyrics refer to a make @-@ believe situation in which Spears describes an encounter with a man at a party . During the song , she declares to prefer having a good time rather than settling down .
= = Reception and chart performance = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said " the In the Zone outtake [ ... ] betters most of the songs that were featured on the album " . Annabel Leathes of BBC Online commented that along with " Do Somethin ' " , they are " [ two ] robust , unreleased tracks [ that ] suggest , however , that she may still be churning out a few more No.1s before taking time out to sing lullabies to her brood " . Ann Powers of Blender magazine called the song " instantly forgettable and biographically inaccurate , " while Mike McGuirk of Rhapsody said the song " is on a level with her best work , namely " I 'm a Slave 4 U " . " Louis Pattison of the New Musical Express stated that the lyrics " chime rather oddly with Britney ’ s much @-@ vaunted desire to start a family " . On the week of September 4 , 2004 , " ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " debuted at number 23 on Billboard Hot Digital Tracks , and fell to number 41 in the following .
= = Track listings = =
Digital download
" ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " – 3 : 23
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " are taken from Greatest Hits : My Prerogative 's liner notes .
Songwriting – Britney Spears , Michelle Bell , Christian Karlsson , Pontus Winnberg , Henrik Jonback
Production – Bloodshy & Avant , Steven Lunt
Vocals – Britney Spears
= = Charts = =
|
= River Don Navigation =
The River Don Navigation was the result of early efforts to make the River Don in South Yorkshire , England , navigable between Fishlake and Sheffield . The Dutch engineer Cornelius Vermuyden had re @-@ routed the mouth of the river in 1626 , to improve drainage , and the new works included provision for navigation , but the scheme did not solve the problem of flooding , and the Dutch River was cut in 1635 to link the new channel to Goole . The first Act of Parliament to improve navigation on the river was obtained in 1726 , by a group of Cutlers based in Sheffield ; the Corporation of Doncaster obtained an Act in the following year for improvements to the lower river . Locks and lock cuts were built , and , by 1751 , the river was navigable to Tinsley .
The network was expanded by the opening of the Stainforth and Keadby Canal in 1802 , linking to the River Trent , the Dearne and Dove Canal in 1804 , linking to Barnsley , and the Sheffield Canal in 1819 , which provided better access to Sheffield . All three were bought out by the Don Navigation in the 1840s , after which the canals were owned by a series of railway companies . The Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation Company was created in 1889 and eventually succeeded in buying back the canals and the Don Navigation in 1895 , but plans for expansion were hampered by a lack of capital . One success was the opening of the New Junction Canal in 1905 , jointly funded with the Aire and Calder Navigation .
During the 20th century , there were several plans to upgrade the Don , to handle larger craft . It was eventually upgraded to take 700 @-@ tonne barges in 1983 , but the scheme was a little too late , as an anticipated rise in commercial traffic did not occur . Most use of the navigation is now by leisure boaters , whose boats are dwarfed by the huge locks . The navigation and river are crossed by a wide variety of bridges , from a medieval bridge complete with a chapel on it , one of only three to have survived in Britain , to a motorway viaduct that pioneered the use of rubber bearings and a new waterproofing system . In between are a number of railway bridges , including two that were built to carry the internal railway system at the Blackburn Meadows sewage treatment plant . The former railway viaduct at Conisbrough now carries cyclists 113 feet ( 34 m ) above the Don , as part of the National Cycle Network .
The final section to Bramwith is known as the River Dun Navigation .
= = Early history = =
Before 1626 the River Don had two outlets , an eastern branch that meandered across Hatfield Chase to enter the River Trent , and a northern branch , which was a Roman navigation channel , and joined the River Aire at Turnbridge , near East Cowick . Cornelius Vermuyden 's drainage scheme for Hatfield Chase , begun in 1626 and largely completed by 1628 , included the construction of Ashfield Bank , which ran for 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) along the southern bank of the Don from Fishlake to Thorne , cutting off the eastern branch . Navigation to Sandtoft was made possible by the provision of a navigable sluice in the bank , which had lifting gates and a 50 @-@ by @-@ 15 @-@ foot ( 15 @.@ 2 by 4 @.@ 6 m ) lock chamber . A further bank some distance to the east of the northern channel ran for 5 miles ( 8 km ) from Thorne to Turnbridge to provide washlands , which would flood when high levels in the Aire prevented the Don discharging into it .
In the winter of 1628 , there was flooding at Fishlake and Sykehouse , which was followed by rioting . A navigable sluice was built at Turnbridge in 1629 , with a lock 60 by 18 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 by 5 @.@ 5 m ) , and an outfall sluice called the " Great Sluice " was completed in 1630 , probably by Hugo Spiering , who had assisted Vermuyden with the main project . Continued problems with flooding led to the construction of a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 km ) channel from Newbridge near Thorne eastwards to Goole , where water levels in the Ouse were between 5 and 10 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 and 3 @.@ 0 m ) lower than at Turnbridge . The channel , called the Dutch River , ended in another outfall sluice , and was completed in 1635 at a cost of £ 33 @,@ 000 . Boats continued to use the lock at Turnbridge . In about 1688 the Goole sluice was washed away by a flood , and was never replaced . The tidal scour widened the channel , and barges of up to 30 tonnes could normally reach Fishlake , and often Wilsick House , in Barnby Dun . Smaller boats could reach Doncaster for most of the year , and large barges could do so when there was a flood tide .
Initial attempts to seek powers to make the River Don navigable were hampered by opposition from local landowners and disunity between the authorities in Sheffield , Rotherham and Doncaster . The first Act of Parliament was presented in 1698 by the MP for Thirsk , Sir Godfrey Copley of Sprotborough , representing the interests of Rotherham . Although there was support from the " gentlemen , traders and inhabitants " of Doncaster , the Corporation opposed the Bill in view of the likely impact on their mills . There was no support from Sheffield either , and the Bill failed at its first reading . In 1704 Doncaster Corporation , with the support of its traders , presented a Bill that received a first reading , but disappeared without a second reading ever happening . By 1722 there was some agreement between Sheffield and Doncaster , with a tacit agreement that Doncaster would be responsible for the river below their town , and Sheffield for the section above Doncaster . There was organised resistance to the scheme from local landowners , and it appears that their influence resulted in the proposed Bill being defeated in committee , so it could not be presented to parliament .
However , in 1726 Sheffield 's Company of Cutlers sought parliamentary approval to make the river navigable from Holmstile in Doncaster to Tinsley , on the edge of Sheffield . Terminating at Tinsley placated the Duke of Norfolk , who represented the opposition from Sheffield , and a great deal of work had been done to reduce the opposition from landowners . The Act of Parliament was passed on 6 May 1726 giving the Cutlers powers to make cuts and to make the river deeper and wider so that boats of 20 tonnes could reach Tinsley . There were a number of restrictions , intended to protect existing water @-@ powered installations . Lord Frederick Howard 's mills at Rotherham , Kilnhurst forge , Thrybergh dam and Sprotborough mills and water engine were specifically mentioned .
The Corporation of Doncaster sought powers in 1727 to improve the river below Holmstile , as far as Wilsick House in Barnby Dun . The Bill passed through parliament uneventfully , and again included detailed restrictions on what could and could not be done , designed to protect the landowners . The details were very specific in that they included the permissible heights of dams , the maximum length of cuts , and many other details of the work to be carried out .
Both Acts were unusual in that they gave the bodies powers to borrow money , but did not create the companies to do the work . Nor were the financial arrangements clearly laid down , and both groups resorted to issuing shares to fund the improvements , although they were not actually empowered to do so . In October 1730 , the two groups decided to amalgamate , but a 1731 Act to formalise the agreement and legalise the issuing of shares was defeated because it also included powers to make further changes to the river , including the section below Barnby Dun . Finally an Act of 1733 created The Company of the Proprietors of the Navigation of the River Don , with powers to create a new cut from Bromley Sands above Rotherham to Ickles Dam . The problems presented by the river below Wilsick House , including shallows and fords at Bramwith and Stainforth , and bridges on the Dutch River that were difficult to navigate , resulted in the proprietors trying again to obtain powers to improve the lower river in 1737 , but again the petition was defeated in a parliamentary committee . Work continued , and it appears that Aldwarke was the head of navigation for some years , but Rotherham was reached in 1740 .
A further Bill in 1740 sought powers to improve the river from Barnby Dun to Fishlake Ferry . Despite serious opposition , which included the merchants and traders of Doncaster as well as Doncaster Corporation , the Bill was passed , giving the company new powers to make the river deeper and create a cut to avoid the shallows at Stainforth and Bramwith . Work on this northern section started almost immediately . The southern section to Tinsley was navigable by 1751 , although the wharf and warehouse had not been completed by that date , and the towpath from Rotherham was not completed until 1822 .
In 1737 , the navigation was leased to three of the company shareholders for 14 years , and a new 7 @-@ year lease was made in 1751 . After 1758 , the company managed the navigation itself . Tolls for the next 10 years raised an average of £ 7006 per annum , indicating healthy traffic levels .
= = Expansion = =
The early 19th century saw the completion of a number of canals which linked to the Don . The first was the Stainforth and Keadby Canal , which had been proposed by the Don Navigation shareholders in 1792 . Construction was started in 1793 and completed in 1802 , with John Thompson , the engineer to the Don Navigation Company , overseeing the work until his death in 1795 . It provided a link from Bramwith Lock to the River Trent , broadly following the old course of the River Don prior to Vermuyden 's improvements . Two years later , the Dearne and Dove Canal opened , connecting with the Barnsley Canal near Barnsley . The canal had also been proposed by Don Navigation shareholders in 1792 , and again John Thompson had overseen the initial construction . The third opening was in 1819 , when the Sheffield Canal connected the Tinsley terminus to the centre of Sheffield . There were several plans to create a link to the Chesterfield Canal , including one in 1793 by Benjamin Outram , and a proposal by Richard Gresley in 1810 for a North East Junction Canal , which would have linked to the Don at Rotherham , broadly following the modern ideas for the Rother Link . Neither of these , nor a revival of the idea in 1832 gained sufficient support to proceed .
The Company bought out the Dearne and Dove Canal in 1846 , the Sheffield Canal in 1848 , and the Stainforth and Keadby Canal in 1849 . They then amalgamated with the South Yorkshire , Doncaster and Goole Railway in 1850 , to become the South Yorkshire Railway and River Dun Company . This in turn was leased to the Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway in 1864 . In order to allow an extension of the railway from Mexborough to Sheffield to pass under the railway line to Rotherham Westgate railway station , the Holmes cut below Ickles lock was diverted into the river , and the Eastwood cut below Rotherham lock was diverted to the east in 1864 . The original bed was then filled in and the railway built along its course . Despite attempts to divert coal traffic to the railway , the canals maintained their traffic levels , carrying 982 @,@ 000 tonnes in 1878 and 927 @,@ 254 in 1888 . However , there was dissatisfaction among users of the canals that the rates for traffic were higher than on the railways , and the canals were failing to modernise , as steam boats were banned , despite them having been in use for 50 years on the neighbouring Aire and Calder Navigation .
A plan to upgrade the waterways to allow the use of 300 to 500 @-@ tonne boats led to the formation of the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Canal Company Limited in November 1888 . The cost of the scheme was estimated to be around £ 1 million , in addition to the cost of acquiring the canals from the railway company . The new company obtained an Act of Parliament on 26 August 1889 , creating the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation Company , which was authorised to raise £ 1 @.@ 5 million and to purchase the four canals either by negotiation , or by compulsory purchase if negotiations failed . The railway company was unwilling to sell , and it was not until 1895 , after protracted negotiation and legal battles that the transfer was agreed . The Navigation Company had only succeeded in raising £ 625 @,@ 000 , which was less than the purchase price of the canals , and therefore the railway company nominated half of the ten directors , while the Aire and Calder Company declined to buy any shares because of railway influence . Many of the ambitious plans for the modernisation of the system were hindered by a lack of capital , although some further developments took place .
One improvement that was completed was the construction of the New Junction Canal . This had been authorised by an Act of Parliament obtained on 28 July 1891 by the Aire and Calder Navigation , which specified that the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation Company would share the cost of construction and the ownership of the new waterway . No work could start until the company actually owned their canals , and they were required to raise £ 150 @,@ 000 at a time when they had just failed to raise the finance for the takeover of the original canals . However , three @-@ quarters of the cost had been raised by 1903 . The new canal leaves the original navigation at Bramwith Junction , runs over the River Don on an aqueduct , and continues in a straight line for 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) , to join the Aire and Calder Navigation upstream from Goole . It provided a much more direct route from Sheffield to Goole , and was opened on 2 January 1905 . The company had hoped to run compartment boats for the transport of coal along the canal , as the Aire and Calder did , but although straightening of the navigation was completed at Doncaster in April 1905 and at Sprotborough in late 1907 , and Doncaster Town Lock was lengthened in 1909 and 1910 , most of the locks could only hold three compartments at a time , and so there was little advantage to using this type of boat .
= = Later developments = =
Towards the end of the First World War , Sheffield City Council proposed a major upgrade of the navigation . They expected the government to nationalise the waterway , and pay for the improvements , to which they would contribute , providing that the railway influence was removed . The scheme involved deepening the channel from 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) , and constructing 18 new locks which would be 270 by 22 feet ( 82 @.@ 3 by 6 @.@ 7 m ) , to replace the existing 62 @-@ by @-@ 16 @-@ foot ( 18 @.@ 9 by 4 @.@ 9 m ) locks . The locks would have multiple gates , and be capable of holding four 110 @-@ tonne barges or one 300 @-@ tonne barge . The estimated cost was £ 1 @,@ 483 @,@ 426 , but the government was unwilling to support the scheme , and Sheffield City Council was not prepared to proceed without government backing .
During the inter @-@ war years the navigation struggled to hold its own against competition from the railways and later the roads , and was affected by miners ' strikes in the coal industry . Traffic was spasmodic , rising from 381 @,@ 727 tonnes in 1926 , the year of the general strike , to 815 @,@ 329 tonnes in 1937 , but much of the latter was short @-@ haul traffic , rather than long @-@ haul , and the revenues did not increase correspondingly . In an agreement with Hatfield Main Colliery and the Aire and Calder , Bramwith Lock on the Stainforth and Keadby Canal was lengthened in 1932 , to allow compartment boats to be used for the coal traffic , while straightening of a stretch near Doncaster and the construction of a new warehouse and wharf were largely funded by Doncaster Corporation in 1934 .
The major traffic on the navigation had always been coal , but after the Second World War there was a steady increase in oil traffic . By 1946 , all of the mortgages that the company had used to fund expansion were repaid , and the financial position of the canal gradually improved . Control of the navigation , as with most British canals , passed to the British Transport Commission on 1 January 1948 , under the terms of the Transport Act ( 1947 ) . Some improvements continued to be made , with two coal wharfs being built at Mexborough in 1954 , to serve the new Doncaster power station , and Long Sandall Lock being extended to 215 by 22 feet ( 65 @.@ 5 by 6 @.@ 7 m ) . The new lock was opened on 10 July 1959 , and allowed trains of 17 compartment boats to work through to Doncaster and Hexthorpe , as Doncaster Town Lock above it and Sykehouse Lock below it on the New Junction Canal were already of a similar size .
In 1961 , the British Transport Commission , together with the British Iron and Steel Federation and Sheffield Chamber of Commerce considered plans to upgrade the navigation to handle 250 @-@ tonne barges , and work started on new wharfs and warehouses at Rotherham . Control of the navigation passed on again in 1963 , this time to the British Waterways Board , who submitted a proposal to the government for a £ 2 @.@ 5 million upgrade , covering the stretch from Bramwith to Rotherham . This would have involved the construction of ten new locks , each 225 by 25 feet ( 68 @.@ 6 by 7 @.@ 6 m ) , to replace the existing 12 locks . The new main line would then have been the same size as the Aire and Calder Navigation , although some of the bridges would have had less clearance . In 1972 , a further proposal for a £ 2 million scheme to upgrade the waterway to handle 700 @-@ tonne barges up to Mexborough , and 400 @-@ tonne barges from there to Rotherham was submitted to the Department of the Environment .
Finally , the navigation was the subject of one of the last major attempts in the UK to attract commercial freight to the waterways . In 1983 , it was upgraded to the 700 @-@ tonne Eurobarge standard by deepening the channels and enlarging the locks as far as Rotherham . Conisbrough lock was removed altogether , and the two Eastwood locks were combined into one . The new lock was initially named the Sir Frank Price Lock , after the chairman of the British Waterways Board who formally opened it on 1 June 1983 . The expected rise in freight traffic did not occur , however . At Kilnhurst and Long Sandall , the new larger locks were built alongside the original locks , and so a comparison of the relative sizes can be made .
The new locks are 198 by 20 feet ( 60 @.@ 4 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) , and the navigation accommodates boats with a draught of 8 @.@ 2 feet ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) and needing headroom of 10 @.@ 5 feet ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) . Beyond Rotherham , the locks are 70 by 15 @.@ 1 feet ( 21 @.@ 3 by 4 @.@ 6 m ) , and so can accommodate a 70 feet ( 21 m ) broad boat , but Rotherham lock is smaller , being only 61 @.@ 5 feet ( 18 @.@ 7 m ) long , and so the upper reaches are effectively restricted to 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) boats .
= = Route = =
The River Don Navigation ended at Tinsley Wharf , but it forms a convenient place to start a description of the route . The wharf was on the river , just upstream from the present junction with the canal to Sheffield . It was close to the site of the Meadowhall Shopping Centre and the Tinsley Viaduct , which carries the M1 motorway over the valley of the River Don . From here there is a towpath along the canal to Victoria Quays ( formerly Sheffield Basin ) in Sheffield City Centre , or the Five Weirs Walk follows the course of the River Don to the same destination . The towpath extends to Rotherham in the opposite direction , passing the large Jordans Weir and the three locks on the Holmes Cut . Beside Jordans Weir is the outfall from Blackburn Meadows sewage treatment plant . In dry weather , this discharges 30 million gallons ( 136 @,@ 000 m3 ) of treated water each day , more than doubling the flow in the river .
The towpath continues to Rotherham Lock , where the Rotherham cut starts , but from here to Conisbrough , the only way to see the navigation is from a boat or from one of the bridges which cross it . To the north of the cut are the remains of the Greasbrough Canal , now culverted under the embankment of the A633 road . Eastwood lock marks the end of the Rotherham Cut , to be followed by Aldwarke Lock , in the shadow of the A6123 road bridge , and Kilnhurst flood lock , which marks the start of the Kilnhurst Cut . In Swinton , the stub of the Dearne and Dove Canal turns off to the left , and there are three more locks before the cut ends . Immediately following this , the River Dearne flows into the Don , and the towpath resumes , where the Dearne Way footpath ends .
The route continues through a wooded valley , past the site of the Sprotborough Flash Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) , with the towpath forming part of the Trans Pennine Trail . Sprotborough lock and weir are situated just before Sprotborough . Just below the lock on the north bank are the remains of an engine house , built in the 1690s for Sir Godfrey Copley of Sprotborough Hall . A water wheel pumped river water some 100 feet ( 30 m ) upwards to supply a fountain in the grounds of the hall , a swimming pool , and also provided a water supply for the village . The pump was powered by a water wheel which was removed in the 1970s . Soon the edge of Doncaster is reached , where amongst the railway marshalling yards , the River Don leaves the navigation for the final time , as does the towpath . The two weir streams flow either side of Doncaster prison , effectively forming an island on which the building sits . Doncaster Town Lock is situated close to Doncaster railway station , and between here and Long Sandall Lock , some of the changes which have occurred over the years can be visualised , with the river on the left and ox @-@ bow lakes on the right , severed by the course of the Wheatley Cut . The final section to Bramwith is usually called the River Dun Navigation . At Bramwith , the waterway splits , with the New Junction Canal heading north @-@ east for the Aire and Calder Navigation and Goole , and the Stainforth and Keadby Canal heading east to the River Trent at Keadby . The River Don heads northwards too , turning to the east where the Dutch River starts at Newbridge . The original course to the River Aire can be traced across the fields , now little more than a drainage ditch crossed by an oversized Grade II listed bridge on the A1041 at East Cowick , and Vermuyden 's embankments are closely followed by the A614 road after it has crossed the M18 motorway .
= = Structures = =
This section provides details of some of the many bridges crossing the Don Navigation , in west @-@ to @-@ east order , starting from Tinsley .
= = = Tinsley and Rotherham area = = =
= = = = MS & L railway bridge = = = =
This bridge , which is located a little below the junction of the Sheffield Canal and the river , carries the Sheffield to Rotherham freight @-@ only railway line . The railway , which opened in 1868 , was originally part of the Manchester , Sheffield & Lincolnshire Railway , which later became part of the Great Central Railway . Between this railway bridge and Jordan Bridge , there are two bridges carrying pipes .
= = = = Jordan Bridge = = = =
Called " Jordan Bridge 21 " by British Waterways , this bridge carried a railway that linked Blackburn Meadows Sewage Works to additional filters and contact beds to the east of the navigation . It was constructed by Logan and Hemmingway , who won a contract valued at £ 41 @,@ 046 in April 1907 , which included six settling tanks , 24 contact beds , and the bridge . The eastern approach consists of three brick arches , which allowed a siding to pass through it . Continued expansion of the works required a second bridge to be constructed in 1922 , to carry the railway over the river channel . The steelwork for Holmes bridge was supplied by Charles Ross Ltd , who were based in Sheffield , while piling work was carried out by Yorkshire Hennebique Concreting Co Ltd .
= = = = Holmes Lock Bridge = = = =
This carries Steel Street – a minor road linking the Blackburn Meadows Nature Reserve Car Park with Holmes . The bridge still has railway tracks embedded in part of the cobbled road surface . The tracks were part of a network of sidings which served the Holmes Rolling Mills on the north bank of the navigation , and the bridge provided access to a crushing plant situated on the island formed by the course of the river to the south and the Holmes Cut to the north .
= = = = Midland Railway bridges = = = =
The western of the two railway bridges was built in 1869 , but the line it carried was truncated by the building of the Holmes Chord in the 1980s , and it is now unused . The eastern of the two bridges was built in 1840 as part of the North Midland Railway . This carried the " main line " from Derby to York until the diversion via Bradway and Sheffield was opened in 1870 . The line is now freight @-@ only .
= = = = Lockhouse Bridge = = = =
Just east of Ickles Lock , this is actually two bridges . The western bridge carries the continuation of Millmoor Lane and the eastern the ex @-@ MS & L freight @-@ only line between Tinsley and Rotherham Central .
= = = = Centenary Way bridge ( south ) = = = =
This carries the Centenary Way dual carriageway over the navigation , which has now been re @-@ joined by the River Don . The road ( A630 ) is an upgrading of the old Canklow Road and is the main access into Rotherham from the M1 . It also forms part of the Rotherham Ring Road which was begun about 1968 , actually only goes half way around town , was built in sections and completed in 1995 . The towpath of the navigation ( part of the Trans @-@ Pennine Trail ) is carried on a walkway that is cantilevered over the Don from the retaining wall of the factory site to the north .
= = = = Corporation Bridge = = = =
This single @-@ span metal bridge carries Main Street over the navigation . Slightly upstream of this bridge was a wooden railway bridge with seven arches , built in 1838 , that took the Sheffield and Rotherham Railway into Westgate Station . It was demolished in 1952 . Prior to the re @-@ routing of the canal in 1864 , the Westgate line crossed the Holmes cut a little further to the west by a three @-@ arched bridge , the centre arch of which was 36 feet ( 11 m ) long and was made of iron .
= = = = Rotherham Lock footbridge = = = =
This footbridge provides pedestrian access to the Court House from Forge Island , which was once the site of an iron works but is now occupied by Tesco 's . The River Don separates from the navigation above Forge Island , and there is a road and pedestrian bridge across the river into Forge Island .
= = = = Bridge Street Bridge ( Chantry Bridge ) and Rotherham Bridge = = = =
Bridge Street Bridge ( Chantry Bridge ) is a single @-@ span metal bridge that carries Bridge Street over the navigation . The street continues eastwards and originally crossed the river at Rotherham Bridge . As originally constructed in 1483 the bridge had four arches and was 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide , but it was widened and a fifth arch added in 1768 . In 1930 a new bridge was built nearby , a little further upstream , and as part of the work , the fifth arch was removed and the bridge was returned to its Medieval width . Because of improvements to the river made in the 18th and 19th centuries , it is wider than it used to be , and the bridge no longer reaches the west bank . The chapel on the bridge is one of only three complete bridge chapels that still exist in Britain , the other two being at Wakefield , West Yorkshire , and St Ives , Huntingdonshire . Dating from about 1483 , it remained in use as a chapel until the reign of King Edward VI ( 1547 – 1553 ) . It was put to use as almshouses during the 17th and 18th centuries , and in 1779 it was used as a prison . Later , it became a private dwelling and finally a tobacconist 's shop , before being returned to its original use as a chapel ; it was formally reconsecrated in 1924 by the Bishop of Sheffield .
= = = = Centenary Way bridge ( north ) = = = =
This carries the Centenary Way dual carriageway over the navigation .
= = = = Greasbrough Road Bridge = = = =
The Greasbrough Road is no longer a main road and only serves local businesses . Downstream of this bridge are 3 pipe bridges .
= = = = Rawmarsh Road Bridge = = = =
Called “ Rotherham Rawmarsh Road Bridge 39 ” by British Waterways , this bridge carries the A633 Rotherham Road ( from Rotherham to Parkgate ) . The A633 crossing of the River Don is called Grafton Bridge .
= = = = Eastwood Footbridge = = = =
This carries the public footpath from the Eastwood area of Rotherham to the Parkgate Retail Park . When the Rotherham Cut section of the Don Navigation was constructed in 1740 , the crossing was by means of a swing bridge . This was replaced by the current footbridge in the late 1900s . To the south of Eastwood Footbridge is a bailey bridge crossing of the River Don .
= = = = Wash Lane Bridge = = = =
This bridge is situated immediately downstream of Aldwarke Weir and upstream of Aldwarke Lock . It was rebuilt in 1834 . In more recent times , it has been superseded by the A6123 ( Aldwarke Lane ) road bridge spanning both river and navigation . The bridge is now gated at both ends to prevent access to pedestrians and traffic .
= = = = Steelworks access ( road ) bridge = = = =
This provides access to the two steelworks from the A630 road at Dalton .
= = = = Don ( rail ) Bridge = = = =
This forms part of the internal rail network of the two steelworks . It was constructed in 1901 as part of what was called locally John Brown 's Private Railway . This railway connected the Silverwood and Roundwood Collieries of John Brown & Company with wharves on the Don Navigation . The girder bridge crossing the Don Navigation was the main engineering work on this railway line . It was built by Newton , Chambers & Company .
= = = = Thrybergh ( rail ) Bridge = = = =
This carried the former Great Central and Midland Railways ' joint line across the River Don . This line was double track . It was essentially a colliery line and never carried a regular passenger service .
= = = Kilnhurst and Mexborough area = = =
= = = = Kilnhurst Station Road Bridge = = = =
This is bridge number 46 and conveys the road to Hooton Roberts . The bridge over the Navigation adjoins the bridge over the railway . The bridge over railway is original , but that over the Navigation is a modern replacement . The " Station " in the name Station Road refers to the Kilnhurst Central ( Great Central ) Station rather than the Kilnhurst West ( Midland Railway ) Station .
= = = = Kilnhurst Burton Ings Bridge = = = =
This is bridge number 47 and conveys a service road over the Navigation and railway . At this point on the west side of the Navigation , there was a large tar distillation works and it is probable that this road connected that works with a tip or further chemical plant on the east side . The tar distillation works was built by Ellison & Mitchell in 1886 and became part of the Yorkshire Tar Distillers group in 1927 .
= = = = Swinton Talbot Road Bridge = = = =
This is bridge number 48 and connects the main road in Swinton ( A6022 Bridge Street and Rowms Lane ) with an industrial estate whose principal unit is the Morphy Richards distribution centre .
= = = = Mexborough Double Bridges = = = =
This is named " Double Bridges and Footbridge 49A " by the Canal & River Trust . The bridge carries a footway and double @-@ track railway over the Navigation . This section of the Navigation must have represented quite a challenge for full @-@ size barges to negotiate since the bridges are immediately adjacent to a right @-@ angle bend in the canal .
= = = = Mexborough Station Road Bridge = = = =
This is bridge number 52 and carries the access road to Mexborough railway station from the A6023 Greens Way ( and the town centre ) .
= = = = Mexborough BBCS Flour Mill = = = =
This imposing building ( and associated wharf ) stands on the north side of the Navigation close to the Church of St John the Baptist . It started off as the " Don Roller Mills " . It was owned by James White who sold it to the Barnsley British Cooperative Society in 1912 .
= = = Conisbrough and Warmsworth area = = =
= = = = Conisbrough Earth Centre Bridge = = = =
This is named " Cadeby Colliery Bridge 57 " by the Canal & River Trust because it once provided a road access to Cadeby Colliery from the south . From 1999 to 2004 , the bridge provided the main access to the ill @-@ fated Earth Centre visitor attraction . The bridge now forms part of public access from Conisbrough Station to the main ( west @-@ east ) section of the Trans Pennine Trail . There are two pipe bridges just upstream of the road bridge .
= = = = Conisbrough Viaduct = = = =
Conisbrough Viaduct was built in the first decade of the 20th century as part of the Dearne Valley Railway . This was a line which essentially served a coalfield , although there was a rudimentary passenger service between 1912 and 1951 . The remaining coal traffic on the line ceased in 1966 . The viaduct has 21 arches and was built from 12 million Conisbrough blue bricks . The central metal span is 150 feet ( 46 m ) long and crosses the Don at a height of 113 feet ( 34 m ) . The viaduct remained out of use until 2001 , when ownership was transferred to Railway Paths Ltd , who manage potentially useful railway structures until they can be incorporated into the National Cycle Network . Installation of a new deck surface and safety railings were funded by the Railway Heritage Trust in early 2008 , and the viaduct re @-@ opened as part of the Sustrans network in April 2008 .
= = = = Rainbow Bridge = = = =
Built in 1849 as part of the South Yorkshire Railway , which later became part of the Great Central Railway , the Rainbow bridge is still in use and carries the Swinton to Doncaster railway line .
= = = = Sprotbrough Bridge = = = =
Sprotbrough Bridge is actually two bridges that carry Mill Lane , the southern one crossing the weir stream and the northern one crossing the lock cut . Replacing a ferry crossing of the river , the first bridge and associated toll house were built in 1849 for Sir Joseph William Copley of Sprotbrough Hall . The designers of the southern bridge were Benjamin Brundell and William Arnold , and the present structure has three segmental arches on each side , which originally formed the approaches to a central arch . The arch was replaced by an above @-@ deck truss in 1897 . The ironwork was manufactured by Newton Chambers & Co . Ltd . , who were based at Thorncliffe Ironworks in Sheffield , as recorded by plates attached to the bridge . The northern bridge was a single @-@ arched masonry structure , which has been replaced by a plate girder bridge resting on the original piers . The toll house , consisting of a single storey with a half basement , made of dressed sandstone with an asphalt roof , still survives on the northern bank of the lock cut . Tolls collected here for passage over Sprotbrough Bridge were said to have been given by the Copley family to the Doncaster Dispensary .
= = = = A1 Don Viaduct = = = =
This bridge carries the A1 ( M ) motorway over the river ; it was opened by Ernest Marples , the Minister of Transport , on 31 July 1961 . It consists of two separate structures , one for each carriageway , each having seven spans . The longest span , formed from two 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) cantilevers and a suspended central span of 100 feet ( 30 m ) , carries the motorway over the river at a height of 70 feet ( 21 m ) . The total length of the structure is 760 feet ( 230 m ) , and it has a slight horizontal and vertical curve at its southern end . Five riveted steel girders and a 9 @-@ inch ( 23 cm ) composite concrete deck support each carriageway . The bridge was one of the first to use rubber bearings , and the first to use bitumen membranes lined with copper to make the decks waterproof . The design includes jacking points to compensate for mining subsidence .
= = = = Warmsworth railway viaducts = = = =
There are two railway viaducts at Warmsworth . The western one was completed in 1914 and formed part of the Hull & Barnsley and Great Central Joint Railway . This was essentially a railway to serve the coalfield and was closed in 1958 . For some years after closure , the viaduct was used to carry a conveyor belt over the Don . It became part of the Doncaster spur on the Trans @-@ Pennine Trail , which was officially opened in 2001 . The steel pillars supporting the viaduct are filled with limestone . Its construction , which uses an above @-@ deck truss , contrasts with the below @-@ deck truss of the eastern viaduct , which was completed in 1910 and formed part of the Great Central Railway . It still carries a freight @-@ only line that avoids a crossing on the level of the East Coast Main Line at Doncaster Station .
= = = Doncaster Town area = = =
= = = = Newtons Farm Footbridge = = = =
Two bridges situated side @-@ by side , one made of concrete and the other a wooden bridge , cross one of the two weir channels where the river leaves the navigation before Doncaster Town Lock .
= = = = Cheswold Hauling Bridge = = = =
Cheswold Hauling Bridge , also known as Cheswold High Bridge , is a footbridge on the navigation towpath , which crosses the second of the two weir streams where the river leaves the navigation upstream of Doncaster Town Lock . The small section of river between the footbridge and where it rejoins that part of the River Don that left the navigation at Newtons Farm footbridge is called the River Cheswold , reputedly the shortest river in Great Britain .
= = = = North Bridge and St Marys Bridge = = = =
North Bridge Road is carried over the railway and then the navigation at Doncaster Town Lock by North Bridge , and over the Don by St Mary 's Bridge . North Bridge Road was previously part of the Great North Road . Until 1910 , this crossed the railway on the level before crossing the Don Navigation . After 1910 , a lengthy iron bridge took the road over the railway , navigation and river . This bridge was replaced by the current North Bridge in 2003 . Its use has been restricted to buses , taxis , cyclists and pedestrians since the new St George 's Bridge opened . The new bridge was constructed over the top of the old one while it was still in situ . Once the old bridge had been stripped of its surface trimmings the deck was cut up into 25 @-@ tonne sections , which were suspended from the new structure . A pulley system was used to transport these sections along the underside of the new bridge , so that they could be lowered onto the towpath , where they were cut up further before removal from the site .
= = = = Railway bridges = = = =
Below the North Bridge , the six railway tracks north of Doncaster Station cross the Don Navigation on three separate bridges . This section of tracks is known as Marshgate Junction and is where the lines to Leeds , York and Thorne diverge .
= = = = Friars Gate Bridge = = = =
This bridge provides access across the navigation from the centre of Doncaster to the small businesses and car parks on the " island " between the river and navigation .
= = = = St George 's Bridge = = = =
St George 's Bridge is one of the newest bridges over the Don . It carries the dual carriageway New Bridge Road , part of the A19 , which is now the main road north out of Doncaster . It was opened on 22 November 2001 , and was named St George 's Bridge as a result of a public competition . It consists of a 690 @-@ yard ( 630 m ) long steel @-@ composite bridge with spans of 49 yards ( 45 m ) over the River Don , the East Coast Main Line , and the Don Navigation . The ladder beam layout , using two main plate girders , cross @-@ girders at 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) centres and precast planks , was chosen both to optimise the deck and to minimise the size and number of the piers .
= = = = Chappell Drive Bridge = = = =
This bridge provides access across the navigation from the centre of Doncaster to the small businesses situated on the " island " between the river and navigation . It is situated immediately north of the Hub campus of Doncaster College . Going downstream , there is a gap of some 5 miles ( 8 km ) before the next public road crossing of the navigation at Barnby Dun .
= = = Barnby Dun area = = =
= = = = Kirk Sandall Railway Bridge = = = =
This bridge conveys the ( ex @-@ Great Central Railway ) Doncaster @-@ to @-@ Hull railway over the Navigation . The bridge consists of two single @-@ span decks , both with above deck trusses . The older south deck ( pictured here ) is no longer used . The north deck accommodates both tracks of what is now a double @-@ track railway . The quadruple track from Thorne Junction on this line now finishes at Kirk Sandall Junction , a few hundred metres to the east . A further bridge to the west conveys the railway over the River Don .
= = = = Kirk Sandall Pipe Bridge = = = =
At this point , the Navigation runs parallel to , and a few metres to the south @-@ east of , the River Don . A pipe bridge high above both the Navigation and the River once carry waste from the glass works which adjoined the towpath ( to the south @-@ east ) across to a series of settling ponds ( to the north @-@ west ) . The glass works was a major employer in the Kirk Sandall area . The St Helens @-@ based Pilkington Bros established a plate glass works here in the early 1920s . The site was chosen for its proximity to the canal and railway , and for the sandy terrain which was needed for the production of glass . Pilkingtons also funded the building of 400 new houses in the Brecks Lane area , together with associated school and recreational facilities . The glass works closed in the 1990s and its site is now occupied by various units on an industrial estate .
= = = = Barnby Dun Lift Bridge = = = =
This was built in 1983 to replace the original ( 1900 ) swing bridge . It is built of steel and powered by electricity . The replacement work cost £ 0.5M and was part of a wider upgrade of the Navigation to conform to the 700 @-@ tonne Eurobarge standard ( see Later Development section of this article ) . An elevated control house was built for the sole use of operational staff , but in recent years a freestanding low level standard control console has been built for the use of boaters when the bridge is not staffed . Sykehouse Lift Bridge ( downstream of Barnby Dun ) was built to the same technical specification . Although the bridge carries an unclassified road linking Barnby Dun and Bentley , the bridge also provided the only access for heavy loads to the nearby Thorpe Marsh power station , so the bridge was designed to carry abnormal loads of up to 180 tons gross weight . Although Thorpe Marsh Power Station has now been demolished , the bridge is still busy with road traffic . This is because it is one of the few crossings of the Navigation in this area .
= = Points of interest = =
|
= The Alliance ( The Office ) =
" The Alliance " is the fourth episode of the first season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's fourth episode overall . The episode aired on NBC in the United States on April 12 , 2005 . It was written by Michael Schur and directed by Bryan Gordon , marking their first credits for the show .
In this episode , paranoia takes over the members of the office as downsizing rumors swirl . Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) forms a Survivor @-@ esque alliance with Jim ( John Krasinski ) against the other employees — later adding Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) also . Meanwhile , Michael ( Steve Carell ) arranges a morale @-@ boosting birthday party for Meredith ( Kate Flannery ) — although her birthday is more than a month away . Michael agonizes over writing the perfect greeting in her birthday card , and in the end , his joke falls flat , ruining the party .
The episode was inspired by popular reality television shows , most notably Survivor . Originally , the first cut of the episode ran 37 minutes long and the producers considered making the episode a two @-@ parter , one focusing on the Alliance and another focusing on Meredith 's birthday party , but later decided against the idea . In addition , several of the lines and scenes from the episode were improved or ad @-@ libbed by the cast . " The Alliance " was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 4 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 4 / 6 % rating share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode received positive reviews from critics .
= = Synopsis = =
Although time has dragged on , the downsizing rumors at Dunder Mifflin have not ceased . Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) feels particularly threatened by the impending crisis , and , in an act of desperation , forms an alliance with his office nemesis Jim ( John Krasinski ) . Jim sees the alliance as an opportunity with great potential and agrees as a lark . He immediately enlists Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) ' s help in the situation . The two continue to perform a series of office pranks at the expense of Dwight .
Meanwhile , Michael ( Steve Carell ) tries to boost morale in the office by having an office birthday party for Meredith ( Kate Flannery ) , even though her birthday is a month away . Michael agonizes over writing the perfect greeting in her birthday card . In the end , his joke ( and subsequent rejected ones ) falls flat and ruins the party . At the same time Oscar also gets him to donate money to his nephew 's cerebral palsy walk @-@ a @-@ thon , which Michael accidentally overcontributes to in an effort to look like a good boss .
At the end of the day , after a breakthrough in his pranks on Dwight , Jim giddily grabs Pam 's hand in an attempt to explain what has just happened . However , Pam 's fiancé Roy ( David Denman ) catches this and sees it as an attempt by Jim to make a move on Pam . Jim tries to convince Roy that it was just " office pranks " and asks Dwight to back him up , but he simply denies any involvement leaving Jim awkwardly embarrassed . Dwight reveals that he had no problems betraying Jim , despite the fact that he recently fell into one of Jim 's tricks .
= = Production = =
The episode was inspired by popular reality television shows , most notably Survivor . The " Can I trust Jim ... " line was a direct reference to the show and was a " last @-@ second addition " according to Daniels . In addition , Randall Einhorn , the camera man for the episode , was a camera man for Survivor . When the episode was being written , many of the cast and crew feared that it would bear too many stylistic resemblances to Curb Your Enthusiasm . Daniels later defended the show , saying that the show was different because of " the fact that they are on TV and they know they are being filmed . [ They know they 're ] on camera . " During the writing of the episode , Daniels made the writers spend actual time on the set , most notably in Michael 's office . Mindy Kaling later noted that she " hated it . "
The first cut of the episode ran 37 minutes long and the producers were tasked with cutting the footage down to 22 minutes . Executive producer Greg Daniels considered making the episode a two @-@ parter , one focusing on the Alliance and another focusing on Meredith 's birthday party , but the appearance of party hats in the Alliance @-@ only scenes caused him to nix this idea . Because the episode had to be cut down due to time , several scenes were drastically cut . The filming crew actually shot about 15 – 20 minutes of Steve Carell coming up with terrible card ideas , which was drastically cut for the episode . During the party , Ryan talks to a different woman in the background of each scene . Although not much footage made it into the final episode , the producers thought this was a nice character touch for the new employee . The penultimate scenes of Michael telling several terrible jokes to Meredith was cut down from the original 15 . The final scene where Roy confronts Jim was shot ten different times , each in a different style , ranging from Roy slamming Jim into the wall to Roy asking Jim , " Hey , what are you doing ? " Although the crew felt that the wall @-@ slamming version was more dramatic , they realized that it caused the episode to go from a comedy to an " angry drama . "
Several of the lines and scenes from the episode were improved or ad @-@ libbed by the cast . Jenna Fischer named the party planning scene her favorite scene and called it " longest most horrible meeting of all time " . On the commentary track for the episode , Fischer revealed that the scene was almost entirely ad @-@ libbed . At one point , Phyllis Smith , who portrays Phyllis Margaret Vance ( née Lapin ) , made a joke that made every one on set laugh , forcing production to halt for almost 45 minutes . Dwight 's " gun show " joke was written by Rainn Wilson . Larry Wilmore later called the " gun show " scene his favorite . Wilmore later said of ab @-@ libs , " part of the fun in writing a show like this is trying to write lines that sound like ad @-@ libs . " Daniels also praised the episode 's lines , saying , " when you know the acting is really good , it all sounds like it 's been improvised . "
The scenes where Dwight climbs into a box almost did not make the episode . Mike Schur , who wrote the episode , feared that Dwight climbing into the box would not only make the episode " crazy broad , " but also make the rest of the episode look boring by comparison . After shooting the scene , however , he described it as " the most natural thing in the world . " Phil Shaw , the stunt man for The Office , did most of the work in the box . Schur described Dwight 's emergence from the box as his " action hero " moment . Daniels likened the scene to the movie Alien .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on 12 April 2005 , " The Alliance " was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 4 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 4 / 6 % rating share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 4 % of all 18 – 49 year @-@ olds , and 6 % of all 18 – 49 year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode , airing after Scrubs , retained 100 % of its lead @-@ in 18 – 49 audience for the second week in a row .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received positive reviews from critics , with many praising the developing relationship between Pam and Jim . Travis Fickett from IGN praised the episode and compared Jim and Pam 's relationship in the first season to that of the fourth , saying , " Jim and Pam simply work better before they were a couple . The fact that Roy can come between them here is fun – and reminds us that it was more interesting when something could still come between them ! " In summary , he concluded that , " [ ' The Alliance ' ] is one of the better early episodes of the show , and going out with Dwight talking to the camera – his hair dyed blonde – is genius and gives us ( up to this point ) the most perfect ' Dwight ' moment of the show so far . " Television critic Robin Pierson noted that in the episode , " The Jim and Pam relationship begins to take real shape here . " He later called the moment when Roy nearly attacks Jim as " a much more ' real ' moment that the rest of the episode . " Furthermore , Pierson criticized the characterization of Dwight , noting that his actions were " stupidly naïve " . Miss Alli from Television Without Pity gave the episode an A.
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B – " . He felt that the episode was " akin to a newborn deer working the wobbles out of its legs " and that " it ’ s a milestone for The Office , in that it represents the first time an episode generated so much material it could ’ ve occupied a full hour of airtime " . He felt that Michael 's plot was funny , but had issues . He argued that the retooling of Michael 's character made him a more likable character even when he was doing something inappropriate ; in this episode , however , his behavior is too cringe @-@ inducing . Adams praised the scene wherein Dwight emerged from the box , calling it one of " The Office 's first great sigh gags " . Furthermore , he felt that the scene was symbolic , as it produced " a stronger , deadlier , better character " .
|
= The Boat Race 1975 =
The 121st Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on 29 March 1975 . Cambridge won their seventh race in eight years by three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 19 minutes and 27 seconds . The race was umpired by former Oxford rower Christopher Davidge .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by nine @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths . Cambridge won the 30th Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1974 race by five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 67 victories to Oxford 's 52 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The umpire for the race was Christopher Davidge , who had rowed for Oxford in the 1949 , 1951 and 1952 races , and was a non @-@ rowing Oxford University Boat Club president for the 1950 race .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
In the month leading up to the race , Cambridge 's crew saw some significant changes , including the removal of David Sturge ( who had rowed in the 1973 race ) due to glandular fever . However , the Cambridge boat club president Steve Tourek was circumspect : " Cambridge might be slower than planned but still fast enough to beat Oxford . " On 24 March 1975 , Cambridge beat Oxford 's record time ( set five days earlier ) between Hammersmith Bridge and the Mile Post by two seconds . The following day , Oxford 's coach Dan Topolski revealed that the Oxford reserve crew , Isis , had equalled the record time , downplaying Cambridge 's efforts : " Shows how fast conditions really were yesterday . " Cambridge coach Lou Barry remarked of his charges : " this is a fast crew " .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 9 @.@ 75 lb ( 86 @.@ 8 kg ) , 7 pounds ( 3 @.@ 2 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained two former Blues in boat club president Nick Tee and stroke Graham Innes , while Cambridge saw Nick Bradley , Henry Clay and Tourek return from the 1974 boat . Although the British international rower David Sturge was replaced through illness prior to the race , the Light Blues also saw international @-@ standard rowers Alistair Christie and James Macleod in the crew , both of whom had withdrawn from selection for the 1974 race to represent Great Britain . Only two competitors in the race were registered as " overseas " Blues , Oxford 's number five John Hutchings and his counterpart and Tourek , both from the United States .
= = Race = =
Cambridge started as pre @-@ race favourite ; according to the author and former rower Dickie Burnell , although Oxford had some " useful new recruits " no @-@ one " outside their immediate camp thought they could win . " Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . Oxford took an early lead , but by the Mile Post , Cambridge had recovered to lead by two seconds . Extending their lead , the Light Blues gained a clear water advantage by Harrods Furniture Depository and moved in front of the Dark Blue boat . Shooting Hammersmith Bridge five seconds ahead , Cambridge held a length @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lead which they defended against a number of Oxford pushes . Midway round the Surrey bend , Oxford 's bow man Andrew Baird 's oar came out of its gate , allowing Cambridge to increase their lead by another length . A seven @-@ second lead at Chiswick Steps was extended to nine seconds by Barnes Bridge , and along the final bend , Cambridge pushed their lead further out to nearly four lengths , passing the finishing post in 19 minutes 27 seconds , thirteen seconds ahead of their rivals . It was Cambridge 's seventh victory in the previous eight years , having lost to Oxford in 1974 .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by nine @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , their first win since the 1966 race . In the 30th running of the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge triumphed , winning their 13th consecutive race .
= = Reaction = =
Oxford 's Baird claimed " I might have caught a crab , but I do not really know what happened . " Cambridge number six MacLeod said of the Dark Blues : " They kept coming at us time and time again . I was only sure of victory in the last mile of the race . " Christopher Dodd , writing in The Guardian was impressed : " The contest had a rare element ... it was a race nearly all the way , and was not all over in the first 20 stokes as has so often been the case in recent years . " Burnell suggested it was a race for the aficionados : " This was surely one of those so common Boat Races , which are hard fought all the way , yet never exciting from the point of view of the average spectator . "
|
= Reginald de Warenne =
Reginald de Warenne ( sometimes Rainald de Warenne ; between 1121 and 1126 – 1179 ) was an Anglo @-@ Norman nobleman and royal official . The third son of an earl , Reginald began his career as an administrator of his brother 's estates and married the heiress to the feudal barony of Wormegay in Norfolk . By the reign of King Henry II , Reginald was a royal justice and played a minor role in the Becket controversy in 1170 . He died in 1179 and left a son and heir together with several daughters .
= = Origins = =
Reginald de Warenne was the third son of William de Warenne , the second Earl of Surrey , who died in 1138 . Reginald 's mother was Isabel de Vermandois . Reginald was likely born between 1121 and 1126 . Reginald 's brothers were William de Warenne , the third Earl of Surrey , and Ralph de Warenne . Reginald 's two sisters were Gundrada de Warenne who married first Roger , Earl of Warwick and then William of Lancaster , and Ada de Warenne who married Henry , Earl of Huntingdon . Ada 's husband was the only son of King David I of Scotland , and she was the mother of two kings of Scotland – Malcolm IV and William I. From their mother 's first marriage to Robert de Beaumont , Reginald and his siblings were half @-@ siblings of the twins Robert de Beaumont the Earl of Leicester and Waleran de Beaumont , the Count of Meulan and Earl of Worcester . There was another Reginald de Warenne alive during Reginald 's lifetime – this may have been an illegitimate half @-@ brother .
= = Early career = =
Reginald first appears in the historical record around 1138 when he was a witness on some of his father 's charters . Reginald was one of the main administrators of his elder brother 's estates up until 1147 . Reginald also had his own lands that he was granted from his brother 's honour in Norfolk and Sussex . While his brother was on crusade , Reginald granted the right to form a merchant guild to the inhabitants of the town of Lewes , as long as his brother agreed after his return from crusade . William , the third earl , died in early 1148 while on crusade and the earldom and estates passed to William 's daughter Isabel , whom King Stephen of England married to the king 's second son , William . Reginald continued to serve the new earl and also began to serve the king , witnessing a number of royal charters . Reginald eventually became the main advisor to the new earl .
Reginald was granted the castles of Bellencombre and Mortemer in the charter of Westminster in 1153 which settled the rights that William , the surviving son of King Stephen , received for not contesting the crown of England going to Henry of Anjou after Stephen 's death , and was also a witness to the charter . Reginald continued to serve as a royal official , witnessing a number of the new king 's charters .
= = Royal service = =
In 1157 Reginald was one of the justices present when King Henry II decided a case between Hilary of Chichester , the Bishop of Chichester and Walter de Luci , the Abbot of Battle Abbey . In 1164 he was present at the Council of Clarendon , which was part of the long struggle between King Henry II and the new Archbishop of Canterbury , Thomas Becket , over the control of the English church . Reginald also accompanied the king 's daughter Matilda to Germany for her marriage to Henry the Lion , Duke of Saxony .
Reginald was one of the four main justices involved with the general eyre in 1168 through 1170 , along with Richard of Ilchester , Guy the Dean of Waltham Holy Cross , and William Basset . In 1168 , Henry II summoned Reginald as a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ law , one of the first identifiable members of that order in the historical record . Besides these administrative and judicial roles , Reginald was a baron of the exchequer in 1169 and held the office of Sheriff of Sussex from 1170 to 1176 .
In 1170 , Reginald was involved with attempts to keep Thomas Becket , who had been in exile , from returning to England . Working with Reginald were Roger de Pont L 'Évêque – the Archbishop of York , Gilbert Foliot – the Bishop of London , Josceline de Bohon – the Bishop of Salisbury , Gervase de Cornhill – the Sheriff of Kent , and Ranulf de Broc . At that time , Reginald was a royal justiciar . Reginald was part of the party that met Becket at Sandwich on 1 December 1070 when the archbishop returned to England . Reginald 's group , led by Gervase of Cornhill , complained that the archbishop was sowing dissension in the land by his excommunication of the three ecclesiastics , but Becket managed to calm the officials by stating he would consider the matter and reply to them the next day . The next day the group was accompanied by some clergy sent by the ecclesiastics who had been excommunicated by Becket . Nothing further was accomplished by this meeting except further offers from Becket to consider other options . Reginald was involved in a further attempt at resolving the differences between the king and Becket later in December 1170 , which again came to nothing .
In 1173 Reginald worked for the king , along with Richard fitz Nigel and Nicholas de Sigillo , when all three men assessed a land tax on parts of the royal demesne . These three men assessed the tax in the counties of Buckinghamshire , Bedfordshire , Oxfordshire , Kent and Sussex . During the Revolt of 1173 – 74 Reginald served the king as castellan of Hastings Castle .
= = Death and legacy = =
Reginald married Alice , the daughter and heiress of William de Wormegay , Baron of Wormegay in Norfolk . William de Wormegay died in 1166 and Reginald was fined a bit over 466 pounds by the king for the right to inherit his father @-@ in @-@ law 's lands . With his father @-@ in @-@ law 's death he became Lord of Wormegay , or Baron Wormegay . This lordship was assessed at 14 and a quarter knight 's fees and was located mostly in Norfolk and Suffolk . The centre of the honour was at Lynn , Norfolk .
Sometime between Michaelmas 1178 and the start of 1179 , Reginald retired from public life and became a monk at Lewes Priory , which had been founded by his family . When he retired , the Exchequer began to pressure him to repay his debts owed to the king , which for the previous decade or more they had ignored . Reginald died in 1179 , and his heir was his son William de Warenne . Besides his son , Reginald also had several daughters . One was Gundrada who married three times – first to Peter de Valognes , son of Roger de Valognes , second to William de Courcy , son of William de Courcy and Avice de Rumilly the daughter of William Meschin , and third to Geoffrey Hose , the son of Henry Hose . Another daughter was Alice who married Peter , constable of Mealton . A possible third daughter was Muriel , who was a nun at Carrow Abbey . Another possible daughter was Ela , who married Duncan the Earl of Fife . At his death , Reginald still owed a large portion of the fine he 'd been assessed for the inheritance of his father @-@ in @-@ law 's estates .
The historian Edmund King has called Reginald " the fixer in that formidable family " . Reginald gave lands and gifts to a number of monasteries . Among these were the Warenne family foundations of Lewes and Castle Acre Priory , with further gifts to Carrow , Clerkenwell Priory , and Binham Priory .
|
= 1988 Winter Olympics =
The 1988 Winter Olympics , officially known as the XV Olympic Winter Games ( French : Les XVes Jeux olympiques d 'hiver ) , was a Winter Olympics multi @-@ sport event celebrated in and around Calgary , Alberta , Canada between February 13 and 28 , 1988 . The host city was selected in 1981 over Falun , Sweden and Cortina d 'Ampezzo , Italy . Most events took place in Calgary while several skiing events were held in the mountain resorts of Nakiska and Canmore , west of the city .
A then @-@ record 57 nations competed and 1 @,@ 423 athletes participated . The Soviet Union won the most medals with 29 , followed by East Germany with 25 . As it had in Montreal in 1976 , Canada again failed to win a gold medal in an official medal event as the host nation . Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen and Dutch speed skater Yvonne van Gennip were individual medal leaders , capturing three gold medals apiece . The games are also remembered for the " heroic failure " of British ski jumper Eddie " The Eagle " Edwards and the Winter Olympic début of the Jamaica national bobsled team , both of which would be subjects of major feature films about their participation in the games .
The Calgary games were at the time one of the most expensive Olympics ever held , but the organizing committee turned record television and sponsorship revenue into a net surplus that was used to maintain the facilities built for the Olympics and develop the Calgary region into the heart of Canada 's elite winter sports program . The five purpose @-@ built venues continue to be used in their original functions , and have helped the country develop into one of the top nations in Winter Olympic competition ; Canada more than quintupled the five medals it won in Calgary at the 2010 games , the next Winter Olympics hosted on Canadian soil .
= = Host city selection = =
The bid for the 1988 Winter Olympics was Canada 's seventh attempt at hosting a winter games and Calgary 's fourth . Previous bids representing Montreal ( 1956 ) and Vancouver ( 1976 and 1980 ) bookended failed attempts by the Calgary Olympic Development Association ( CODA ) to host the 1964 , 1968 and 1972 games . The CODA became dormant in 1966 after losing its bid for the 1972 Olympics , but was revived in 1979 under the leadership of Frank King to bid for the 1988 games . Calgary earned the right to bid on behalf of Canada by the Canadian Olympic Association ( COA ) , defeating a rival challenge from a group representing Vancouver . The defeated organizing group lamented that they lost to Calgary 's " big @-@ ticket games " ; the Calgary bid proposed to spend nearly three times what the Vancouver group expected to pay to host the Olympics .
The CODA then spent two years building local support for the project , selling memberships to 80 @,@ 000 of the city 's 600 @,@ 000 residents . It secured C $ 270 million in funding from the federal and provincial governments while civic leaders , including Mayor Ralph Klein , crisscrossed the world attempting to woo International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) delegates . Driven by the arrival of the National Hockey League 's Calgary Flames , the city had already begun constructing an Olympic coliseum ( later named the Olympic Saddledome ) prior to the IOC vote , an action that demonstrated Calgary 's determination to host the games and positively influenced delegates . The city was one of three finalists , opposed by the Swedish community of Falun and Cortina d 'Ampezzo , the Italian town that hosted the 1956 Winter Olympics .
The vote was held September 30 , 1981 , at Baden @-@ Baden , West Germany , during the 84th IOC Session and 11th Olympic Congress . After Cortina d 'Ampezzo was eliminated in the first round of balloting , Calgary won the right to host the games over Falun by a 48 – 31 vote . The announcement of the CODA 's victory sent delegates in Baden @-@ Baden and residents of Calgary into celebration . It was the first Winter Olympics awarded to Canada , and the second games overall , following the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal .
= = Venues = =
McMahon Stadium , Calgary 's primary outdoor facility , was the site of both the opening and closing ceremonies , the first time in 28 years that the same venue hosted both events . Three other existing venues served as secondary facilities : The Max Bell Centre hosted the demonstration events of curling and short track speed skating . The Father David Bauer Olympic Arena hosted some ice hockey matches , as did the Stampede Corral , which also played host to some figure skating events . Though the Corral did not support the size of the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) ' s standard ice surface , the Calgary Organizing Committee ( Olympiques Calgary Olympics ' 88 or OCO ' 88 ) was able to convince the IIHF to sanction the arena in exchange for a $ 1 @.@ 2 million payment .
The Games ' five primary venues were all purpose @-@ built however , at significant cost . The Olympic Saddledome was the primary venue for ice hockey and figure skating . Located at Stampede Park , the facility was expected to cost $ 83 million but cost overruns pushed the facility to nearly $ 100 million . The Olympic Oval was built on the campus of the University of Calgary . It was the first fully enclosed 400 @-@ metre speed skating venue in the world as it was necessary to protect against the possibility of either bitter cold temperatures or ice @-@ melting chinook winds . Seven world and three Olympic records were broken during the Games , resulting in the facility earning praise as " the fastest ice on Earth " . Canada Olympic Park was built on the western outskirts of Calgary and hosted bobsled , luge , ski jumping and freestyle skiing . It was the most expensive facility built for the games , costing $ 200 million .
Two facilities were built west of Calgary , in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains . The Canmore Nordic Centre was 90 @-@ percent funded by the Province of Alberta at a cost of $ 17 @.@ 3 million . Located near the community of Canmore it was built with the intention that it would become a year @-@ round recreation destination for Albertans . The facility hosted cross @-@ country skiing , biathlon and Nordic combined events . Nakiska ( Cree for " to meet " ) was the most controversial facility built . The province paid the $ 25 million construction cost for the alpine skiing facility on Mount Allan , about an hour west of Calgary . It was initially criticized for the location 's relative lack of snow , requiring artificial snow making machines to be installed , and for an initial lack of technical difficulty . International Ski Federation officials proposed modifications to the courses that ultimately met with praise from competitors .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Television = = =
The Calgary Olympics were the first to earn a significant television revenue base ; where the 1980 Lake Placid Games generated only US $ 20 @.@ 7 million worldwide , OCO ' 88 generated $ 324 @.@ 9 million in broadcast rights . The overwhelming majority of television revenues came from the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) , which agreed in 1984 to pay $ 309 million for American television rights , over three times the $ 91 @.@ 5 million it paid for the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo . The deal , at the time the highest amount ever paid for a sporting event , allowed organizers to announce the Games would be debt @-@ free . The CTV Television Network paid C $ 4 @.@ 5 million for Canadian rights and to act as the host broadcaster , while western European nations paid US $ 5 @.@ 7 million combined .
OCO ' 88 made several alterations to the Olympic program as part of efforts to ensure value for its broadcast partners . Premier events , including ice hockey and figure skating , were scheduled for prime time and the Games were lengthened to 16 days from the previous 12 to ensure three weekends of coverage . However , a significant downturn in advertising revenue for sporting events resulted in ABC forecasting significant financial losses on the Games . Calgary organizers appreciated their fortunate timing in signing the deal . King described the timing of the contract with ABC as " the passing of the sun and the moon at the right time for Calgary . " ABC lost an estimated $ 60 million , and broadcast rights to the 1992 Winter Olympics were later sold to the CBS network for $ 243 million , a 20 % reduction compared to Calgary .
= = = Ticketing controversies = = =
A series of ticket @-@ related scandals plagued the organizing committee as the Games approached , resulting in widespread public anger . Demand for tickets was high , particularly for the premier events which had sold out a year in advance . Residents had been promised that only 10 percent of tickets would go to " Olympic insiders " , IOC officials and sponsors , but OCO ' 88 was later forced to admit that up to 50 percent of seats to top events had gone to insiders . The organizing committee , which was subsequently chastised by mayor Klein for running a " closed shop " , admitted that it had failed to properly communicate the obligations it had to supply IOC officials and sponsors with priority tickets . These events were preceded by OCO ' 88 's ticketing manager being charged with theft and fraud after he sent modified ticket request forms to Americans that asked them to pay in United States funds rather than Canadian and to return them to his company 's post office box rather than that of the organizing committee .
Organizers attempted to respond to public concern by asking sponsors to consider reducing their orders and by paying $ 1 @.@ 5 million to add 2 @,@ 600 seats to the Saddledome . King also noted that the Calgary Games offered a then @-@ record 1 @.@ 7 million tickets for sale , three times the amount available at Sarajevo or Lake Placid , and that 82 percent of them were going to Calgarians . By their start , a Winter Games ' record of over 1 @.@ 4 million tickets had been sold , a figure that eclipsed the previous three Winter Games combined .
= = = Community = = =
The city , which already had a strong volunteering tradition with the annual Calgary Stampede , also relied heavily on volunteers to run the Olympics . Over 22 @,@ 000 people signed up to fill 9 @,@ 400 positions , no matter how inglorious : doctors , lawyers and executives offered to clean manure dropped by horses at the opening ceremonies . Many residents participated in a " Homestay " program , opening their homes to visitors from around the world and renting rooms to those who could not stay in a hotel .
Klein was among those who felt it necessary that the event be community driven , a decision which allowed the city 's welcoming spirit to manifest . The Games ' mascots , Hidy and Howdy , were designed to evoke images of " western hospitality " . The smiling , cowboy @-@ themed polar bears were popular across Canada . Played by a team of students from Bishop Carroll High School , the sister @-@ brother pair made up to 300 appearances per month in the lead up to the Games . From their introduction at the closing ceremonies of the Sarajevo Games in 1984 until their retirement at the conclusion of the Calgary Games , the pair made about 50 @,@ 000 appearances . The iconic mascots graced signs welcoming travelers to Calgary for nearly two decades until they were replaced in 2007 .
= = = Finances = = =
Held at a price of C $ 829 million , the Calgary Olympics cost more to stage than any previous Games , summer or winter . The high cost was anticipated , as organizers were aware at the outset of their bid that most facilities would have to be constructed . The venues , constructed primarily with public money , were designed to have lasting use beyond the Games and were planned to become the home of several of Canada 's national winter sports teams . Despite the high costs , OCO ' 88 anticipated a C $ 36 million surplus , though the organizing committee counted only its own expenditures and excluded government spending .
The Games were a major economic boon for the city which had fallen into its worst recession in 40 years following the collapse of both oil and grain prices in the mid @-@ 1980s . A report prepared for the city in January 1985 estimated the games would create 11 @,@ 100 man @-@ years of employment and generate C $ 450 @-@ million in salaries and wages . In its post @-@ Games report , OCO ' 88 estimated the Olympics created C $ 1 @.@ 4 billion in economic benefits across Canada during the 1980s , 70 percent within Alberta , as a result of capital spending , increased tourism and new sporting opportunities created by the facilities .
= = Torch relay = =
The 1988 Olympic torch relay began on November 15 , 1987 , when the torch was lit at Olympia and Greek runner Stellos Bisbas began what was called " the longest torch run in history " . The flame arrived in St. John 's , Newfoundland on the Atlantic Ocean two days later and over 88 days traveled west across Canada . It passed through most major cities , north to the Arctic Ocean at Inuvik , Northwest Territories , then west to the Pacific Ocean at Victoria , British Columbia before returning east to Alberta , and finally Calgary . The torch covered a distance of 18 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 11 @,@ 000 mi ) , the greatest distance for a torch relay in Olympic history until the 2000 Sydney Games , and a sharp contrast to the 1976 Montreal Games when the relay covered only 775 kilometres ( 482 mi ) .
Relay sponsor Petro Canada issued entry forms allowing citizens the chance to become one of 6 @,@ 214 people to carry the torch for 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) . Organizers , who initially expected to receive 250 @,@ 000 entries , were inundated with over 6 @.@ 6 million forms and called the response a sign that the Olympics had " fired the imagination of Canada " . The relay , called " Share the Flame " , also saw the torch travel by boat , snowmobile and dogsled .
The relay was subject to peaceful protests by members and supporters of the Lubicon Cree First Nation at several stops in Ontario and Alberta in protest of ongoing land claim disputes between the band and the Crown , as well as discontent over an exhibit at Calgary 's Glenbow Museum called " The Spirit Sings " that featured numerous artifacts stolen from native land .
The identity of the final torchbearer who would light the Olympic cauldron was one of OCO ' 88 's most closely guarded secrets . The relay began at St. John 's with Barbara Ann Scott and Fred Hayward representing Canada 's past Olympians , and ended with Ken Read and Cathy Priestner carrying the torch into McMahon Stadium representing the nation 's current Olympians . They then handed the torch to 12 @-@ year @-@ old Robyn Perry , an aspiring figure skater who was selected to represent future Olympians , to light the cauldron . The choice of Perry was an unusual departure from most Games as the cauldron has typically been lit by a famous individual or group from the host nation .
Constructed of maple and aluminum , the torch was designed to remain lit despite the sometimes adverse conditions of Canadian winters . It was modeled after the Calgary Tower , constructed entirely of Canadian materials and designed to be light enough for the relay runners to carry comfortably . The Calgary Tower itself was retrofitted to install a cauldron at its peak and was lit for the duration of the Games , one of several " replica cauldrons " constructed at Olympic venues throughout Calgary and Canmore .
= = Event highlights = =
There were 46 events contested in 6 sports ( 10 disciplines ) .
The 1988 Winter Games began on February 13 with a $ 10 million opening ceremony that featured 5 @,@ 500 performers , an aerial flyover by the Royal Canadian Air Force 's Snowbirds , the parade of nations and the release of 1 @,@ 000 homing pigeons . Canadian composer David Foster performed the instrumental theme song ( " Winter Games " ) and its vocal counterpart ( " Can 't You Feel It ? " ) , while internationally recognized Canadian folk / country musicians Gordon Lightfoot and Ian Tyson were among the featured performers . Governor General Jeanne Sauvé opened the Games on behalf of Queen Elizabeth II as an estimated 1 @.@ 5 billion people watched the ceremony .
The weather was a dominant story throughout much of the Games , as strong chinook winds that brought daily temperatures as high as 17 ° C ( 63 ° F ) wreaked havoc on the schedules for outdoor events . Events were delayed when winds were deemed unsafe for competitors and organizers used artificial snow making equipment to ensure skiing venues were properly prepared . It was the first time in Olympic history that alpine events were held on artificial snow . The Games were also marred by the death of the Austrian ski team 's doctor , Joerg Oberhammer , on February 25 after a collision with another skier sent him crashing into a snow grooming machine at Nakiska , crushing and killing him instantly . The incident was ruled an accident .
The top individual competitors at the Olympics were Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen and Dutch speed skater Yvonne van Gennip as they each won three gold medals . Italy 's Alberto Tomba won gold in two skiing events , his first of five career Olympic medals en route to becoming the first alpine skier to win medals at three Winter Games . East Germany 's Katarina Witt defended her 1984 gold medal in women 's figure skating , capturing a second gold in Calgary . Her compatriot Christa Rothenburger won the gold medal in the 1000 metre race in speed skating , then went on to win a silver medal in the team sprint cycling event at the 1988 Summer Games to become the only person in Olympic history to win medals at both Olympic Games in the same year . The Soviet Union won gold in hockey as Scandinavian neighbours Finland and Sweden took silver and bronze , respectively .
As it had in 1976 , Canada again failed to win an official gold medal as the host of an Olympic Games . Canadians won two gold medals in demonstration events , including by Sylvie Daigle as one of her five medals in short @-@ track speed skating . Canada 's top official performances came in figure skating where Brian Orser and Elizabeth Manley each won silver medals . Promoted by the media as the " Battle of the Brians " , the competition between Orser and American rival Brian Boitano was the marquee event of the Games . Boitano won the gold medal over Orser by only one @-@ tenth of a point . Manley was not viewed as a medal contender , but skated the greatest performance of her career to come within a fraction of Witt 's gold medal winning score .
American speed skater Dan Jansen 's personal tragedy was one of the more poignant events of the Games as he skated the 500 metre race mere hours after his sister Jane died of leukemia . A gold medal favourite , Jansen chose to compete as he felt it is what his sister would have wanted . Viewers around the world witnessed his heartbreak as he fell and crashed into the outer wall in the first quarter of his heat . In the 1000 metre race four days later , Jansen was on a world record pace when he again fell . After failing again in Albertville , Jansen finally won a gold medal at the 1994 Lillehamer Games .
One of the most popular athletes from the games was British ski jumper Eddie " The Eagle " Edwards , who gained infamy by placing last in both the 70 and 90 metre events finishing 70 and 53 points behind his next closest competitor , respectively . Edwards ' " heroic failure " made him an instant celebrity ; he went from earning £ 6 @,@ 000 per year as a plasterer before the Games to making £ 10 @,@ 000 per hour per appearance afterward . Left embarrassed by the spectacle he created , the International Ski Federation altered the rules following Calgary to eliminate each nation 's right to send at least one athlete and set minimum competition standards for future events . Regardless , the President of the Organizing Committee , Frank King , playfully saluted Edwards ' unorthodox sporting legacy , which would also be commemorated with a 2016 feature film , Eddie the Eagle .
The Jamaican bobsleigh team , making their nation 's Winter Olympic debut , was also popular in Calgary . The team was the brainchild of a pair of Americans who recruited individuals with strong sprinting ability from the Jamaican military to form the team . Dudley Stokes and Michael White finished the two @-@ man event in 30th place out of 41 competitors and launched the Jamaican team into worldwide fame . The pair , along with Devon Harris and Chris Stokes crashed in the four man event , but were met with cheers from the crowd as they pushed their sled across the finish line . Their odyssey was made into the 1993 movie Cool Runnings , a largely fictionalized comedy by Walt Disney Pictures .
= = Games = =
= = = Participating National Olympic Committees = = =
A record 57 National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) entered athletes at the 1988 Calgary Olympics , 8 more than appeared at any previous Winter Games . 1 @,@ 423 athletes participated in 46 events : 1 @,@ 122 men and 301 women . Fiji , Guam , Guatemala , Jamaica , the Netherlands Antilles and the Virgin Islands had their Winter Olympics debut .
= = = Calendar = = =
In the following calendar for the 1988 Winter Olympic Games , each blue box indicates that an event competition , such as a qualification round , was held on that day . The yellow boxes represent days during which medal @-@ awarding finals for a sport were held with the number in these boxes representing the number of finals that were contested on that day .
= = = Medal table = = =
= = Legacy = =
Prior to Calgary , the Winter Olympics were viewed as a second @-@ rate event compared to their summer counterpart , so much so that the IOC had at one point considered eliminating them entirely . Few cities bid on the Winter Games due to challenges faced in generating revenue . In its bid for the Games , CODA convinced the IOC that it could not only generate enough revenue to turn a profit , but enough of one to ensure a lasting legacy of winter sport development . Organizers followed the lead of their counterparts in Los Angeles for the 1984 Summer Olympics , attracting a large television contract in the United States and was the first host city to benefit from a change in the IOC 's strategy on corporate sponsorship . The Calgary Games attracted support from over two dozen major Canadian and multinational corporations , generating millions of dollars in revenues .
Many program changes were made in Calgary to grow the appeal of the Winter Games for sponsors : the extension to 16 days from 12 added an extra weekend of coverage , while the additional programming time was filled by television friendly demonstration events popular in Canada . The exposure curling , freestyle skiing and short @-@ track speed skating gained in Calgary influenced the growth in their popularity and led to all three becoming full medal sports by 1998 .
= = = Impact on Calgary = = =
Hosting the Games helped fuel a significant increase in Calgary 's reputation on the world stage . Crosbie Cotton , a reporter for the Calgary Herald who covered the city 's Olympic odyssey from its bid to the closing ceremonies , noted a change in the attitude of the city 's population over time . He believed that the populace began to outgrow its " giant inferiority complex " that is " typically Canadian " , replacing it with a new level of confidence as the Games approached . They helped the city grow from a regional oil and gas centre best known for the Calgary Stampede to a destination for international political , economic and sporting events . A study prepared for the organizing committee of the 2010 Vancouver Olympics claimed that Calgary hosted over 200 national and international sporting competitions between 1987 and 2007 due to the facilities it had constructed for the Olympics .
The Games ' enduring popularity within Calgary has been attributed to efforts to make them " everybody 's Games " . Aside from the sense of community fostered by the level of volunteer support , organizers included the public in other ways . People were given opportunity to purchase a brick with their names engraved on it and used to build Olympic Plaza , where medal ceremonies were held in 1988 . It remains a popular public park and event site in the city 's downtown . Members of the community have attempted to bring a second Winter Games to the city . Calgary offered to take over the 2002 Winter Olympics after a bribery scandal resulted in speculation that Salt Lake City would be unable to remain the host . The city also made an effort to bid for the 2010 Games on Canada 's behalf , losing to Vancouver . A 2013 Calgary Sun online poll found that 81 % of respondents would support the city hosting a second Olympics .
= = = Canada 's development as a winter sport nation = = =
Mindful of the financial disaster the Montreal Olympics became , OCO ' 88 parlayed its ability to generate television and sponsorship revenues and government support into what was ultimately a C $ 170 million surplus . ( The claim of a surplus has frequently been challenged as OCO ' 88 counted only its own revenues and expenses and did not include government funded facilities in its accounting . ) The surplus was turned into endowment funds split between Canada Olympic Park ( $ 110 million ) and CODA , which was reformed following the Games to manage the Olympic facilities with a trust fund that had subsequently grown to be worth over $ 200 million by 2013 . Consequently , all five of the primary facilities built for the 1988 Olympics remained operational in their original intended purpose 25 years after the Games concluded .
Calgary and Canmore became the heart of winter sport in Canada as CODA ( now known as Winsport Canada ) established itself as the nation 's leader in developing elite athletes ; in 2006 , one @-@ quarter of Canada 's Olympic athletes were from the Calgary region and three @-@ quarters of its medalists were from or trained in Alberta . Canada was not a winter sport power in 1988 ; the nation 's five medals in Calgary was its second best total at a Winter Olympics behind the seven it won at the 1932 Lake Placid Games . After 1988 , Canada won an increasing number of medals at each successive Olympics , culminating in a 26 @-@ medal performance in 2010 that included a Winter Olympic record of 14 gold medals , one more than the previous record holders Soviet Union ( 1976 ) and Norway ( 2002 ) .
|
= Harry Kim ( Star Trek ) =
Ensign Harry S. L. Kim is a fictional character who appeared in each of the seven seasons of the American television series Star Trek : Voyager . Portrayed by Garrett Wang , he is the Operations Officer aboard the Starfleet starship USS Voyager . There was some difficulty in casting the part prior to the start of the series in 1995 , with a reported lack of young Asian actors to choose from .
The character first appeared in the pilot episode of the series , " Caretaker " . The character continued to appear throughout the series in a main cast role , with his final appearance in the finale , " Endgame " . In that episode , an alternative future version of the character is seen as a Starfleet Captain . He is typically shown as being naive , especially in romantic situations , but gifted . The character finds the ship 's first possible route home , and in one alternative future , he manages to develop a transwarp drive which allows him and Chakotay to travel home in a matter of hours but kills the rest of the crew . The producers had considered whether or not to kill off Kim during the third season . Wang subsequently reprised the role of Harry Kim for the fan @-@ made Star Trek : Renegades .
Reviewers said that Kim represented one of the elements of multiculturalism in the crew of Voyager , which also represented a proxy family for Kim . The storylines featuring Kim frequently had the character captured by aliens , something which was described as a typical Voyager storyline by critics . " Timeless " has been ranked as the best episode to feature Kim , and also the third best of the series , but holodeck episodes featuring Kim have also been listed by Io9 as some of the worst of their type in the franchise .
= = Concept and development = =
The character went through more than one name prior to casting , with it being called Jay Osaka at one point . The series bible for Star Trek : Voyager described Kim as being a sheltered individual who had sought to repay the love of his parents through fulfilling their expectations for him at Starfleet Academy . Winrich Kolbe , the director of the Voyager pilot " Caretaker " , was involved in the casting process and found Kim difficult as there wasn 't a great number of young Asian actors to choose from . He said that the role was an " inexperienced , naive character " , and that the actor cast as Kim would need to fight to stay in the forefront of episodes .
At the time of the casting , Garrett Wang had only been acting for about a year and a half , and after he was cast in the role he was described by Kolbe as a " young , up @-@ and @-@ coming actor , but he needs to learn , and that 's going to take some time . He 's one of the actors who has to really work hard on his craft in order to keep up with the others . " The naivety of the character was emphasized in the media reports , with TV Guide describing the character prior to the launch of the series as " green @-@ around @-@ the @-@ gills " .
Wang was enthusiastic about his new role , describing Kim 's background by saying that " I had a stellar Starfleet Academy career and am basically the rookie on the bridge . I 'm an Asian @-@ American . There 's the professional competence , but also the inner fear , ' Oh my God , are these britches too big for me ? ' His heritage is one of focus , of Zen and martial arts " . Of the casting , he said that " My goal now is to do the best job possible playing Harry Kim and to begin repaying my parents for the unaccountable financial support they have given me throughout the years . " The pilot of Voyager was broadcast on January 16 , 1995 .
Wang had initially gone along with the writing on the show until towards the end of the second season when he asked the production writers if he could have some actions scenes and perhaps a romance . He had realised at the time that he was the only member of the main cast without a stunt double as he had never had an action scene that required one . This resulted in the Brannon Braga penned " Non Sequitur " , to which Wang said to Rick Berman that there wasn 't a need to give him all his requests in a single episode . Following that , he became more involved in suggestions for character direction , but the writers avoided giving Kim more of a comedic element similar to The Doctor ( Robert Picardo ) and Neelix ( Ethan Phillips ) . Wang described himself as someone who tells jokes and makes impersonations on sets and was disappointed at not being able to utilise this nature . The producers at one point had planned to permanently kill off Harry Kim during season three , but after Wang was included in the People list of sexiest people alive 1997 , the plan was abandoned .
By season five of Voyager , certain characters were seen by the production staff as being under @-@ utilised , Kim amongst them . This led to episodes placing Kim , Chakotay and Tuvok in central positions , including the episode " Timeless " for the character of Kim . Wang was pleased with the episode , and felt that being able to act as the two different versions of Kim showed " a great dichotomy " . Following the end of the show in 2001 , Wang had felt that the character should have been promoted during the course of the series , but was told by producers that " someone 's got to be the ensign " .
= = Appearances = =
Kim was born in 2349 . After graduating from Starfleet Academy in 2370 , his first assignment was as the Operations Officer aboard USS Voyager as seen in " Caretaker " . Kim immediately became friends with Tom Paris ( Robert Duncan McNeill ) after he was assigned to the vessel for the mission which saw Voyager sent to track down a Maquis vessel in the Badlands . During this mission , the ship is sent some 70 @,@ 000 light years into the Delta Quadrant , where Kim and B 'Elanna Torres ( Roxann Dawson ) are abducted to an Ocampan medical facility . Both infected by an unknown ailment , they are rescued by and cured on Voyager on their escape from the underground city ; they are cured on board . At the time of the stranding of the ship , Kim was engaged to be married , but Kim was encouraged to date other crew members by Paris .
In " Eye of the Needle " , Kim found the ship 's first contact back with the Alpha Quadrant when he discovered a micro @-@ wormhole . It was discovered that it linked through to Romulan space some twenty years in the past . Kim twice travels through long @-@ range transportation systems . In " Emanations " , he is accidentally transported to the Vhnori homeworld by the effects of an alien burial system . He escapes the Vhnori and manages to go through the funeral system , killing him but returning him to Voyager where he is revived . When the crew meet the Sikaris in " Prime Factors " , Kim is the first crewman to be transported through their spatial trajector over a distance of some 40 @,@ 000 light years . Ultimately the technology proves incompatible with Voyager 's systems . On stardate 48693 @.@ 2 ( the episode " Heroes and Demons " ) , Kim is the first crewmember to be converted into energy by an alien creature appearing in a Beowulf holodeck programme . After the Doctor resolves the situation , Kim and two other crewmembers are restored .
Following a transporter accident , Kim awakes in San Francisco next to his fiancée , Libby ( Jennifer Gatti ) in the episode " Non Sequitur " . He finds that he never travelled on board Voyager , and nor did Paris . After being contacted by an alien , he discovers that the transporter interacted with an alien " time @-@ stream " and sent him into an alternative reality . After he receives assistance from Paris and the alien , he manages to restore the timeline and return to Voyager . During the episode " Persistence of Vision " , Kim hallucinates Libby after Voyager attempts to enter Bothan space . On stardate 49548 @.@ 7 , Voyager enters a plasma cloud to avoid Vidiian vessels in " Deadlock " . It is damaged , and Kim is sucked out through a hull breach into space and killed , while Naomi Wildman dies shortly after being born . The crew then find a duplicate Voyager in better condition occupying the same space but slightly out of phase . When the Vidiians attack the other Voyager , the alternative Kim is sent to the damaged version of the ship carrying the living Naomi Wildman shortly before the alternative Voyager self @-@ destructs . This destroys the two Vidiian vessels , and the damaged version of Voyager continues on its way , carrying a different version of Kim and Wildman .
Whilst on shore leave on Akritiri , Kim and Paris are falsely accused of a terrorist bombing . They are imprisoned on the planet , while the Voyager crew track down the real offenders , who help them rescue their crewmen ( episode " The Chute " . ) Whilst the crew are studying a nebula ( " Alter Ego " ) , Kim and Tuvok both become romantically attached to a holodeck character ; she turns out to be controlled by an alien on a nearby space station . Kim becomes infected with Taresian DNA leading him to suspect that he may be a member of their species in " Favorite Son " . But after discovering that it is all a ploy to extract his genetic material , he is saved by Voyager . In an alternative future seen in " Before and After " , Tom Paris and Kes ( Jennifer Lien ) marry , and give birth to a daughter Linnis ( Jessica Collins ) . Linnis and Kim marry , beget a child , Andrew Kim .
Kim becomes infected after being attacked by a member of Species 8472 whilst as a member of an away team aboard a Borg Cube in " Scorpion " . He is cured by the Doctor after the hologram develops a process utilising Borg nano @-@ probes . He is initially apprehensive working with the former Borg Seven of Nine ( Jeri Ryan ) but soon forms a new friendship . Following the events of " Demon " , Kim is one of the first crewmembers to be duplicated by an alien entity on a class @-@ Y planet . The duplicate crew are later killed after they leave the planet , and forget that they are duplicates . The duplicate version of Kim is the last Captain of the ship , before deciding to drop out of warp by ejecting the warp core , destroying it . Kim develops a transwarp drive in " Timeless " , which should allow Voyager to return to the Alpha Quadrant in hours . During the trip home , the ship is destroyed but Kim and Chakotay make it through on a shuttle . Years later , an older Kim and Chakotay find the destroyed Voyager and Kim manages to send a message back in time to Seven of Nine , averting the disaster and resetting the timeline .
Kim becomes infected with a bio @-@ chemical bond after having sex with a Varro named Tal ( Musetta Vander ) in " The Disease " , but the effects are removed by the Doctor . Alongside Tom Paris , Kim creates an Irish village holodeck program in " Fair Haven " . This later causes problems when the holodeck characters begin to recognise changes made to the program and that the Starfleet crew are not from their " world " . Kim is once again imprisoned by an alien race in " Body and Soul when he is part of the crew on the Delta Flyer which is captured by the Lokirrim for transporting a hologram through their space . Whilst on another mission in the Delta Flyer in " Nightingale " , Kim takes command of an Kraylor vessel , wanting to show that he can command after spending the past seven years as an Ensign on board Voyager . He manages to return the ship to its homeworld , evading an Annari fleet en route . In " Prophecy " , Kim is sexually pursued by the Klingon Ch 'Rega ( Peggy Jo Jacobs ) ; she later chooses Neelix instead . In the alternative future seen at the start of the series finale , " Endgame " , Kim has been promoted to the rank of Captain aboard the USS Rhode Island . He attempts to convince Admiral Kathryn Janeway ( Kate Mulgrew ) out of her plan to travel back in time to help Voyager return home , but instead helps her when a Klingon vessel attacks her shuttle .
= = = Voyager relaunch novels = = =
A series of non @-@ canon novels were launched in 2003 by Pocket Books set after the return of Voyager to the Alpha Quadrant . In these novels , Harry Kim is promoted to Lieutenant and assigned as Security Chief onboard Voyager under Captain Chakotay . In the Star Trek : Online spin @-@ off novel The Needs of the Many , published in 2010 , Harry Kim is the commanding officer of Starbase 11 in the year 2400 .
= = Reception = =
The mothering nature of Janeway on Kim has been described by reviewers , with the crew forming a type of family network which has Kim as a surrogate son . His separation from his nuclear family at a young age is described as cruel , and Janeway , Chakotay and Tuvok are highlighted as his de facto parents in the series . This motherly position was described by Michelle Erica Green in her review of the episode " The Disease " for TrekNation , who described certain scenes as Kim needing to request permission from " Mommy " in order to have a relationship with an alien . She felt that the disease itself caused the character to grow a " backbone " as he had rarely asserted himself previously to the Captain .
Kim has been used to show the multiculturalism of Star Trek : Voyager . One scene was described in " Faces " by Elisabeth Anne Leonard which featured a sweeping shot around the command table of Janeway , Chakotay , Tuvok and Kim , showing a Caucasian race woman , a Native American , a man of Asian descent and a black Vulcan in a single shot . Kim 's persistent optimism has been highlighted , with him being one of the few characters in the series who by the seventh series still believed that they would return home in their lifetime . Kim seemed to be frequently captured by alien species during the course of the series to the extent that it was described as one of the typical storylines seen in Voyager during an overview by The A.V. Club .
The authors of the book Deep Space and Sacred Time : Star Trek in the American Mythos state that the episode " Deadlock , " which featured the death of Kim , was one of several examples in the Star Trek franchise where the death of a major character is reversed by a parallel existence . Other examples included in The Next Generation with the return of Tasha Yar in " Yesterday 's Enterprise " and the death of Miles O 'Brien in the Deep Space Nine episode " Visionary " . They felt that Kim also shared another similarity with " Yesterday 's Enterprise " in that in the episode " Non Sequitur " , he feels that reality has been changed – which was similar to the experience that Guinan felt in The Next Generation episode .
Amongst Kim 's relationships included the relationship with a character on the ship 's holodeck in the episode " Alter Ego " , but after building a rivalry for the character 's affections with Tuvok , he becomes disinterested after finding out that the character was being played by a real person . This relationship was highlighted as an example of how Star Trek describes the ideal woman as an " objectified embodiment of male desire with no inner self to complicate the so @-@ called relationship that a man may have with her " .
Juliette Harrisson for the website Den of Geek described " Timeless " as the best Harry Kim episode , and was the third best episode of Voyager overall . She said that " Wang ’ s bitter , emotionally scarred performance holds together an hour which also features some lovely imagery " . Episodes centering on Kim were included in io9 's list of the worst holodeck related episodes in Star Trek . These included " The Thaw " , with the worst moment described as " the Harry Kim baby thing " . Other episodes highlighted as bad included " Fair Haven " while it stated that it skipped the first season " Heroes and Demons " . Wang later returned to Star Trek in fan @-@ made productions and to the role of Harry Kim in Star Trek : Renegades , alongside Manu Intiraymi and Tim Russ from Voyager .
|
= Boyce McDaniel =
Boyce Dawkins McDaniel ( June 11 , 1917 - May 8 , 2002 ) was an American nuclear physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project and later directed the Cornell University Laboratory of Nuclear Studies ( LNS ) . McDaniel was skilled in constructing " atom smashing " devices to study the fundamental structure of matter and helped to build the most powerful particle accelerators of his time . Together with his graduate student , he invented the pair spectrometer .
During World War II , McDaniel used his electronics expertise to help develop cyclotrons used to separate Uranium isotopes . McDaniel is also noted as having performed the final check on the first atomic bomb prior to its detonation in the Trinity test .
= = Biography = =
Born in Brevard , North Carolina , McDaniel attended Chesterville High School in Ohio . After graduating in 1933 , he attended Ohio Wesleyan University , from which he graduated in 1938 with a Bachelor of Science . His initial postgraduate studies took place at the Case School of Applied Science , graduating with a Master 's degree in 1940 . McDaniel continued postgraduate studies when he moved to Cornell University , and in 1943 he completed his doctoral thesis , examining the absorption rates of neutrons in indium . The research was not classified , but McDaniel and Robert Bacher , his adviser at Cornell , marked it as " secret " on their own initiative . From Cornell , McDaniel moved to MIT where he held a postdoctoral position , studying " the rapidly evolving field of fast electronics " , which he applied to research in particle physics .
After the outbreak of World War II , McDaniel joined Bacher in Los Alamos , New Mexico to work for the Manhattan Project , where he became a part of Robert R. Wilson 's cyclotron research team . McDaniel was to have " a crucial role in helping to identify the amount of uranium @-@ 235 needed to ... detonate the world 's first nuclear bomb " . McDaniel is also noted as having performed the final check on the first atomic bomb prior to its detonation in the Trinity test .
McDaniel was one of many Manhanttan Project researchers to join the Cornell faculty after the war . He became an assistant professor in 1946 and became a full professor in 1955 . With his Ph.D. student Robert Walker , he invented the pair spectrometer , a device that measures gamma ray energies . He was a co @-@ founder of Cornell 's Laboratory for Nuclear Studies ( LNS ) and had a helped create the 300 megavolt ( MeV ) electron synchrotron , one of the first such accelerators in the world . He and Wilson , who was McDaniel 's predecessor as director of LNS , built three more electron synchrotrons of 1 GeV , 2 GeV , and 10 GeV , each of which enabled physicists to study phenomena in a new energy range . McDaniel quickly earned a reputation as a hands @-@ on designer as indicated by this episode in the construction of the 300 MeV synchrotron :
The magnet coil was wound incorrectly , a fatal flaw . To get it repaired by the manufacturer could take months . Mac made a toy model of the coil , studied it carefully for an evening , and discovered an ingenious but simple way to repair it , which he did in about a day , and defused the crisis .
He was a Fulbright research fellow in 1953 at the Australian National University and a Guggenheim fellow in 1959 at the University of Rome .
In 1967 , McDaniel became director of LNS and served until he retired from the Cornell faculty in 1985 . He research included important measurements with each of the series of LNS accelerators , including studies lambda @-@ meson photo production , K @-@ meson production , and measurements of the neutron electromagnetic form factors .
Wilson and McDaniel continued to collaborate at Cornell until Wilson left to head Fermilab in Batavia , Illinois in 1967 . In 1972 , Wilson invited McDaniel to serve as acting head of the accelerator section at Fermilab , and McDanield took a one year leave of absence from Cornell . Though the Fermilab accelerator had been placed into operation , it suffered from frequent component failures . When McDaniel left eight months later , he led the effort which increased the power of Fermilab 's accelerator from 20 GeV to 300 GeV and its beam density by a factor of 1000 . Of McDaniel 's contribution to Fermilab , Wilson said , " This bravura performance demonstrated Mac ’ s skill for leadership as well as his celebrated sixth sense for finding sources of trouble and fixing them . ” Upon returning to Cornell in 1974 , McDaniel proposed upgrading the then existing 10 GeV synchrotron with an 8 GeV electron @-@ positron storage ring , which would greatly increase the energy of particle collisions when the particles in the storage ring hit the particles traveling in the opposite direction in the synchrotron . When constructed in 1979 , the Cornell Electron Storage Ring became the world 's primary source of information about one of the fundamental building blocks of matter , the b @-@ quark . After the end of particle physics experiments 20 years later , CESR is now used as a test facility of damping rings for a future international linear collider . In 1981 , McDaniel developed a proposal for a new mile @-@ diameter electron @-@ positron collider called CSER II , but could not obtain the necessary $ 200 million in funding for it . In 1988 , McDaniel was Visiting Distinguished Professor at Arizona State University .
When interviewed in 1973 about his feelings on his work resulting in the dropping of atomic bombs on Japanese cities , McDaniel said :
It 's so difficult to assess these things today . I would have preferred to see a demonstration and am rather sad that it didn 't work out that way ... but I don 't know if it would have worked out as a useful venture . I have no idea what the Japanese would have done .
= = Honors = =
McDaniel was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1981 . He was a governing board member of Fermilab , a trustee of the Associated Universities , a member of the Department of Energy High Energy Advisory Panel , a trustee of the Universities Research Association and a board member of Brookhaven National Laboratory .
In 1993 , the McDaniels donated a farm to the Cornell Plantations , which named the 60 @.@ 6 acre property the Jane McDaniel Preserve .
McDaniel died of a heart attack in Ithaca , New York at the age 84 .
|
= What Is ... Cliff Clavin ? =
" What Is ... Cliff Clavin ? " is an eighth season episode of the American television series Cheers . It was directed by Andy Ackerman rather than James Burrows — who directed 243 out of 273 episodes of the show — and originally aired on January 18 , 1990 . In this episode , Cliff Clavin ( John Ratzenberger ) appears on the game show Jeopardy ! and game show host Alex Trebek guest stars as himself . Cliff racks up US $ 22 @,@ 000 during the game but loses it all in the final round . The episode received praise from critics for its concept and its guest star .
= = Plot = =
Cliff Clavin ( John Ratzenberger ) competes on the television game show Jeopardy ! , which has temporarily moved taping to Boston for a special occasion , and amasses $ 22 @,@ 000 by the end of the Double Jeopardy ! round , more than twice the score of the second place contestant , theoretically ensuring a win . For the Final Jeopardy ! clue of " Archibald Leach , Bernard Schwartz and Lucille LeSueur " in the category of " Movies " , Cliff responds incorrectly with " Who are 3 people who 've never been in my kitchen ? " Having wagered his entire score , Cliff loses all of his winnings . Cliff objects and argues , demanding that his answer be accepted . The show 's host , Alex Trebek , later arrives at Cheers , tells Cliff that his response should have been accepted earlier , and announces his resignation as the host of Jeopardy ! . However , Cliff convinces Trebek to remain as host by telling him how much the show and Trebek mean to him . After Cliff shares the news with others , Norm Peterson ( George Wendt ) praises Trebek for doing this just to make Cliff feel better . However , Trebek says that he did not realize that Cliff was at the bar and that meeting him had been a coincidence . Trebek says that Cliff scares him and that the story about quitting the show was a fabrication to placate him .
Meanwhile , Sam Malone ( Ted Danson ) receives telephone calls from women whom he previously dated ; they are angry with him for making dates and not arriving . He eventually discovers that his " little black book " has been stolen and enrolls the help of bar patrons to find it . Through their detective work , Sam discovers that the thief has called Sam 's women alphabetically and that Rebecca Howe ( Kirstie Alley ) is the next recipient on the list . The thief turns out to be a teenage boy named Timmy ( Greg E. Davis ) , who wants to become a " babe hound " like Sam . To let Timmy go , Sam tells him to start as a " babe pup " and to call girls who are around his age , and gives him $ 25 for a haircut and a tip for a shampoo girl .
= = Reception = =
General Norman Schwarzkopf said this was the funniest episode of Cheers . Don Leighton from Superior Telegram called this episode the greatest and said the Final Jeopardy ! moment was hilarious . Jeffrey Robinson from DVD Talk said the category topics – specifically " Civil Servants " , " Stamps from Around the World " , " Mothers and Sons " , " Beer " , " Bar Trivia " , and " Celibacy " from the first round of Jeopardy ! – and the concept of the episode were a riot . Hot Springs Village Voice called Cliff 's Final Jeopardy ! moment a classic example of his mishaps caused by his own " know @-@ it @-@ all nature " . Andrew Razeghi , in his book Hope , called this episode " one of the most memorable episodes " of Cheers , found Cliff 's response to the Final Jeopardy ! clue neither right nor wrong and an example of divergent thinking , and called Cliff a poster child of Joy Paul Guilford . Former Jeopardy ! contestant Ken Jennings , in his book Brainiac , considered this episode of all Jeopardy ! -related episodes essential as other episodes that focus on characters who either are trapped in an elevator or have two dates on the same night .
= = Legacy = =
An early Jeopardy ! reference to the Cheers episode happened during the airing of the final round of the Jeopardy ! College Championship on May 18 , 1990 . Soon @-@ to @-@ be champion Michael Thayer of Rutgers College bet $ 0 and wrote " Who was someone I never met ? " as his response in the Final Jeopardy ! round . When the contestants ' wagers and responses were revealed , Trebek commented , " Michael , looks like you were watching that episode of Cheers . " In 1999 , another Jeopardy ! contestant responded to the Final Jeopardy ! clue with this question , inspired by Cliff Clavin 's incorrect response in the Final Jeopardy ! round : " What is a book that has never been in my kitchen ? " According to Michael Gordeuk from Westfield , New Jersey , Alex Trebek later recalled Cliff 's losing moment and then " broke into a huge laugh " .
Peter Wayner from InfoWorld defined " pulling a Clavin " as a reference to Cliff Clavin 's wagering all his leading score and then losing all to a zero in the Final Jeopardy ! round and as a tactic to avoid in Jeopardy ! In the Jeopardy ! fan community , the episode gave rise to what is known as " Clavin 's Rule " ( or " pulling a Cliff Clavin " ) , a rule of thumb that states that a player should not wager enough to endanger a " lock " or " runaway " game ( one where the first @-@ place player has more than twice the score of the second @-@ place player ) , no matter how tempting the category .
In the Double Jeopardy ! round of the Jeopardy ! episode from May 10 , 2005 , the categories were the same as those shown in Cliff Clavin 's game : CIVIL SERVANTS , STAMPS FROM AROUND THE WORLD , MOTHERS & SONS , BEER , " BAR " TRIVIA , and CELIBACY .
On the first episode of Jeopardy ! season 31 , which aired on September 15 , 2014 , Jeopardy ! champion Elizabeth Williams echoed Cliff Clavin 's answer in her response to the Final Jeopardy clue . Williams ' $ 600 wager combined with her opponents ' incorrect responses allowed Williams to triumph that day , nonetheless .
|
= Chrono Break =
Chrono Break was a trademark for a video game registered by Square ( now Square Enix ) in the United States on December 5 , 2001 . A similar trademark was registered by the company in the European Union on December 14 , 2001 , while the trademark Chrono Brake was registered in Japan . Although no official announcement was made , the trademark 's name coupled with Final Fantasy series video game developer Hironobu Sakaguchi 's comment in regards to Chrono Cross 's development teams interest in creating a sequel , led journalists to suggest that Square was working on a new game in the Chrono series . Since the trademark was registered , however , much of the staff who worked on prior games in the series either left the company , or moved on to other long @-@ term projects . No announcements have been made by Square Enix either supporting or rejecting the idea of making another sequel , and the trademarks all expired as of 2012 .
= = History = =
= = = Registration = = =
The registration followed a press report of talks about a new Chrono series game . Within this report , Hironobu Sakaguchi stated that the development team of Chrono Cross , especially Masato Kato , was interested in creating a new game in the series , and that script and story ideas were currently being considered , but that the project had not yet been greenlighted . Kato had previously mentioned in the Ultimania guide for Chrono Cross that he wanted to create a direct sequel to Chrono Trigger to wrap up certain story elements and plot threads , but the pitfalls of a direct sequel prompted them to do Chrono Cross instead . The registration , and Sakaguchi 's comments , led video game journalists to believe that a sequel to Chrono Trigger and Chrono Cross was in full development . IGN Editor Douglass Perry went as far as to say " ... we 're almost positive that you can expect to see this awaited monster in 2004 . " On November 13 , 2003 , the trademark was dropped in the U.S. It expired on December 14 , 2011 in the European Union , and on July 26 , 2012 in Japan . A similar trademark was registered in 2001 by Square Enix in Japan as Chrono Brake ( Japanese : クロノ ・ ブレイク ) .
= = = Official response = = =
Inquiry over a new title was subsequently large enough to warrant an entry in Square Enix 's FAQ page , in which the company noted that no new game was in development , though this did not mean the series was dead . In 2006 , the entry was revised to include sequel inquiries for any series . After the release of Chrono Cross , a number of key staff from the title left Square to form a new development studio , Monolith Soft , which was initially owned by Namco and is currently a first @-@ party developer working under Nintendo . Other staff who had worked on the title remained at Square and proceeded to work on Final Fantasy XI , an MMORPG conceived by Hironobu Sakaguchi - one of Chrono Trigger ′ s creators . During an interview at E ³ 2003 , this development team stated that they would love to develop a new Chrono game , but their commitment to Final Fantasy XI would keep them busy for a long time . Richard Honeywood , localization director for Square Enix , explained ,
Final Fantasy XI is pretty much it for a while . We still have a lot of possible expansion packs we could do , and plenty of support to give . As far as Chrono is concerned , that 's huge ; but we can 't do two or three things at the same time , and it 's tough to do FFXI and another Chrono game at the same time or too close together . We 'd love to do one though , but yeah , not yet .
Takashi Tokita , who directed Chrono Trigger , mentioned a " Chrono Trigger 2 " in a 2003 interview which has not been translated to English . Trigger developer Yuji Horii expressed no interest in returning to the Chrono franchise in 2005 . In February 2007 , Square Enix producer Hiromichi Tanaka took part in several interviews while promoting games in Europe . Tanaka reiterated that no new game was in development , but that a return was certainly not out of the question .
... it 's very difficult to be able to reunite the original team , to be able to make a sequel to the Chrono series ... because if we don 't try to reunite these people but take other people instead , we will find ourselves at that point with a game which will feel different , since there would be different persons in charge , and we would possibly lose the Chrono spirit .
In January 2008 , composer Yasunori Mitsuda remarked that " there are a lot of politics involved " in creating a new game , and stressed that Masato Kato should participate in development should a new entry in the series materialize . He did say that he was open to working with the company on the series again " if they had a good concept for the game " , and he speculated that Kato " probably would " as well .
In August 2014 , at a PAX Prime panel , Sakaguchi stated that he had intended on continuing the Chrono series into another game , but that problems with Square Enix management prevented it from coming to fruition .
I think the statute of limitations has passed and expired so I think I 'm okay saying this — but we just didn 't see eye @-@ to @-@ eye with management , and so I went and fought for it , and I officially lost the battle ... Nothing 's confirmed . But again , it would be nice to be able to work on a continuation of my old creations .
= = Aftermath = =
The February 2008 issue of Game Informer ranked the Chrono series eighth among the " Top Ten Sequels in Demand " , naming the games " steadfast legacies in the Square Enix catalogue " and asking " what 's the damn holdup ? ! " . In Electronic Gaming Monthly ′ s June 2008 " Retro Issue " , writer Jeremy Parish cited Chrono as the franchise video game fans would be most thrilled to see a sequel to . In the first May Famitsu of 2009 , Chrono Trigger placed 14th out of 50 in a vote of most @-@ wanted sequels by the magazine 's readers . At E3 2009 , SE Senior Vice President Shinji Hashimoto remarked " If people want a sequel , they should buy more ! " In 2012 , a trademark for Chrono Bind by Square Enix lead Siliconera to speculate that the game had switched titles from Chrono Break to Chrono Bind ; however , it was later revealed to merely be the name of a DLC card game in Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 . In the same year , Kotaku expressed disappointment that Square Enix had not acted on the Chrono Break name , citing strong sales of the DS port of Chrono Trigger as a reason as to why the company should release a third game in the series .
|
= Whitefriars , Bristol =
Whitefriars was a Carmelite friary on the lower slopes of St Michael 's Hill , Bristol , England . It was established in 1267 ; in subsequent centuries a friary church was built and extensive gardens developed . The establishment was dissolved in 1538 .
Much of the site was then redeveloped by Sir John Young , who built a " Great House " there . This later became a boys ' school founded by Edward Colston in the 18th century . The Red Lodge , which survives today as a museum , had its origins as a prospect house for the Prior . The Colston Hall , a venue for concerts , was built on part of the friary site in the 19th century . A 20th @-@ century office block named Whitefriars , built a short distance way , preserves the name .
= = History = =
Whitefriars was founded in 1267 by the Prince of Wales , the future king Edward I. The friars , also known as Friars of the Blessed Virgin , wore white habits , hence the name Whitefriars . In the fifteenth century William of Worcester , described the church as having dimensions of 45 by 25 yards ( 41 m × 23 m ) , with a tower 200 feet ( 61 m ) high . The friary was described by the antiquary Leyland , writing in the early sixteenth century , as standing on the right bank of the Frome by the quay . He added that it was " the fairest friary in England " . The friary had a large expanse of adjoining land extending up St Michael 's Hill . This was used for horticulture and the Carmelites sold produce to augment their income .
Writing to Thomas Cromwell in 1538 , Richard Yngworth , one of the commissioners or visitors charged with inspecting monastic houses , reported that the contents of the friary only just met the debts owed by the friars . He described a chapel with lead roofing , gardens and a " goodly howse in byldenge , mete for a great man " , also a conduit bringing fresh water from Brandon Hill , later taken over by St John 's Church . Four remaining friars surrendered their possessions to the commissioner in the presence of the Mayor .
= = Post @-@ dissolution = =
Some monastic cells , thought to belong to the friary , survive under the Red Lodge , which had its origins as a prospect house for the prior of Whitefriars . This building became the lodge house of an Elizabethan mansion , the Great House , built in the late 16th century by John Young , who had bought the friary from Bristol Corporation after the Dissolution of the Monasteries . The Great House was where Elizabeth I stayed , as a guest of John Young , in 1574 . In the 18th century , the house was acquired by Edward Colston , who established the original Colston 's School there . After the school moved to Stapleton in 1857 , the Colston Hall Society purchased the premises , and demolished the house to build the Colston Hall , which now occupies the site . Excavations during the building of the adjacent Colston House in the early 20th century found medieval walls , burials and floor tiles .
As part of the post @-@ war redevelopment of Bristol city centre , the name Whitefriars was given to a large multi @-@ storey office development located in Lewin 's Mead , a few hundred yards from the site of the original Whitefriars and adjoining the site of the Greyfriars office complex . The building has thirteen floors and stands 49 metres ( 161 ft ) high . It was completed in 1976 .
|
= National Hurricane Center =
The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) , located at Florida International University in University Park , unincorporated Miami @-@ Dade County , Florida , is the division of the United States ' National Weather Service responsible for tracking and predicting weather systems within the tropics between the Prime Meridian and the 140th meridian west poleward to the 30th parallel north in the northeast Pacific ocean and the 31st parallel north in the northern Atlantic ocean . Its Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch ( TAFB ) routinely issues marine forecasts , in the form of graphics and high seas forecasts , for this area year round , with the Ocean Prediction Center having backup responsibility for this unit . The Technology and Science Branch ( TSB ) provides technical support for the center , which includes new infusions of technology from abroad . The Chief , Aerial Reconnaissance Coordination , All Hurricanes ( CARCAH ) unit tasks planes , for research and operational purposes , to tropical cyclones during the Atlantic hurricane season and significant weather events , including snow storms , during winter and spring . Research conducted to improve operational forecasts is done through the Hurricane Forecast Improvement Project ( HFIP ) and Joint Hurricane Test Bed ( JHT ) initiatives .
During the Atlantic and northeast Pacific hurricane seasons , the Hurricane Specialists Unit ( HSU ) issues routine tropical weather outlooks for the northeast Pacific and northern Atlantic oceans . When tropical storm or hurricane conditions are expected within 48 hours , the center issues the appropriate watches and warnings via the news media and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Weather Radio . Although the NHC is an agency of the United States , the World Meteorological Organization has designated it as Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the North Atlantic and eastern Pacific , making it the central clearinghouse for all tropical cyclone forecasts and observations occurring in these areas . If the center loses power or becomes incapacitated in some manner , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center backs tropical cyclone advisories and tropical weather outlooks for the northeast Pacific ocean while the Weather Prediction Center backs up tropical cyclone advisories and tropical weather outlooks for the north Atlantic ocean .
= = History = =
The first hurricane warning service was set up in the 1870s from Cuba with the work of Father Benito Viñes . After his passing , hurricane warning services were assumed by the United States Signal Corp and United States Weather Bureau over the next decade , first based in Jamaica in 1898 and Cuba in 1899 before shifting to Washington , D.C. in 1902 . The central office in Washington , which evolved into the National Meteorological Center and Weather Prediction Center ( formally known as the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center ) , assumed hurricane warning / advisory responsibility at that time . This responsibility passed to regional hurricane offices in 1935 , and the concept of the Atlantic hurricane season was established in order to keep a vigilant lookout for tropical cyclones during certain times of the year . Hurricane advisories issued every six hours by the regional hurricane offices began at this time . The Jacksonville hurricane warning office moved to Miami , Florida in 1943 . Tropical cyclone naming began for Atlantic tropical cyclones using the Joint Army / Navy Phonetic Alphabet by 1947 . Starting in 1950 , the Miami Hurricane Warning Office began to prepare the annual hurricane season summary articles . In the 1953 Atlantic season , the United States Weather Bureau began naming storms which reach tropical storm intensity with human names .
The National Hurricane Research Project , begun in the 1950s , used aircraft to study tropical cyclones and carry out experiments on mature hurricanes through its Project Stormfury . On July 1 , 1956 , a National Hurricane Information Center was established in Miami , Florida which became a warehouse for all hurricane @-@ related information from one United States Weather Bureau office . The Miami Hurricane Warning Office ( HWO ) was moved from Lindsey Hopkins Hotel to the Aviation Building 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to the northwest on July 1 , 1958 . Forecasts within the hurricane advisories were issued one day into the future in 1954 before being extended to two days into the future in 1961 , three days into the future in 1964 , and five days into the future in 2001 . The Miami HWO moved to the campus of the University of Miami in 1964 , and was referred to as the NHC in 1965 . The Miami HWO tropical cyclone reports were done regularly and took on their modern format in 1964 .
Beginning in 1973 , the National Meteorological Center duties ( renamed the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center ; renamed for a second time in 2013 ) gained advisory responsibility for tracking and publicizing inland tropical depressions . The World Meteorological Organization assumed control of the Atlantic hurricane naming list in 1977 . In 1978 , the NHC 's offices moved off the campus of the University of Miami across U.S. Highway 1 to the IRE Financial Building . Male names were added into the hurricane list beginning in the 1979 season . The hurricane warning offices remained active past 1983 . In 1984 , the NHC was separated from the Miami Weather Service Forecast Office , which meant the meteorologist in charge at Miami was no longer in a position above the hurricane center director . By 1988 , the NHC gained responsibility for eastern Pacific tropical cyclones as the former Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center in San Francisco was decommissioned . In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew blew the WSR @-@ 57 weather radar and the anemometer off the roof of NHC 's / the Miami State Weather Forecast offices . The radar was replaced with a WSR @-@ 88D NEXRAD system in April 1993 installed near Metro Zoo , near where Hurricane Andrew made landfall .
In 1995 , the NHC moved into a new hurricane @-@ resistant facility on the campus of Florida International University , capable of withstanding 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) winds . Its name was changed to the Tropical Prediction Center in 1995 . After the name change to TPC , the Hurricane Specialists were grouped as a separate NHC unit under the Tropical Prediction Center , separating themselves from the Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch . On October 1 , 2010 , the Tropical Prediction Center was renamed the NHC , and the group formerly known as the NHC became known as the Hurricane Specialists Unit ( HSU ) .
Tropical cyclone forecasting is done nowadays using statistical methods based on tropical cyclone climatology , as well as methods of numerical weather prediction where computers use mathematical equations of motion to determine their movement . The World Meteorological Organization continues to create and maintain the annual hurricane naming lists . Naming lists continue to use a six @-@ year rotation , with the deadliest or most notable storms having their names retired from the rotation . The current director of the National Hurricane Center is Richard Knabb .
= = = List of directors = = =
= = Organization = =
For the fiscal year of 2008 , the budget for the NHC was $ 6 @.@ 8 million . A total of 66 people work for the NHC , with 12 of the staff composing their management . The NHC has been one of the nine national centers which compose the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) .
= = = Hurricane Specialists Unit = = =
Known as the NHC from 1995 through 2010 , the hurricane specialists within the hurricane specialists unit ( HSU ) are the chief meteorologists that predict the actions of tropical storms . The specialists work rotating eight @-@ hour shifts from May through November , monitoring weather patterns in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific oceans . Whenever a tropical or subtropical cyclone forms , they begin to issue advisories every six hours until the storm runs its course . Public advisories are issued more often when the storm expected to be of tropical storm or hurricane intensity threatens land . The specialists coordinate with officials in each country likely to be affected . They forecast and recommend watches and warnings .
During the hurricane season , the HSU routinely issues their Tropical Weather Outlook product , which identifies areas of concern within the tropics which could develop into tropical cyclones . If systems occur outside the defined hurricane season , special Tropical Weather Outlooks will be issued . Backup responsibility for their northeast Pacific area resides at the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) , and vice versa if CPHC were to have communication issues . North Atlantic responsibilities are backed up by the Weather Prediction Center ( WPC ) . Routine coordination occurs at 1700 UTC each day between the Weather Prediction Center and National Hurricane Center to identify systems for the pressure maps three to seven days into the future within the tropics , and points for existing tropical cyclones six to seven days into the future . Outside of the hurricane season , the specialists concentrate on public education efforts .
= = = Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch = = =
The Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch ( TAFB , formerly the Tropical Satellite Analysis and Forecast unit and the Tropical Analysis Center ) is a part of the National Hurricane Center and was created in 1967 . The TAFB is responsible for high seas analyses and forecasts for tropical portions of the Atlantic and Pacific between the Prime Meridian and the 140th meridian west poleward to the 30th parallel north in the northeast Pacific ocean and the 31st parallel north in the northern Atlantic ocean . Unlike the Hurricane Specialists Unit ( HSU ) , TAFB is staffed full @-@ time around the year . Other responsibilities of the TAFB include satellite @-@ derived tropical cyclone position and intensity estimates , WSR @-@ 88D radar fixes for tropical cyclones , tropical cyclone forecast support , media support , and general operational support . The Ocean Prediction Center backs up TAFB in the event of a communications outage , and vice versa .
= = = Technology and Science Branch = = =
The Technology & Science Branch ( TSB ) develops and transitions new tools and techniques into operations for tropical weather prediction in conjunction with other government and academic entities . TSB created and continues development of the Automated Tropical Cyclone Forecasting ( ATCF ) system , used to incorporate various data and model outputs , create and update HURDAT , and to generate tropical cyclone forecasts . The TSB provides support for NHC computer and communications systems including its website . TSB maintains a number of statistical and dynamical models used in predicting both tropical cyclone behavior and associated weather conditions . The Storm Surge Unit , which develops and maintains software to forecast the storm surge of tropical cyclones , is part of this branch . The Techniques Development and Applications Unit ( TDAU ) is part of TSB .
= = = CARCAH = = =
The Chief , Aerial Reconnaissance Coordination , All Hurricanes ( CARCAH ) is a subunit of the 53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron ( Hurricane Hunters ) . CARCAH 's mission is to provide a point @-@ of @-@ contact and to coordinate all tropical cyclone operational reconnaissance requirements at NHC and the Central Pacific Hurricane Center for the North Atlantic , Caribbean , Gulf of Mexico , and the North Pacific basin east of the International Date Line in accordance with the National Hurricane Operations Plan ( NHOP ) . During the winter , CARCAH coordinates the Atlantic and Pacific winter storm requirements in support of the National Winter Storms Operations Plan ( NWSOP ) . Missions are flown in advance of the high @-@ impact weather events forecast to affect the U.S. , such as heavy snowfall , and at times when there is significant uncertainty within / between numerical weather prediction output .
= = = HLT = = =
The Hurricane Liaison Team ( HLT ) supports hurricane response through information exchange between the NHC , the National Weather Service ( NOAA / NWS ) , and the emergency management community . The HLT is composed of federal , state , and local emergency managers , as well as NWS meteorologists and hydrologists , who maintain open lines of communication about the progress and threat level of the storm with appropriate Federal , state , and local officials . The team establishes and facilitates video and / or teleconferences with the NHC , FEMA and other Federal agencies , state Emergency Operations Centers ( EOCs ) , Weather Prediction Center ( HPC ) , Storm Prediction Center ( SPC ) , and River Forecast Centers ( RFCs ) . During significant landfalling hurricanes , the President of the United States as well as affected city mayors and state governors join the daily briefing call , which occurs at noon Eastern Daylight Time .
= = Research = =
As part of their annual tropical cyclone activity , the agency issues a report on every tropical cyclone in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific Ocean basins , which are available since 1958 and 1988 , respectively . The report summarizes the synoptic history , meteorological statistics , casualties and damages , and the post @-@ analysis best track of a storm . The reports were formally known as Preliminary Reports up until 1999 . The agency maintains archives and climatological statistics on Atlantic and Pacific hurricane history , including annual reports on every tropical cyclone , a complete set of tropical cyclone advisories , digitized copies of related materials on older storms , season summaries published as the Monthly Weather Review , and HURDAT , which is the official tropical cyclone database .
Programs are dedicated to improving the accuracy of tropical cyclone forecasts from the center . The Joint Hurricane Testbed ( JHT ) is a joint operation between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and United States Weather Research Program to speed up the transfer of tropical cyclone @-@ related research into forecast operations . Since 2001 , with its annual budget of between $ 1 @.@ 0 and $ 1 @.@ 5 million , the JHT has funded 62 initiatives , with most of them being implemented operationally . The projects have had varied success , ranging from minor to significant advances in the way the NHC operates . The Hurricane Forecast Improvement Program 's ( HFIP ) five @-@ year goal is to lead to a 20 percent improvement within the numerical weather prediction models provided by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction to NHC by 2015 and a 50 percent improvement within tropical cyclone track forecasting and intensity guidance by 2020 .
= = In popular culture = =
Summer Fury ( 2014 ) , novel by former South Florida TV weatherman Gary Travers
|
= Ranavalona III =
Ranavalona III ( November 22 , 1861 – May 23 , 1917 ) was the last sovereign of the Kingdom of Madagascar . She ruled from July 30 , 1883 to February 28 , 1897 in a reign marked by ongoing and ultimately futile efforts to resist the colonial designs of the government of France . As a young woman , she was selected from among several Andriana qualified to succeed Queen Ranavalona II upon her death . Like both preceding queens , Ranavalona entered a political marriage with a member of the Hova elite named Rainilaiarivony , who in his role as Prime Minister of Madagascar , largely oversaw the day @-@ to @-@ day governance of the kingdom and managed its foreign affairs . Ranavalona tried to stave off colonization by strengthening trade and diplomatic relations with the United States and Great Britain throughout her reign . French attacks on coastal port towns and an assault on the capital city of Antananarivo ultimately led to the capture of the royal palace in 1895 , ending the sovereignty and political autonomy of the century @-@ old kingdom .
The newly installed French colonial government promptly exiled Rainilaiarivony to Algiers . Ranavalona and her court were initially permitted to remain as symbolic figureheads , but the outbreak of a popular resistance movement – the menalamba rebellion – and discovery of anti @-@ French political intrigues at court led the French to exile the queen to the island of Réunion in 1897 . Rainilaiarivony died that same year and shortly thereafter Ranavalona was relocated to a villa in Algiers , along with several members of her family . The queen , her family and the servants accompanying her were provided an allowance and enjoyed a comfortable standard of living including occasional trips to Paris for shopping and sightseeing . Despite Ranavalona 's repeated requests , she was never permitted to return home to Madagascar . She died of an embolism at her villa in Algiers in 1917 at the age of 55 . Her remains were buried in Algiers but were disinterred 21 years later and shipped to Madagascar , where they were placed within the tomb of Queen Rasoherina on the grounds of the Rova of Antananarivo .
= = Early years = =
Ranavalona III , daughter of Andriantsimianatra and his wife Princess Raketaka , was born Princess Razafindrahety on November 22 , 1861 , at Amparibe , a rural village in the district of Manjakazafy outside Antananarivo . Razafindrahety 's lineage , as niece to Queen Ranavalona II and great @-@ granddaughter of King Andrianampoinimerina , qualified her to potentially inherit the throne of the Kingdom of Madagascar . Her parents assigned the care of the infant Razafindrahety to a slave who served the family .
When she was old enough to attend school , Razafindrahety was taken into the custody of her aunt , Queen Ranavalona II , who ensured she began receiving a private education from a London Missionary Society ( LMS ) teacher . She was described as an industrious and inquisitive child with a strong love of studying the Bible , learning and reading , and she developed affectionate relationships with her teachers . She continued her education throughout her adolescence at the Congregational School of Ambatonakanga , the Friends High School for Girls , and the LMS Girls ' Central School . She was baptized as a Protestant at Ambohimanga on April 5 , 1874 . Her teachers consistently described her as ranking among their strongest students .
As a young woman , Razafindrahety married an Andriana ( nobleman ) named Ratrimo ( Ratrimoarivony ) . Her husband died several years later on May 8 , 1883 , aged 22 , leaving Razafindrahety a premature widow . According to rumor , Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony may have arranged to have Ratrimo poisoned for political reasons . The Aristocratic Revolution of 1863 , which had been orchestrated by Rainilaiarivony 's older brother , Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony , had replaced the absolute rule of the Andriana with a constitutional monarchy in which power was shared between an Andriana monarch and a Hova ( freeman ) prime minister . This arrangement was to be cemented by a political marriage between the prime minister and a ruling queen effectively selected by him . As Queen Ranavalona II neared death and the search for her successor began , Rainilaiarivony may have had Ratrimo deliberately poisoned so that Razafindrahety , the most eligible successor , would be free to marry the prime minister and succeed to the throne .
= = Reign = =
Ranavalona III was proclaimed queen upon the death of her predecessor , Queen Ranavalona II , on July 13 , 1883 , and moved into Tsarahafatra , a wooden house on the grounds of the royal Rova complex in Antananarivo . Her coronation took place in the Mahamasina neighborhood of Antananarivo on November 22 , 1883 , her 22nd birthday , where she was given the title " Her Majesty Ranavalona III by the grace of God and the will of the people , Queen of Madagascar , and Protectoress of the laws of the Nation " . She chose to break with tradition by supplementing the customary retinue of soldiers at her ceremony with a group of 500 male and 400 female pupils from the capital 's best schools . The girls were dressed in white while the boys wore soldiers ' uniforms and performed traditional military drills with spears . Ranavalona was crowned wearing a white silk gown with a red train featuring embroidery and gold embellishments . The queen was described in the American press in the following terms : " She is a little above the ordinary height and has delicate features , her complexion is a little darker than that of most of her subjects . She appears quite timid and she presides well at the solemn functions of her court . "
Like her two predecessors , Ranavalona concluded a political marriage with Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony . The young queen 's role was largely ceremonial as nearly all important political decisions continued to be made by the much older and more experienced prime minister . Ranavalona was frequently called upon to deliver formal speeches ( kabary ) to the public on behalf of Rainilaiarivony and would make appearances to inaugurate new public buildings , such as a hospital at Isoavinandriana and a girls ' school at Ambodin 'Andohalo . Throughout her reign , Ranavalona 's aunt , Ramisindrazana , acted as an adviser and exercised considerable influence at court . Ranavalona 's older sister , Rasendranoro , whose son Rakatomena and daughter Razafinandriamanitra lived with their mother at the Rova , was also a close companion . An American journalist who visited her palace reported that Ranavalona spent much of her leisure time flying kites or playing lotto , a parlor game , with her relatives and other ladies at court . She also enjoyed knitting , needlework and crocheting and would frequently bring her latest craft project to work on at cabinet meetings . She had a great love of fine garments and was the only Malagasy sovereign to import the majority of her clothing from Paris rather than London .
= = = Franco @-@ Hova War = = =
As sovereign of Madagascar , Ranavalona III became a pawn in the endgame of the maneuvering that had been taking place between the British and French since the beginning of the century . The tension between France and Madagascar had grown especially acute in the three years prior to Ranavalona 's succession , with an intensification of attacks in the months prior to her coronation . In February 1883 the northwestern coast was bombarded , followed by the occupation of Mahajanga by the French in May , and bombardment and capture of Toamasina in June . Attacks along the northern coast were ongoing at the time Ranavalona III was crowned in the summer of 1883 . Shortly after the French initiated this latest round of hostilities , Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony decided to engage Lieutenant Colonel Willoughby , a Briton who had gained combat experience in the Anglo @-@ Zulu War ( but without having been a member of the British armed forces ) , to oversee the nation 's military affairs and train the queen 's army to defend the island against the seemingly inevitable French invasion .
Throughout this period Madagascar continued to engage the French in negotiations , but these were to prove unsuccessful with both sides unwilling to capitulate on key points of contention . After two years of stalemate , a column brought an ultimatum to Antananarivo in December 1885 , asking for recognition of French rights in northeastern Madagascar , a French protectorate over the Sakalava , recognition of French property principles and an indemnity of 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 francs . This peace treaty was ratified by Ranavalona and Rainilaiarivony in January 1886 and French government representatives two months later .
Prior to ratification , the queen and her prime minister sought clarification about several articles in the main treaty that stated " foreign relations " would be controlled by a French resident and referenced " establishments " at Diego @-@ Suarez Bay . Two key French negotiators , Minister Patrimonio and Admiral Miot , provided an explanation affixed to the treaty as an annex , which led the rulers of Madagascar to deem the treaty an adequate enough safeguard of their nation 's sovereignty to warrant their approval and signature . However , the official treaty was published in Paris without the annex or any reference to it . When the annex was later published in London , the French denied it had any legal validity . France declared a protectorate over the island despite the opposition of the Malagasy government and the omission of this term from the treaty .
The international reaction to this latest turn of events was varied and greatly colored by national interests . The British were unwilling to defend Madagascar 's sovereignty for fear that the French might retaliate and fail to recognize the British claim to certain protectorates of its own . All official British engagement with Madagascar was henceforth transacted through the French resident , but these communiques were not officially recognized by Ranavalona and her court . The United States and Germany , on the other hand , continued to deal directly with the queen 's government as the rightful authority in Madagascar . This discrepancy forced a reinterpretation of one aspect of the treaty , resulting in the queen 's authority over internal affairs being maintained .
In 1886 the queen attempted to solicit the support of the United States in preserving Madagascar 's sovereignty by sending gifts to then @-@ President Grover Cleveland , including silk akotofahana cloths , an ivory pin and a woven basket . However , the United States was neither able nor inclined to assert itself militarily or diplomatically in favor of preserving Madagascar 's independence . Ranavalona signed a treaty granting further concessions to the French on December 12 , 1887 .
France 's claim to Madagascar as its protectorate was officially recognized by Britain in the Anglo @-@ French agreement of 1890 . Between 1890 and 1894 , the French sought to aggressively claim what they believed to be the territorial rights established by the treaty . However , these French land claims and settlements were perceived by Ranavalona and Rainilaiarivony as an unjustifiable encroachment upon Malagasy sovereignty . Ultimately Charles Le Myre de Vilers was sent to persuade the queen and her prime minister to submit to the French interpretation of the treaty with the intent to launch a war and take the island by force if an agreement was not reached . The French offer was flatly refused and diplomatic relations between France and Madagascar were broken off in November 1894 .
Upon terminating diplomatic relations , the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast in December 1894 , then captured Mahajanga on the west coast the following month and immediately began their gradual advance , constructing roads through the malarial swamps that hindered passage to the island 's interior . The main expeditionary troops arrived in May . Over 6 @,@ 000 of the original 15 @,@ 000 French soldiers lost their lives to disease as they gradually moved inland , necessitating several thousand reinforcements drawn from French colonies in Algeria and Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . The column reached the capital in September 1895 . For three days the Malagasy army managed to hold the French troops at the periphery of the city , but upon French bombardment of the Rova palace compound with heavy artillery , Ranavalona agreed to surrender control of her kingdom to the French .
= = = French colonization = = =
France officially annexed Madagascar on January 1 , 1896 . That August , the French officially declared Madagascar to be their colony and exiled Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to Algiers ( in French Algeria ) where he died the following year . The queen and much of her administration remained but were afforded no real political power . Shortly after Rainilaiarivony 's exile , Ranavalona was approached by a French official who informed her that a new prime minister would need to be selected . The queen hastily concluded that General Jacques Duchesne , the French general who had successfully led the military campaign against the Merina monarchy , would be a probable choice . Assuming that Malagasy political tradition would be preserved , Ranavalona believed she would be forced to marry whichever man was chosen for the job and worriedly asked if Duchesne was to be her next husband . Surprised , the French official reassured her that France had no intention of imposing a husband on the queen and would never again require her to marry a prime minister . The queen 's minister of foreign affairs , Rainitsimbazafy , was nominated to the post of prime minister by mutual consent .
In December 1895 , two months after the French capture of Antananarivo , popular resistance to French rule emerged in the form of the menalamba ( " red shawl " ) rebellion . This guerrilla war against foreigners , Christianity and political corruption quickly spread throughout the island and was principally conducted by peasants who wore shawls smeared with the red laterite soil of the highlands . The resistance movement gained ground until it was effectively put down by the French military at the end of 1897 . Members of Ranavalona 's court were accused of encouraging the rebels and many leading figures were executed , including the queen 's uncle Ratsimamanga ( brother of her favored adviser , Ramisindrazana ) and her minister of war , Rainandriamampandry . Ramisindrazana , the queen 's aunt , was exiled to Réunion , as the French were reluctant to execute a woman .
The resistance led the government of France to replace the island 's civil governor , Hippolyte Laroche , with a military governor , Joseph Gallieni . The day before Gallieni arrived in Antananarivo , he had a message sent to the queen requiring her to present herself and her entourage at the military headquarters , preceded by a standard bearer carrying a French flag . The queen was obliged to sign documents handing over all royal property to France before being placed under arrest and imprisoned in her own palace . She was only allowed to receive visitors who had obtained prior authorization from Gallieni himself . While imprisoned , Ranavalona offered to convert to Roman Catholicism in an attempt to curry French favor but was informed that such a gesture was no longer necessary .
= = Exile = =
Gallieni exiled Ranavalona from Madagascar on February 27 , 1897 , and officially abolished the monarchy the next day . French officials ordered the queen to leave her palace at 1 : 30 in the morning . She was carried from Antananarivo by palanquin as the city slept , accompanied by 700 – 800 escorts and porters . Throughout the days spent traveling to the eastern port of Toamasina where she would board a ship to Réunion , Ranavalona reportedly drank heavily , swigging rum directly from the bottle in an uncustomarily coarse fashion . At Toamasina on March 6 , Ranavalona was notified that her sister Rasendranoro and aunt Ramasindrazana would be arriving shortly , as would the queen 's fourteen @-@ year @-@ old niece , Razafinandriamanitra , who was nine months pregnant with the illegitimate child of a French soldier .
= = = Réunion Island = = =
Together , the family sailed on La Peyrouse to the port of Pointe des Galets , a site twenty kilometers ( 12 @.@ 5 miles ) from the capital of St. Denis , to secure a discreet arrival . Despite this effort , a crowd of French onlookers jeered and shouted as the boat docked , angry at the queen for the loss of French lives incurred during France 's campaign to occupy Madagascar . After waiting for the crowd to disperse , the captain escorted the queen and her party into a horse @-@ drawn buggy , the first Ranavalona had ever seen , and drove to the Hotel de l 'Europe in St. Denis . Young Razafinandriamanitra , suffering from the emotional and physical strains of the journey into exile , went into labor shortly after reaching the hotel . She gave birth to a little girl on her second day in Réunion , but could not recover her strength and died five days later . The infant was named Marie @-@ Louise and was baptised a Catholic to avoid antagonizing the French . Marie @-@ Louise , who could have become heir @-@ apparent according to the traditional rules of succession , was adopted by Ranavalona as her own daughter .
Within a month the party had been moved to a house owned by a Madame de Villentroy , located at the corner of rue de l 'Arsenal and rue du Rempart near the French government offices in St. Denis . Ranavalona was reportedly pleased with the two @-@ story house , which had a large walled garden and featured a peaked roof and wrap @-@ around veranda reminiscent of the traditional highland homes of Madagascar . In addition to the queen and her aunt , sister , and grand @-@ niece , the royal household included two secretaries , a cook , a maid , three servants for Ranavalona , and several more servants for her aunt and sister . The queen 's private pastor was authorized to make visits freely to the royal household .
The queen 's party occupied the house in Réunion for just under two years . As tensions between England and France began to mount once again , this time over the conflict in Sudan , the French authorities became concerned that elements of the population in Madagascar might seize the opportunity to launch a new rebellion against French rule . The queen 's proximity to Madagascar was seen as a possible source of encouragement for would @-@ be Malagasy rebels . French authorities made an abrupt decision to remove Ranavalona and her party to Algeria , a more distant location . On February 1 , 1899 , with very little forewarning , Ranavalona and her family were ordered aboard the Yang @-@ Tse accompanied by a secretary @-@ interpreter and several maids . During the 28 @-@ day journey to the French port of Marseilles , the passengers stopped over at such ports as Mayotte , Zanzibar , Aden and Djibouti . Throughout the trip , the various captains responsible for the journey were under orders to prevent Ranavalona from speaking with anyone who was not French . The party was held for several months at Marseilles before being transferred to a villa in the Mustapha Superieur area in Algiers . Ranavalona had hoped to continue on to Paris and was greatly disappointed to learn she was instead being sent to Algeria , reportedly bursting into tears and remarking , " Who is certain of tomorrow ? Only yesterday I was a queen ; today I am simply an unhappy , broken @-@ hearted woman . "
= = = Algeria = = =
At the queen 's villa in Algiers , Ranavalona was provided with servants and a French female attendant who kept her under observation and remained present whenever the queen entertained guests in her home . In addition , the government of France initially provided Ranavalona with an annual allowance of 25 @,@ 000 francs paid from the budget for the colony of Madagascar and authorized by the colony 's Governor General . Nearly all the queen 's property had been seized by the colonial authority , although she had been permitted to keep certain personal belongings , including some of her jewelry . Her initial pension allowed such a humble lifestyle that the colonial government of Algeria lobbied unsuccessfully several times on her behalf to obtain an increase for her . Ranavalona also tasked a servant with selling some of her jewelry for cash , but the plan was discovered by the French colonial authorities and the servant was discharged and sent back to Madagascar .
During the first years of her exile in Algeria , Ranavalona soon discovered the excitement of the socialite lifestyle among the elite of Algiers . She was regularly invited to parties , outings and cultural events and often hosted events of her own . However , homesickness was ever @-@ present and the impossibility of visiting Madagascar contributed to melancholy and boredom . She would frequently take long walks alone in the countryside , along the beach , or through the town to clear her mind and lift her spirits . The queen was eager to see mainland France and especially Paris and repeatedly submitted formal requests for permission to travel . These were routinely denied until May 1901 when Ranavalona received the first of many authorizations to visit France . That very month , the queen moved into a small apartment in the 16th arrondissement of Paris near the Avenue Champs @-@ Élysées and what is now the Place Charles de Gaulle , from which she visited the major sights of the city and was invited to numerous receptions , balls , shows and other events . She was widely received by high society with courtesy and admiration and was offered many gifts including a costly gown . During this first trip , Ranavalona visited the Palace of Versailles , was formally received at the Paris City Hall , and spent three weeks on vacation in Bordeaux . Finally , Ranavalona visited the beaches of Arcachon before exhausting her budget and boarding an Algeria @-@ bound ship at Marseilles in early August . The details of her visit attracted much attention from the Parisian press , which expressed sympathy for the queen 's fate and recrimination toward the French government for failing to provide a larger pension or accord her the consideration she deserved as a recipient of the Legion of Honor .
Ranavalona would return to France six more times over the course of the next twelve years . Her frequent visits and excellent reputation made her the cause célèbre of many French citizens who pitied the queen 's fate and admired her gracious acceptance of her new life . Ranavalona 's visits were generally accompanied by much media fanfare and the queen 's popularity among the French public grew to the extent that she was featured on the box of Petit Beurre cookies in 1916 . The queen 's second visit to France occurred in September 1903 , when she visited Vic @-@ sur @-@ Cère and Aurillac . Pressure by citizens during this visit succeeded in raising her pension to 37 @,@ 000 francs . Two years later she would visit Marseilles and Saint @-@ Germain and inhabit a large five @-@ bedroom Parisian apartment in the sixteenth arrondissement from which she would attend the Paris Opera , observe a session of the French House of Representatives and be formally received at the Ministry of the Colonies . Again due to pressure from sympathetic French citizens , Ranavalona 's pension was further raised to 50 @,@ 000 francs per annum . On her next visit in 1907 , the queen would use Dives @-@ sur @-@ Mer as a home base to visit the Calvados region , where she was photographed for the French press . From August to September 1910 , Ranavalona would visit Paris , Nantes , La Baule and Saint @-@ Nazaire and was repeatedly the target of undesired attention from press photographers . Her 1912 trip to the tiny , remote village of Quiberville would coincide with the increase of her annual pension to 75 @,@ 000 francs . The queen 's final voyage in 1913 would take her to Marseilles , Aix @-@ les @-@ Bains and Allevard .
The advent of World War I in 1914 put an end to Ranavalona 's visits to France . Throughout her time in Algeria , she and her family regularly attended the weekly Protestant service at the Reformed Church building in central Algiers . After the war began she sought to contribute by vigorously participating in the activities of the Algerian Red Cross .
= = Death and aftermath = =
Ranavalona died without ever having returned to Madagascar , after two formal requests in 1910 and 1912 were refused on the pretext of insufficient funds in the colonial coffers . The exiled queen died suddenly at her villa in Algeria on May 23 , 1917 , the victim of a severe embolism . Ranavalona was buried at the Saint @-@ Eugene cemetery in Algiers at 10 : 00 a.m. on May 25 . Her funeral was attended by dozens of personal friends , admirers , Red Cross colleagues , members of her church congregation and prominent figures of the political and cultural elite of Algiers . By nine in the morning , a long line of cars had already formed at the entrance to the memorial site .
This effusive display of respect and remembrance on the part of Ranavalona 's friends was not mirrored by subsequent actions of the French colonial administration in Madagascar . In June 1925 , eight years after the queen 's death , the Governor @-@ General of Algeria informed the Governor @-@ General of Madagascar by letter that payments for the maintenance of Ranavalona 's tomb were in default . He urged the colonial government in Madagascar to provide funds for the upkeep of the dilapidated tomb , emphasizing that such neglect was unworthy of the queen 's memory and the government of France alike . The request was twice refused and the tomb was never refurbished . In November 1938 , Ranavalona 's remains were exhumed and re @-@ interred in the tomb of Queen Rasoherina at the Rova of Antananarivo in Madagascar . A fire on the night of 6 November 1995 severely damaged the royal tombs and destroyed most of the other buildings at the site . The lamba @-@ wrapped remains of Ranavalona III were the only ones that could be saved from the flames . These have since been re @-@ interred in the royal tombs at Ambohimanga .
Following Ranavalona 's death , her aunt Ramasindrazana left Algeria and moved to Alpes @-@ Maritimes where she lived out the few remaining years of her life . The heir @-@ apparent , Marie @-@ Louise , had left Ranavalona 's villa several years earlier to study at a French high school and would go on to marry a French agricultural engineer named Andre Bosshard on June 24 , 1921 . Although she continued to receive a small pension from the French government throughout her lifetime , Marie @-@ Louise chose to pursue a career as a nurse and was awarded the Legion of Honor for her medical services during World War II . After Bosshard and the childless Marie @-@ Louise divorced , the young woman reportedly made the most of her new @-@ found freedom as a flamboyant and vivacious socialite . Marie @-@ Louise died in Bazoches @-@ sur @-@ le @-@ Betz on January 18 , 1948 , without leaving any descendants , and was buried in Montreuil , France .
= = Honors = =
= = = National honors = = =
Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of the Royal Hawk ( 30 / 07 / 1883 ) .
Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of Radama II ( 30 / 07 / 1883 ) .
Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of Merit ( 30 / 07 / 1883 ) .
Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of Military Merit ( 30 / 07 / 1883 ) .
Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of the Kingdom ( 30 / 07 / 1883 ) .
Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of Ranavalona ( 1896 ) .
= = = Foreign honors = = =
Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honor ( 18 / 01 / 1887 ) .
= = Ancestry = =
|
= Flight Unlimited =
Flight Unlimited is a 1995 aerobatic flight simulator video game developed and published by Looking Glass Technologies . It allows players to pilot reproductions of real @-@ world aircraft and to perform aerobatic maneuvers . They may fly freely , race through floating rings against a timer or take lessons from a virtual flight instructor . The instructor teaches basic and advanced techniques , ranging from rudder turns to maneuvers such as the tailslide , Lomcevak and Immelmann turn .
Flight Unlimited was the first self @-@ published game released by Looking Glass Technologies . It was intended to establish the company as a video game publisher and to compete with flight simulator franchises such as Microsoft Flight Simulator . Project leader Seamus Blackley , a particle physicist and amateur pilot , conceived the game in 1992 . He felt that other flight simulators failed to convey the experience of real flight , and he reacted by coding a simulated atmosphere for Flight Unlimited based on real @-@ time computational fluid dynamics . Aerobatic pilot Michael Goulian endorsed the game and assisted the team in making it more true to life .
Flight Unlimited received positive reviews from critics and was a commercial success ; its sales exceeded 780 @,@ 000 copies by 2002 . Reviewers lauded its realism , flight instruction , graphics and sense of flight , but some criticized its high system requirements . The game was followed by two sequels : Flight Unlimited II ( 1997 ) and Flight Unlimited III ( 1999 ) . A combat @-@ oriented successor , Flight Combat , was released in 2002 as Jane 's Attack Squadron after a series of setbacks . Soon after Flight Unlimited 's completion , Blackley was fired from Looking Glass . He went on to design Jurassic Park : Trespasser at Dreamworks Interactive and later spearhead the Xbox project at Microsoft .
= = Gameplay = =
Flight Unlimited is a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) flight simulator video game : its gameplay is a simulation of piloting real @-@ world airplanes . Players may control the Bellanca Decathlon , Extra 300S , Pitts Special S @-@ 2B , Sukhoi Su @-@ 31 and Grob G103a Twin II sailplane . The game begins at the fixed @-@ base operator ( FBO ) interface — a traversable 3D room whose contents represent menu options . For example , the player interacts with a row of scale airplane models to select an aircraft , and with a world globe to change airfield locations . Six settings are available , including Sedona , Arizona and Springfield , Vermont .
The player may choose to begin flight on a runway or taxiway , or in the air . Aircraft are controlled via keyboard , joystick , head @-@ mounted display or specialized input devices such as pedals . During flight , several third- and first @-@ person camera angles may be selected . For example , the third @-@ person Flyby View places the camera in front of the plane as it flies past , while the first @-@ person Three @-@ Way View displays more information about the plane 's position and speed than other angles . Certain camera angles , including the Three @-@ Way View and 3 @-@ D Cockpit view , provide the player with simulated flight instruments such as an altimeter , airspeed indicator , accelerometer , variometer and tachometer . The game is designed to allow players to perform aerobatic maneuvers such as the Immelmann turn , tailslide , Lomcevak and Cuban Eight . Performances may be recorded and played back , with controls that allow the player to pause , rewind and fast forward . At any time , the player may stop a recording and resume flight from that point .
The game contains lessons that cover basic and advanced flight techniques , ranging from rudder turns to challenging aerobatic maneuvers . A simulated flight instructor offers real @-@ time advice based on the player 's performance . Certificates are earned by performing well during lessons . In Hoops courses , the player undertakes a time trial through rings that float in the sky , with the option to enable a " ghost plane " of the highest score . Four types of Hoops courses are available : Basic , Challenge , Distance and Trick . The last is intended as a highly demanding test of the player 's aerobatic ability . The game 's sole non @-@ powered aircraft , the Grob G103a Twin II sailplane , features its own game mode focused on energy management . The player attempts to use the direction of the wind , thermals — which realistically occur above areas that absorb more heat , such as plains and parking lots — and the orographic lift caused by slopes to stay airborne for as long as possible .
= = Development = =
= = = Origin = = =
The concept of Flight Unlimited originated from Looking Glass Technologies ' discontent with contemporary flight simulators . Company co @-@ founders Paul Neurath and Ned Lerner wanted to develop an exceptional game in the genre , and Neurath considered the idea during the production of Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss and Ultima Underworld II : Labyrinth of Worlds . In 1992 , Seamus Blackley , who had been undertaking graduate studies in particle physics at the Fermilab research facility , was hired through a want advertisement that Lerner had placed on a bulletin board . At the company , Blackley programmed the physics modeling system for a racing game and designed a large number of standalone physics demonstrations . He became fascinated by physics programming . An amateur pilot and flight devotee , Blackley asked Lerner extensive questions about his earlier game Chuck Yeager 's Advanced Flight Trainer , which Blackley held in high regard . In reaction to Blackley 's enthusiasm , Neurath suggested that the company develop a " traditional Cessna sim " .
However , Blackley instead proposed an aerobatics training simulation , which he had conceived while reading an aerobatics magazine on a Lexington , Massachusetts bus . Collaborating with Ultima Underworld II programmer Greg Travis , he created a thirty page concept document that outlined the game . His core idea was to recreate the " yummy , visceral , fluid feeling that you get when flying a real airplane " . He wanted the project to bear more resemblance to a playground than to a video game , and he sought to give it simple controls and realistic terrain to decrease the learning curve for beginners . Blackley assumed the role of project leader and then engaged the team in " flaming sessions " to generate ideas . According to programmer Doug Church , Blackley 's concept of the game was not fully developed , but he clearly expressed his thoughts and motivated the team . The first months of the project produced disparate prototypes that demonstrated prospective features . The company committed to full development of the game in early 1993 , and production commenced in March .
= = = Production = = =
Blackley 's first objective was to code the game 's simulated physics . He began by deciding on a programming method — in particular , he sought one that would allow aircraft to perform the " knife @-@ edge spin " maneuver that he had witnessed at air shows . In 1995 , he said that he had never played a flight simulator with an accurate sense of flight . He later described his belief that the genre had stagnated , and that flight games were evaluated " by [ their ] implementation of the standard feature set " , rather than by their enjoyability . Blackley researched physics programming in contemporary flight simulators , and he discovered that many used large databases of wind tunnel and plane sensory equipment information to dictate how aircraft would operate in prerecorded scenarios . Higher @-@ end simulators used a " Newtonian " system , in which algebra @-@ based measurements of force vectors determine a plane 's position in real @-@ time . However , Blackley believed that neither system correctly simulated the experience of flight .
In reaction , he used his knowledge of particle physics to create a real @-@ time computational fluid dynamics ( CFDs ) model for Flight Unlimited . The result is a simulated atmosphere : air acts as a fluid that automatically reacts to the shape of any object placed within it . Blackley gave the example that a lawn chair , if placed within the game 's real @-@ time CFDs model , would fall merely because of its shape . The game 's planes fly because the interaction of their architecture with the atmosphere creates lift , as with real @-@ world aircraft . Changes in the plane 's direction are caused by the interaction of their flight control surfaces ( ailerons , elevators and rudders ) with the simulated atmosphere . Because it simulates the dynamics of flight in real @-@ time , the system allows for aerobatic maneuvers that were impossible in previous flight simulators . In 1994 , Blackley said that it was possibly the first flight code designed for aerobatics . In constructing the CFDs model , Blackley and the team built from the Navier – Stokes equations of fluid motion , which Blackley described as " horrible , complicated partial differential equations " . According to Computer Gaming World , Blackley did not seek to represent the equations with perfect accuracy , and he was satisfied when the results were consistent and the sensation that they generated was correct .
After programming a basic version of the CFDs model , Blackley used several programs to examine the simulated currents of air that flowed across a model of a flat plate . He adjusted the code until the plate fell realistically , and then constructed test models for a plane wing and fuselage . He eventually built a complete but dysfunctional plane by using data from " pinhead books " . By reading aircraft design manuals , he discovered that the problems were caused by his plane 's incorrect tail and center of gravity . Following this , he created an exact three @-@ dimensional model of the Extra 300S over roughly three days . As he had not yet simulated the physical attributes of its propeller , Blackley programmed the plane to be propelled from the rear . However , the accurate model performed properly in the simulated atmosphere .
Artists Mike Marsicano and Kurt Bickenbach played critical roles in the creation of the game 's aircraft models , which were built in 3D Studio . As reference material , the team photographed real planes at several airfields , and they received blueprints and datasheets from aircraft manufacturers . The game 's Grob G103a Twin II sailplane was based directly on the one that Blackley owned at the time . The sophistication of the real @-@ time CFDs complicated the 3D modeling process , as the planes required accurate geometry to fly properly . While attempting to meet this goal , however , Bickenbach said that the models he created were overly detailed , which caused the team to struggle with performance issues related to the high number of polygons . Reducing the number altered the plane 's shape , which in turn reduced its flight realism ; this necessitated a balance between performance and accuracy . To obtain audio for the planes , Greg LoPiccolo and Tom Streit — former bassist and road manager , respectively , of the band Tribe — visited a Florida importer of Russian aerobatic aircraft . The two placed microphones inside the cockpits and next to the engines , and they flew each plane at multiple speeds while recording with a digital audio tape machine . Combining this material with digital recordings of wind sounds , the team fashioned a physics @-@ based sound system : sounds of the wind and engine are altered in real @-@ time based on wind speed in the game .
The flight instructor was created by programmer Andrew Grant and voiced by Tom Streit . It monitors the player 's controller input during " each frame of animation " . If a maneuver is attempted , the instructor " interpolates the initial control movements " and predicts which maneuver is being performed . The instructor then gives advice on how to complete the maneuver and offers guidance if a mistake is made . Grant believed that the code is sometimes " too picky " , and he stated that it expects players to perform maneuvers more precisely than is humanly possible . The team initially planned to include an online multiplayer component , which would have allowed 64 planes to fly in the same area — thereby giving players the ability to compete with one another . However , the feature was not implemented into the final game . The staff members also sought to include aerobatic competitions in which the player could participate , but the idea was dropped because of difficulties with realism . Problems with artificially intelligent judges were also a factor in the feature 's removal .
Flight Unlimited 's terrain graphics were created with stereophotogrammetry . The team gathered aerial photographs from locations in France and the United States . They combined two to three images of each area to create digital reproductions roughly 11 square miles ( 28 km2 ) in size . Each location in the game was based on two stereoscopic sets of photographs , which were processed for more than 72 hours by a " dedicated Pentium tucked away in a dark corner " . From the contrasting images , the computer generated a terrain " data blanket " with 3D height variations . While the team had considered using satellite or surveillance aircraft images to create the game 's terrain graphics , they found that the resolution was inadequate . Material from geographic information systems was also studied , but associate producer Paul Schaffer said that it would have been " astronomically expensive " to obtain data with the necessary resolution .
After assembling a playable demo of Flight Unlimited , the team requested assistance from then @-@ US Aerobatic Team member Michael Goulian , who worked as a flight instructor at the nearby Hanscom Field . Because of the game 's flight code , Goulian was able to execute aerobatic maneuvers within less than three minutes of playing the game ; and he later performed his " entire basic aerobatic routine " . Blackley told PC Gamer US that , while Goulian disliked flight simulators , " When he flew Flight Unlimited , he just said ' pretty cool . ' I was so psyched " . Goulian assisted the team during the next year of development : he co @-@ designed the game 's flight lessons and advised the team on adjustments to the plane models . Aerobatic pilot Patty Wagstaff was also consulted . At one point , the team encountered problems while testing a maneuver in the game 's Sukhoi Su @-@ 31 , and Blackley was concerned that he would need to rework the game 's physics code . However , Goulian phoned a colleague — a Russian pilot — who told them to compensate for the plane 's abnormally large ailerons . Using his advice on flying the real @-@ world plane , the team found that the maneuver worked correctly . Goulian endorsed Flight Unlimited and wrote the foreword to its official strategy guide .
The graphics and physics code increased the game 's system requirements , and the team worked to optimize performance during development . They struggled to improve the game 's memory usage : the process consumed nearly as much time as the creation of the physics model , according to Church . Programmer Eric Twietmeyer ran weekly tests of the game 's performance by disabling certain parts of the code — such as the physics calculations — to isolate which parts used the most memory . By 1994 , Blackley 's physics code took up only 1 % of CPU time , with the rest allocated to the terrain renderer . Blackley optimized his code by converting the mathematical calculations of air from the 3D game world into a " math @-@ friendly space " , during which time the Navier @-@ Stokes equations are applied . Afterwards , the data is returned to 3D space . According to Computer Gaming World , this method increased speed by " a factor of 100 , with almost no loss in precision . " The team had trouble with complex memory @-@ related glitches during development . Church called them " crazy " , and programmer Greg Travis noted that debugging the terrain cache system was a " nightmare " .
While leading the team , Blackley adopted a loose style of supervision . According to Opening the Xbox author Dean Takahashi , " Blackley [ was not ] ultra @-@ organized . His idea of good management was to invite someone over for a gourmet dinner and have a casual conversation about work " . However , Takahashi wrote that " Blackley worked hard to inspire his team " , and he described artist James Dollar 's belief that , " in contrast to other Looking Glass managers , he didn 't take over tasks and make others feel stupid " . During the first two years of production , the team was divided into small groups that worked on the game 's elements separately . For example , Blackley programmed the game 's physics , while Eric Twietmeyer and Tim Day created the terrain renderer . However , Doug Church later said that , while " the team [ did ] a bunch of very cool stuff , the FBO , the flight model , the instructor , the renderer , so on " , the result " was almost like four separate programs , with no connection " . Following the completion of the concurrently @-@ developed System Shock , a significant part of that game 's team — including Church , Marc LeBlanc and Rob Fermier — moved to Flight Unlimited to add connective material . At the time , Church said that it was difficult to meld the game 's elements , but he later stated that they largely coalesced by the end .
= = = Publication = = =
Flight Unlimited was self @-@ published by Looking Glass Technologies . Their previous games had been developed for other video game publishers , and had generated $ 90 million total earnings for those companies . However , Ronald Rosenberg of The Boston Globe reported that Looking Glass was " no longer satisfied as a backroom player surviving on royalties " . Doug Church later explained that the company wanted to self @-@ publish in order to escape the " treadmill of waiting for advances " , which would allow them to make long @-@ term plans without needing to satisfy the immediate demands of a publisher . In late 1994 , Looking Glass announced that venture capital investors , including Matrix Partners and Institutional Venture Partners , had provided the company with $ 3 @.@ 8 million . The sum was intended to fund the development and self @-@ publication of Flight Unlimited . According to Michael Humphreys of Matrix Partners and Ruthann Quindlen of Institutional Venture Partners , the decision was partly influenced by the past success of the company 's co @-@ founders , Paul Neurath and Ned Lerner .
Looking Glass intended Flight Unlimited as a gateway into the video game publishing industry . According to Lerner , the idea of self @-@ publishing had been considered when the company was founded . In 1995 , Looking Glass projected that sales of Flight Unlimited would increase royalty revenues to $ 10 million that year , up from $ 1 @.@ 5 million in 1994 . Jeffrey A. Kalowski , the company 's vice president of finance and administration , expected that the game would recoup its development costs and make a return before the end of the year . He predicted that , over the following 12 to 18 months , the company 's number of employees would increase from 52 to 82 . The company 's executive vice president and general manager , Jerry Wolosenko , told The Boston Globe that the company hoped to publish six games each year . According to Doug Church , the pressure for Flight Unlimited to succeed meant that the concurrently @-@ developed System Shock , which was not self @-@ published , received little attention from the company 's management .
Flight Unlimited was placed in direct competition with several major flight simulator franchises . Before the game 's release , Shelby Bateman of Next Generation Magazine wrote , " 1995 is going to be a real dogfight in the flight @-@ sim and aerial @-@ combat categories , and LookingGlass [ sic ] is betting its bankroll ... that it can capture significant market share from the likes of Microsoft Flight Simulator and the debut of Spectrum HoloByte 's Falcon 4 @.@ 0 , among others . " Describing the situation , Johnny L. Wilson of Computer Gaming World wrote , " The games that sell big are the ones that allow you to blow stuff up , so , if anything , that could be a problem for Flight Unlimited . " Doug Church explained that , because the game did not feature combat and bore little resemblance to Microsoft Flight Simulator , the team spent " many late nights " on marketing strategies . However , he noted that the game had a wide appeal among those who tested it during development , which he called " a really good sign " . Talking to Bernie Yee of PC Gamer US , Paul Neurath said that he thought the game would sell well . Yee noted that Neurath " fully [ expected ] it to prove more popular than Microsoft Flight Simulator " .
In January 1995 , Looking Glass showed Flight Unlimited alongside Terra Nova : Strike Force Centauri at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show , under their " Immersive Reality " marketing label . In March 1995 , the Boston Globe reported that the team was performing " 11th hour checks " of the game to prepare it for shipment to a Midwestern United States Compact Disc manufacturer . According to the newspaper , Looking Glass planned to begin by shipping 100 @,@ 000 units to retailers in Canada and the United States . Another 100 @,@ 000 copies were to be sent to France , Germany and the United Kingdom at a later date . However , upon the game 's June 7 , 1995 release for DOS , 200 @,@ 000 units were distributed simultaneously in the United States and Europe . The game 's European releases were localized with German , French and English text and voice acting , which was made possible by " close coordination with international partners " . Versions for Macintosh and Windows 95 were later released ; the former was shown at the Macworld Expo in April 1996 .
= = Reception = =
Flight Unlimited was a commercial success . It debuted in twelfth place on a June 1995 sales chart compiled by NPD Group , while Microsoft Flight Simulator 5 @.@ 1 took first place . The game went on to sell more than 300 @,@ 000 copies by 1997 , and more than 780 @,@ 000 by 2002 . According to Constantine von Hoffman of the Boston Herald , Flight Unlimited successfully competed with Microsoft Flight Simulator . PC Gamer 's Lee Buchanan wrote that it " soars above the pack of flight simulations " , and he considered it to be " the most fun [ he had ] had in a computerized cockpit " . Frank Vizard of Popular Mechanics hailed it as " the new top gun of flight simulators " , and Doug Bailey of The Boston Globe considered it to be the " first real serious challenge to Microsoft 's dominance of the genre " . The Record 's David Noack believed that the game 's physics and stereoscopic terrain set " a new standard in flight simulation " . Writing for Computer Gaming World , Bob and John Nolan stated , " If anything , you should at least take a look at this product , because you 'll be looking at the future of simulations . " The game was a finalist in the 12th Annual Awards for Technical Excellence held by PC Magazine , whose staff called it " the simulator by which all others will be judged . "
= = = Design = = =
Vizard stated that Flight Unlimited 's " very advanced computational fluid dynamics make [ each ] plane react according to spec " . Buchanan lauded the fluid model for creating a " sensation of actual flight [ that ] is nothing short of magnificent " , while PC Magazine 's staff commented that it makes " planes behave more like real aircraft than any simulator we have seen " . Bob and John Nolan called the game 's physics programming " groundbreaking " , and Chris Ware of the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader found the game to be the most accurate simulation of flight beyond " those multimillion @-@ dollar flight simulators [ used by ] fighter pilots and astronauts " . Noack agreed : he wrote that the game " is about as close to flying within going to the airport " . In 1996 , Computer Gaming World presented Flight Unlimited with a Special Artistic Achievement Award For Physical Model . The magazine 's staff praised Seamus Blackley 's programming for pushing the genre " higher into the realm of simulation " .
Ware found Flight Unlimited approachable and noted its " simplicity of use and depth of instruction " . Buchanan hailed the lesson mode as " a dream come true for any budding pilot " . A writer for The Washington Post called the game " [ the ] world 's first truly easy @-@ to @-@ use flight simulator " and " a good entry product " , in which " rank amateurs can just launch the program and start cruising immediately " . The Washington Post 's John Gaudiosi wrote that , while many games in the genre are overly complex , Flight Unlimited lets " those who aren 't rocket scientists ... experience the thrills of stunt flying . " He found its control scheme simple to understand . By contrast , Bailey found the game difficult and initially " frustrating " : he complained that he had to play the lesson mode before even taking off . Denny Atkin of Computer Gaming World characterized the game 's learning curve as steep , thanks to the accuracy of the physics programming , but he noted the scalable difficulty options . Bailey later recommended the game in a holiday shopping guide . He wrote that " it can be difficult to master . But once you 're up , it 's worth the trouble . "
A writer for The Washington Post commented that " serious flight freaks will like the racing and advanced maneuvers " . According to Gaudiosi , dedicated players will learn " all about aerodynamics and stunt flying " ; he considered the latter to be " hard stuff , even with green hoops guiding you " . Similarly , Buchanan characterized the Hoops courses as " incredibly demanding " , and Atkin cited that mode 's Trick difficulty level as " amazingly tough " . Bob and John Nolan wrote that people who " love to loop around the skies of Flight Simulator 5 will go bananas for " the aerobatics ; but the pair commented that combat flight simulator players " might get a little edgy once the wow @-@ power wears off . " However , Atkin believed that only those " never happy without something to shoot at " could be disappointed by the lack of combat : other players will " be too busy choreographing aerial ballets , pulling off death @-@ defying aerobatic stunts , or just enjoying a quiet soar down the ridge line to miss that stuff " . Likewise , Ware called the non @-@ violent gameplay " refreshing " , and Buchanan wrote , " If [ you are ] a battle @-@ weary veteran of air combat sims , Flight Unlimited might be just the sort of [ rest and relaxation ] you need . "
= = = Presentation = = =
Atkin found the cockpit and terrain graphics to look " almost real " . He commented , " Every few years a sim comes along that lets reviewers use the ' sets new standards for graphics ' cliché , and Flight Unlimited is the 1995 entry in this club . " Bob and John Nolan called Flight Unlimited " the ultimate show off piece for your new Pentium " , thanks to " unbelievable " graphics superior to those of any other computer game . Gaudiosi concurred : he characterized the visuals as " photo @-@ sharp " and " better than any I have seen " . PC Magazine 's staff found the graphics " impressive " and " even more stunning than those in Microsoft Flight Simulator " . Ware noted the " stunning 3 @-@ D photo @-@ realistic scenery " , while Bailey stated that the " graphics are brilliantly rendered and whiz by smoothly " . Buchanan called Flight Unlimited 's terrain " just superb " and Vizard described it as " amazingly real " . Buchanan believed that " what you hear in Flight Unlimited is every bit as good as what you see " , thanks to " utterly convincing " sound effects . Atkin praised the instructor as " one of the best uses of voice ever in a multimedia title " .
Bailey wrote that the game needs " a real beefy machine " to run properly ; Atkin stated that the " massive horsepower requirement will restrict many gamers to lower resolutions and detail levels " . Bob and John Nolan similarly found that the game " hogs computing power " . Buchanan wrote that the system requirements listed on the back of the game 's box " must be a joke " , and that a high @-@ performance computer is necessary to run the game .
= = Aftermath = =
Flight Unlimited was the first of three self @-@ published titles released by Looking Glass Technologies . However , the next two products , Terra Nova : Strike Force Centauri ( 1996 ) and British Open Championship Golf ( 1997 ) , were commercial failures . As a result , the company ceased self @-@ publishing and was left in dire financial circumstances . Doug Church later explained that Looking Glass ' attempt to publish came at a difficult time for the video game industry : " the other mid @-@ sized publishers were mostly going out of business or getting bought " . He believed that the company had been " overreaching itself " with the venture , and that it was " being a little overambitious and a little cocky " .
= = = Sequels = = =
Flight Unlimited was intended to be followed by a combat @-@ oriented sequel , which was developed under the working title Flight Combat . In 1995 , Seamus Blackley told PC Gamer US that he wanted the game to " feel so real that pilots will be afraid . They 'll feel the gun hits . " Talking to Computer Gaming World , he stated that the game would teach players the " same curriculum [ as ] the Air Force " , and that it would feature competitive online play . However , a company manager , newly instated by venture capital investors who disliked Looking Glass ' management style , instead demanded that Blackley create a direct sequel to Flight Unlimited . The two argued regularly , and Blackley later accused the manager of " ripp [ ing ] the guts out of Looking Glass " . In response to Blackley 's refusal to create Flight Unlimited II , the manager fired him . Blackley left the company in late 1995 with designer Austin Grossman , and both were hired by Dreamworks Interactive to create Jurassic Park : Trespasser . He later spearheaded development of the Xbox at Microsoft .
Constantine Hantzopoulos directed Flight Unlimited II , which was published by Eidos Interactive in 1997 . The team could not continue using the real @-@ time computational fluid dynamics of Flight Unlimited because , according to Hantzopoulos , it was " all black box spaghetti code from Seamus " . The aerobatics focus of its predecessor was dropped in favor of general civilian aviation . The development of Flight Combat was hinted at during the production of Flight Unlimited II . A third game , Flight Unlimited III , was published by Electronic Arts in 1999 ; and it continued the focus on general aviation . That year , Flight Combat was officially announced as the World War II @-@ themed , Electronic Arts @-@ published Flight Combat : Thunder Over Europe , but its name was eventually changed to Jane 's Attack Squadron . The game was canceled as a consequence of Looking Glass Studios ' closure in 2000 . However , it was later finished by developer Mad Doc Software and released in 2002 by publisher Xicat Interactive .
|
= Octavarium ( album ) =
Octavarium is the eighth studio album by American progressive metal / rock band Dream Theater . Released on June 7 , 2005 , it was the band 's final release with Atlantic Records . Recorded between September 2004 and February 2005 , the album holds the distinction of being the last album ever recorded at The Hit Factory in New York City . With Octavarium , the band decided to create " a classic Dream Theater album " , drawing upon their various stylistic influences while trying to make the music less complex . The album takes as its creative concept the musical octave .
Octavarium peaked in the top five in the Finnish , Italian , and Swedish charts , and in the top ten in the Dutch , Japanese , and Norwegian charts . Critical reception of the album was generally positive ; the diversity of the music was praised , although critics found some of the songwriting to be inconsistent . Dream Theater promoted the album on a year @-@ long world tour , with the majority of concerts lasting almost three hours and featuring a different setlist each night . The tour finished at Radio City Music Hall accompanied by an orchestra ; this performance was recorded and released as a live album and concert video entitled Score . They co @-@ headlined the 2005 North American Gigantour with Megadeth .
= = Background = =
After completing a North American tour supporting one of their main influences , Yes , in summer 2004 , Dream Theater took a two @-@ month break . The band reconvened at The Hit Factory in New York City in November 2004 to begin work on their eighth studio album . The Hit Factory , a studio in which artists such as Michael Jackson , Madonna , Stevie Wonder , U2 and John Lennon had recorded , was earmarked for closure . Dream Theater was the last band to record there before it was permanently closed .
After writing the concept album Metropolis Pt . 2 : Scenes from a Memory , the double album Six Degrees of Inner Turbulence and the metal @-@ focused Train of Thought , the band decided to create " a classic Dream Theater album " . Keyboardist Jordan Rudess described it as " really going back to creating a real band effort , as well as drawing upon all our various stylistic influences . " On Octavarium , the band wanted to make the music less complex , featuring songs which Rudess regards as " quicker to appreciate " , although noted that the twenty @-@ four @-@ minute " Octavarium " was not as accessible . Guitarist John Petrucci noted that they wanted to focus on writing strong songs . To achieve this , the band stripped the sound down to piano , guitar and vocals when writing , focusing on the melodies and song structures .
Drummer Mike Portnoy dismissed claims that Octavarium was an attempt to write a more commercial album , stating that the band simply " [ has ] that side to [ them ] . We love bands like U2 or Coldplay , as well as liking shorter songs as well . " Portnoy noted that , after writing Six Degrees of Inner Turbulence and Train of Thought , they had not written an album of shorter songs for some time . He said that the band had found writing longer songs easier than writing shorter ones , and that the band was not trying to write a radio hit as " the label wouldn 't have done crap with it anyway . "
The band had previously written an orchestral @-@ style piece in the form of " Overture " on Six Degrees of Inner Turbulence , but recorded it using keyboards . The tracks " The Answer Lies Within " , " Sacrificed Sons " and " Octavarium " marked the first time Dream Theater worked with an orchestra , conducted by Jamshied Sharifi ( who studied at Berklee College of Music at the same time as Portnoy , Petrucci and bassist John Myung ) . The orchestra was selected based on their sight reading ability , allowing all their parts to be recorded in a maximum of two takes , even though they had never seen or played the music before .
Sharifi would later go on to conduct the Octavarium Orchestra on Dream Theater 's Score album .
= = Concept = =
When starting to work on what would become Octavarium , Portnoy noted that it would be their eighth studio album and that they had recently released their fifth live album , Live at Budokan . This sequence mirrored the octave on a musical keyboard : each octave contains eight naturals and five accidentals . Portnoy suggested that they use that concept for the entire album . When writing , the band delegated each song a different key . Sound effects were placed between songs to connect them : for example , " The Root of All Evil " , written in F , and the following track , " The Answer Lies Within " , written in G , were connected by a sound effect in the key of F # . The album 's lyrics and song titles featured references to this concept . Portnoy cited the titles " The Root of all Evil " ( referring to the musical term " root " ) and " Octavarium " ( " the octave of the octave " ) as two examples of this .
Octavarium begins " The Root of All Evil " with the final note of the band 's previous album , Train of Thought with " In the Name of God " . Train of Thought started " As I Am " with the last note from Six Degrees of Inner Turbulence with the title track , which in turn started with the noise that ended Scenes from a Memory at the end of " Finally Free " . Portnoy was inspired to do this thanks to the Van Halen album Women and Children First ; the outro of the album 's final song ended with a new riff being played which faded out . Portnoy recalled that he expected Van Halen 's next album to start with that ending riff , but was disappointed when it did not . He later realized he had " dug a hole where we 're expected to do it every time " . He solved this problem on Octavarium , where the final track ends with the beginning of the first one . This made the album a cycle in itself , allowing the band to have a clean start with their next album . At 04 : 52 – 5 : 17 , there is a lyrical and musical reference to the chorus of " This Dying Soul " from Train of Thought .
= = = Content = = =
" The Root of All Evil " is the third part of Portnoy 's Twelve @-@ step Suite , a set of songs from various Dream Theater albums which describe his journey through Alcoholics Anonymous . The song contains parts six and seven of the suite : " Ready " and " Remove " . " The Answer Lies Within " and " I Walk Beside You " are the two shortest tracks on the album . Rudess regards them as radio @-@ friendly songs which still maintain Dream Theater 's style .
Portnoy wrote the lyrics to " Never Enough " as a response to fans who Portnoy perceived to complain about every thing that Dream Theater did . Portnoy stated that while he appreciated the devotion of Dream Theater 's fans , he was frustrated because he was " constantly tearing [ himself ] away from [ his ] family " to give more to the fans . He found it discouraging that , even though he spent " countless nights " writing special setlists and the band spent days rehearsing , some fans would still complain that they went to a show and did not hear " Pull Me Under " . " It 's discouraging and makes me crazy sometimes , " he said .
" Sacrificed Sons " , at just over ten minutes long , is the second @-@ longest song on the album . Its lyrics , written by vocalist James LaBrie , deal with the September 11 attacks . Rudess noted that the band enjoyed writing about more serious topics instead of love songs . When working on the lyrics , LaBrie said that there was " a lot of discussion " about the song 's wording and how direct it should be .
The title track " Octavarium " is the longest track on the album , at 24 : 00 . Petrucci stated that the band wanted to write an epic song that thematically developed and would use an orchestra . The band was heavily influenced by the progressive rock sound of Genesis , Yes and Pink Floyd . The instrumental introduction , heavily influenced by Pink Floyd 's " Shine On You Crazy Diamond " , was performed by Rudess using a lap steel guitar and Continuum . Additionally , there are many references to other progressive rock songs in the lyrics .
= = = Artwork = = =
Hugh Syme provided the artwork for Octavarium . The idea of depicting a giant Newton 's cradle was born out of discussions between Syme and Portnoy . The two talked about how " for everything you do in music you create either a cluster or triad " , according to Syme . " And then it became evident that for every action there is an opposite reaction . So I thought we could do something based on the Newton 's cradle . " There are numerous references to the numbers five and eight throughout the artwork , alluding to the album 's concept . For example , the Newton 's cradle has eight suspended balls , and there are five birds on the cover . The album booklet features an octagonal maze , spider and octopus , among other references . The landscape on the cover is made up of a sky and grass from Indiana , and a background from the Lake District .
= = Release = =
A week before the scheduled release of Octavarium , Portnoy shut down the official Dream Theater and Mike Portnoy forums . Blabbermouth.net reported that this was in response to the album being leaked . Portnoy stated that " [ he ] chose to do this mainly [ emphasis removed ] to build anticipation for the big ' official ' unveiling next week " , although noted that " the repeated requests to refrain from spoilers and links for the new album against the band 's wishes were frustrating " .
Octavarium was released on June 7 , 2005 . It was their final album with Atlantic Records , ending a contract which had lasted fourteen years . Although in recent years the band had been allowed creative freedom , they were dissatisfied by the lack of promotion the label offered them . Portnoy released a DVD entitled Drumavarium in 2005 , containing footage of his drum performance from the Octavarium recording sessions . Rudess released a solo piano version of " The Answer Lies Within " on his 2009 album Notes on a Dream . " Panic Attack " is featured as a playable song in Rock Band 2 , where it is listed as the hardest song for both bass and drums .
= = = Reception = = =
Octavarium reached the top five in the Finnish , Italian , and Swedish charts , as well as the top ten in the Dutch , Japanese , and Norwegian charts . Critical reception of the album was generally positive . Writing for Blistering , Justin Donnelly praised the album as " diverse , melodic and hard hitting all at the same time " , ranking it as one of Dream Theater 's best releases . He particularly praised the title track , considering it to be " another Dream Theater classic " . Billboard considered the results of the band 's attempt to write shorter songs and use warmer instrumental textures to be " excellent " , particularly praising " The Root of All Evil " , " These Walls " and " I Walk Beside You " .
Harley Carlson of MetalReview.com regarded Octavarium as " successfully [ showcasing ] the band 's ability to craft emotive music , " although noted that it is " unquestionably Dream Theater , yet there is something missing . " Vik Bansal of musicOMH praised " Never Enough " , " Panic Attack " and " Sacrificed Sons " , but dismissed " The Root of All Evil " as " Dream Theater by the numbers " . He criticized " Octavarium " as " bloated " , although noted that fans of the band 's A Change of Seasons would enjoy it . He said that " there 's enough on the remainder of Octavarium to keep the rest of us interested and the prog rock haters whining dismissively " . Writing for Exclaim ! , Greg Pratt praised the album 's artwork and production , but said that " there ’ s nothing that blows any minds here , or even gives a mild bend ; hell , a good chunk of this disc feels like basic radio rock from the local old @-@ guy bar band " . He noted that although there were some longer songs on the album , " this just feels like 76 minutes of overdramatic rock , too heavy on the light and weak , and not enough time spent on just showing off " .
Donnelly considered Octavarium to be " somewhere between Images and Words , Six Degrees of Inner Turbulence and Train of Thought " . Carlson stated that the album " draws closest comparison to Falling into Infinity and Metropolis II : Scenes from a Memory , but with far less complexity and edge . " Tammy La Gorce of AllMusic noted that " a post @-@ hardcore edge - call it a leap into 2005 - has invaded [ the band 's ] pledge of allegiance to theatrical heavy rock ... What 's changed is Dream Theater 's commitment to carrying on their reputation as underground progressive rock 's classicists , and it seems well @-@ timed . " Critics noted a strong Muse influence on some tracks , on some cases generating negative reviews .
= = Touring = =
Dream Theater began the Octavarium Tour in support of Octavarium in Europe on June 10 , 2005 , beginning at the Sweden Rock Festival in Sölvesborg . The band co @-@ headlined the Gigantour with Megadeth across North America from July 21 to September 3 . The Montreal concert was recorded and released as a live album and concert video on August 22 , 2006 and September 5 , 2006 respectively , titled Gigantour . The main Octavarium world tour began in September in Finland , and saw the band continue with their " An Evening With Dream Theater " concert format . This meant the band would play for almost three hours , with a different setlist each evening . Many of the shows would center around a tour of the band 's history to that point , featuring a song ( or part of a longer song ) for each album before wrapping up the regular set with several from Octavarium Combined with interviews , rehearsals during soundcheck and meet @-@ and @-@ greet sessions with fans , the band became physically and mentally drained .
Dream Theater performed two shows on consecutive nights both in Amsterdam and London . On the second night in both cities , the band covered the entirety of Pink Floyd 's The Dark Side of the Moon album . Theresa Thomason , who had previously performed on Scenes From a Memory , was flown in to perform vocals on " The Great Gig in the Sky " . The London performance was released as a live album and concert video in 2006 by Portnoy 's YtseJam Records . The band covered all of Deep Purple 's Made in Japan at concerts in Tokyo and Osaka ; a recording of which was also released as a live album by YtseJam Records in 2007 .
To celebrate the band 's twentieth anniversary , the final concert on the tour was performed at Radio City Music Hall in New York on April 1 , 2006 . For the second half of the concert , the band was accompanied by a thirty @-@ piece orchestra conducted by Jamshied Sharifi . The concert was filmed and released as a live album and concert video named Score on August 29 , 2006 by Rhino Records .
= = Track listing = =
All music composed by Dream Theater .
= = Chart positions = =
= = Personnel = =
Additional personnel
|
= Peniophora quercina =
Peniophora quercina is a species of wood @-@ decay fungus in the family Peniophoraceae . The species produces fruit bodies which vary in appearance depending on whether they are wet or dry . The wet fruit bodies are waxy and lilac , and attached strongly to the wood . When dry , the edges curl up and reveal the dark underside , while the surface becomes crusty and pink . P. quercina is the type species of Peniophora , and was moved to the genus upon its creation by Mordecai Cubitt Cooke . The species is found primarily in Europe , where it can be encountered all year . Though primarily growing upon dead wood , especially oak , it is also capable of growing upon still @-@ living wood .
= = Taxonomy = =
Early descriptions of the species came from Carl Ludwig Willdenow , who named it Lichen carneus in 1787 , and Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard , who , in 1790 , named it Auricularia corticalis . However , the sanctioned name is Thelephora quercina , given by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1801 , and sanctioned by Elias Magnus Fries in the first volume of his Systema Mycologicum . The specific name quercina is in reference to Quercus , the generic name for oak . A number of authors ( including Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck , Lucien Quélet and Giacomo Bresadola ) reclassified Bulliard 's Auricularia corticalis throughout the 19th century , while Persoon 's Thelephora quercina was reclassified by Samuel Frederick Gray in 1821 , who placed it in Corticium as Corticium quercinum . However , in 1879 , Mordecai Cubitt Cooke transferred the species to his newly described genus Peniophora , declaring it the type species . Despite subsequent attempts at reclassification , Cooke 's name is the one currently used .
= = Description = =
Peniophora quercina produces resupinate fruit bodies which vary in appearance depending on whether they are wet or dry . They are up to 0 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 020 in ) thick , and form irregular patches that sometimes measure several centimetres across . Initially , the species forms small , disc @-@ shaped fruit bodies through holes in bark , but these expand and merge to form the irregular patches . When fresh , the surface is reminiscent of jelly or wax , and can be smooth or warty , varying in colour from a dull blue to lilac . Initially , they are firmly attached to the wood on which they are growing , but as they dry , the edges roll inwards and reveal the dark brown or black underside . The dry specimens have a crusty and slightly fissured surface , and , in colour , are a bright pink or grey , tinted with lilac . There is a relatively thick layer of gelatinous flesh . Apart from a brown layer close to the wood , the flesh is hyaline . The species has no distinctive odour or taste , and is inedible .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
Peniophora quercina produces spores which take the shape of a curved cylinder ( sausage shaped ) , and have been variously reported as light red , pink and white . They measure from 8 to 12 by 3 to 4 micrometres ( μm ) . The spores are borne on basidia , with four spores per basidium , which measure 50 to 70 by 5 to 12 μm . The species has hyaline cystidia with thick cell walls , which are " heavily encrusted with crystalline material " . The cystidia are often buried within the fruit body as it grows , but can be found in large numbers . They have been variously described as spindle @-@ shaped or conical , and measure 25 to 35 by 10 to 15 μm . The hyphae have clamp connections , and the base of the fruit body is made up of brown hyphae with moderately thick cell walls , measuring 3 to 4 μm in width .
= = = Similar species = = =
Peniophora limulata is similar in appearance to P. quercina . However , the edges of the fruit body are highlighted in a dark black , and the species favours ash , as opposed to oak .
= = Ecology and distribution = =
Peniophora quercina typically grows upon dead wood , which can be attached to the tree or fallen , where it causes white rot . It favours oak , but can also be found on other deciduous trees , such as beech . P. quercina is known to be a pioneer species on dead wood , which means it can be the first species to grow . It is found in Europe , where it is very common . Though it can be encountered all year , it produces spores in late summer and autumn . It has also been recorded in Amur , in eastern Asia .
The species has also been identified in living sapwood , though it is latent at this time , and it is probable that it waits until the wood begins to die ( when it is drier , but contains more oxygen ) before the mycelia begin to grow . When the species was inoculated into living wood , it did grow , but only around the inoculation wound ; the species did not spread as it would have done on dead wood . Another study found that the species actively colonised partially living branches , causing white rot . However , the species had little effect on the cambium , and was mostly limited to the ends of branches .
|
= Paper War of 1752 – 1753 =
In 1752 , Henry Fielding started a " paper war " , a long term dispute with constant publication of pamphlets attacking other writers , between the various authors on London 's Grub Street . Although it began as a dispute between Fielding and John Hill , other authors , such as Christopher Smart , Bonnell Thornton , William Kenrick , Arthur Murphy , and Tobias Smollett were soon dedicating their works to aid various sides of the conflict .
The dispute lasted until 1753 and involved many of London 's periodicals . It eventually resulted in countless essays , poems , and even a series of mock epic poems starting with Smart 's The Hilliad . Although it is unknown what actually started the dispute , it resulted in a divide of authors who either supported Fielding or supported Hill , and few in between .
= = Background = =
Fielding started a " paper war " in the first issue of The Covent @-@ Garden Journal ( 4 January 1752 ) by declaring war against " hack writers " . In response , John Hill claimed in the London Daily Advertiser ( 9 January 1752 ) Fielding had met with him prior to January and proposed what would be a fake paper war that would involve London writers " giving Blows that would not hurt , and sharing the Advantage in Silence . " Such a meeting between Fielding and Hill to discuss the proposed war is believed to have occurred ( if it occurred ) on 28 December 1751 . It is known that Hill met Fielding for legal business between 26 and 28 December 1751 after Hill was robbed .
Before Hill had revealed this information , he attacked Fielding 's Amelia in the London Daily Advertiser on 8 January 1752 . The book 's title character , Amelia , was involved in an accident that damaged her face , and Hill , mocking the way Fielding described the scene , claimed that she " could charm the World without the Help of a Nose . " In response to both the revelation and personal attacks , Fielding wrote on 11 January 1752 : " If the Betrayer of a private Treaty could ever deserve the least Credit , yet his Lowness here must proclaim himself either a Liar , or a Fool . None can doubt that he is the former , if he hath feigned this Treaty , and I think few would scruple to call him the latter , if he had rejected it . " Regardless of the merits of Hill 's claim , a war was soon started : by the third issue of The Covent @-@ Garden Journal , Fielding narrowed his satire upon John Hill .
Although Hill , Fielding , Smart , Thornton , Kenrick , Murphy , and Smollett were all involved in the dispute , not all of them used their actual names ; instead , many preferred to use pseudonyms along with attacks under their own name : Fielding wrote as " Sir Alexander Drawcansir " ; Hill wrote as " The Inspector " ; Thornton wrote as " Madam Roxanna " ; and Smart wrote as " Mrs. Mary Midnight " . It was under these pseudonyms that various authors soon responded to Fielding 's attacks and to Fielding 's plan for a " Universal Register Office " , a planned center of advertisement of jobs , goods for sale , and other items . If this was not enough , Fielding started a dispute , just a few months before , with Philip D 'Halluin , a former employee who established the competing " Public Register Office " in King Street , Covent Garden , who hired Bonnell Thorton , a friend of Smart , to attack Fielding and Hill . However , Hill had previously aided Fielding in this matter .
Later , Hill attacked both Fielding and Smart , 13 August 1752 , in the only issue of the The Impertinent to be produced . Although the work was published anonymously , it was commonly known that it was produced by Hill , and he soon followed up the pamphlet with his 25 August 1752 The Inspector column in the London Daily Advertiser . With the column , he harshly criticized Smart 's Poems on Several Occasions . Fielding eventually left the dispute after the sixth issue of The Covent @-@ Garden Journal was published .
= = Event = =
Although it is quite possible that the first work in the " war " was produced by Smart on 29 April 1751 , it is also possible that the origins of the dispute could be traced even further back to Hill 's publications between February and March 1751 . Fielding 's first paper in the " war " was also the first issue of The Covent @-@ Garden Journal on 4 January 1752 . In it , Fielding attacked all of the writers of Grub Street , which brought a quick response . Hill responded twice and claimed that Fielding was planning a fake dispute on 9 January 1752 , Smollet attacked Hill 's piece on 15 January 1752 , and Thornton soon responded against Fielding in Have At You All : or , The Drury Lane Journal on 16 January 1752 .
During this time , personal works , such as Fielding 's Amelia , became targets . On 11 January 1752 , Fielding responded to Hill and those who supported his view of Amelia in The Covent @-@ Garden Journal by ironically stating :
a famous Surgeon , who absolutely cured one Mrs Amelia Booth , of a violent Hurt in her Nose , insomuch , that she had scarce a Scar left on it , intends to bring Actions against several ill @-@ meaning and slanderous People , who have reported that the said Lady had no Nose , merely because the Author of her History , in a Hurry , forgot to inform his Readers of that Particular .
Hill was not the only one to attack the work ; Thornton wrote satires of Amelia in the Drury @-@ Lane Journal . Thornton 's satires were first published on 16 January 1752 and included a fake advertisement for a parody novel called " Shamelia " , playing off of title of Fielding 's parody Shamela . He later parodied Amelia again on 13 February 1752 in a piece called " A New Chapter in Amelia . " Tobias Smollett joined in and published the pamphlet Habbakkuk Hilding anonymously on 15 January 1752 . Although there were many attacks against Fielding 's novel , there was some support for the work , and an anonymous pamphlet was written to attack " Hill and ' the Town ' " while praising Amelia . On 25 January 1752 , Fielding defended his work again by bringing the novel before the imaginary " Court of Censorial Enquiry " , in which Hill and the other critics are the prosecutors and it is they , not Amelia , that are truly put on trial .
The Covent @-@ Garden Journal served Fielding well and he used it in his attacks upon Hill and Hill 's supporters in the Journal piece called " Journal of the present Paper War between the Forces under Sir Alexander Drawcansir , and the Army of Grub @-@ street " . The work was modelled after Jonathan Swift 's The Battle of the Books and Fielding pretended to be a military leader that would lead " English VETERANS " against those who were compared to characters from the Greek and Roman classics along with those from modern French literature . However , he changed roles on the fourth issue , produced on 14 January 1752 , and transformed himself into a " judge " . By February , Kenrick joined in and " dramatized " the " Paper War " in a production called Fun and proceeded to defend Fielding . Charles Macklin followed suit by holding a benefit on 8 April 1752 at the Covent Garden with a two @-@ act play called The Covent Garden Theater , or Pasquin Turn 'd Drawcansir ; the play portrayed Fielding attacking the Hill and his followers , the " Town " .
A pamphlet in the London Daily Advertiser published on 29 January 1752 called The March of the Lion links various authors involved in the war and is the first to introduce Smart via a reference to his " Mrs. Mary Midnight " pseudonym , although Smart was not yet a participant . However , Smart did begin directly participating in the matter 4 August 1752 with the publication in The Midwife of a parody on Hill 's " Inspector " persona . In the piece , Smart responded to Hill 's attack on Smart 's " Old Woman 's Oratory " show and Hill 's claim that the show was dead . Hill was quick to respond ; he attacked both Fielding and Smart in a piece published on 13 August 1752 in the only issue of the The Impertinent . In the work , Hill claimed that authors either write because " they have wit " or " they are hungry " . He further claimed that Smart ,
wears a ridiculous comicalness of aspect , that makes people smile when they see him at a distance : His mouth opens , because he must be fed ; and the world often joins with the philosopher in laughing at the insensibility and obstinancy that make him prick his lips with thistles . "
The work was published anonymously . Some tried to claim that Samuel Johnson was the author and Hill tried to hide his authorship by attacking the essay in the 25 August 1752 " The Inspector " ( No. 464 ) . However , he was soon exposed and it became commonly known that Hill produced both and he soon followed up the pamphlet in the London Daily Advertiser .
With his 25 August 1752 The Inspector column , Hill harshly criticised Smart 's Poems on Several Occasions . Although Hill claimed to praise Smart , he did so in a manner , as Betty Rizzo claims , " that managed to insult and degrade Smart with patronizing encouragement . " Arthur Murphy responded to this essay , and to Hill , in the 21 October 1752 edition of the Gray 's Inn Journal . Following Murphy , Thornton attacked both Hill and Fielding in The Spring @-@ Garden Journal on 16 November 1752 . The Gentleman 's Journal issue of November 1752 came out with a quick retort and claimed that those who supported Hill " espoused the cause of Gentleman " and those who sided with Fielding espoused the cause " of the comedian . " This essay accomplished little but to polarise both sides even more . Hill then responded to Murphy , and their dispute was printed in a supplement of the December issue of the Gentleman 's Journal .
On 1 February 1753 , Smart published The Hilliad , an attack upon Hill that one critic , Lance Bertelsen , describes as the " loudest broadside " of the war . The response to The Hilliad was swift : Samuel Derrick responded directly with his The Smartiad , Arthur Murphy criticized Smart for his personally attacking Hill , and Rules for Being a Wit tried to provoke further response from Smart . However , Smart stopped responding to either of these assaults . Soon after , Hill ended his attacks with the final shot in December 1752 .
|
= Temperatures Rising =
Temperatures Rising is an American television sitcom that aired on the ABC network from September 12 , 1972 to August 29 , 1974 . During its 46 @-@ episode run , it was presented in three different formats and cast line @-@ ups . The series was developed for the network by William Asher and Harry Ackerman for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems . Set in a fictional Washington , D.C. hospital , the series featured James Whitmore as the no @-@ nonsense chief @-@ of @-@ staff who is forced to deal with the outlandish antics of a young intern played by Cleavon Little , and three nurses ( Joan Van Ark , Reva Rose , and Nancy Fox ) .
For the first season , 26 episodes were produced and broadcast . Whitmore was replaced in the lead role by comedian Paul Lynde and Asher was replaced as producer by Duke Vincent and Bruce Johnson in the second season . The series was re @-@ titled The New Temperatures Rising Show , and featured a new supporting cast consisting of : Sudie Bond , Barbara Cason , Jennifer Darling , Jeff Morrow , and John Dehner . Cleavon Little was the only returning member of the original cast . In this season , Lynde was presented as the penny @-@ pinching chief @-@ of @-@ staff , with Bond as his nagging mother and owner of the hospital .
The New Temperatures Rising Show ran for 13 episodes before being placed on hiatus in January 1974 due to poor ratings . It returned in July in yet another incarnation . Asher returned as producer and restored the series to its original format — albeit with Paul Lynde continuing in the lead . Reverting to the original title of Temperatures Rising , Little remained in the show 's cast and a new line @-@ up of supporting players consisting of Alice Ghostley , Barbara Rucker and , returning from the first season 's cast , Nancy Fox . Offered as a summer replacement on Thursday nights , the third version of the sitcom ran for seven episodes after which it was cancelled permanently .
= = First season = =
= = = Concept and development = = =
Temperatures Rising was one of two sitcoms that the ABC network premiered in its 1972 – 73 prime time schedule , the other being The Paul Lynde Show . Both series were produced and developed by William Asher and his partner Harry Ackerman for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems , which had scored a major success for the network with Bewitched , a fantasy sitcom that first aired in 1964 starring Asher 's wife , Elizabeth Montgomery . Asher and Screen Gems made a deal with ABC to cancel Bewitched a year earlier than contracts stipulated , thereby allowing them the opportunity to develop the two new sitcoms . Ackerman served as executive producer and Asher as producer .
Asher and Ackerman derived the format of the series from an unsold pilot they had produced for ABC in 1965 . Entitled This is a Hospital ? , and written by Sheldon Keller , it starred comedian Shecky Greene as a mischievous intern who Asher referred to as " Sgt. Bilko in a hospital " . Asher also drew on the British Carry On franchise as his inspiration for Temperatures Rising .
= = = Original cast = = =
Set in Capitol General , a fictional Washington , D.C. , hospital , the series centered on five characters . Cleavon Little starred as Dr. Jerry Noland , a ghetto @-@ raised intern who works on the side as the hospital bookie and finds humor in anything from an operation to a con job . Joan Van Ark played Annie Carlisle , the hospital 's beautiful , young , sexy , head nurse , who is " always covering up for the inept crew " . Reva Rose played Nurse Mildred " Millie " MacInerny , who offers satirical comments on the shenanigans going on in the hospital . Nancy Fox was cast as Ellen Turner , a shy student nurse who becomes Noland 's most faithful follower . James Whitmore starred as Dr. Vincent Campanelli , the hospital 's chief of surgery . Campanelli is presented as an Italian @-@ American , former combat surgeon , who looks upon Noland with both pride and shock , and refers to the young intern and nurses Carlisle , MacInerny , and Turner as the " Four Horsemen of Aggravation " .
Cleavon Little 's guest appearance on All in the Family led to his casting in Temperatures Rising , which in turn led to the leading role in the Mel Brooks comedy film Blazing Saddles ( 1974 ) . Little 's casting reflected " pressure from the government and Negro organizations and concerned whites who believe that black representation on television was long overdue " . William Asher later stated that Temperatures Rising gave him a chance to work with a black actor . Nancy Fox was cast in Temperatures Rising after Elizabeth Montgomery spotted her in a commercial for Close @-@ Up toothpaste . Asher had considered her for a part in The Paul Lynde Show . During the time that Temperatures Rising was in production Fox declined an offer to leave the series and star in another , Needles and Pins .
= = = Overview = = =
In a 2000 interview , William Asher described Temperatures Rising as being about : " a young black surgeon who was always into mischief and things , but he was a very competent surgeon . James Whitmore was the head surgeon and he used to drive Whitmore crazy " . The pilot episode of Temperatures Rising was written by Sheldon Keller , who turned to his This is a Hospital ? script for inspiration . It features Noland broadcasting a bingo game in code over the hospital 's public @-@ address system . Jack Albertson guest starred as a United States Senator . Subsequent episodes feature Noland performing a secret operation on a young baseball player while Campanelli deals with a hospital inspector ( Ed Platt ) and John Astin as a gangster wanting Noland to be his personal physician . In another episode , Noland hypnotizes a patient ( Alice Ghostley ) and , accidentally , Nurse Turner as well . This nearly costs the hospital a large donation from a potential benefactor ( Charles Lane ) . In later episodes , Campanelli is seen having a brief romance with Nurse Turner 's aunt ( Beverly Garland ) , Noland helping out a new intern ( Bernie Kopell ) who has a reputation for being a jinx , and performing a witchcraft ritual on a patient ( Alan Oppenheimer ) who thinks he has been cursed .
Jack Albertson returned in a later episode that features Dr. Campanelli participating in a documentary film about hospital surgery . Unfortunately , Campanelli develops stage fright during filming . Noland then takes over the operation and receives all the acclaim . Bernie Kopell returned to his role as a hospital orderly in two episodes , one in which he causes a furor with a hospital scandal sheet , the other when Noland has to save him from being fleeced by a patient who is also a card sharp .
There was some racially tinged comic bantering in the series , such as scenes with Noland giving cotton to a nurse and stating , " Honey , picking cotton is part of my heritage , " or observing some adhesive strips labeled " flesh colored " and remarking , " Maybe this is your idea of flesh colored , but it wouldn 't make it in my neighborhood . " Aside from these , racial issues were avoided , as Asher and Ackerman felt that ABC was not interested in having them mixed into the comedy .
In discussing the series William Asher noted :
We too often forget the humanity of doctors and nurses . They become godlike to most of us and yet it is their humanity that makes them so interesting and enjoyable . We are not doing a drama and have no intention of doing anything like dealing with life and death issues . We want to make people laugh so we de @-@ emphasize the more serious elements of hospital life . It isn 't that he [ Noland ] just sees things differently , he also deals with them differently . That is why Noland will dream up a baby derby , a gambling night at the hospital , a variety show at Christmas and off @-@ truck betting when patients get bored with the hospital routine .
Production of Temperatures Rising was underway by August 1972 with filming done at the Burbank Studios in Burbank , California .
= = = Original reviews = = =
In his review of the premiere episode of Temperatures Rising for the Los Angeles Times , critic Don Page felt that James Whitmore was " totally wasted in this silly exercise " and that " guest Jack Albertson almost saves it with his portrayal of an annoyed senator . Otherwise , the diagnosis is terminal comedy " . Likewise , Cecil Smith , another writer for the Times , claimed it was the " worst show of the season . Avoid it like the plague " .
Other reviews were more favorable . Columnist Joan Crosby noted that " This is the kind of show you don 't think you 'll laugh at , but you do , mostly because the cast is so good . " She noted that Cleavon Little , Joan Van Ark , and Reva Rose were , respectively , " marvelous " , " pretty " , and " funny " , and that Nancy Fox " wins this year 's cute @-@ as @-@ a @-@ kitten award " . Barbara Holsopple , TV and radio editor for the Pittsburgh Press , noted that " ABC did a gutsy turnabout in taking the heavy drama out of a hospital and replacing it with comedy . The venture worked well , thanks to excellent performances from the Temperatures Rising cast " . She praised Jack Albertson , noted that Whitmore " was little seen " , and that the series : " is the kind of tidy little show that brings chuckles " . Win Fanning , a syndicated columnist , stated that : " the comedy writing and performances by a beautifully integrated cast give Temperatures a bright , light quality so seldom achieved in a situation comedy " , and that it was : " loaded with one @-@ liners and sight gags , which , if kept on the level of the opener , promise many hours of hilarity " . Fanning praised Cleavon Little as " one of the comedy finds of any TV season " , and Nancy Fox as " a fresh new face and talent giving promise of a long , successful career ahead " . More praise for the series came after the broadcast of its fourth episode . An unidentified reviewer , writing for the Armored Sentinel ( of Temple , Texas ) , stated " If you 're suffering from the case of the ' downs , ' this series is a sure pick up ! " The reviewer went on to note that " the brightest spot of the series is wacky Nancy Fox . Her role applies the wackiness of Goldie Hawn , but in situation comedy form . I 'd watch the show just for her ! The whole series is wacky and funny ; it 's downright good . I highly recommend it . "
= = = First season ratings = = =
ABC placed Temperatures Rising in its 8 : 00 PM Tuesday night time @-@ slot , where it debuted on September 12 , 1972 . Because one of the stars was black , some of ABC 's affiliated stations in the southern and mid @-@ western parts of the United States refused to air the series or broadcast it in a different time slot . Airing opposite it were Bonanza on NBC , and the new sitcom Maude on CBS . Bonanza was entering its fourteenth year and offered up an ambitious two @-@ hour season premiere dealing with the marriage of Little Joe Cartwright ( Michael Landon ) . Maude , starring Beatrice Arthur in the title role , was a spin @-@ off of All in the Family . Both shows presented Temperatures Rising with stiff opposition in the " ratings game " . This turned out to be partly true , as the two @-@ hour season premiere of Bonanza performed exceptionally well in the ratings . Maude did much better than Temperatures Rising in the New York City area , while Temperatures Rising fared better than Maude in the Los Angeles area . In subsequent weeks , Bonanza 's ratings dropped sharply and NBC cancelled the series in November 1972 . According to Asher : " Temperatures Rising put Bonanza out of business and was beating Maude in the Los Angeles area until mid @-@ season , when NBC switched to some heavy movies which hurt us " . Despite this the series finished its first year with a consistent 29 share of the ratings at a time when a 30 share was enough to assure renewal for another season . ABC , however , wanted to improve the ratings and decided to make significant changes to Temperatures Rising for its second season .
= = Second season = =
= = = New premise and producers = = =
As early as November 1972 , James Whitmore expressed a desire to leave Temperatures Rising , claiming that " the show [ was ] basically a broad farce and I didn 't feel it was right for me " . Screen Gems head John Mitchell , and ABC chief programmer Barry Diller , decided to replace Whitmore with comedian Paul Lynde , whose sitcom , The Paul Lynde Show , was airing on Wednesday nights . At the time , Lynde was scoring second only to Peter Falk in TV popularity polls even though his sitcom , which aired opposite The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour on CBS , was floundering in the ratings . Asher was against making this change but was overruled as his contractual commitments to ABC had been used up .
Of the change Asher stated :
The network – ugh – they 're so stupid sometimes . The shows ( Temperatures Rising and The Paul Lynde Show ) were doing good , they weren 't big hits , but they were doing good . They felt that if they could put Paul [ Lynde ] and Cleavon Little together that they would have a big hit . I didn 't want to do that . I said I won 't do it , not at the sacrifice of the show . It 's wrong . I don 't think it 's a good idea . But they wanted to bring in somebody else as the head of the hospital . They wanted his [ Lynde 's ] mother to be head of the hospital and his conflicts would be with her and I just didn 't think it was right . I didn 't want to write it . I just didn 't want to do it [ and ] I didn 't . Someone else came in . It was a big thing with the network . They cancelled The Paul Lynde Show and put Paul in Temperatures Rising . "
Asher was replaced as producer by Bruce Johnson and Duke Vincent , whose previous credits included : Gomer Pyle – USMC , The Jim Nabors Hour , Arnie , and The Little People . They changed the title of the series to The New Temperatures Rising Show , and the tone went from lighthearted wackiness to a form of black comedy similar to The Hospital , a 1971 film written by Paddy Chayefsky , starring George C. Scott . The sitcom became : " a savage satire of the medical profession " with $ 185 @-@ a @-@ day hospital rooms , incompetent , fee @-@ splitting doctors , operations on the wrong patients , misread X @-@ rays , and rampant malpractice . Commenting on the series Vincent noted :
We 're not doing stories about a fouled @-@ up hospital . These things really happen . Every story we 've told is true . They 're the results of untrained people , inadequate staff , horrendous costs , worn @-@ out equipment , the demands of doctors . The doctors , not the patients , are the customers ; they 're the ones the hospitals have to please ...
= = = Revised cast = = =
For this new season , Johnson and Vincent dropped Joan Van Ark , Reva Rose , and Nancy Fox from the series , leaving Cleavon Little as the only returning cast member . His character , Dr. Jerry Noland , was now being presented as the hospital 's only sane figure . Paul Lynde played Dr. Paul Mercy , the sneering , unscrupulous , hospital administrator while Sudie Bond was cast as Martha Mercy , his obnoxious , overbearing mother and the owner , and permanent resident , of the hospital . She constantly calls him with her pager to complain about everything . Also in the new cast were Barbara Cason as Miss Tillis , the head of administrative and accounting : " ... who would let you bleed to death filling out forms " , Jennifer Darling as the romantically inclined nurse " Windy " Winchester , Jeff Morrow as Dr. Lloyd Axton , a fraudulent surgeon who has published two books , Profit in Healing and Malpractice and Its Defense , and John Dehner as " society " Dr. Charles Claver .
= = = Revised concept = = =
For the 1973 – 74 television season ABC continued to air the revamped Temperatures Rising on Tuesday nights at 8 : 00 PM . CBS continued to air Maude , and NBC introduced Chase , an hour @-@ long crime drama starring Mitchell Ryan , in the same time slot . Although the season premiere of Maude and Chase ' s debut aired on September 11 , 1973 , ABC delayed the premiere of The New Temperatures Rising Show until September 25 .
The episodes produced by Johnson and Vincent included Dr. Mercy exploiting a 125 @-@ year @-@ old American Civil War veteran and dealing with a strike by the doctors and nurses . Another episode saw Noland create a mythical patient and then claim that the patient died , the cause of death being the result of a lack of cardiac crash carts on each floor of the hospital . Johnson and Vincent 's favorite episode was one where the X @-@ rays of a professional footballer are misread , resulting in him being placed by mistake in " Crutchfield 's Traction " , in which holes are drilled in his head and tongs inserted in them .
= = = Second season reviews = = =
In reviewing The New Temperatures Rising Show , Associated Press television writer Jay Sharbutt noted :
First the hopeful note : There are faint signs the tinkering with Temperatures format could make the series funny later on , but only if the writing improves . The show now leaves most of the mugging to Lynde and no longer insists that each regular is wacky . It 's all feeble stuff but the cast is vastly improved and the new approach portends to better things ahead .
Likewise , Los Angeles Times critic Cecil Smith , who considered the original format " maybe the three worse shows on television rolled into one " now remarked : " Paul Lynde for the first time that I can recall has a part worthy of his mettle . The people surrounding him are first rate . "
= = = Sinking ratings = = =
Despite some heavy promotion the black comedy approach was not what audiences wanted to see , especially with Paul Lynde . As a result , the ratings for the series fell well below the levels of the previous season . The last of The New Temperatures Rising Show 's thirteen episodes aired on January 8 , 1974 . The following Tuesday , January 15 , ABC premiered Happy Days in its place . According to co @-@ producer Mitchell , " ... the audience didn 't buy that at all . They just didn 't get it . It was funny if you like black comedy , but if you don 't it would disturb you . So the show failed miserably and we lost the job and the show . "
= = Summer replacement = =
= = = Third concept = = =
When John Mitchell and Barry Diller noticed that The New Temperatures Rising Show was failing they contacted William Asher and asked him to salvage the series . According to Asher :
They asked if I 'd go back to the old Temperatures , only this time with Paul [ Lynde ] . At this point we were still hoping to make it for the midseason . After a couple of weeks we agreed that the show should go off the air in January , but continue production so that we would have 11 shows ready for airing any time they wanted them . Some of the nonsense and hijinks of the first season are gone and we have managed to keep a touch of reality of the second version .
As to why the series was not cancelled , Asher remarked , " I can answer that in two words : Paul Lynde . "
= = = Final cast = = =
For the third format , the show reverted to its original title Temperatures Rising and the proposed number of episodes was reduced from eleven to seven . The series ' production resumed on November 17 , 1973 , after a three week shutdown . Sudie Bond , Barbara Cason , Jennifer Darling , Jeff Morrow , and John Dehner were dropped from the cast and a new line @-@ up was assembled . Paul Lynde continued as Dr. Paul Mercy while Alice Ghostley played Edwina Moffitt , the admissions nurse and Dr. Mercy 's sister . She had appeared as a guest star in an episode in the first season of Temperatures Rising . Nancy Fox returned as student nurse Ellen Turner , and Barbara Rucker was introduced as Nurse Amanda Kelly . Cleavon Little returned for a third time as Dr. Jerry Nolan , whose character was now being presented as somewhere between the jive @-@ talking surgeon of the first season and the serious one of the second .
= = = Last format and cancellation = = =
Temperatures Rising returned to the ABC network on July 18 , 1974 after a six @-@ month hiatus . Its new time slot , Thursday nights at 8 : 00 PM , had previously been occupied by Chopper One , an adventure series . The situations presented this time around included Dr. Mercy saving the life of a popular country music singer ( Dick Gautier ) , and setting up a surveillance system so that staff would be kept on their toes .
The final episode of Temperatures Rising aired on August 29 , 1974 . The attempt to resurrect the series was unsuccessful and ABC finally cancelled it permanently . Andy Siegel , a comedy development executive for ABC at the time , felt the series failed because audiences did not want to watch a show displaying inadequate medical care , even though it was done in a humorous fashion . In reminiscing about the series he stated : " When people see doctors on television they really want to feel that they 're in good hands . That no matter what happens it is a reassuring experience . " William Asher , in a 2000 interview , summed up the demise of the series by saying : " It didn 't get on . It 's too late . You can 't do that to an audience . They won 't accept it . "
= = Episodes = =
|
= New York State Route 382 =
New York State Route 382 ( NY 382 ) was a state highway in the town of Red House in Cattaraugus County , New York , in the United States . The highway was 0 @.@ 8 miles ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) long and served as a connector between NY 17 and the Red House entrance of Allegany State Park , where it connected to Allegany State Park Route 2 ( ASP Route 2 ) . NY 382 was assigned in the early 1930s and removed in the early 1970s after the highway 's connection to the park was dismantled , and the hamlet it served evacuated , as part of the Southern Tier Expressway 's construction . The NY 382 designation is currently reserved by the New York State Department of Transportation as a replacement for NY 88 in Ontario and Wayne counties .
= = Route description = =
The western terminus of NY 382 was at an intersection with Bay State Road and NY 17 in the now abandoned hamlet of Red House , located 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) southwest of the city of Salamanca in the town of Red House . At the time , NY 17 was routed along an at @-@ grade highway that paralleled the future routing of the Southern Tier Expressway to the north and west . NY 382 headed southeast from the junction , passing through the center of what was then the hamlet of Red House before turning eastward ahead of Red House Brook , a small stream that branched off the nearby Allegheny River . NY 382 paralleled Red House Brook east to the Allegany State Park boundary , where the NY 382 designation ended and the highway continued east as Allegany State Park Route 2 .
= = History = =
NY 382 was assigned c . 1932 to a short roadway linking NY 17 to an entrance to Allegany State Park in Red House .
The route remained intact until the construction of the Southern Tier Expressway ( STE ) through Red House in the late 1960s and early 1970s . Unwanted tourism in Jimerson Town , a newly built settlement northeast of Red House , prompted Seneca leaders to seek ways to reduce through traffic in the settlement ; to do so , the state built a trumpet interchange off the expressway where NY 382 used to be , which , coupled with the flooding of the roadway of old Route 17 to the west , effectively cut Jimerson Town off from the highway system . The construction of the highway also allowed the state to claim eminent domain over most of the hamlet of Red House , leading to the hamlet 's destruction ; the few remaining private residences in the town as of 2015 are located southwest of what was Route 382 . When the interchange at exit 19 of the STE was constructed c . 1970 , NY 382 was disconnected from Allegany State Park Route 2 , which was realigned to meet the new exit . The NY 382 designation was removed around this time as a result . The roadway still runs from the former NY 17 ( now NY 951T , which terminates near the former NY 382 's end at a dilapidated bridge ) to the Exit 19 on / off ramp , but due to safety concerns , the road was blocked off at its eastern terminus .
The former NY 382 was reopened in August 2014 after a washout on old NY 17 left several households unable to reach Salamanca .
The NY 382 designation is reserved by the New York State Department of Transportation for future use along what is now NY 88 in the Finger Lakes region of New York . Currently , NY 88 has the same numerical designation as Interstate 88 , an Interstate Highway in eastern New York .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Red House , Cattaraugus County .
|
= Zahir al @-@ Umar =
Zahir al @-@ Umar al @-@ Zaydani ( alternatively spelled Dhaher al @-@ Omar or Dahir al @-@ Umar ) ( Arabic : ظاهر آل عمر الزيداني ; Ẓāhir āl @-@ ʿUmar az @-@ Zaydānī , 1689 – 90 – 21 August 1775 ) was the virtually autonomous Arab ruler of northern Palestine in the mid @-@ 18th century , while the area was nominally part of the Ottoman Empire . For much of his reign , starting in the 1730s , his domain mainly consisted of Galilee , with successive headquarters in Tiberias , Arraba , Nazareth , Deir Hanna and finally Acre , in 1746 . He fortified Acre , and the city became a center of the cotton trade between Palestine and Europe . In the mid @-@ 1760s , he reestablished the port town of Haifa nearby .
Zahir successfully withstood assaults and sieges by the Ottoman governors of the Sidon and Damascus provinces , who attempted to limit or eliminate his influence . He was often supported in these confrontations by the rural Shia Muslim clans of Jabal Amil . In 1771 , in alliance with Ali Bey al @-@ Kabir of Egypt Eyalet and with backing from the Russian Empire , Zahir captured Sidon , while Ali Bey 's forces conquered Damascus , both acts in open defiance of the Ottoman sultan . At the peak of his power in 1774 , Zahir 's autonomous sheikhdom extended from Beirut to Gaza and included the Jabal Amil and Jabal Ajlun regions . By then , however , Ali Bey had been killed , the Ottomans entered into a truce with the Russians , and the Sublime Porte felt secure enough to check Zahir 's power . The Ottoman Navy attacked his Acre stronghold in the summer of 1775 and he was killed outside of its walls shortly after .
The wealth Zahir accumulated through monopolizing Palestine 's cotton and olive oil trade to Europe financed his sheikhdom . For much of his rule , he oversaw a relatively efficient administration and maintained domestic security , although he faced and suppressed several rebellions by his sons . The aforementioned factors , along with Zahir 's flexible taxation policies and his battlefield reputation made him popular among the local peasantry . Zahir 's tolerance of religious minorities encouraged Christian and Jewish immigration to his domain . The influx of immigrants from other parts of the empire stimulated the local economy and led to the significant growth of the Christian communities in Acre and Nazareth and the Jewish community in Tiberias . He and his family , the Zaydani clan , also patronized the construction of commercial buildings , houses of worship and fortifications throughout Galilee . Zahir 's founding of a virtually autonomous state in Palestine has made him a national hero among Palestinians today .
= = Early life = =
Zahir was born in the village of Arraba ( also called ' Arrabat al @-@ Battuf ) in central Galilee . The date of his birth is not clear , with the dates 1686 , 1689 – 90 and 1694 listed as his birth year by Zahir 's contemporary biographers Volney , Mikha 'il Sabbagh and Khalil al @-@ Muradi , respectively . According to contemporary biographer Ahmad Hasan Joudah , 1689 – 1690 is the most likely year of his birth because he considers Sabbagh to be the most reliable source for Zahir 's personal life . The proper transliteration of his given name is Ẓāhir , but in the local dialect of Arabic used in Galilee , his name was pronounced Ḍāhir . Zahir 's family , the Zaydani clan , were Sunni Muslim notables from the Qaisi tribal confederation based in the Tiberias area who had strong connections to the Arab @-@ Bedouin tribesmen of Galilee , which at the time was part of the Ottoman Empire . Zahir was the youngest of four sons born to Sheikh Umar al @-@ Zaydani . Zahirs brothers were Sa 'd , Salih " Abu Dani " and Yusuf , and his sister was Shammah . Zahir grew up in the village of Saffuriya .
Zahir 's father and grandfather had both served as the multazim ( chief tax collector ) of Tiberias , having been appointed by the Druze emirs ( princes ) of the Ma 'an dynasty which governed the region from their headquarters in Mount Lebanon . In 1698 , Umar az @-@ Zaydani was appointed multazim of the Safad region by Bashir Shihab I , the Sunni Qaisi emir who succeeded the Ma 'ans as governor of the Mount Lebanon Emirate . The Zaydani family maintained commercial trade relations extending from Galilee to Aleppo , and members of the family controlled tax farms in Galilee ; Zahir 's uncle Ali , for instance , held the tax farm of al @-@ Damun . Zahir 's elder brother Sa 'd became the head of the family when their father died in 1706 , but the family 's tax farms were transferred to Zahir , who was still a teenager . This was done as a precautionary measure , so that in the event of a default in tax payments , the Ottoman government would not be able to hold the practical owners of the tax farms accountable . Nonetheless , legal ownership of the Zaydani tax farms gave Zahir considerable power within his clan .
In 1707 , Zahir was involved in a brawl in Tiberias in which he killed a man . As a result , Sa 'd opted to move the family to Arraba after being offered safe haven there by the Bani Saqr tribe . It was in Arraba that Zahir gained a degree of formal education under the tutelage of a Muslim scholar named Abd al @-@ Qadir al @-@ Hifnawi . During his youth , Zahir also learned how to hunt and fight . When the village of Bi 'ina was attacked by forces dispatched by the governor of Sidon Eyalet sometime between 1713 and 1718 , Zahir played an important role in defending the village and managed to evade the governor 's troops . According to chroniclers of the time , this event , along with Zahir 's moderation , turned Zahir into a folk hero in the area . He continued to gain the respect of the local peasantry throughout the 1720s for his martial skills . Along with Sa 'd , he also gained prestige among the people of Damascus with whom he continued the commercial relationships his father had previously established .
The contacts Zahir made in Damascus included the Muslim scholar Abd al @-@ Ghaffar al @-@ Shuwaki , who introduced Zahir to Sayyid Muhammad of the al @-@ Husayni family , which provided the sharifs of Damascus at the time . Zahir married Sayyid Muhammad 's daughter and thereafter moved to Nazareth because she considered Arraba too small . When Sayyid Muhammad died , Zahir inherited his fortune .
= = Rule = =
= = = Consolidation of power in Galilee = = =
In the late 1720s , Zahir and his brother Yusuf took control of the town of Tiberias with the backing of the Bani Saqr by capturing its multazim . Concurrently , Zahir issued a letter to Köprülü Abdullah Pasha , governor of Sidon Eyalet , accusing the multazim of oppression and of imposing illegal taxes on the population . Zahir further wrote that if Abdullah Pasha appointed him multazim of Tiberias and Arraba , he would guarantee the timely payment of taxes and rule justly . Abdullah Pasha consented to Zahir 's rule and sent him an honorary robe . This marked a significant change from the past appointments of his relatives as multazims of various Galilee subdistricts , because it came directly from the governor of Sidon rather than the semi @-@ autonomous rural chiefs of Mount Lebanon . Zahir made Tiberias his principle base and was joined by his Zaydani kinsmen . He appointed his cousin Muhammad ibn Ali , the multazim of al @-@ Damun , as commander of the family 's militia .
Zahir extended his rule southward toward Nazareth and the Marj Ibn Amer plain ( Jezreel Valley ) between Galilee and Jabal Nablus . Capturing these areas was likely a drawn @-@ out process , and Zahir 's efforts to wrest control of Nazareth ( a town in Safad Sanjak , but controlled by the Jarrar clan based in Nablus Sanjak ) caused the ruling clans of the Nablus hinterland ( Jabal Nablus ) , along with Zahir 's erstwhile allies in the Bani Saqr tribe , to challenge him . Zahir , meanwhile , relied on his Zaydani kinsmen , Maghrebi mercenaries who he commissioned in the mid @-@ 1730s under commander Ahmad Agha al @-@ Dinkizli , and Nazareth 's residents . In 1735 , Zahir 's forces , composed of 2 @,@ 000 men , routed the Jarrars and the Bani Saqr at a place called al @-@ Rawha in Marj Ibn Amer , killed their leader Sheikh Ibrahim al @-@ Jarrar , and captured Nazareth . According to historian Hanna Samarah , Zahir 's forces inflicted 8 @,@ 000 fatalities among the Jarrar @-@ Saqr coalition during the battle .
Following his victory at Marj Ibn Amer , 4 @,@ 000 locals , including many residents of Nazareth , joined Zahir 's forces to completely subdue Jabal Nablus . Among Zahir 's supporters were Christian women from Nazareth who supplied his troops with food and water . Zahir 's forces pursued the Jarrars to their throne village of Sanur , but ultimately withdrew after failing to subdue the fortress . This defeat marked the limit of Zahir 's influence south of Marj Ibn Amer and established the Jarrars as the dominant force of Jabal Nablus over their rivals , the Tuqans . While the Jarrars and Zahir eventually concluded a truce , the former continued to mobilize the clans of Jabal Nablus to prevent Zahir 's southward expansion .
In 1738 , Zahir 's forces captured the fortress at Jiddin and the villages in its political orbit , Abu Snan and Tarshiha . Jiddin had been ruled by Ahmad al @-@ Husayn , whose family historically controlled it . The peasants under his rule complained that he governed oppressively and appealed to Zahir , who was known for treating the peasantry fairly , to relieve them of al @-@ Husayn . Zahir , eager to expand his control toward the Mediterranean , accepted their requests and obtained permission from the governor of Sidon , Ibrahim Pasha al @-@ Azm , to seize the fortress . Likewise , al @-@ Husayn had also approached the governor , who , hoping to see two powerful local leaders weakened , gave al @-@ Husayn his blessing as well . Zahir assembled a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ strong force and defeated al @-@ Husayn 's forces near the fortress . He was then appointed multazim of Jiddin 's subdistrict .
Bi 'ina , which was also fortified , withstood a siege by Zahir in 1739 , but Zahir later married the daughter of Bi 'ina 's mukhtar ( headman ) , and thus brought Bi 'ina into his domain . He also acquired the fortress of Suhmata through diplomatic means . This further solidified his rule over northern and eastern Galilee . In 1740 , Zahir made an agreement with the neighboring Bedouin tribes to end their looting raids in the area . By then , Sa 'd had taken control of Deir Hanna and Muhammad ibn Ali captured Shefa- ' Amr , entrenching the presence of the Zaydani clan in western Galilee . After negotiations , Muhammad al @-@ Naf 'i , the multazim of Safad , surrendered the city to Zahir . Safad was the administrative seat of the sanjak and situated on a strategic hill overlooking the Galilee countryside . He later acquired the fortified village of Deir al @-@ Qassi after marrying the daughter of its sheikh , Abd al @-@ Khaliq Salih .
Zahir 's conquest of the Safad region and western Galilee removed the barriers between him and the Metawali ( Shia Muslim ) clans of Jabal Amil . Zahir informed the Metawalis ' sheikh , Nasif al @-@ Nassar , of his intent to acquire the fortified villages of al @-@ Bassa and Yaroun on the borders between the Zaydani and Metawali sheikhdoms . In response , Sheikh Nasif launched an assault against Zahir and the two sides confronted each other in indecisive skirmishes in the border village of Tarbikha . Zahir then received reinforcements from his Maghrebi cavalry and defeated the Metawalis , pursuing Sheikh Nasif to his headquarters in Tibnin . Zahir 's brother Sa 'd mediated an end to the fighting and thereafter a mutual defense pact was arranged between Zahir and Sheikh Nasif , whereby the former would receive control of al @-@ Bassa and Yaroun and the Metawalis ' support in his confrontations with the governors of Damascus . In return , Sheikh Nasif 's sons , who were captured by Zahir 's troops , were released , the Metawalis ' tax payments to Sidon were reduced by some 25 percent , and Zahir guaranteed his backing of a Sheikh Nasif in any confrontation with the governors of Sidon .
Zahir , similar to other local strongmen in the Ottoman Empire who did not owe their power to the central Ottoman authorities , was disliked by the Ottoman administration . The Ottoman Sultan sent an order to the governor of Damascus Eyalet , Sulayman Pasha al @-@ Azm , to put an end to Zahir 's rule in Galilee . In September 1742 , a military force led by the governor of Damascus came to Galilee and laid siege to Tiberias . After 83 days , the siege was lifted due to the departure of the Hajj pilgrim caravan . Using this respite , Zahir reinforced the defenses of Tiberias and Shefa- ' Amr . In July 1743 , backed by the Bani Saqr , the wali of Tripoli and the district governors of Jerusalem , Gaza and Irbid , Sulayman Pasha renewed his expedition , this time seeking to reduce Deir Hanna and sever Tiberias 's links to the outside . Sulayman died suddenly in Lubya and Zahir used the opportunity to assault Sulayman 's troops , capturing their camp . In 1745 , Zahir had a fortress erected on a hill overlooking Saffuriya .
= = = Ruler of Acre = = =
Zahir consolidated his authority over Acre in a drawn @-@ out process starting in the 1730s . His Acre @-@ based partner , the Melkite merchant Yusuf al @-@ Qassis , served as an early link between Zahir and the French merchants of Acre . His first direct contact with the French merchants was in 1731 when he negotiated a settlement of his brother Sa 'd's debts to the merchants . In 1743 , as part of his bid to gain control of the town , Zahir had his cousin , Muhammad al @-@ Ali of al @-@ Damun , arrested and executed due to the latter 's ambitions in Acre . In 1743 , Zahir requested the tax farm of Acre from the governor of Sidon , Ibrahim Pasha al @-@ Azm , who , wary of Zahir 's growing power in the province , rejected the request . Instead , Zahir took Acre by force in July 1746 .
In the first few years following his takeover of Acre , Zahir resided in the fortress of Deir Hanna in the heart of Galilee . He began fortifying Acre by building walls around the city in 1750 . He built other fortifications and buildings in Acre as well . In 1757 he took control of the Mediterranean port cities of Haifa and Tantura , and nearby Mount Carmel , all of which had been part of Damascus Eyalet , unlike most of Zahir 's domain at the time , which was in Sidon Eyalet . He also captured the port village of al @-@ Tira , between Tantura and Haifa , at that time . Zahir 's stated justification to the Ottoman authorities for conquering Palestine 's northern coastal plain was to protect the area from Maltese pirates .
In late 1757 , the Bani Saqr and Sardiyah tribes , who Zahir maintained ties with , launched an assault on the Hajj caravan as it coming back to Syria from Mecca . Thousands of Muslim pilgrims were killed in the raid , including Sultan Osman III 's sister . The attack shocked the Sublime Porte ( Ottoman imperial government ) , and discredited the governor of Damascus and amir al @-@ hajj , Husayn Pasha ibn Makki , for failing to ward off the Bedouin . Husayn Pasha had been serving his first term as governor , having replaced As 'ad Pasha al @-@ Azm , who Zahir had peaceful relations with , and among Husayn Pasha 's priorities were subduing Zahir and annexing his territories , which were part of Sidon Eyalet . Husayn Pasha lodged a complaint to the Sublime Porte alleging Zahir 's involvement in the raid . Zahir denied the allegation and pressed for an investigation into the assault . He also sought to earn the Sublime Porte 's favor by purchasing the looted goods of the caravan from the tribes , including the decorated banners representing Muhammad and the sovereignty of the sultan , and restoring them to Sultan Mustafa III ( Osman III had died on 30 October ) . Moreover , Zahir 's enemy Husayn Pasha was dismissed from office that year .
Husayn Pasha 's replacement , Uthman Pasha al @-@ Kurji , who took office in 1760 , sought to retrieve control of Haifa from Zahir . Uthman Pasha requested that the governor of Sidon , Nu 'man Pasha , recapture the port city on his behalf , to which Nu 'man Pasha complied , dispatching 30 Maghrebi soldiers on a vessel captained by a Frenchman on 20 May 1761 . The effort was a meager attempt and upon arrival , Zahir had the ship confiscated and its soldiers arrested , while the French captain paid a fine . The issue over Haifa 's annexation was smoothed over with the assistance of an Istanbul @-@ based Ottoman official and friend of Zahir , Yaqub Agha . Yaqub had a high @-@ ranking official named Sulayman Agha intervene in the matter and revoke Uthman Pasha 's orders .
= = = Intra @-@ family conflict = = =
In 1761 , Zahir ordered his son Uthman al @-@ Zahir to assassinate Zahir 's brother Sa 'd because the latter had been collaborating with Uthman Pasha and the Bani Saqr tribe to kill Zahir and replace him . Sa 'd's assassination indirectly led to the first conflict between Zahir and his sons , in this case Uthman . The latter had been promised control over Shefa- ' Amr in return for killing Sa 'd , but Zahir reneged due to pleas by Shefa- ' Amr 's residents not to appoint Uthman as their governor . Backed by his full @-@ brothers Ahmad and Sa 'd al @-@ Din , who were angered by Zahir 's refusal to cede them more territory , Uthman besieged Shefa- ' Amr in 1765 . However , under Zahir 's instructions , the locals in the vicinity defended the town and succeeded in preventing its capture . The three brothers then appealed to Zahir 's eldest and most loyal son , Salibi , to intervene on their behalf with Zahir , but Salibi was unable to persuade Zahir to make concessions . The four brothers then attempted to rekindle their alliance with the Bani Saqr , who Zahir had since routed at the Marj Ibn Amer plain in 1762 .
The brothers ' efforts to recruit the Bani Saqr failed when Zahir bribed the tribe not to back his sons and subsequently had Uthman imprisoned in Haifa for six months before exiling him to a village near Safad . Meanwhile , in 1765 , Zahir had Haifa demolished and then rebuilt and fortified at a site three kilometers to the southeast in 1769 . While the old village was situated on a plain , the new town , which remained a port along the Haifa Bay , was built on a narrow strip of land at the northern foot of Mount Carmel to make it easier to defend by land . In May 1766 , Uthman renewed his rebellion against Zahir with backing from the Druze clans of Galilee , but this coalition was defeated by Zahir near Safad . This conflict expanded to include competing Druze and Shia factions from Mount Lebanon and Jabal Amil , with Emir Mansur Shihab ( the Sunni leader of a Druze faction ) and the Metawali , Sheikh Qublan , siding with Zahir , while Emir Yusuf Shihab ( the leader of another Druze faction ) and Sheikh Nasif sided with Uthman . Mediation by Emir Isma 'il Shihab of Hasbaya culminated in a successful peace summit near Tyre between the two factions and a reconciliation between Zahir and Uthman , whereby the latter was granted control of Nazareth .
In September 1767 , conflict between Zahir and his son Ali al @-@ Zahir of Safad commenced over the former 's refusal to cede to the latter control of the strategic fortress of Deir Hanna or the village of Deir al @-@ Qassi . Prior to the dispute , Ali had been loyal to Zahir and proven himself effective in helping his father suppress dissent among his brothers and in battles against external enemies . Zahir 's forces intimidated Ali into surrendering later that month , and Zahir pardoned and ultimately ceded to him Deir al @-@ Qassi . However , conflict was renewed weeks later with Ali and his brother Sa 'id , backed by Sheikh Nasif , Emir Yusuf and Uthman Pasha poised against Zahir , Uthman , Sheikh Qublan and Muhammad Pasha al @-@ Azm , governor of Sidon . With mediation from Ibrahim Sabbagh , Zahir 's financial adviser , Zahir settled his dispute with Sa 'id , granting the latter control over Tur 'an and Hittin .
Ali refused to negotiate , gained the backing of Salibi , and the two defeated their father , who had since demobilized his troops and was relying on local civilian volunteers from Acre . When Zahir re @-@ mobilized his Maghrebi mercenaries in Acre he launched an offensive and defeated Ali , who subsequently fled Deir Hanna in October . Out of sympathy for Ali 's children , who remained in the fortress village , he pardoned Ali on the condition he pay 12 @,@ 500 piasters and 25 Arabian horses for the fortress . By December 1767 , Zahir 's intra @-@ family disputes were put to rest for several years ( until 1774 – 75 ) , and through the intercession of Uthman , a close and enduring alliance was established between Zahir and Sheikh Nasif .
In 1768 the central Ottoman authorities partially recognized or legitimized Zahir 's de facto political position by granting him the title of " Sheikh of Acre , Emir of Nazareth , Tiberias , Safed , and Sheikh of all Galilee " . However , this official recognition was tempered when Yaqub Agha was executed shortly after and Sulayman Agha died in 1770 , depriving Zahir of close allies in Istanbul . In November 1770 , Uthman Pasha had the governor of Sidon replaced by his son Darwish Pasha and had his other son , Muhammad Pasha , appointed governor of Tripoli Eyalet . Uthman Pasha was committed to ending Zahir 's rule , and Zahir 's position was left particularly vulnerable with the loss of support in Istanbul . In response to threats from Damascus , Zahir further strengthened Acre 's fortifications and armed every adult male in the city with a rifle , two pistols and a sabre . He also moved to mend ties with his sons , who held various tax farms in Galilee , and consolidate his relationship with the Shia clans of Jabal Amil , thereby strengthening his local alliances .
= = = Alliance with Ali Bey and war with Damascus = = =
Although Zahir was bereft of friends in Istanbul and Damascus , he was forging a new alliance with the increasingly autonomous Mamluk ruler of Egypt and the Hejaz , Ali Bey al @-@ Kabir . Ali Bey shared a common interest with Zahir to subdue Damascus as he sought to extend his influence to Syria for strategic purposes vis @-@ a @-@ vis his conflict with the Sublime Porte . He had dispatched 15 @,@ 000 @-@ 20 @,@ 000 Egyptian troops to the port cities of Gaza and Jaffa under commander Ismail Bey . Together , Zahir and Ismail crossed the Jordan Valley with their armies and moved north toward Damascus . They made it as far as Muzayrib , but Ismail abruptly halted his army 's advance after confronting Uthman Pasha as he was leading the Hajj caravan in order to avoid harming the Muslim pilgrims . Ismail considered attacking the governor at that point to be a grave religious offense . He subsequently withdrew to Jaffa .
Zahir was surprised and angered by Ismail 's reticence to attack . In a unilateral move to impose his authority in Uthman Pasha 's jurisdiction , Zahir had his son Ahmad and other subordinate commanders collect taxes from villages in Damascus Eyalet , including Quneitra , while he dispatched his other son Ali on a campaign against the Bani Nu 'aym tribe in Hauran , also part of Damascus . In response to Zahir 's indignation , Ali Bey sent him 35 @,@ 000 troops under Abu al @-@ Dhahab in May . Together with Ismail 's troops in Jaffa , the Egyptian army captured Damascus from Uthman Pasha in June , while Zahir and his Metawali allies captured the city of Sidon from Darwish Pasha . However , Abu al @-@ Dhahab was persuaded by Ismail that confronting the Ottoman sultan , who carried a high religious authority as the caliph of Islam , was " truly ... a scheme of the Devil " and a crime against their religion . A short time after capturing Damascus , Abu al @-@ Dhahab and Ismail subsequently withdrew from the city , whose inhabitants were " completely astonished at this amazing event " , according to a chronicler of the time period . The sudden turn of events compelled Zahir 's forces to withdraw from Sidon on 20 June .
Abu al @-@ Dhahab 's withdrawal frustrated Zahir who proceeded to make independent moves , first by capturing Jaffa in August 1771 , after driving out its governor Ahmad Bey Tuqan , and shortly thereafter , capturing the cotton @-@ producing Bani Sa 'b region ( centered around modern @-@ day Tulkarm ) , which was held by Mustafa Bey Tuqan . Zahir had Jaffa fortified and stationed 2 @,@ 000 troops there . By the end of August , Zahir remained in control of Jaffa , while Uthman Pasha had restored his control over Ramla and Gaza .
= = = Peak of power = = =
In an attempt to expand his zone of influence to Nablus , the commercial center of Palestine and its agriculturally @-@ rich hinterland , Zahir besieged Nablus in late 1771 . By then , Zahir had secured an alliance with the powerful Jarrar clan , who were incensed at Uthman Pasha 's assignment of Mustafa Bey Tuqan as the collector of the miri ( hajj pilgrimage tax ) . Nablus was under the de facto control of the Tuqan and Nimr clans , local rivals of the Jarrars . The loss of Jaffa and Bani Sa 'b stripped Nablus of its sea access . Nablus was defended by 12 @,@ 000 mostly peasant riflemen under Nimr and Tuqan commanders . After nine days of clashes , Zahir decided to withdraw and avoid a costly stalemate . As he departed Nablus , his forces raided many of the city 's satellite villages , from which its peasant defenders originated .
Uthman Pasha had resumed his governorship of Damascus at the end of June 1771 and was determined to eliminate Zahir . To that end , he assembled a coalition that included his sons Darwish Pasha al @-@ Kurji and Muhammad Pasha al @-@ Kurji , who were the governors of Sidon and Tripoli , respectively , and Emir Yusuf Shihab of Mount Lebanon . In late August Uthman Pasha reached Lake Hula at the head of 10 @,@ 000 Ottoman troops . Before Uthman Pasha could be joined by his allies , Zahir and Sheikh Nasif of the Metawalis confronted the governor 's troops on 2 September . Ali al @-@ Zahir , Zahir 's son and a commander of one of his four battlefield regiments , raided Uthman Pasha 's camp , while Zahir 's other troops blocked them from the west . Uthman Pasha 's troops hastily retreated towards the Jordan River , the only place where they were not surrounded . The overwhelming majority drowned in the river , with only 300 – 500 survivors , including Uthman Pasha who almost drowned but was rescued by one of his men . The Battle of Lake Hula marked a decisive victory for Zahir , who entered Acre triumphantly with the spoils of Uthman Pasha 's camp . He was celebrated by the residents of the city and on the way there , he was given honorary gun salutes by each of his fortified villages on the route between Tiberias and Acre . He also received congratulations from the French merchant ships at the port of Acre . Zahir 's victory encouraged Ali Bey to relaunch his Syrian campaign .
Following his victory against Uthman Pasha , Zahir demanded Darwish Pasha vacate Sidon , which he did on 13 October . He returned two days later after receiving the backing of Emir Yusuf . Zahir decided to move against Emir Yusuf , and together with his ally Sheikh Nasif , he confronted him at Nabatieh on 20 October . Emir Yusuf 's men numbered some 37 @,@ 000 . Zahir 's Metawali cavalry engaged in a maneuver where they fled the battlefield in apparent defeat , only to have the pursuant troops of Emir Yusuf surrounded by Zahir 's men , who dealt Emir Yusuf 's army a decisive blow . Emir Yusuf thereafter retreated to his mountain village of Deir al @-@ Qamar , while Sidon was left under the protection of Ali Jumblatt and 3 @,@ 000 Druze defenders . However , with news of Zahir 's victory , Ali Jumblatt and Darwish Pasha withdrew from Sidon , which was subsequently occupied by Zahir and Sheikh Nasif . Uthman Pasha and all of his sons were consequently dismissed from their posts by the Sublime Porte . Although , he could not capture Nablus and its hinterland , Zahir 's domain by the end of 1771 extended from Sidon to Jaffa and included an influential presence in the Hauran plain .
Muhammad Tuqan captured Jaffa from Zahir in May 1772 , the same month that Ali Bey arrived in Acre to seek Zahir 's protection after being forced out of Egypt by rival mamluks . In June , the Ottoman loyalist Jazzar Pasha sought to establish himself in Lebanon and took over Beirut from the local Druze chieftains . The Druze had previously been in conflict with Zahir , but due to Jazzar 's offensive , the circumstances fostered an alliance between them , Zahir and the Metawali clans of Jabal Amil . Zahir and Ali Bey sought to take back Jaffa and , with help from the Russian Fleet , succeeded after a nine @-@ month siege , in which they exhausted many of their resources . Prior to that , in late October 1772 , Zahir and his Lebanese allies captured Beirut from Jazzar , also with Russian naval support .
In March 1773 , Ali Bey left Palestine to reestablish himself in Egypt , but Abu al @-@ Dhahab had him killed when he arrived there . With this came an end to the alliance between Zahir and Ali Bey , which had brought together Egypt and Palestine politically and economically in a way that had not occurred since the early 16th century . While their attempts to unite their territories economically and politically were unsuccessful , their rule posed the most serious domestic challenge to Ottoman rule in the 18th century . As a consequence of Ali Bey 's death , Zahir moved to further strengthen his hold over Jaffa and capture Jerusalem , but he failed in the latter attempt . All of Ottoman Syria came under the official command of Uthman Pasha al @-@ Misri in 1774 in order to bring stability to the provinces of the region . Al @-@ Misri did not seek conflict with Zahir and sought to establish friendly terms with him . As such , he convinced the Sublime Porte to officially appoint Zahir as the governor of Sidon as long as Zahir paid all of the taxes the province had owed to the Porte . Al @-@ Misri further promoted Zahir in February by declaring him " Governor of Sidon , Nablus , Gaza , Ramla , Jaffa and Jabal Ajlun " , although this title was not officially sanctioned by the Porte . In effect , Zahir was the de facto ruler over Palestine ( with the exception of Nablus and Jerusalem ) , Jabal Amil , and the Syrian coast from Gaza to Beirut .
= = = Downfall = = =
Al @-@ Misri was recalled to Istanbul in the summer of 1774 and Muhammad Pasha al @-@ Azm was appointed governor of Damascus . Thus , Zahir 's governorship of Sidon was left vulnerable because it had largely depended on guarantees from al @-@ Misri . Al @-@ Azm sought peaceful relations with Zahir , but the Sublime Porte , having made peace with Russia and relieving itself from that conflict , aimed to undermine the rebellious rulers of its provinces , including Zahir . Al @-@ Azm managed to secure an official pardon of Zahir from the Porte in April 1775 , but not the governorship of Sidon . Meanwhile , conflict between Zahir and his sons had reignited , with Ali of Safad attempting to capture Zahir 's villages in Galilee in 1774 . Zahir defeated Ali with support from his other son , Ahmad of Tiberias . Afterward , Zahir 's rule was again challenged by one of his other sons , Sa 'id , later that year . In response to this challenge , Zahir armed and mobilized 300 of Acre 's civilian inhabitants to counter Sa 'id . Ali continued to undermine Zahir 's rule by encouraging defections by Zahir 's Maghrebi mercenaries through bribes .
On 20 May 1775 , Abu al @-@ Dhahab , having been encouraged by the Porte to eradicate Zahir 's influence , captured Jaffa and slaughtered its male inhabitants . News of the massacre spurred the people of Acre into a mass panic , with its residents fleeing and storing their goods in the city 's Khan al @-@ Ifranj ( the French Caravanserai ) for safekeeping . On 24 May , Zahir also departed the city , leaving for Sidon . Ali al @-@ Zahir , subsequently entered it and declared himself governor . However , Ali 's Maghrebi troops abandoned him and looted the city as Abu al @-@ Dhahab 's troops approached it a few days later . They proceeded to conquer Sidon by sea , prompting Zahir to seek shelter with Shia allies in Jabal Amil . Some of Zahir 's sons attempted to secure their own peace with Abu al @-@ Dhahab , but the latter became ill and died on 10 June , causing the collapse and chaotic withdrawal of his Egyptian troops from Acre . Zahir re @-@ entered the city two days later and reestablished order with the assistance of Ahmad Agha al @-@ Dinkizli . However , the setback of Abu al @-@ Dhahab 's death did not preclude the Sublime Porte from attempting to check Zahir 's power and Sidon remained in Ottoman hands .
On 23 April , the Porte dispatched the Ottoman Navy admiral , Hasan Pasha al @-@ Jazayiri , to blockade Acre . He reached Haifa on 7 August taking Jaffa from Zahir 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Karim al @-@ Ayyubi . Hasan Pasha ordered Zahir to pay the miri dues he owed to the Sublime Porte dating back to 1768 . Zahir initially agreed to pay 500 @,@ 000 piasters of the total amount upfront and a further 50 @,@ 000 piasters to Hasan Pasha himself to " spare the blood of the people " . Hasan Pasha apparently accepted Zahir 's proposals , but the arrangements fell apart .
The accounts differ as to exactly how the negotiations collapsed , but sources agree that their failure was the result of disputes within Zahir 's inner circle between his financial adviser Ibrahim Sabbagh and his chief military commander , al @-@ Dinkizli . Most accounts claim that Sabbagh urged Zahir not to pay Hasan 's requested sums and agitated for war . Sabbagh argued that Zahir 's treasury did not have the funds to pay the miri dues and that Zahir 's forces were capable of defeating Hasan . Al @-@ Dinkizli pressed Zahir to pay the amount , arguing that mass bloodshed could be averted . He advised Zahir to force Sabbagh to pay the amount if Zahir could not afford to himself . When the negotiations dragged on , Hasan pressed for a full repayment of the miri dues , warning Zahir that he would be executed if he failed to satisfy the demand . Zahir was insulted by Hasan 's threat and in turn threatened to destroy Hasan 's entire fleet unless he withdrew his ships .
Hasan proceeded to bombard Acre , and Zahir 's Maghrebi artillerymen responded with cannon fire , damaging two of Hasan 's ships . The following day , Hasan 's fleet fired roughly 7 @,@ 000 shells against Acre without returning fire from the city 's artillerymen ; al @-@ Dinkizli had called on his Maghrebi forces to refrain from returning fire because as Muslims they were forbidden from attacking the sultan 's military . Realizing his long @-@ time deputy commander 's betrayal , he attempted to flee Acre on 21 August or 22 August . As he departed its gates , he was fired on by Ottoman troops , with a bullet striking his neck and causing him to fall off his horse . A Maghrebi soldier then decapitated him . Zahir 's severed head was subsequently delivered to Istanbul .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Following his death , Sabbagh and Zahir 's sons Abbas and Salih were arrested by Hasan Pasha 's men . The Sublime Porte also seized property belonging to Zahir , his sons and Sabbagh , which valued at 41 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 piasters . They were imprisoned in Istanbul , the Ottoman capital along with their physician , who was known to be talented in his profession . The physician was summoned by the sultan to treat his wife 's ailment , which he did successfully , earning him his freedom from incarceration and a medal of honor from the sultan . The physician used his influence with the authorities to have Zahir 's children and grandchildren released and returned to their hometowns . Sabbagh was executed by Hasan Pasha . Al @-@ Dinkizli was rewarded with the governorship of Gaza , but died on the way to his new headquarters , likely having been poisoned by Hasan .
Zahir 's sons Uthman , Ahmad , Sa 'id and Ali continued to put up resistance , with the latter putting up the longest fight from his fortress in Deir Hanna . The fortress eventually capitulated to the combined forces of Hasan Pasha and Jazzar Pasha on 22 July 1776 . Ali fled , but was killed later that year in the area between Tiberias and Safad . By then , the rest of Zahir 's sons had been arrested or killed . Abbas was later appointed by Sultan Selim III as the Sheikh of Safad . However , in 1799 , when Napoleon invaded Palestine , but withdrew after being defeated in Acre , Abbas and Salih both left Safad with the departing French forces . This marked the end of Zaydani influence in Galilee .
Constantin @-@ François Volney , who wrote the first European biography of Zahir in 1787 , lists three main reasons for Zahir 's failure . First , the lack of " internal good order and justness of principle " . Secondly , the early concessions he made to his children . Third , and most of all , the avarice of his adviser and confidant , Ibrahim Sabbagh .
= = Politics = =
= = = Administration = = =
Zahir appointed many of his brothers and sons as local administrators , particularly after he consolidated his control over Acre , which became the capital of his territory . Except for Acre and Haifa , Zahir divided the remainder of his territory between his relatives . His eldest brother was appointed to Deir Hanna , and his younger brothers Yusuf and Salih Abu Dani were installed in I 'billin and Arraba , respectively . Zahir appointed his eldest son Salibi as the multazim of Tiberias . Salibi was killed in 1773 fighting alongside Ali Bey 's forces in Egypt . His death deeply distressed Zahir , who was around 80 years old at the time . He appointed Uthman in Kafr Kanna then Shefa- ' Amr , Abbas in Nazareth , Ali in Safad , and Ahmad in Saffuriya . Ahmad replaced Salibi in Tiberias as well , and also conquered Ajlun and Salt in Transjordan . In addition , Ahmad was given authority over Deir Hanna after Sa 'd's death . Zahir appointed his nephew Ayyub al @-@ Karimi in Jaffa and Gaza , while al @-@ Dinkizli was made multazim in Sidon in 1774 . The appointment of Zahir 's relatives and close associates was meant to ensure the efficient administration of his expanding realm and the loyalty of his circle . Among their chief functions was to ensure the supply of cotton to Acre . It is not clear if these posts were recognized by the Ottoman government .
Zahir had an aide who jointly served in the capacity of mudabbir ( manager ) and wazir ( vizier ) to assist him throughout much of his rule in matters of finance and correspondence . This official had always been a Melkite ( local Greek Catholic ) . His first wazir was Yusuf al @-@ Arqash , followed by Yusuf Qassis in 1749 . Qassis continued in this role until the early 1760s when he was arrested for attempting to smuggle wealth he had accumulated during his service to Malta . He was succeeded by Ibrahim Sabbagh , who had served as a personal physician for Zahir in 1757 when he replaced Zahir 's longtime physician Sulayman Suwwan . Suwwan was a local Greek Orthodox Christian and when he failed to properly treat Zahir during a serious illness in 1757 , Qassis used the opportunity to replace him with Sabbagh , a friend and fellow Melkite . Sabbagh became the most influential figure in Zahir 's administration , particularly as Zahir grew old . This caused consternation among Zahir 's sons as they viewed Sabbagh to be a barrier between them and their father and an impediment to their growing power in Zahir 's territory . Sabbagh was able to gain increased influence with Zahir largely because of the wealth he amassed through his integral role in managing Zahir 's cotton monopoly . Much of this wealth was acquired through Sabbagh 's own deals where he would purchase cotton and other cash crops from the local farmers and sell them to the European merchants in the Syria 's coastal cities and to his Melkite partners in Damietta , Egypt . Sabbagh served other important roles as well , including as Zahir 's political adviser , main administrator and chief representative with European merchants and Ottoman provincial and imperial officials .
There were other officials in Zahir 's civil administration in Acre , including chief religious officials , namely the mufti and the qadi . The mufti was the chief scholar among the ulama ( Muslim scholarly community ) and oversaw the interpretation of Islamic law in Zahir 's realm . He was appointed by the Sublime Porte , but Zahir managed to maintain the same mufti for many years at a time in contrast with the typical Syrian province which saw its mufti replaced annually . Zahir directly appointed the qadi from Palestine 's local ulama , but his judicial decisions had to be approved by the qadi of Sidon . Zahir had a chief imam , who in the last years of his rule was Ali ibn Khalid al @-@ Shaabi . An agha was also appointed to supervise the customs payments made by the European merchants in Acre and Haifa .
Zahir 's initial military forces consisted of his Zaydani kinsmen and the local inhabitants of the areas he ruled . They numbered about 200 men in the early 1720s , but grew to about 1 @,@ 500 in the early 1730s . During this early period of Zahir 's career , he also had the key military backing of the Bani Saqr and other Bedouin tribes . As he consolidated his hold over Galilee , his army rose to over 4 @,@ 000 men , many of the later recruits being peasants who supported Zahir for protecting them against Bedouin raids . This suppression of the Bedouin in turn caused the tribes to largely withdraw their military backing of Zahir . The core of his private army were the Maghrebi mercenaries . The Maghrebis ' commander , Ahmad Agha al @-@ Dinkizli , also served as Zahir 's top military commander from 1735 until al @-@ Dinkizli 's defection during the Ottoman siege of Acre in 1775 . From the time Zahir reconciled with Sheikh Nasif al @-@ Nassar of Jabal Amil in 1768 until most of the remainder of his rule , Zahir also had the support of Nasif 's roughly 10 @,@ 000 Metawali cavalrymen . However , the Metawalis did not aid Zahir during the Ottoman offensive of 1775 . Zahir 's fortified villages and towns were equipped with artillery installments and his army 's arsenal consisted of cannons , matchlock rifles , pistols and lances . Most of the firearms were imported from Venice or France , and by the early 1770s , from the Russian imperial navy .
= = = General security = = =
According to biographer Ahmad Hasan Joudah , the two principal conditions Zahir established to foster his sheikhdom 's prosperity and its survival were " security and justice " . Prior to Zahir 's consolidation of power , the villages of northern Palestine were prone to Bedouin raids and robberies and the roads were under constant threat from highway robbers and Bedouin attacks . Although following the looting raids , the inhabitants of these agrarian villages were left destitute , the Ottoman provincial government would nonetheless attempt to collect from them the miri ( hajj tax ) . To avoid punitive measures for not paying the miri , the inhabitants would abandon their villages for safety in the larger towns or the desert . This situation hurt the economy of the region as the raids sharply reduced the villages ' agricultural output , the government @-@ appointed mutasallims ( tax farmers ) could not collect their impositions , and trade could not be safely conducted due to insecurity on the roads .
By 1746 , however , Zahir had established order in the lands he ruled . He managed to co @-@ opt the dominant Bedouin tribe of the region , the Bani Saqr , which greatly contributed to the establishment of security in northern Palestine . Moreover , Zahir charged the sheikhs of the towns and villages of northern Palestine with ensuring the safety of the roads in their respective vicinity and required them to compensate anyone who was robbed of his / her property . General security reached a level whereby " an old woman with gold in her hand could travel from one place to another without fear or danger " , according to biographer Mikhail Sabbagh .
This period of calm that persisted between 1744 and 1765 greatly boosted the security and economy of Galilee . The security established in the region encouraged people from other parts of the Ottoman Empire to immigrate to Galilee . Conflict between the local clans and between Zahir and his sons remained limited to periodic clashes , while there were no attacks against Zahir 's domain from outside forces . While Zahir used force to strengthen his position in the region , the local inhabitants generally took comfort in his rule , which historian Thomas Philip described as " relatively just and reasonably fair " . According to Richard Pococke who visited the area in 1737 , the local people had great admiration for Zahir , especially for his war against bandits on the roads .
= = = Economic policies = = =
In addition to providing security , Zahir and his local deputies adopted a policy of aiding the peasants cultivate and harvest their farmlands to further guarantee the steady supply of agricultural products for export . These benefits included loans to peasants and the distribution of free seeds . Financial burdens on the peasants were also reduced as Zahir offered tax relief during drought seasons or when the harvest seasons were poor . This same tax relief was extended to newcomers who sought to begin cultivating new farmlands . Moreover , Zahir assumed responsibility for outstanding payments the peasants owed to merchants from credit @-@ based transactions if the merchants could provide proof of unsatisfactory payment . According to historian Thomas Philipp , Zahir " had the good business sense not to exploit peasants to the point of destruction , but kept his financial demands to a more moderate level . " He regularly paid the Ottoman authorities their financial dues , ensuring a degree of stability in his relationship with the sultanate .
When Zahir conquered Acre , he transformed it from a decaying village into a fortified market hub for Palestinian products , including silk , wheat , olive oil , tobacco and cotton , which he exported to Europe . With cotton in particular , Zahir was able to monopolize the market for it and its foreign export . He did business with European merchants based in Galilee 's ports , who competed with one another for the cotton and grain cultivated in the rural villages under Zahir 's dominion or influence in Galilee 's hinterland and Jabal Amil . Previously , European merchants made direct transactions with local cotton growers , but Zahir , with the help of Ibrahim Sabbagh , put an end to this system of commerce by making himself the middleman between the merchants and the growers living under his rule . This allowed him to both monopolize cotton production and the merchants ' price for the product . Zahir 's designation of prices for the local cash crops also prevented " exploitation " of the peasants and local merchants by European merchants and their " manipulation of the prices " , according to Joudah . This caused financial losses to the European merchants who lodged numerous complaints to the French and English ambassadors to the Sublime Porte . A formal agreement to regulate commerce between Zahir and the European merchants was reached in 1753 . Zahir further encouraged trade by offering local merchants interest @-@ free loans .
The high European demand for the product enabled Zahir to grow wealthy and finance his autonomous sheikhdom . This control of the cotton market also allowed him to gain unofficial control over all of the Sidon Eyalet , outside the city of Sidon itself . With mixed success , Zahir attempted to have French merchant ships redirected from the ports of Tyre and Sidon to Haifa instead , in order to benefit from the customs fees he could exact . The city of Acre underwent an economic boom as a result of its position in the cotton trade with France , and became the fortified headquarters of Zahir 's sheikhdom .
= = = Relationship with religious minorities = = =
Zahir maintained tolerant policies and encouraged the involvement of religious minorities in the local economy . As part of his larger efforts to enlarge the population of Galilee , Zahir invited Jews to resettle in Tiberias around 1742 , along with Muslims . Zahir did not consider Jews to be a threat to his rule and believed that their connections with the Jewish diaspora would encourage economic development in Tiberias , which the Jews considered particularly holy . His tolerance towards the Jews , the cuts in taxes levied on them , and assistance in the construction of Jewish homes , schools and synagogues , helped foster the growth of the Jewish community in the area . The initial Jewish immigrants came from Damascus and were later followed by Jews from Aleppo , Cyprus and Smyrna . Many Jews in Safad , which was governed by Zahir 's son Ali , moved to Tiberias in the 1740s to take advantage of better opportunities in that city , which at the time was under Zahir 's direct rule . The villages of Kafr Yasif and Shefa- ' Amr also saw new Jewish communities spring up under Zahir 's rule .
Zahir encouraged local Christian settlement in Acre , in order to contribute to the city 's commercial dynamism in trade and manufacturing . Christians grew to become the largest religious group in the city by the late 18th century . Zahir 's territory became a haven for Melkite and Greek Orthodox Christians from other parts of Ottoman Syria who migrated there for better trade and employment opportunities . In Nazareth , the Christian community prospered and grew under Zahir 's rule , and saw an influx from the Maronite and Greek Orthodox communities of Lebanon and Transjordan , respectively . The Melkite patriarch lived in Acre between 1765 and 1768 . Along with the Jews , the Christians contributed to the economy of Zahir 's sheikhdom in a number of ways , including the relative ease with which they were able to deal with European merchants , the networks of support many of them maintained in Damascus or Istanbul , and their role in service industries .
Zahir allowed the Franciscan community of Nazareth to build churches in 1730 , 1741 and 1754 on sites Christians associated with Jesus 's life . He allowed the Greek Orthodox community to build St. Gabriel 's Church over a ruined Crusader church in Nazareth , and in 1750 they enlarged St. George 's Church . The largest Christian community in Acre , the Melkites , built the largest church in the city , St. Andrew 's Church , in 1764 , while the Maronites built St. Mary 's Church for their congregation in 1750 . As a testament to the prosperity that the Christians enjoyed under Zahir 's rule , no further churches were built under the auspices of Zahir 's less tolerant successors .
A strong relationship existed between Zahir and the Shia Muslim peasants of Jabal Amil and their sheikhs . Zahir maintained law and order in Jabal Amil , while leaving its mostly Shia inhabitants to their own devices . The Shia also benefited economically from Zahir 's monopoly of the cotton industry and their sheikhs provided him men of great military skill to support his struggle against the Ottoman authorities . Zahir was a key backer of the Shia in their war with the Druze Jumblatt clan and the Shihab dynasty under Mulhim Shihab , and likewise , Shia forces were critical to the defense of Zahir 's sheikhdom against expeditions by the Ottoman governor of Damascus in 1771 and 1772 .
The relationship between Zahir and the rural sheikhs of the Druze of Mount Lebanon under the Shihab dynasty were mixed . While Sheikh Mansur Shihab of Chouf allied himself with Zahir , his nephew and rival , Yusuf Shihab of the Tripoli region remained supportive of the Ottomans . Owing largely to the conflict between Zahir and the Druze emirs of Mount Lebanon , he Druze of Galilee did not fare well under Zahir and his Zaydani clan . In the oral traditions of Galilee 's Druze inhabitants , Zahir 's reign was synonymous with oppression . During this period , many Druze villages were either destroyed or abandoned and there was a partial Druze exodus from Galilee , particularly from the villages around Safad , to the Hauran region east of the Jordan River .
= = Family = =
Zahir 's clan belonged to the Qaisi political faction in the centuries @-@ long struggle between the Qais and Yaman confederations . The Ma 'an and Shihab dynasties , who ruled Mount Lebanon ( and often Galilee ) semi @-@ autonomously , also belonged to the Qaisi faction . For the most part , Zahir respected the socio @-@ political system that prevailed in the region he ruled . The alliances between him and local notables were bolstered by a network of marriages between the influential families of the area , including Zahir 's Zaydani clan . Zahir 's own marriages were politically advantageous as they allowed him to consecrate his rule over certain areas or his relationships with certain Bedouin tribes , local clans or urban notables . Zahir had five wives during his lifetime . Among his wives was a woman from the Sardiyah , a Bedouin tribe active in Transjordan and Palestine . Zahir was also married to a daughter of Sayyid Muhammad , a wealthy religious notable from Damascus , a daughter of the mukhtar ( headman ) of Bi 'ina , and a daughter of the mukhtar of Deir al @-@ Qassi .
Zahir had eight sons from his wives , and according to Tobias Smollett , a daughter as well . His sons , from eldest to youngest , were Salibi , Ali , Uthman , Sa 'id , Ahmad , Salih , Sa 'd al @-@ Din and Abbas . His daughter 's husband 's name was Karim al @-@ Ayyubi , who was also Zahir 's cousin . By 1773 , Zahir had a total of 272 children , grandchildren and great @-@ grandchildren .
As Zahir consolidated his power and reduced external threats to his rule in the 1760s , his sons aspired for more influence and ultimately fought against their father and each other in order to secure their place as Zahir 's successor . Besides support from elements of the Zaydani clan , Zahir 's sons maintained their own power bases , largely derived from their mothers ' clans , and also made their own alliances with other powerful actors in the region . Zahir was victorious in the many conflicts he had with his sons , but their frequent dissent weakened his rule and played a contributory role to his downfall in 1775 . Prior to his sons ' individual rebellions , Zahir had eliminated other relatives who challenged his power .
= = Legacy = =
Zahir 's rule radically changed the landscape of Galilee . With the restoration and re @-@ fortification of Acre and the establishment of the secondary port city of Haifa , Galilee significantly strengthened its ties with the Mediterranean world . Following Zahir 's death , his successor Jazzar Pasha maintained the cotton monopoly Zahir had established and Galilee 's economy remained almost completely dependent on the cotton trade . The region prospered for decades , but with the rise of the cotton market in the southern United States during the early @-@ mid 19th century , European demand shifted away from Palestine 's cotton and because of its dependency on the crop , the region experienced a sharp economic downturn from which it could not recover . The cotton crop was largely abandoned , as were many villages , and the peasantry shifted its focus to subsistence agriculture .
In the late 19th century , the Palestine Exploration Fund 's Claude Reignier Conder wrote that the Ottomans had successfully destroyed the power of Palestine 's indigenous ruling families who " had practically been their own masters " but had been " ruined so that there is no longer any spirit left in them " . Among these families were the " proud race " of Zahir , which was still held in high esteem , but was powerless and poor . Zahir 's modern @-@ day descendants in Galilee use the surname " Dhawahri " or " al @-@ Zawahirah " in Zahir 's honor . The Dhawahri clan constitute one of the traditional elite Muslim clans of Nazareth , alongside the Fahum , Zu 'bi and ' Onallas families . Other villages in Galilee where descendants of Zahir 's clan live are Bi 'ina and Kafr Manda and , prior to its 1948 destruction , al @-@ Damun . Many of the inhabitants of modern @-@ day northern Israel , particularly the towns and villages where Zahir or his family left an architectural legacy , hold Zahir in high regard .
Although he was mostly overlooked by historians of the Middle East , some scholars view Zahir 's rule as a forerunner to Palestinian nationalism . Among these scholars is Karl Sabbagh , who asserts the latter view in his book Palestine : A Personal History , which was widely reviewed in the British press in 2010 . Zahir was gradually integrated into Palestinian historiography . In Murad Mustafa Dabbagh 's Biladuna Filastin ( 1965 ) , a multi @-@ volume work about Palestine 's history , Zahir is referred to as the " greatest Palestinian appearing in the eighteenth century " . The Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) radio station , Voice of Palestine , broadcast a series about Zahir in 1966 , praising him as a Palestinian national hero who fought against Ottoman imperialism . Zahir is considered by many Arab nationalists as a pioneer of Arab liberation from foreign occupation . According to Joudah
However historians may look at Shaykh Zahir al- ' Umar and his movement , he is highly respected by the Arabs of the East . In particular the Palestinians consider him a national hero who struggled against Ottoman authority for the welfare of his people . This praise is reflected in the recent academic , cultural and literary renaissance within Palestinian society that has elevated Zahir and his legacy to near @-@ iconic status . These re @-@ readings are not always bound to historical objectivity but are largely inspired by the ongoing consequences of the Nakba . Still it is precise to say that Shaykh Zahir had successfully established an autonomous state , or a " little Kingdom , " as Albert Hourani called it , in most of Palestine for over a quarter of a century .
= = = Building works = = =
Zahir and his family built fortresses , watchtowers , warehouses , and khans ( caravanserais ) . These buildings improved the domestic administration and general security of Galilee . Today , many of these structures are in a state of disrepair and remain outside the scope of Israel 's cultural preservation laws .
In Acre , Zahir rebuilt the Crusader @-@ era walls and built on top of various Crusader and Mamluk structures in the city . Among these were the caravanserais of Khan al @-@ Shawarda and its Burj al @-@ Sultan tower and Khan al @-@ Shunah . In 1758 , he commissioned the construction of the al @-@ Muallaq Mosque , He also built the Seraya government house in Nazareth , which served as that city 's municipal headquarters until 1991 . In Haifa , which Zahir founded , he built a wall with four towers and two gates around the new settlement . Within Haifa , he built the Burj al @-@ Salam fortress , a small mosque , a customs building , and a government residence ( saraya ) . In Tiberias , he commissioned the building of a citadel ( now ruined ) and the al @-@ Amari Mosque . The latter was built with alternating white and black stone , typical of the architectural style of Zahir 's building works , and a minaret .
Fortifications and other structures were built in the rural villages under Zahir 's control . In Deir Hanna , Zahir 's brother Sa 'd built a large fortress and an adjacent mosque , both of which were severely damaged during a siege by Jazzar Pasha in 1776 . In Khirbat Jiddin , he rebuilt the demolished Crusader fortress with the addition of a mosque and hamaam ( bathhouse ) . The mosque was destroyed by Israeli forces when the village was captured during the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War . In Shefa- ' Amr , Zahir 's son Uthman built a large fortress with four towers , of which one remains standing . Another of his sons , Ahmad , rebuilt the Crusader fortress in Saffuriya .
In Tibnin , in modern @-@ day Lebanon , and in Safad , Zahir or his son Ali had Crusader @-@ era fortresses rebuilt . Zahir fortified the village of Harbaj , although the village and its fort were in ruins by the late 19th century . At Tabgha on the Sea of Galilee , Zahir built five fountains , one of which remained standing by the 19th century . That remaining fountain was the largest of its kind in Galilee . In the village of I 'billin , Zahir 's brother Yusuf built fortifications and a mosque . The I 'billin fortress was later used as the headquarters of Aqil Agha , the 19th century semi @-@ autonomous Arab sheikh of Galilee .
|
= M @-@ 204 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 204 runs across the Leelanau Peninsula between Leland and Suttons Bay in the northwestern Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . The trunkline runs through a rural section of Leelanau County , connecting two villages with the county seat . Originally a gravel road in 1933 , it was later paved within the first three years of existence . Segments were realigned to straighten curves in the late 1930s and early 1970s near the villages of Lake Leelanau and Suttons Bay .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 204 starts at an intersection with M @-@ 22 ( Manitou Trail ) south of Leland next to Duck Lake . From there it follows Duck Lake Road along the south shore of Lake Leelanau 's northern lobe . The two @-@ lane roadway runs eastward and then southeasterly through a mixture of woods and fields to the village of Lake Leelanau . One there , M @-@ 204 follows Phillip Street across the Narrows and turns northeasterly . The bridge that the trunkline uses is eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places . Outside of town , the highway follows Duck Lake Road again past the county seat of Leelanau County . Near the intersection with Horn Road , M @-@ 204 turns southeasterly toward the village of Suttons Bay . As the trunkline descends a hill into the village , it passes through vineyards and woods . Inside town , M @-@ 204 follows Race Street and ends downtown at M @-@ 22 ( St. Joseph Avenue ) .
Like other state highways in Michigan , M @-@ 204 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 3 @,@ 397 vehicles used the highway daily in Suttons Bay and 2 @,@ 931 vehicles did so each day near the western terminus , the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . No section of M @-@ 204 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 204 was first designated on July 12 , 1933 between Leland and Suttons Bay along what is today Duck Lake Road . The highway was paved by the middle of 1936 . The road was realigned on July 13 , 1939 , across the narrows of Lake Leelanau in the village of the same name . Another realignment near Suttons Bay was completed on March 26 , 1956 , to smooth out a curve in the road . A second completed on May 4 , 1956 , straightened a curve by Sylt Road east of Lake Leelanau . The western section was completely rebuilt between Duck Lake Corner and the Lake Leelanau Narrows Bridge to smooth out curves in the roadway . Sections not obliterated by the reconstruction were turned over to local control as Main Street or Old M @-@ 204 in Lake Leelanau when the project was finished on July 1 , 1970 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Leelanau County .
|
= What Goes Around ... Comes Around =
" What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around ( Interlude ) " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Justin Timberlake for his second studio album , FutureSex / LoveSounds ( 2006 ) . It was written and produced by Timberlake , Timbaland , and Danja . The song was said by Timberlake to be about betrayal and forgiveness , and was described by some music critics as a " sequel " to his 2002 single " Cry Me a River " . The song received generally positive reviews from music critics .
" What Goes Around ... " is about the love life of a friend of Timberlake , Trace Ayala , and his relationship with Elisha Cuthbert . It also is rumored that the song talks about the relationship the two had in the TV series 24 .
The song was retitled " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " for its December 19 , 2006 , release as the third single from FutureSex / LoveSounds . It became Timberlake 's third consecutive number @-@ one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 . Internationally the song was also successful , reaching the top ten in countries such as the United Kingdom , Canada , New Zealand , Germany , and Australia . The song was later certified two @-@ times platinum in Australia , gold in the United States and gold in New Zealand . The song won Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 50th Grammy Awards , where it also received a nomination for Record of the Year .
The Samuel Bayer @-@ directed music video for " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " was released February 7 , 2007 . Actress Scarlett Johansson plays Timberlake 's love interest in the video . The video received the award for Best Direction at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards and was also nominated for Video of the Year .
= = Production = =
When Timberlake began working on FutureSex / LoveSounds at Timbaland 's studio in Virginia Beach , Virginia , they had no idea of what the album would be like with no plan for it or even a title . He told his collaborators to do a remake of his previous single , " Cry Me a River " . Danja , a protégé of Timbaland , stated : " We had no direction at all other than ' Cry Me a River , ' and not in the sense of mimicking the track , but in how big the song was . There was no direction for how he wanted the song to sound , because there was no direction for how he wanted [ his album FutureSex / LoveSounds ] to sound . "
The song was written and produced by Justin Timberlake , Timbaland , and Nate " Danja " Hills . While in the studio , the three men were just " fooling around " and " freestyling " . When Danja began playing a guitar riff , it caught Timberlake 's attention . Timberlake started humming to the melody , and then the lyrics came . Timbaland , who was at his keyboards beside Danja , added drums to the melody . Danja commented that " everything was coming together at the same time " . After coming up with the music , Timberlake never wrote down the lyrics and , in an hour , he was ready to record it . By the time Timberlake was in the vocal booth , the basic track was done , then Timbaland produced a prelude of the song . Timberlake sang the song in a couple of takes and went back line by line to fill up the gaps . During the recording sessions , Timbaland and Danja added everything else , including the basses and strings . Danja compared the process to scoring to a movie , thinking the song was like a horror flick .
" What Goes Around ... Comes Around " was pivotal to the creation of FutureSex / LoveSounds . After finishing the production of the song , Timbaland teased Timberlake . Timberlake responded : " Let 's do something we would never do . Let 's go far left and just see what happens . " His answer motivated the collective , and they ended up producing ten songs for the album .
= = Composition and interpretation = =
" What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " is a pop @-@ R & B song performed in a slow manner . It is composed in the key of A Dorian ( A Minor ) in common time . With a gentle and midtempo beat , the tempo is pacing to 76 beats per minute . The song features a two @-@ minute interlude titled " Comes Around " , featuring the album 's producer Timbaland , spanning to a seven @-@ minute and 28 @-@ second track . Timberlake 's voice ranges from B3 to D6 . Musically , the song is similar to the type of music produced on Timberlake 's Justified album ; however , it is the only link from FutureSex / LoveSounds to Justified .
In the beginning of the song , there is a five @-@ second harmony line of two bağlamas ( one each panned far left and far right on respect octaves ) , a Turkish folk instrument . The beat is then changed to a more upbeat version of the same melody with more percussion . The basic ornamentation is loyal to characteristic Turkish string ornamentations . Timbaland also used the Turkish oud to mellow out the guitar riff . The chord series follows the Am @-@ C @-@ G @-@ D keys . Following the instrumental , Timberlake begins the verse at thirteenth bar . The original track had a bridge , including the pre @-@ verses , the verses and the choruses . After hearing the vocals of Timberlake , they decided to remove the bridge and follow a simple flow , because they felt its " too much " to have it and a break at the end of the song . Timbaland provides backing vocals on the song .
" What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " is about betrayal and forgiveness . Timberlake revealed that the song was written for the experience his friend went through . However , the public came up with different interpretation of the lyrics , that being a sequel to " Cry Me A River " . Bill Lamb wrote that the song has a " cautionary tale in the lyrics " . According to him , many fans and critics alike , after hearing the song , insisted that it is similar in meaning to " Cry Me a River " , which allegedly accounts to Timberlake 's relationship with former girlfriend , pop singer Britney Spears . However , Timberlake 's account of the song 's meaning contradicts this . Spence D. of IGN commented that the song presents " some intriguing ambiance " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The song received generally positive reviews from critics . Rolling Stone called the single " a soaring ballad featuring Timberlake 's falsetto , with verses and choruses that pile on top of one another with dizzying effect . " About.com reviewer Bill Lamb stated that the song " is one of the most gorgeous pop melodies of the year . " He complimented the string @-@ based arrangement of the song . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly called it " superior " , along with " LoveStoned " . Zach Baron of Pitchfork Media referred to it " some real can 't @-@ let @-@ go shit that 'll save you the repeat stabs on the bad night . " Spence D. of IGN called it " annoying " but he complimented the use of echo vocals and swirling synths .
" What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " placed at number twenty @-@ four on Rolling Stone 's list of the 100 Best Songs of 2007 . The song was nominated twice at the 50th Annual Grammy Awards , winning Best Male Pop Vocal Performance but lost to Amy Winehouse 's " Rehab " for Record of the Year .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " was commercially successful in the United States . The single debuted at number 64 on December 23 , 2006 on the Billboard Hot 100 , prior to its physical release . From number eight on February 24 , 2007 , it propelled to number one the following week . " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " became Timberlake 's third consecutive number one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 from his FutureSex / LoveSounds album , becoming the first male artist since Usher in 2004 to have three or more consecutive number @-@ one hits from one album . The single charted on Hot 100 for 25 weeks . " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on June 7 , 2007 . By September 3 , 2010 , the song had passed the two million sales plateau , and has sold 2 @,@ 375 @,@ 000 copies as of April 2013 .
In the United Kingdom , " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " debuted at number 59 on the UK Singles Chart on January 28 , 2007 . The digital download sales helped propel the single to number 11 on February 25 , 2007 . " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " peaked at number four on March 11 , to become his sixth top five single in the United Kingdom . It stayed on the chart for 22 weeks . The single entered the top five in Austria , Belgium , Denmark , Finland , France , Germany , Ireland , Norway , Romania , Sweden , Switzerland . In Australia , the single debuted and peaked at number three on the Australian ARIA singles chart on March 26 , 2007 , gaining the Highest Debut certification . It spent a total of 22 weeks on the chart . " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " was certified two @-@ times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for selling over 30 @,@ 000 units . The single peaked at number three in the New Zealand on April 9 , 2007 , and spent 16 weeks on the chart . " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
The music video for the " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " was produced as a short movie . The video was directed by Samuel Bayer , who had first directorial works with Nirvana 's 1991 single " Smells Like Teen Spirit " . The video features dialogues written by Alpha Dog writer and director Nick Cassavetes , who had previously worked with Timberlake in the film . Timberlake and Bayer enlisted American actress Scarlett Johansson after deciding on using " real " actors . The shooting went for three days between Christmas and New Year 's Eve in Los Angeles . The dawn scene was shot on January 8 , after the original sessions were done .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video starts off with Timberlake flirting with Johansson on the burlesque @-@ style club . She rejects with a tease at first but eventually leaves with him to go back to his place . In between cuts , they are shown in bed caressing each other . Johansson jumps into a pool outside the house , and floats below the surface as if she is drowning . Timberlake runs out and pulls her up ; she laughs at Timberlake and kisses him .
In another scene , Timberlake introduces her to a drunk Shawn Hatosy at the club calling her " The One " . Hatosy seems to be interested in Johansson and Timberlake asks him to " keep an eye on her for me " perhaps suspecting she has another man on the side . Timberlake returns and finds them kissing in the stairway . After punching Hatosy he chases after Johansson , who speeds off in her 1967 Chevrolet Corvette C2 Sting Ray ; Timberlake follows in his Porsche Carrera GT . Johansson runs into a fiery car crash pile up and is ejected from the car as it tumbles through the air and lands several feet away 2 times . Timberlake notices a motionless body lying supine on the ground . He gets out and kneels over her while the camera view moves toward the sky .
Some scenes shows Timberlake performing on the stairway with a microphone while a group of unknown girls with red paint on their eyes are seen dancing next to him while one ( Johansson ) is seen waving her batons with fire on them near the end of the video .
= = = Release and reception = = =
The music video of " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " was exclusively premiered on February 9 , 2007 on the iTunes Store . The music video debuted on MTV 's Total Request Live at number nine on February 13 , 2007 . " What Goes Around ... " retired on May 7 at number seven . In Canada , the music video debuted on Muchmusic 's Top 30 countdown at number 22 on January 26 , 2007 . It peaked at number one on April 27 and stayed on the chart for seven non @-@ consecutive weeks . The video was commercially successful , becoming the fastest selling pop promo on iTunes . It has sold 50 @,@ 000 in downloads for four days . Timberlake was the first major artist to release a video on the download platform .
In September 2007 , " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " won an MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction . It was also nominated for Video of the Year but lost to singer Rihanna 's 2007 video " Umbrella " .
= = Live performances = =
Timberlake performed the song on Saturday Night Live . Timberlake performed twice at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards , once at the piano for " What Goes Around Comes Around " and later " My Love " and Bill Withers ' " Ain 't No Sunshine . " The song is featured in the set list of FutureSex / LoveShow ( 2007 ) , Legends of the Summer ( 2013 ) and the The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour ( 2013 / 14 ) .
= = Cover versions = =
On May 23 , 2007 , Marilyn Manson and Tim Skold appeared on UK radio station BBC Radio 1 's program Live Lounge to promote Marilyn Manson 's 2007 album Eat Me , Drink Me . They performed an acoustic version of " Heart @-@ Shaped Glasses ( When the Heart Guides the Hand ) " , followed with an acoustic cover of " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " . The Manson cover does not include the interlude . French singer Myriam Abel , the winner of Nouvelle Star 3 , also recorded a non @-@ commercial cover of " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " with a Raï influence , accessible through her official MySpace page . An a cappella rendition was recorded by Overboard for their 2007 album , Stranded . American post hardcore band Alesana recorded a cover for the Punk Goes ... compilation series , Punk Goes Pop 2 , released March 10 , 2009 . Benny Davis , of the Australian musical comedy act The Axis of Awesome , also heavily sampled the song on his track " Another Four Chords " on The Human Jukebox EP , released in 2013 .
Taylor Swift performed a mashup of " You 're Not Sorry " and " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " during her Fearless Tour ( 2009 − 10 ) .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from FutureSex / LoveSounds booklet :
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
|
= Woodstock Library =
The Woodstock Library is a branch of the Multnomah County Library in southeast Portland , Oregon , United States . The library 's origins date back to 1908 , when the people of the Woodstock neighborhood established a reading room at the Woodstock Fire Station , which soon became one of fifteen " deposit stations " ( packing crates that turned into two @-@ shelf bookcases and could hold up to 50 books each ) . The Woodstock collection began as an assemblage of children 's books and was housed within a public school . In 1911 , the station was replaced by a " sub @-@ branch " library offering more books for adults and children , but without the reference works and services available at regular branches . The collection moved into a larger facility in 1914 , which became a full branch in 1917 , offering additional resources and services .
The library occupied a series of temporary locations during the 1920s – ' 40s . Construction began on Woodstock 's permanent library building in 1959 . It was dedicated on June 1 the following year , the fourth community library built by Multnomah County . Until the mid @-@ 1990s the library was maintained as @-@ is with only regular maintenance , though capacity strained as public use grew and new technologies demanded additional shelf space . In 1995 , the City of Portland 's Bureau of Planning released the " Adopted Woodstock Neighborhood Plan " , which included a policy to improve the branch and its services . In 1996 , the county adopted a $ 28 million bond measure to renovate some branches and upgrade technology throughout the system . Given multiple issues with the existing building , including structural problems and non @-@ compliance with building codes , Multnomah County Library determined reconstruction was necessary . The library was demolished in January 1999 .
The current 7 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 700 m2 ) Woodstock Library building was completed in 2000 . It has a " lantern @-@ like " quality and has received multiple awards for its design . In addition to offering the Multnomah County Library catalog , which contains two million books , periodicals and other materials , the library houses collections in Chinese and Spanish and employs Chinese @-@ speaking staff .
= = Early history = =
In 1906 , the Multnomah County Library began distributing books to neighborhoods outside downtown Portland . A reading room was established in the Woodstock neighborhood 's fire station building in 1908 ; later that year it was recognized as a branch of Multnomah County Library . Deposit stations , containing packing crates that turned into two @-@ shelf bookcases holding up to 50 books each , were often set up within fire stations or private homes . Woodstock received its deposit station , a collection of children 's books housed within a public school , in 1909 , becoming one of fifteen outlying service areas . On May 16 , 1911 , the Woodstock deposit station was replaced by a sub @-@ branch library , supplying more reading material for adults and children but without the reference works and other library services offered at regular branches . The collection was moved to a larger storefront facility , west of SE 44th on SE Woodstock Boulevard , on September 12 , 1914 . The library achieved full branch status in 1917 , offering a collection and services comparable to other branches . In 1918 , the Woodstock branch and several others were threatened with closure after employees received a $ 10 per month salary increase , but funding sources helped to defray the additional expense . Along with other county libraries , the branch closed between November 1 and November 16 in response to the 1918 flu pandemic .
During the 1920s – ' 40s the library occupied a series of temporary locations within rented storefronts . Library resources and services were used heavily by unemployed residents during the Great Depression as well as during and after World War II , as people requested information ranging from foreign locales to victory gardens to jobs . In the 1950s , responding to population changes and the rise in automobile use , Multnomah County Library divided the county into six regions , each of which had a single " Class A " branch offering extended operating hours and full services . Deposit stations and smaller branch libraries were to be eliminated or merged to house larger collections .
= = Original building = =
Multnomah County Library decided to consolidate the Woodstock and Sellwood @-@ Moreland branches , both of which had struggled to operate in rented spaces for years . Construction of Woodstock 's first permanent library building , located at 6008 SE 49th Avenue , began in 1959 . The new library , measuring 5 @,@ 640 square feet ( 524 m2 ) , was dedicated on June 1 the following year , the fourth community library built by Multnomah County . The president of the Library Association of Portland wrote in the organization 's annual report : " Community response to this fine example of an adequate extension agency has been gratifying . This accelerated use fortifies the principle that excellent , strong book collections , strategically placed , provide economical and satisfactory extension [ branch ] service . "
The library received regular maintenance and refurbishment from the 1970s through the mid @-@ 1990s , including repairs following a small fire . Capacity became strained as video and audiobook collections demanded additional shelf space and public use continued to grow . In 1995 , the City of Portland 's Bureau of Planning released the " Adopted Woodstock Neighborhood Plan " , which included a policy to enhance the branch . Objectives included promoting its use , upgrading the facility and its services , improving cyclist and pedestrian access , and strengthening its cultural and educational role within the community . In May 1996 , Multnomah County voters passed a $ 28 million bond measure to renovate some branches and upgrade technology throughout the system . Multnomah County Library determined building reconstruction was necessary given multiple issues including electrical , lighting , mechanical , plumbing and structural problems , mold growth within the walls and underneath flooring , and non @-@ compliance with earthquake engineering and Americans with Disabilities Act codes . Cost analysis revealed reconstruction was more effective than repairing the existing structure ; additional factors included data and communications upgrades and the need for meeting space . Woodstock Library closed on January 17 , 1999 and was demolished soon after . Many of its building materials were recycled or salvaged for reuse .
= = Current building = =
The current Woodstock Library building is at the intersection of one commercial street ( SE Woodstock Boulevard ) and one tree @-@ lined residential street ( SE 49th ) , which links to the Woodstock School and Woodstock Park . Measuring 7 @,@ 500 square feet ( 700 m2 ) , it opened on March 14 , 2000 , the first branch within the Multnomah County Library system to undergo complete reconstruction . Architects were Folger Johnson and Donald Mayer as well as Thomas Hacker and Associates P.C. ( also referred to as Thomas Hacker Architects Inc. or THA Architecture ) . Becca Cavell served as project architect , project manager and construction administrator . Some of the building 's architectural features were designed by the engineering firm Degenkolb Engineers . Contractor services were provided by McCarthy Building Companies , Inc .
Designers had in mind a " lantern @-@ like " quality for the library , " open , light and inviting " . THA said the goal was to create a " feeling of openness and availability " , with a focus on " books and people " . Most of the library 's collection is housed within a single large room level with the sidewalk outside . The building has an exposed gridded steel roof 19 feet ( 580 cm ) high , supported by six pairs of slender steel columns and lined with windows . From several column options , Degenkolb chose cantilevered columns designed in a cruciform shape , built from four steel angles measuring 6 by 6 inches ( 15 cm × 15 cm ) . The columns taper from the top and provide even distribution of loads , protecting the structure against wind and earthquakes without lateral bracing ( or the need for supporting walls ) . The library features a 32 @-@ person capacity meeting room for hosting community events at no charge on a first come , first served basis . The building houses original artwork , including a work by Margot Voorhies @-@ Thompson and , at the entrance , a 15 @-@ line poem by Kim Stafford titled " Open This Door of All Doors " . The exterior includes 36 stainless steel panels etched with words depicting the history of books .
Kari Hauge became the first librarian of the new facility . In addition to offering the Multnomah County Library catalog of two million books , periodicals and other materials , the Woodstock Library houses collections in Chinese and Spanish and employs Chinese @-@ speaking staff . Self @-@ checkout stations and radio frequency identification gates were installed in July 2010 .
The current building has received several design awards . In 2000 , the American Institute of Steel Construction awarded Degenkolb with the I.D.E.A.S. Merit Award for quality structural engineering . Thomas Hacker Architects was presented with the 2002 AIA Regional Honor Award by the Northwest and Pacific Region of the American Institute of Architects through its Design Awards Program ; jurors noted the library 's " rigorous but poetic " structure and its " outstanding tectonic harmony , from the smallest scale of details to the basic design concept " . The building also received the 2000 AIA Portland Chapter Honor Award , the 2000 Portland General Electric EarthSmart Award , the 2001 AIA American Library Association Award of Excellence ( for its " simple and elegant design " ) and the 2002 Chicago Athenaeum American Architecture Award . The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America presented an award for the library 's quality lighting design . Ginnie Cooper , director of libraries for Multnomah County , said of the recognition : " Library users love this building and we 're pleased with how much the architectural community has applauded it as well . "
The Woodstock Library became a model project for library branch reconstruction in the region . Other libraries designed and built by Thomas Hacker include the Beaverton City Library , the Belmont Library , the Bend Library and the Penrose Library ( Whitman College ) .
= = Community role = =
Over the years both Woodstock Library buildings have hosted numerous activities , clubs , events and programs . According to the " Adopted Woodstock Neighborhood Plan " , the Woodstock Library and Woodstock Community Center enhance the Village Center 's role within the community as a " gathering place " . Recent examples include appearances by actors and authors , a clown show , " conversation circles " for non @-@ native English speakers , crafting , cultural celebrations , knitting groups , a mobile zoo , and neighborhood organization meetings and storytelling . The library has also hosted town hall meetings and served as a ballot drop @-@ off site during elections .
|
= Ragnarök =
In Norse mythology , Ragnarök is a series of future events , including a great battle , foretold to ultimately result in the death of a number of major figures ( including the gods Odin , Thor , Týr , Freyr , Heimdallr , and Loki ) , the occurrence of various natural disasters , and the subsequent submersion of the world in water . Afterward , the world will resurface anew and fertile , the surviving and returning gods will meet , and the world will be repopulated by two human survivors . Ragnarök is an important event in the Norse canon , and has been the subject of scholarly discourse and theory .
The event is attested primarily in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . In the Prose Edda , and in a single poem in the Poetic Edda , the event is referred to as Ragnarök or Ragnarøkkr ( Old Norse " Fate of the Gods " and " Twilight of the Gods " respectively ) , a usage popularised by 19th @-@ century composer Richard Wagner with the title of the last of his Der Ring des Nibelungen operas , Götterdämmerung ( 1876 ) .
= = Etymology = =
The Old Norse compound ragnarok has a long history of interpretation . Its first element , ragna , is unproblematic , being the genitive plural of regin ( n. pl . ) " the ruling powers , gods " . The second element is more difficult , as it occurs in two variants , -rök and -røkkr . Zoega 's Old Icelandic Dictionary treats the two forms as two separate compounds , glossing ragnarök as " the doom or destruction of the gods " and ragnarøkkr as " the twilight of the gods " ( 1910 ) .
The plural noun rök , has several meanings , such as " development , origin , cause , relation , fate . " The word ragnarök as a whole is then usually interpreted as the " final destiny of the gods . "
The singular form ragnarøk ( k ) r is found in stanza 39 of the Poetic Edda poem Lokasenna , and in the Prose Edda . The noun røk ( k ) r means " twilight " ( from a verb røkkva " to grow dark " ) , suggesting a translation " twilight of the gods " . This reading was widely considered a result of folk etymology , or a learned reinterpretation , of the original term due to the merger of / ǫ / and / ø / in Old Icelandic after ca . 1200 ( nevertheless giving rise to the concept of Götterdämmerung " Twilight of the Gods " in the German reception of Norse mythology ) . Nevertheless , Haraldur Bernharðsson in a 2007 paper suggested that the singular form -røkr " twilight " ( from a Proto @-@ Germanic * rekwa ) might have been the original reading . Haraldur Bernharðsson argues instead that the words ragnarök and ragnarøkkr are closely related , etymologically and semantically , and suggests a meaning of " renewal of the divine powers . "
Other terms used to refer to the events surrounding Ragnarök in the Poetic Edda include aldar rök ( aldar means age , " end of an age " ) from stanza 39 of Vafþrúðnismál , tíva rök from stanzas 38 and 42 of Vafþrúðnismál , þá er regin deyja ( " when the gods die " ) from Vafþrúðnismál stanza 47 , unz um rjúfask regin ( " when the gods will be destroyed " ) from Vafþrúðnismál stanza 52 , Lokasenna stanza 41 , and Sigrdrífumál stanza 19 , aldar rof ( " destruction of the age " ) from Helgakviða Hundingsbana II stanza 41 , regin þrjóta ( " end of the gods " ) from Hyndluljóð stanza 42 , and , in the Prose Edda , þá er Muspellz @-@ synir herja ( " when the sons of Muspell move into battle " ) can be found in chapters 18 and 36 of Gylfaginning .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
The Poetic Edda contains various references to Ragnarök :
= = = = Völuspá = = = =
In the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá , references to Ragnarök begin from stanza 40 until 58 , with the rest of the poem describing the aftermath . In the poem , a völva recites information to Odin . In stanza 41 , the völva says :
The völva then describes three roosters crowing : In stanza 42 , the jötunn herdsman Eggthér sits on a mound and cheerfully plays his harp while the crimson rooster Fjalar ( Old Norse " hider , deceiver " ) crows in the forest Gálgviðr . The golden rooster Gullinkambi crows to the Æsir in Valhalla , and the third , unnamed soot @-@ red rooster crows in the halls of the underworld location of Hel in stanza 43 .
After these stanzas , the völva further relates that the hound Garmr produces deep howls in front of the cave of Gnipahellir . Garmr 's bindings break and he runs free . The völva describes the state of humanity :
The " sons of Mím " are described as being " at play " , though this reference is not further explained in surviving sources . Heimdall raises the Gjallarhorn into the air and blows deeply into it , and Odin converses with Mím 's head . The world tree Yggdrasil shudders and groans . The jötunn Hrym comes from the east , his shield before him . The Midgard serpent Jörmungandr furiously writhes , causing waves to crash . " The eagle shrieks , pale @-@ beaked he tears the corpse , " and the ship Naglfar breaks free thanks to the waves made by Jormungandr and sets sail from the east . The fire jötnar inhabitants of Muspelheim come forth .
The völva continues that Jötunheimr , the land of the jötnar , is aroar , and that the Æsir are in council . The dwarfs groan by their stone doors . Surtr advances from the south , his sword brighter than the sun . Rocky cliffs open and the jötnar women sink .
The gods then do battle with the invaders : Odin is swallowed whole and alive fighting the wolf Fenrir , causing his wife Frigg her second great sorrow ( the first being the death of her son , the god Baldr ) . Odin 's son Víðarr avenges his father by rending Fenrir 's jaws apart and stabbing it in the heart with his spear , thus killing the wolf . The serpent Jörmungandr opens its gaping maw , yawning widely in the air , and is met in combat by Thor . Thor , also a son of Odin and described here as protector of the earth , furiously fights the serpent , defeating it , but Thor is only able to take nine steps afterward before collapsing . The god Freyr fights Surtr and loses . After this , people flee their homes , and the sun becomes black while the earth sinks into the sea , the stars vanish , steam rises , and flames touch the heavens .
The völva sees the earth reappearing from the water , and an eagle over a waterfall hunting fish on a mountain . The surviving Æsir meet together at the field of Iðavöllr . They discuss Jörmungandr , great events of the past , and the runic alphabet . In stanza 61 , in the grass , they find the golden game pieces that the gods are described as having once happily enjoyed playing games with long ago ( attested earlier in the same poem ) . The reemerged fields grow without needing to be sown . The gods Höðr and Baldr return from Hel and live happily together .
The völva says that the god Hœnir chooses wooden slips for divination , and that the sons of two brothers will widely inhabit the windy world . She sees a hall thatched with gold in Gimlé , where nobility will live and spend their lives pleasurably . Stanzas 65 , found in the Hauksbók version of the poem , refers to a " powerful , mighty one " that " rules over everything " and who will arrive from above at the court of the gods ( Old Norse regindómr ) , which has been interpreted as a Christian addition to the poem . In stanza 66 , the völva ends her account with a description of the dragon Níðhöggr , corpses in his jaws , flying through the air . The völva then " sinks down . " It is unclear if stanza 66 indicates that the völva is referring to the present time or if this is an element of the post @-@ Ragnarök world .
= = = = Vafþrúðnismál = = = =
The Vanir god Njörðr is mentioned in relation to Ragnarök in stanza 39 of the poem Vafþrúðnismál . In the poem , Odin , disguised as Gagnráðr faces off with the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir in a battle of wits . Vafþrúðnismál references Njörðr 's status as a hostage during the earlier Æsir – Vanir War , and that he will " come back home among the wise Vanir " at " the doom of men . "
In stanza 44 , Odin poses the question to Vafþrúðnir as to who of mankind will survive the " famous " Fimbulwinter ( " Mighty Winter " ) . Vafþrúðnir responds in stanza 45 that those survivors will be Líf and Lífþrasir , and that they will hide in the forest of Hoddmímis holt , that they will consume the morning dew , and will produce generations of offspring . In stanza 46 , Odin asks what sun will come into the sky after Fenrir has consumed the sun that exists . Vafþrúðnir responds that Sól will bear a daughter before Fenrir assails her , and that after Ragnarök this daughter will continue her mother 's path .
In stanza 51 , Vafþrúðnir states that , after Surtr 's flames have been sated , Odin 's sons Víðarr and Váli will live in the temples of the gods , and that Thor 's sons Móði and Magni will possess the hammer Mjolnir . In stanza 52 , the disguised Odin asks the jötunn about Odin 's own fate . Vafþrúðnir responds that " the wolf " will consume Odin , and that Víðarr will avenge him by sundering its cold jaws in battle . Odin ends the duel with one final question : what did Odin say to his son before preparing his funeral pyre ? With this , Vafþrúðnir realizes that he is dealing with none other than Odin , whom he refers to as " the wisest of beings , " adding that Odin alone could know this . Odin 's message has been interpreted as a promise of resurrection to Baldr after Ragnarök .
= = = = Helgakviða Hundingsbana II = = = =
Ragnarök is briefly referenced in stanza 40 of the poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana II . Here , the valkyrie Sigrún 's unnamed maid is passing the deceased hero Helgi Hundingsbane 's burial mound . Helgi is there with a retinue of men , surprising the maid . The maid asks if she is witnessing a delusion since she sees dead men riding , or if Ragnarök has occurred . In stanza 41 , Helgi responds that it is neither .
= = = Prose Edda = = =
Snorri Sturluson 's Prose Edda quotes heavily from Völuspá and elaborates extensively in prose on the information there , though some of this information conflicts with that provided in Völuspá .
= = = = Gylfaginning chapters 26 and 34 = = = =
In the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , various references are made to Ragnarök . Ragnarök is first mentioned in chapter 26 , where the throned figure of High , king of the hall , tells Gangleri ( King Gylfi in disguise ) some basic information about the goddess Iðunn , including that her apples will keep the gods young until Ragnarök .
In chapter 34 , High describes the binding of the wolf Fenrir by the gods , causing the god Týr to lose his right hand , and that Fenrir remains there until Ragnarök . Gangleri asks High why , since the gods could only expect destruction from Fenrir , they did not simply kill Fenrir once he was bound . High responds that " the gods hold their sacred places and sanctuaries in such respect that they chose not to defile them with the wolf 's blood , even though the prophecies foretold that he would be the death of Odin . "
As a consequence of his role in the death of the god Baldr , Loki ( described as father of Fenrir ) is bound on top of three stones with the internal organs of his son Narfi ( which are turned into iron ) in three places . There , venom drops onto his face periodically from a snake placed by the jötunn Skaði , and when his wife Sigyn empties the bucket she is using to collect the dripping venom , the pain he experiences causes convulsions , resulting in earthquakes . Loki is further described as being bound this way until the onset of Ragnarök .
= = = = Gylfaginning chapter 51 = = = =
Chapter 51 provides a detailed account of Ragnarök interspersed with various quotes from Völuspá , while chapters 52 and 53 describe the aftermath of these events . In Chapter 51 , High states the first sign of Ragnarök will be Fimbulwinter , during which time three winters will arrive without a summer , and the sun will be useless . High details that , prior to these winters , three earlier winters will have occurred , marked with great battles throughout the world . During this time , greed will cause brothers to kill brothers , and fathers and sons will suffer from the collapse of kinship bonds . High then quotes stanza 45 of Völuspá . Next , High describes that the wolf will first swallow the sun , and then his brother the moon , and mankind will consider the occurrence as a great disaster resulting in much ruin . The stars will disappear . The earth and mountains will shake so violently that the trees will come loose from the soil , the mountains will topple , and all restraints will break , causing Fenrir to break free from his bonds .
High relates that the great serpent Jörmungandr , also described as a child of Loki in the same source , will breach land as the sea violently swells onto it . The ship Naglfar , described in the Prose Edda as being made from the human nails of the dead , is released from its mooring , and sets sail on the surging sea , steered by a jötunn named Hrym . At the same time , Fenrir , eyes and nostrils spraying flames , charges forward with his mouth wide open , his upper jaw reaching to the heavens , his lower jaw touching the earth . At Fenrir 's side , Jörmungandr sprays venom throughout the air and the sea .
During all of this , the sky splits into two . From the split , the " sons of Muspell " ride forth . Surtr rides first , surrounded by flames , his sword brighter than the sun . High says that " Muspell 's sons " will ride across Bifröst , described in Gylfaginning as a rainbow bridge , and that the bridge will then break . The sons of Muspell ( and their shining battle troop ) advance to the field of Vígríðr , described as an expanse that reaches " a hundred leagues in each direction , " where Fenrir , Jörmungandr , Loki ( followed by " Hel 's own " ) , and Hrym ( accompanied by all frost jötnar ) join them . While this occurs , Heimdallr stands and blows the Gjallarhorn with all his might . The gods awaken at the sound , and they meet . Odin rides to Mímisbrunnr in search of counsel from Mímir . Yggdrasil shakes , and everything , everywhere fears .
High relates that the Æsir and the Einherjar dress for war and head to the field . Odin , wearing a gold helmet and an intricate coat of mail , carries his spear Gungnir and rides before them . Odin advances against Fenrir , while Thor moves at his side , though Thor is unable to assist Odin because he has engaged Jörmungandr in combat . According to High , Freyr fiercely fights with Surtr , but Freyr falls because he lacks the sword he once gave to his messenger , Skírnir . The hound Garmr ( described here as the " worst of monsters " ) breaks free from his bonds in front of Gnipahellir , and fights the god Týr , resulting in both of their deaths .
Thor kills Jörmungandr , yet is poisoned by the serpent , and manages to walk nine steps before falling to the earth dead . Fenrir swallows Odin , though immediately afterward his son Víðarr kicks his foot into Fenrir 's lower jaw , grips Fenrir 's upper jaw , and rips apart Fenrir 's mouth , killing Fenrir . Loki fights Heimdallr , and the two kill one another . Surtr covers the earth in fire , causing the entire world to burn . High quotes stanzas 46 to 47 of Völuspá , and additionally stanza 18 of Vafþrúðnismál ( the latter relating information about the battlefield Vígríðr ) .
= = = = Gylfaginning chapters 52 and 53 = = = =
At the beginning of chapter 52 , Gangleri asks " what will be after heaven and earth and the whole world are burned ? All the gods will be dead , together with the Einherjar and the whole of mankind . Didn 't you say earlier that each person will live in some world throughout all ages ? "
The figure of Third , seated on the highest throne in the hall , responds that there will be many good places to live , but also many bad ones . Third states that the best place to be is Gimlé in the heavens , where a place exists called Okolnir that houses a hall called Brimir — where one can find plenty to drink . Third describes a hall made of red gold located in Niðafjöll called Sindri , where " good and virtuous men will live . " Third further relates an unnamed hall in Náströnd , the beaches of the dead , that he describes as a large repugnant hall facing north that is built from the spines of snakes , and resembles " a house with walls woven from branches ; " the heads of the snakes face the inside of the house and spew so much venom that rivers of it flow throughout the hall , in which oath breakers and murderers must wade . Third here quotes Völuspá stanzas 38 to 39 , with the insertion of original prose stating that the worst place of all to be is in Hvergelmir , followed by a quote from Völuspá to highlight that the dragon Níðhöggr harasses the corpses of the dead there .
Chapter 53 begins with Gangleri asking if any of the gods will survive , and if there will be anything left of the earth or the sky . High responds that the earth will appear once more from the sea , beautiful and green , where self @-@ sown crops grow . The field Iðavöllr exists where Asgard once was , and , there , untouched by Surtr 's flames , Víðarr and Váli reside . Now possessing their father 's hammer Mjölnir , Thor 's sons Móði and Magni will meet them there , and , coming from Hel , Baldr and Höðr also arrive . Together , they all sit and recount memories , later finding the gold game pieces the Æsir once owned . Völuspá stanza 51 is then quoted .
High reveals that two humans , Líf and Lífþrasir , will have also survived the destruction by hiding in the wood Hoddmímis holt . These two survivors consume the morning dew for sustenance , and from their descendants the world will be repopulated . Vafþrúðnismál stanza 45 is then quoted . The personified sun , Sól , will have a daughter at least as beautiful as she , and this daughter will follow the same path as her mother . Vafþrúðnismál stanza 47 is quoted , and so ends the foretelling of Ragnarök in Gylfaginning .
= = Archaeological record = =
Various objects have been identified as depicting events from Ragnarök .
= = = Thorwald 's Cross = = =
Thorwald 's Cross , a partially surviving runestone erected at Kirk Andreas on the Isle of Man , depicts a bearded human holding a spear downward at a wolf , his right foot in its mouth , while a large bird sits at his shoulder . Rundata dates it to 940 , while Pluskowski dates it to the 11th century . This depiction has been interpreted as Odin , with a raven or eagle at his shoulder , being consumed by Fenrir at Ragnarök . On the other side of the stone is a depiction of a large cross and another image parallel to the Odin figure that has been described as Christ triumphing over Satan . These combined elements have led to the cross as being described as " syncretic art " ; a mixture of pagan and Christian beliefs .
= = = Gosforth Cross = = =
The Gosforth Cross ( 920 – 950 ) , in Cumbria , England , is a standing cross of a typical Anglo @-@ Saxon form , carved on all sides of the long shaft , which is nearly square in section . Apart from panels of ornament , the scenes include a Christian crucifixion , and possibly another scene in Hell , but the other scenes are generally interpreted as narrative incidents from the Ragnarök story , even by a scholar as cautious of such interpretations as David M. Wilson . The Ragnarök battle itself may be depicted on the north side . The cross features various figures depicted in Borre style , including a man with a spear facing a monstrous head , one of whose feet is thrust into the beast 's forked tongue and on its lower jaw , while the other is placed against its upper jaw , a scene interpreted as Víðarr fighting Fenrir .
= = = Ledberg stone = = =
The 11th century Ledberg stone in Sweden , similarly to Thorwald 's Cross , features a figure with his foot at the mouth of a four @-@ legged beast , and this may also be a depiction of Odin being devoured by Fenrir at Ragnarök . Below the beast and the man is a depiction of a legless , helmeted man , with his arms in a prostrate position . The Younger Futhark inscription on the stone bears a commonly seen memorial dedication , but is followed by an encoded runic sequence that has been described as " mysterious , " and " an interesting magic formula which is known from all over the ancient Norse world . "
= = = Skarpåker stone = = =
On the early 11th century Skarpåker Stone , from Södermanland , Sweden , a father grieving his dead son used the same verse form , fornyrðislag , as in the Poetic Edda in the following engraving :
Jansson ( 1987 ) notes that at the time of the inscription , everyone who read the lines would have thought of Ragnarök and the allusion that the father found fitting as an expression of his grief .
= = Theories and interpretations = =
= = = Cyclic time and Hoddmímis holt = = =
Rudolf Simek theorizes that the survival of Líf and Lífþrasir at the end Ragnarök is " a case of reduplication of the anthropogeny , understandable from the cyclic nature of the Eddic eschatology " . Simek says that Hoddmímis holt " should not be understood literally as a wood or even a forest in which the two keep themselves hidden , but rather as an alternative name for the world @-@ tree Yggdrasill . Thus , the creation of mankind from tree trunks ( Askr , Embla ) is repeated after the Ragnarǫk as well " . Simek says that in Germanic regions , the concept of mankind originating from trees is ancient , and additionally points out legendary parallels in a Bavarian legend of a shepherd who lives inside a tree , whose descendants repopulate the land after life there has been wiped out by plague ( citing a retelling by F. R. Schröder ) . In addition , Simek points to an Old Norse parallel in the figure of Örvar @-@ Oddr , " who is rejuvenated after living as a tree @-@ man ( Ǫrvar @-@ Odds saga 24 – 27 ) " .
= = = Muspille , Heliand , and Christianity = = =
Theories have been proposed about the relation between Ragnarök and the 9th century Old High German epic poem Muspilli about the Christian Last Judgment , where the word Muspille appears , and the 9th century Old Saxon epic poem Heliand about the life of Christ , where various other forms of the word appear . In both sources , the word is used to signify the end of the world through fire . Old Norse forms of the term also appear throughout accounts of Ragnarök , where the world is also consumed in flames , and , though various theories exist about the meaning and origins of the term , its etymology has not been solved .
= = = Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European basis = = =
Parallels have been pointed out between the Ragnarök of Norse religion and the beliefs of other related Indo @-@ European peoples . Subsequently , theories have been put forth that Ragnarök represents a later evolution of a Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European belief along with other cultures descending from the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ Europeans . These parallels include comparisons of a cosmic winter motif between the Norse Fimbulwinter , the Iranian Bundahishn and Yima . Víðarr 's stride has been compared to the Vedic god Vishnu in that both have a " cosmic stride " with a special shoe used to tear apart a beastly wolf . Larger patterns have also been drawn between " final battle " events in Indo @-@ European cultures , including the occurrence of a blind or semi @-@ blind figure in " final battle " themes , and figures appearing suddenly with surprising skills .
= = = Volcanic eruptions = = =
Hilda Ellis Davidson theorizes that the events in Völuspá occurring after the death of the gods ( the sun turning black , steam rising , flames touching the heavens , etc . ) may be inspired by the volcanic eruptions on Iceland . Records of eruptions on Iceland bear strong similarities to the sequence of events described in Völuspá , especially the eruption at Laki that occurred in 1783 . Bertha Phillpotts theorizes that the figure of Surtr was inspired by Icelandic eruptions , and that he was a volcano demon . Surtr 's name occurs in some Icelandic place names , among them the lava tube caves Surtshellir , a number of dark caverns in the volcanic central region of Iceland .
= = = Bergbúa þáttr = = =
Parallels have been pointed out between a poem spoken by a jötunn found in the 13th century þáttr Bergbúa þáttr ( " the tale of the mountain dweller " ) . In the tale , Thórd and his servant get lost while traveling to church in winter , and so take shelter for the night within a cave . Inside the cave they hear noises , witness a pair of immense burning eyes , and then the being with burning eyes recites a poem of 12 stanzas . The poem the being recites contains references to Norse mythology ( including a mention of Thor ) and also prophecies ( including that " mountains will tumble , the earth will move , men will be scoured by hot water and burned by fire " ) . Surtr 's fire receives a mention in stanza 10 . John Lindow says that the poem may describe " a mix of the destruction of the race of giants and of humans , as in Ragnarök " but that " many of the predictions of disruption on earth could also fit the volcanic activity that is so common in Iceland . "
= = Modern influence = =
In late 2013 and early 2014 , it was widely reported in English @-@ language media outlets that Ragnarök would occur on February 22 , 2014 . Apparently patterned after the 2012 phenomenon , the claim was at times attributed to a " Viking Calendar " . No such calendar is known to have existed , and the source was a " prediction " made to media outlets by the Jorvik Viking Centre in York , England , and intended to draw attention to an event that the institution was to hold on that date . The Jorvik Viking Centre was criticized for intentionally or unintentionally misleading the public ; however , in an article on the incident , Joseph S. Hopkins perceives the media response as an example of a broad revival of interest in the Viking Age and ancient Germanic topics .
|
= Chiswick Bridge =
Chiswick Bridge is a reinforced concrete deck arch bridge over the River Thames in west London . One of three bridges opened in 1933 as part of an ambitious scheme to relieve traffic congestion west of London , it carries the A316 road between Chiswick on the north bank of the Thames and Mortlake on the south bank .
Built on the site of a former ferry , the bridge is 606 feet ( 185 m ) long and faced with 3 @,@ 400 tons of Portland stone . At the time of its opening its 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) central span was the longest concrete span over the Thames . The bridge is possibly best known today for its proximity to the end of The Championship Course , the stretch of the Thames used for the Boat Race and other rowing races .
= = Background = =
The villages of Chiswick and Mortlake , about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) west of central London on the north and south banks of the River Thames , had been linked by a ferry since at least the 17th century . Both areas were sparsely populated , so there was little demand for a fixed river crossing at that point .
With the arrival of railways and the London Underground in the 19th century commuting to London became practical and affordable , and the populations of Chiswick and Mortlake grew rapidly . In 1909 the Great Chertsey Road scheme was proposed , which envisaged building a major new road from Hammersmith , then on the outskirts of London , to Chertsey , 18 miles ( 29 km ) west of central London , bypassing the towns of Kingston and Richmond . However , the scheme was abandoned due to costs and arguments between various interested parties over the exact route the road should take .
After the First World War , the population of the west London suburbs continued to grow , thanks to improved rail transport links and the growth in ownership of automobiles . In 1925 , the Ministry of Transport convened a conference between Surrey and Middlesex county councils with the aim of reaching a solution to the congestion problem , and the Great Chertsey Road scheme was revived . In 1927 , the Royal Commission on Cross @-@ River Traffic approved the scheme to relieve the by then chronic traffic congestion on the existing , mostly narrow , streets in the area , and on the narrow bridges at Richmond Bridge , Kew and Hammersmith . The Ministry of Transport agreed to pay heavy subsidies towards the cost .
A new arterial road , now the A316 road , was given Royal Assent on 3 August 1928 , and construction began in 1930 . The construction of the road required two new bridges to be built , at Twickenham and Chiswick . The proposal was authorised in 1928 and construction began in the same year . The bridge , along with the newly built Twickenham Bridge and the rebuilt Hampton Court Bridge , was opened by Edward , Prince of Wales on 3 July 1933 , and the ferry service was permanently closed .
= = Design = =
The new bridge was designed in reinforced concrete by architect Sir Herbert Baker and engineer Alfred Dryland , with additional input from Considère Constructions , at the time Britain 's leading specialist in reinforced concrete construction .
The bridge has concrete foundations supporting a five @-@ arch cellular reinforced concrete superstructure . The deck is supported by a concealed lattice of columns and beams rising from the arched superstructure . The structure is faced with 3 @,@ 400 tons of Portland stone , except for underneath the arches . The bridge is 606 feet ( 185 m ) long , and carries two 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide walkways , and a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) wide road . At the time it was built , the 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) central span was the longest concrete span over the Thames .
Unusually for a Thames bridge , only three of Chiswick Bridge 's five spans cross the river ; the shorter spans at each end of the bridge cross the former towpaths . To allow sufficient clearance for shipping without steep inclines , the approach roads to the bridge are elevated from some distance back from the river .
The bridge was built by the Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company at a cost of £ 208 @,@ 284 ( about £ 13 @,@ 335 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . Additional costs such as building the approach roads and purchasing land brought the total cost of the bridge to £ 227 @,@ 600 ( about £ 14 @,@ 572 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . The Ministry of Transport paid 75 % of the cost , with Surrey and Middlesex county councils paying the remainder .
The bridge was generally well received . Country Life praised the design as " reflecting in its general design the eighteenth century Palladian tradition of Lord Burlington 's famous villa at Chiswick " .
= = Present @-@ day = =
Chiswick Bridge is a major transport route , and the eighth busiest of London 's 20 Thames road bridges . It is possibly best known for its proximity to the finishing line of The Championship Course , the stretch of the Thames used for the Boat Race and other rowing events . A University Boat Race Stone on the south bank , and a brightly painted blue and black marker post near the north bank of the river , 370 feet ( 110 m ) downstream of the bridge , mark the end of the course .
The towpath under the bridge on the southern bank now forms part of the Thames Path . As at 2009 the northernmost arch was used by the Tideway Scullers sculling club as storage space .
|
= Kubah =
Kubah ( literally Cupola or Dome ) is an Indonesian novel written by Ahmad Tohari . It follows a poor man named Karman who becomes a member of the Indonesian Communist Party , only to find himself a victim of the ongoing political struggles in 1950s Indonesia . After the Party 's destruction he spends twelve years as a prisoner at Buru before returning to his hometown and becoming a devout Muslim .
Tohari 's second novel , Kubah was written in two months and based on the events surrounding the Communist Party and the 30 September Movement coup in 1965 . Published in 1980 by Pustaka Jaya , Kubah came at a time when literary works with similar themes – the victimisation of Communist Party members – were scarce . The novel has also been characterised as dawah ( Islamic preaching ) . Reception of Kubah was mostly mixed ; critics praised the novel for its subject matter and criticised it for its predictability . It received a literary award in 1981 , and in 1986 it was translated into Japanese .
= = Plot = =
After twelve years imprisoned at Buru Island , the former Communist Party of Indonesia ( Partai Komunis Indonesia , or PKI ) member Karman returns to Central Java . During his time at Buru , his wife Marni has remarried and the area has modernised considerably , rendering him uncertain where to go . He decides to stay at his cousin 's home for a while . Meanwhile , Marni has heard of Karman 's release and realises that she still loves him , and would thus feel uncomfortable if he returned to their hometown of Pegaten . However , their grown daughter Tini wishes to meet her father .
In a series of flashbacks , Karman 's life is told . He lost his pro @-@ Dutch father during the Indonesian National Revolution and was raised in poverty before going to work for the rich merchant Haji Bakir as a child , babysitting his daughter Rifah . In the two years Karman lived with them , the family raised him to be a devout Muslim ; Karman , for his part , was a diligent worker and cared deeply for Rifah . When his uncle returned from the front , Karman was brought back home and educated until junior high school , dropping out for a lack of funds . When he was in his twenties Karman found a job at the local village chief 's office with the help of a civil employee named Triman and a teacher named Margo .
Unknown to Karman , both men were PKI members and intent on making him join the party . They gave him communist pamphlets and indoctrinated him in Party philosophy . When Karman was late in telling Rifah his feelings , losing her to another man , the PKI manipulated his emotions to make him leave Islam and hate Haji Bakir . Ultimately this was successful : Karman abandoned his mandatory prayers and began to espouse the Party 's politics . After Karman was refused marriage to Rifah a second time , following her husband 's death , he had Haji Bakir imprisoned . In this time Karman married Marni , intending to convert her family to communism .
By 1965 Karman had become a respected member of the PKI , although the public knew him as a member of Partindo . However , following the failure of the 30 September Movement ( Gerakan 30 September , or G30S ) coup in the national capital at Jakarta – orchestrated by the PKI – Karman realised that his position was unsound . He and his fellow PKI members began praying regularly , but many were ultimately killed – including Triman and Margo . Karman escaped from Pegaten hours before soldiers came to arrest him and managed to avoid capture for nearly two months , generally hiding in cemeteries . After his capture Karman was exiled to Buru .
In the present day , Karman has returned to Pegaten to a warm reception . Marni , although she admits that she still loves Karman , insists that she will stay with her new husband ; Haji Bakir , Karman 's uncle , and Karman 's mother have likewise forgiven him . Tini and Haji Bakir 's grandson Jabir are betrothed as planned , and , when the villagers renovate the dilapidated mosque , Karman makes the cupola . He receives much praise for his work and finds a sense of belonging in the mosque .
= = Background and writing = =
Kubah was inspired by Indonesian history , beginning in the 1940s and continuing until the 1980s . Following the national revolution from 1945 to 1949 , the country was set in a state of political turmoil and abject poverty which became increasingly severe towards the end of the 1950s . By the early 1960s the PKI and other leftist parties had the support of President Sukarno , giving them greater power ; PKI membership grew quickly in this period , aided by a hyperinflation and widespread poverty .
On 1 October 1965 , a group of Indonesian National Armed Forces members calling themselves the 30 September Movement killed six Army generals and announced that the president was under their power ; the coup was quashed the following day . Contemporary reports indicated that the PKI had been behind the G30S , a position endorsed by the Indonesian government . As a result , hundreds of thousands of registered and suspected PKI members were killed or exiled over the following decade , effectively destroying the Party . By 1974 Buru held some 10 @,@ 000 prisoners , while others were held elsewhere or forced to stay abroad . Political prisoners began to be released by the 1970s , but saw systematic discrimination at all levels of society : they found themselves under surveillance and with little hope of employment .
Kubah was the second novel written by Ahmad Tohari , who had been in senior high school when the G30S announced its coup . A devout Muslim who had trained as a doctor and ran a pesantren ( Islamic boarding school ) in Central Java , Tohari began to focus on writing when his first novel , Di Kaki Bukit Cibalak ( On the Foothill of Cibalak ; 1978 ) , won a prize from the Jakarta Arts Council . He finished Kubah in two months , first making a thematic overview for each chapter and then developing it further while writing . He deliberately left the novel 's ending open to interpretation , intending for readers to think for themselves .
= = Themes = =
Kubah is an early example of literature dealing with the G30S and PKI , although earlier examples exist . Former Indonesian president Abdurrahman Wahid described it as the first to deal with reconciliation between PKI members and general Indonesian society after G30S , an issue which was " hyper @-@ sensitive " at the time . The historian Anna @-@ Greta Nilsson Hoadley writes that Kubah explored why a person would be motivated to join the party , emphasizing poverty , cultural pressure , and active propaganda by the PKI . In the end , Karman is ultimately an " innocent victim " , who only joined the Party to improve his own standing . Even after his release Karman remains in a state of fear , " marked by a prisoner 's vulnerability . " The literary critics Maman S. Mahayana , Oyon Sofyan , and Achmad Dian wrote that , in this sense , Karman becomes representative of all PKI members who were arrested following G30S .
Mahayana , writing elsewhere , sees Karman as undergoing an existential quest to establish his identity , seemingly finding an answer in the PKI but ultimately becoming trapped by them . Mahayana indicates that a religious message is evident beginning with the novel 's opening , in which Tohari provides a four @-@ line quote from an old Javanese text regarding faith and becoming more explicit later on . He finds Karman 's dealing with the raftsman Kastagethek while escaping from the government the most explicit expression of Tohari 's intent ; unlike Karman , Kastagethek is a devout yet simple man who is happy in his poverty , leading Karman to question his own views before ultimately finding his identity in Islam . Mahayana thus argued that Kubah was meant as dawah , or Islamic preaching , with its message that humans should recognise their status as creatures of God conveyed through characters ' dialogue and actions .
= = Release and reception = =
Kubah was originally published by the Jakarta @-@ based Pustaka Jaya in 1980 ; unlike Di Kaki Bukit Cibalak and most of Tohari 's later novels , it had not been serialised first . Since 1995 it has been published by Gramedia , seeing four printings as of 2012 . The work was translated into Japanese by Shinobu Yamane in 1986 , under the title Shinsei .
The novel 's reception was mixed . It was awarded the Buku Utama Prize in 1981 for " increasing knowledge , spreading manners , and maturing Indonesian culture , " an award which included a trophy and Rp . 1 million in prize money . Mahayana found it worthy of this prize , praising Kubah 's use of flashback and the complicated issues it raised . Wahid , at the time an active Islamic intellectual with the Nahdlatul Ulama , wrote in 1980 that Kubah had poorly realised its potential ; he characterised it as a beginner 's work : lacking suspense , overly moralistic , and predictable .
Tohari 's trilogy Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk ( The Dancer of Paruk Village ; 1981 – 1985 ) , which has proven to be his most famous , also dealt with the G30S and the PKI . However , unlike Kubah , parts of Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk remained censored until 2003 . Numerous novels dealing with G30S and the PKI , written by other authors , have also been published since Kubah .
= = Explanatory notes = =
|
= Broaching ( metalworking ) =
Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool , called a broach , to remove material . There are two main types of broaching : linear and rotary . In linear broaching , which is the more common process , the broach is run linearly against a surface of the workpiece to effect the cut . Linear broaches are used in a broaching machine , which is also sometimes shortened to broach . In rotary broaching , the broach is rotated and pressed into the workpiece to cut an axis symmetric shape . A rotary broach is used in a lathe or screw machine . In both processes the cut is performed in one pass of the broach , which makes it very efficient .
Broaching is used when precision machining is required , especially for odd shapes . Commonly machined surfaces include circular and non @-@ circular holes , splines , keyways , and flat surfaces . Typical workpieces include small to medium @-@ sized castings , forgings , screw machine parts , and stampings . Even though broaches can be expensive , broaching is usually favored over other processes when used for high @-@ quantity production runs .
Broaches are shaped similar to a saw , except the height of the teeth increases over the length of the tool . Moreover , the broach contains three distinct sections : one for roughing , another for semi @-@ finishing , and the final one for finishing . Broaching is an unusual machining process because it has the feed built into the tool . The profile of the machined surface is always the inverse of the profile of the broach . The rise per tooth ( RPT ) , also known as the step or feed per tooth , determines the amount of material removed and the size of the chip . The broach can be moved relative to the workpiece or vice versa . Because all of the features are built into the broach no complex motion or skilled labor is required to use it . A broach is effectively a collection of single @-@ point cutting tools arrayed in sequence , cutting one after the other ; its cut is analogous to multiple passes of a shaper .
= = Process = =
The process depends on the type of broaching being performed . Surface broaching is very simple as either the workpiece is moved against a stationary surface broach , or the workpiece is held stationary while the broach is moved against it .
Internal broaching is more involved . The process begins by clamping the workpiece into a special holding fixture , called a workholder , which mounts in the broaching machine . The broaching machine elevator , which is the part of the machine that moves the broach above the workholder , then lowers the broach through the workpiece . Once through , the broaching machine 's puller , essentially a hook , grabs the pilot of the broach . The elevator then releases the top of the pilot and the puller pulls the broach through the workpiece completely . The workpiece is then removed from the machine and the broach is raised back up to reengage with the elevator . The broach usually only moves linearly , but sometimes it is also rotated to create a spiral spline or gun @-@ barrel rifling .
Cutting fluids are used for three reasons ;
to cool the workpiece and broach
to lubricate cutting surfaces
to flush the chips from the teeth .
Fortified petroleum cutting fluids are the most common . However , heavy @-@ duty water @-@ soluble cutting fluids are being used because of their superior cooling , cleanliness , and non @-@ flammability .
= = Usage = =
Broaching was originally developed for machining internal keyways . However , it was soon discovered that broaching is very useful for machining other surfaces and shapes for high volume workpieces . Because each broach is specialized to cut just one shape either the broach must be specially designed for the geometry of the workpiece or the workpiece must be designed around a standard broach geometry . A customized broach is usually only viable with high volume workpieces , because the broach can cost US $ 15 @,@ 000 to US $ 30 @,@ 000 to produce .
Broaching speeds vary from 20 to 120 surface feet per minute ( SFPM ) . This results in a complete cycle time of 5 to 30 seconds . Most of the time is consumed by the return stroke , broach handling , and workpiece loading and unloading .
The only limitations on broaching are that there are no obstructions over the length of the surface to be machined , the geometry to be cut does not have curves in multiple planes , and that the workpiece is strong enough to withstand the forces involved . Specifically for internal broaching a hole must first exist in the workpiece so the broach can enter . Also , there are limits on the size of internal cuts . Common internal holes can range from 0 @.@ 125 to 6 in ( 3 @.@ 2 to 152 @.@ 4 mm ) in diameter but it is possible to achieve a range of 0 @.@ 05 to 13 in ( 1 @.@ 3 to 330 @.@ 2 mm ) . Surface broaches ' range is usually 0 @.@ 075 to 10 in ( 1 @.@ 9 to 254 @.@ 0 mm ) , although the feasible range is 0 @.@ 02 to 20 in ( 0 @.@ 51 to 508 @.@ 00 mm ) .
Tolerances are usually ± 0 @.@ 002 in ( ± 0 @.@ 05 mm ) , but in precise applications a tolerance of ± 0 @.@ 0005 in ( ± 0 @.@ 01 mm ) can be held . Surface finishes are usually between 16 and 63 microinches ( μin ) , but can range from 8 to 125 μin . There may be minimal burrs on the exit side of the cut .
Broaching works best on softer materials , such as brass , bronze , copper alloys , aluminium , graphite , hard rubbers , wood , composites , and plastic . However , it still has a good machinability rating on mild steels and free machining steels . When broaching , the machinability rating is closely related to the hardness of the material . For steels the ideal hardness range is between 16 and 24 Rockwell C ( HRC ) ; a hardness greater than HRC 35 will dull the broach quickly . Broaching is more difficult on harder materials , stainless steel and titanium , but is still possible .
= = Types = =
Broaches can be categorized by many means :
Use : internal , or surface
Purpose : single , or combination
Motion : push , pull , or stationary
Construction : solid , built @-@ up , hollow or shell
Function : roughing , sizing , or burnishing
If the broach is large enough the costs can be reduced by using a built @-@ up or modular construction . This involves producing the broach in pieces and assembling it . If any portion wears out only that section has to be replaced , instead of the entire broach .
Most broaches are made from high speed steel ( HSS ) or an alloy steel ; TiN coatings are common on HSS to prolong life . Except when broaching cast iron , tungsten carbide is rarely used as a tooth material because the cutting edge will crack on the first pass .
= = = Surface broaches = = =
The slab broach is the simplest surface broach . It is a general purpose tool for cutting flat surfaces .
Slot broaches ( G & H ) are for cutting slots of various dimensions at high production rates . Slot broaching is much quicker than milling when more than one slot needs to be machined , because multiple broaches can be run through the part at the same time on the same broaching machine .
Contour broaches are designed to cut concave , convex , cam , contoured , and irregular shaped surfaces .
Pot broaches are cut the inverse of an internal broach ; they cut the outside diameter of a cylindrical workpiece . They are named after the pot looking fixture in which the broaches are mounted ; the fixture is often referred to as a " pot " . The pot is designed to hold multiple broaching tools concentrically over its entire length . The broach is held stationary while the workpiece is pushed or pulled through it . This has replaced hobbing for some involute gears and cutting external splines and slots .
Straddle broaches use two slab broaches to cut parallel surfaces on opposite sides of a workpiece in one pass . This type of broaching holds closer tolerances than if the two cuts were done independently . It is named after the fact that the broaches " straddle " the workpiece on multiple sides .
= = = Internal broaches = = =
Solid broaches are the most common type ; they are made from one solid piece of material . For broaches that wear out quickly shell broaches are used ; these broaches are similar to a solid broach , except there is a hole through the center where it mounts on an arbor . Shell broaches cost more initially , but save the cost overall if the broach must be replaced often because the pilots are on the mandrel and do not have to be reproduced with each replacement .
Modular broaches are commonly used for large internal broaching applications . They are similar to shell broaches in that they are a multi @-@ piece construction . This design is used because it is cheaper to build and resharpen and is more flexible than a solid design .
A common type of internal broach is the keyway broach ( C & D ) . It uses a special fixture called a horn to support the broach and properly locate the part with relation to the broach .
A concentricity broach is a special type of spline cutting broach which cuts both the minor diameter and the spline form to ensure precise concentricity .
The cut @-@ and @-@ recut broach is used to cut thin @-@ walled workpieces . Thin @-@ walled workpieces have a tendency to expand during cutting and then shrink afterward . This broach overcomes that problem by first broaching with the standard roughing teeth , followed by a " breathing " section , which serves as a pilot as the workpiece shrinks . The teeth after the " breathing " section then include roughing , semi @-@ finishing , and finishing teeth .
= = = Design = = =
For defining the geometry of a broach an internal type is shown below . Note that the geometries of other broaches are similar .
where :
The most important characteristic of a broach is the rise per tooth ( RPT ) , which is how much material is removed by each tooth . The RPT varies for each section of the broach , which are the roughing section ( tr ) , semi @-@ finishing section ( ts ) , and finishing section ( tf ) . The roughing teeth remove most of the material so the number of roughing teeth required dictates how long the broach is . The semi @-@ finishing teeth provide surface finish and the finishing teeth provide the final finishing . The finishing section 's RPT ( tf ) is usually zero so that as the first finishing teeth wear the later ones continue the sizing function . For free @-@ machining steels the RPT ranges from 0 @.@ 006 to 0 @.@ 001 in ( 0 @.@ 152 to 0 @.@ 025 mm ) . For surface broaching the RPT is usually between 0 @.@ 003 to 0 @.@ 006 in ( 0 @.@ 076 to 0 @.@ 152 mm ) and for diameter broaching is usually between 0 @.@ 0012 to 0 @.@ 0025 in ( 0 @.@ 030 to 0 @.@ 064 mm ) . The exact value depends on many factors . If the cut is too big it will impart too much stress into the teeth and the workpiece ; if the cut is too small the teeth rub instead of cutting . One way to increase the RPT while keeping the stresses down is with chip breakers . They are notches in the teeth designed to break the chip and decrease the overall amount of material being removed by any given tooth ( see the drawing above ) . For broaching to be effective , the workpiece should have 0 @.@ 020 to 0 @.@ 025 in ( 0 @.@ 51 to 0 @.@ 64 mm ) more material than the final dimension of the cut .
The hook ( α ) angle is a parameter of the material being cut . For steel , it is between 15 and 20 ° and for cast iron it is between 6 and 8 ° . The back @-@ off ( γ ) provides clearance for the teeth so that they don 't rub on the workpiece ; it is usually between 1 and 3 ° .
When radially broaching workpieces that require a deep cut per tooth , such as forgings or castings , a rotor @-@ cut or jump @-@ cut design can be used ; these broaches are also known as free egress or nibbling broaches . In this design the RPT is designated to two or three rows of teeth . For the broach to work the first tooth of that cluster has a wide notch , or undercut , and then the next tooth has a smaller notch ( in a three tooth design ) and the final tooth has no notch . This allows for a deep cut while keeping stresses , forces , and power requirements low .
There are two different options for achieving the same goal when broaching a flat surface . The first is similar to the rotor @-@ cut design , which is known as a double @-@ cut design . Here four teeth in a row have the same RPT , but each progressive tooth takes only a portion of the cut due to notches in the teeth ( see the image gallery below ) . The other option is known as a progressive broach , which completely machines the center of the workpiece and then the rest of the broach machines outward from there . All of these designs require a broach that is longer than if a standard design were used .
For some circular broaches , burnishing teeth are provided instead of finishing teeth . They are not really teeth , as they are just rounded discs that are 0 @.@ 001 to 0 @.@ 003 in ( 0 @.@ 025 to 0 @.@ 076 mm ) oversized . This results in burnishing the hole to the proper size . This is primarily used on non @-@ ferrous and cast iron workpieces .
The pitch defines the tooth construction , strength , and number of teeth in contact with the workpiece . The pitch is usually calculated from workpiece length , so that the broach can be designed to have at least two teeth in contact with the workpiece at any time ; the pitch remains constant for all teeth of the broach . One way to calculate the pitch is :
<formula>
= = Broaching machines = =
Broaching machines are relatively simple as they only have to move the broach in a linear motion at a predetermined speed and provide a means for handling the broach automatically . Most machines are hydraulic , but a few specialty machines are mechanically driven . The machines are distinguished by whether their motion is horizontal or vertical . The choice of machine is primarily dictated by the stroke required . Vertical broaching machines rarely have a stroke longer than 60 in ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) .
Vertical broaching machines can be designed for push broaching , pull @-@ down broaching , pull @-@ up broaching , or surface broaching . Push broaching machines are similar to an arbor press with a guided ram ; typical capacities are 5 to 50 tons . The two ram pull @-@ down machine is the most common type of broaching machine . This style machine has the rams under the table . Pull @-@ up machines have the ram above the table ; they usually have more than one ram . Most surface broaching is done on a vertical machine .
Horizontal broaching machines are designed for pull broaching , surface broaching , continuous broaching , and rotary broaching . Pull style machines are basically vertical machines laid on the side with a longer stroke . Surface style machines hold the broach stationary while the workpieces are clamped into fixtures that are mounted on a conveyor system . Continuous style machines are similar to the surface style machines except adapted for internal broaching .
Horizontal machines used to be much more common than vertical machines ; however , today they represent just 10 % of all broaching machines purchased . Vertical machines are more popular because they take up less space .
Broaching is often impossible without the specific broaching or keyway machines unless you have a system that can be used in conjunction with a modern machining centre or driven tooling lathe ; these extra bits of equipment open up the possibility of producing keyways , splines and torx through one @-@ hit machining .
= = Rotary broaching = =
A somewhat different design of cutting tool that can achieve the irregular hole or outer profile of a broach is called a rotary broach or wobble broach . One of the biggest advantages to this type of broaching is that it does not require a broaching machine , but instead is used on lathes , milling machines , screw machines or Swiss lathes .
Rotary broaching requires two tooling components : a tool holder and a broach . The leading ( cutting ) edge of the broach has a contour matching the desired final shape . The broach is mounted in a special tool holder that that allows it to freely rotate . The tool holder is special because it holds the tool so that its axis of rotation is inclined slightly to the axis of rotation of the work . A typical value for this misalignment is 1 ° . This angle is what produces a rotating edge for the broach to cut the workpiece . Either the workpiece or the tool holder is rotated . If the tool holder is rotated , the misalignment causes the broach to appear as though it is " wobbling " , which is the origin of the term wobble broach .
For internal broaching the sides of the broach are drafted inward so it becomes thinner ; for external broaching the sides are drafted outward , to make the pocket bigger . This draft keeps the broach from jamming ; the draft must be larger than the angle of misalignment . If the work piece rotates , the broach is pressed against it , is driven by it , and rotates synchronously with it . If the tool holder rotates , the broach is pressed against the workpiece , but is driven by the tool holder .
Ideally the tool advances at the same rate that it cuts . The ideal rate of cut is defined as :
Rate of cut [ inches per rotation ( IPR ) ] = ( diameter of tool [ inches ] ) × sin ( Angle of misalignment [ degrees ] )
If it advances much faster , then the tool becomes choked ; conversely , if it advances much slower , then an interrupted or zig @-@ zag cut occurs . In practice the rate of cut is slightly less than the ideal rate so that the load is released on the non @-@ cutting edge of the tool .
There is some spiraling of the tool as it cuts , so the form at the bottom of the workpiece may be rotated with respect to the form at the top of the hole or profile . Spiraling may be undesirable because it binds the body of the tool and prevents it from cutting sharply . One solution to this is to reverse the rotation in mid cut , causing the tool to spiral in the opposite direction . If reversing the machine is not practical , then interrupting the cut is another possible solution .
In general , a rotary broach will not cut as accurately as a push or pull broach . However , the ability to use this type of cutting tool on common machine tools is highly advantageous .
= = History = =
The concept of broaching can be traced back to the early 1850s , with the first applications used for cutting keyways in pulleys and gears . After World War I , broaching was used to rifle gun barrels . In the 1920s and 30s the tolerances were tightened and the cost reduced thanks to advances in form grinding and broaching machines .
|
= Uncanny Tales ( Canadian pulp magazine ) =
Uncanny Tales was a Canadian science fiction pulp magazine edited by Melvin R. Colby that ran from November 1940 to September 1943 . It was created in response to the wartime reduction of imports on British and American science @-@ fiction pulp magazines . Initially it contained stories only from Canadian authors , with much of its contents supplied by Thomas P. Kelley , but within a few issues Colby began to obtain reprint rights to American stories from Donald A. Wollheim and Sam Moskowitz . Paper shortages eventually forced the magazine to shut down , and it is now extremely rare .
= = Publication history and contents = =
By the end of the 1930s the science fiction magazine field was booming , with multiple new magazines launched in a short period . Most of the publishers also printed versions of their magazines for the Canadian market , but with the outbreak of World War II , paper shortages and import restrictions reduced the availability of these magazines in Canada . Uncanny Tales was begun in response to these conditions ; the editor was Melvin R. Colby , and the first issue was dated November 1940 .
The first issue was digest @-@ sized , and was printed in green ink . Colby initially focused on weird fiction , with Thomas P. Kelley , a Canadian writer whose work had appeared in Weird Tales , a prolific contributor . For the first four issues the format remained unchanged , and almost all the stories were by Kelley or other Canadian writers . Colby subsequently began to obtain reprint rights to U.S. stories from both Donald A. Wollheim and Sam Moskowitz , though Wollheim 's and Moskowitz 's accounts of the events differ . In Wollheim 's account , he happened to meet Colby early in 1941 in New York ; Wollheim had been editing Cosmic Stories and Stirring Science Stories but both magazines had ceased publication at the time of the meeting . Colby , who worked for a Toronto newspaper , told Wollheim that he was editing Uncanny Tales to make extra money , and asked if Wollheim knew where he might be able to obtain stories at a low word rate . Since Stirring and Cosmic had never been distributed in Canada , Wollheim was able to offer him Canadian rights to the stories in those magazines , and Colby agreed to pay a quarter of a cent per word . According to Moskowitz , Wollheim heard rumors of the new magazine , perhaps via Nils Frome , a Canadian fan whom he knew . Wollheim obtained more details from Chester Cuthbert , a Canadian author he was in correspondence with , and contacted Colby to arrange reprints of stories from Stirring and Cosmic . Moskowitz had also heard of Uncanny Tales and wrote to him separately , arranging reprints at a tenth of a cent per word . He sent Colby several stories , which were duly printed , but subsequent correspondence with Colby failed to elicit payment , and eventually Colby stopped responding to his letters . The manuscripts were never returned . A few months later , Moskowitz spoke to John B. Michel — an author associated with Wollheim 's group of writers — and found out that a long @-@ standing feud between Wollheim and Moskowitz was at least partly responsible for his problems . Wollheim and many of the group of writers he represented held very left @-@ wing political positions ; Moskowitz was strongly opposed , and Michel told Moskowitz that Colby was politically left @-@ wing and had been put off by indications from Moskowitz that he was anti @-@ communist . However , the main reason that Colby stopped responding , according to Michel , was that once Wollheim found out that Moskowitz was also supplying stories , he offered Colby further material for free on condition that Colby stopped accepting Moskowitz 's submissions .
The sixth issue saw a story by Wollheim appear , and in the seventh issue there were three by Wollheim and one by Robert W. Lowndes . In total , 37 stories from Uncanny Tales have been identified as reprints from either Stirring or Cosmic . There were also a handful of new stories from the same group of authors , including three by Wollheim and two by Lowndes , one of which , " Lure of the Lily " , had been rejected by Wollheim for the American magazines for being too risqué . The stories supplied by Sam Moskowitz included Moskowitz 's own " The Way Back " ( reprinted from Comet ) , which appeared in the February 1942 issue ; Stanton Coblentz 's novel After 12 @,@ 000 Years , and James Taurasi 's story " Magician of Space " , which was not a reprint . Canadian writers continued to appear in the magazine , including C.V. Tench , who had sold a story to the very first issue of Astounding Stories in January 1930 . The stories of Canadian origin were generally unmemorable , and in some cases the stories may have been plagiarized or rewritten versions of other works .
Paper shortages caused by the war forced the magazine to a bimonthly schedule in 1942 , and only four more issues appeared . The last issue was dated September − October 1943 . Over the lifetime of the magazine its focus shifted from weird fiction to include both science fiction and fantasy . The magazine is now hard to find and complete runs are very rare .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Uncanny Tales was published by Adam Publishing Co. of Toronto for the first 17 issues , and by Norman Book Co. of Toronto for the last four issues . The publisher may have been owned by Valentine , of the Toronto publishers Valentine , Koniac and Chamberlain . The editor , who was not credited in the magazine , was Melvin R. Colby . The first four issues were digest @-@ sized and 64 pages long ; the format then switched to a large pulp size with 96 pages for all the remaining issues except the last , which had 128 pages . The price was 15 cents throughout except for the last issue , which was 25 cents . There was no volume numbering . A complete index by Dennis Lien of the contents of all issues can be found in issue 9 of Megavore , a science fiction and fantasy bibliography magazine .
In the early 1950s an anthology titled Brief Fantastic Tales appeared from Studio Publications in Toronto ; it consisted mostly of reprints from Uncanny Tales .
|
= Playmate to Jesus =
" Playmate to Jesus " is a song by Danish @-@ Norwegian pop band Aqua from their third studio album , Megalomania . The song , which was released in 2011 , is about universal love and " what goes around comes around " . The song was published the same day as their other single , " Like a Robot " , which was originally planned to be released in July 2011 . Despite the song 's positive critical reaction , it only charted in Denmark , becoming the group 's second lowest @-@ charting single . The music video , directed by Michael Sauer Christensen and filmed in Lyngby , Denmark , premiered on 22 September 2011 .
= = Production and composition = =
" Playmate to Jesus " was written by Aqua members Søren Rasted , Claus Norreen , René Dif and Lene Nystrøm , and produced by Norreen and Rasted . The song was recorded at Electron Studio in Copenhagen , and later mixed and mastered by Anders Schumann at C4 Studio . It is a midtempo pop song played in an E major key and following the chord progression E − B − C ♯ m − A. The song is about universal love and " what goes around comes around " . The sounds in the first seconds of the song are recorded on the spacecraft Discovery . A piano and violins start the song , before the beat kicks in . A Vocoder synth come 's through Nystrom 's vocal in certain parts of the song , and a synth bass and distorted snare drum are also played . Dif 's bridge only appears on the album version .
= = Release and reception = =
A preview of " Playmate to Jesus " was uploaded to Universal Music 's Danish YouTube account on 6 September 2011 . It was released as the album 's second single and as a radio single on 12 September , the same day as their club single " Like a Robot " , which was originally planned to be released in July . " Playmate to Jesus " is the first track of their third album Megalomania . The track was Aqua 's second @-@ lowest charting single . It debuted at number twenty @-@ six on the Danish Singles Chart , issue dated 7 October 2011 . The following week the song peaked at number thirteen . In its third and final week on the chart it fell to number thirty @-@ three . It is the group 's third single not to chart within the top 10 in Denmark , the others being " We Belong to the Sea " and " Spin Me a Christmas " . The song has been certified gold in Denmark by the IFPI for sales of 300 @,@ 000 units .
Despite the song 's commercial performance , critical reactions to the song were mixed to positive . Jon O 'Brien of Allmusic , in a review of Megalomania , viewed " Playmate to Jesus " as one of the highlight songs of the album saying , " The sweeping strings , inspired sound effects , and driving country @-@ pop melodies of the lushly produced opener ' Playmate to Jesus ' , [ ... ] shows the reunion hasn 't been completely without merit . " Time said the song " has the dubious distinction of sounding vaguely like a Lady Gaga track that didn ’ t pass quality control , " but was " relatively catchy , boasting the kind of musical infectiousness that causes you to hum it under your breath on the subway . " Gaffa 's Signe Bønsvig Wehding considered the song to be " among the best tracks on the album " , along with " Dirty Little Popsong " , " Sucker for a Superstar " and " Like A Robot " . Idolator considered the song to be a knock @-@ off of Far East Movement 's " Like a G6 " , and more old school than " How R U Doin ? . "
= = Music video = =
Pictures of shooting the music video in Lyngby , Denmark were released on Aqua 's Facebook page on 14 September 2011 . A take of the video was also uploaded on their YouTube channel . The video was officially uploaded on YouTube on 22 September . Directed by Michael Sauer Christensen , it is set in an eerie , empty house that is reminiscent of a horror film , where a black cloud wanders through the halls of the house . The members wear black and gray clothing in the video , with Nystrom 's costume gradually changing throughout . The video ends by the members exiting the house through the roof and transforming into a beam of light shooting into the sky . The video uses a shortened radio edit of the original song , omitting the bridge .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Playmate to Jesus " – 4 : 46
= = Personnel = =
Adapted from liner notes of Megalomania :
Writers : Søren Rasted , Claus Norreen , René Dif , Lene Nystrøm
Producers : Claus Norreen , Søren Rasted
Mixing and mastering : Anders Schumann
= = Sales and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
|
= A Perfect Circle =
A Perfect Circle is an American rock supergroup formed in 1999 by guitarist Billy Howerdel and Tool vocalist Maynard James Keenan . The original incarnation of the band also included Paz Lenchantin on bass , Troy Van Leeuwen on guitar , and Tim Alexander on drums , with Josh Freese as the primary drummer after the band 's initial round of touring prior to their first album . The latest lineup features Puscifer and Ashes Divide bassist Matt McJunkins ; former The Smashing Pumpkins guitarist James Iha ; and Puscifer and Ashes Divide touring drummer , Jeff Friedl . Despite having a varied cast since inception , the stylistic content of the songs has remained consistent with Howerdel as composer , and Keenan penning the lyrics and melodies .
A Perfect Circle has released three albums : their debut Mer de Noms in 2000 , a follow up , Thirteenth Step in 2003 , and an album of cover songs titled Emotive in 2004 . Shortly after Emotive 's release , the band went into hiatus while members focused on other projects , the most notably being Keenan 's work with Tool and Puscifer , and Howerdel 's putting out a solo album , Keep Telling Myself It 's Alright , under the moniker Ashes Divide .
In late 2008 , Keenan and Howerdel announced the band would reform , though the band 's activity would ultimately be sporadic in the coming years . The band toured in 2011 and 2013 , and then released a live album , A Perfect Circle Live : Featuring Stone and Echo , and a greatest hits album , Three Sixty in late 2013 . Work on new material has been alluded to by members since 2008 , though progress has been slow due to Keenan 's other commitments and uncertainty in the direction of the releases . The only new studio material released since the band 's hiatus was the single " By and Down " in 2013 .
= = History = =
= = = Mer de Noms ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =
A Perfect Circle was conceived by Billy Howerdel , a former guitar technician for Nine Inch Nails , The Smashing Pumpkins , Fishbone and Tool . Howerdel met singer Maynard James Keenan in 1992 , when Tool was opening for Fishbone , and the two became friends . Three years later , Keenan offered Howerdel , who was looking for lodging , a room in his North Hollywood home . This provided Howerdel the opportunity to play demos of his music for Keenan . Pleased with what he heard , Keenan remarked , " I can hear myself singing [ those songs ] . " Although he originally desired a female vocalist , Howerdel agreed that Keenan would be a good fit , and A Perfect Circle was formed a short time later . They were then joined by bassist and violinist Paz Lenchantin , former Failure guitarist Troy Van Leeuwen , and previous Primus drummer Tim Alexander . The band played their first show at LA 's Viper Club Reception on August 15 , 1999 . After playing shows in L.A. , the band entered the studio to begin work on their first album . Alexander was soon replaced with session drummer and member of The Vandals , Josh Freese , who previously worked with Howerdel on the Guns N ' Roses album , Chinese Democracy . Alexander 's performance can still be heard on the album version of the song , " The Hollow " .
The band 's debut album , Mer de Noms ( French for " Sea of Names " ) , was released on May 23 , 2000 . The album is distinctive in that it is the highest ever debut for a rock band , selling over 188 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , and appearing at number four on the Billboard 200 . Howerdel had been working on some of the music , including tracks " The Hollow " and " Breña " , as far back as 1988 . The band began touring soon after recording for the album was finished . Initially , they served as the opening act for Nine Inch Nails on the 2000 Fragility v2.0 tour , but subsequently embarked on a number of headlining tours all over the world , including the Canadian festival , Summersault . As Keenan was well known through his other band , he would often wear long wigs on his otherwise bald head when performing , to distinguish himself from his Tool persona . Mer de Noms went certified platinum by the RIAA on October 31 , 2000 , while the band was on tour .
The album produced three singles : " Judith " , " 3 Libras " , and " The Hollow " . " Judith " is named after , and is about , Keenan 's mother , who suffered a stroke and was left paralyzed when he was 11 . The song " Renholdër " is a reference to guitarist and sound engineer Danny Lohner and reads Re : D.Lohner backwards . Lohner did not know the song was about him despite his first name being sung — albeit in a distorted fashion — in the song .
In the album review by Rolling Stone , Pat Blashill wrote that Keenan " added an almost operatic angst to Howerdel 's songs " and concluded that " A Perfect Circle sound like a desperate dream of what rock used to be . Maybe that 's the point . " AllMusic 's review expressed that " there 's little question that the addicting combination of Keenan 's aching voice and Howerdel 's accomplished songs and production skills made for one of 2000 's best splashes in whatever was left of ' modern rock ' . "
= = = Thirteenth Step and Emotive ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = =
During the recording , release and tour for Tool 's album Lateralus , from 2000 to 2002 the band experienced a considerable amount of downtime . This made the band extremely dynamic in terms of its members . During the recording of Thirteenth Step , A Perfect Circle lost two of its members , Paz Lenchantin and Troy Van Leeuwen . Lenchantin left to join Billy Corgan 's new band Zwan in April 2002 , while Van Leeuwen left to handle touring duties as the new guitarist for Queens of the Stone Age . Ex @-@ Marilyn Manson bassist Jeordie White , formerly known as Twiggy Ramirez , replaced Lenchantin on bass in January 2003 , with Danny Lohner taking the reins on guitar . However , Lohner did not quite fit as a second guitarist , and former The Smashing Pumpkins guitarist James Iha eventually replaced him .
The band released their second album , Thirteenth Step , on September 16 , 2003 . With the new album came a new sound . While Mer de Noms had a heavier , deeper sound , Thirteenth Step was more melodic and straightforward . After the release of the album , John Lappen from The Hollywood Reporter wrote , " They were never a band who beat the listener over the head with metal brutality , but now they 're even more song @-@ oriented than before — a move that illustrates that the band has a knack for writing instrumental hooks that show off a melodic talent that was not as apparent on the first album . " This different sound can be heard in the three singles that came off the album : " Weak and Powerless " , " The Outsider " and " Blue " . Following the release of the album , the band toured throughout the U.S. until the year 's end . Then , in January 2004 , the group left the country to play shows in Europe , Australia , New Zealand and Japan . They headed home in mid @-@ March and finished touring in mid @-@ June .
The album received mostly positive reviews . AllMusic 's review stated the album " is the sound of a musical and lyrical maturity that normally doesn 't occur until a band 's third or fourth albums " . The review by Yahoo ! Music expressed that the album " has its share of anthemic moments , but the real passion spills over in the moody overtures where menacing danger feels seconds away " . Rolling Stone wrote in an attempt to summarize the album that it " sounds more like the dusky thrum of Disintegration @-@ era Cure than it does any of the members ' previous bands " , and continued " Thirteenth Step doesn 't bludgeon listeners into submission — it lulls them with droning guitars , dub @-@ deep bass and simmering vocals . "
A third album , Emotive , was released on November 2 , 2004 ( election day in the United States ) , and contains covers of anti @-@ war songs by artists such as John Lennon ( " Imagine " ) and Joni Mitchell ( " Fiddle and the Drum " ) . Emotive was recorded with current and former members of the band , but is mostly the work of Keenan and Howerdel . The single " Passive " was adapted from the defunct band Tapeworm , a project composed mainly of Keenan , Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails , and Danny Lohner . " Passive " first appeared under the title " Vacant " at a show played by A Perfect Circle in Portland , Oregon on January 31 , 2001 , notably , without the blessing of Reznor to play the song . The song remained unreleased by any artist until it appeared on Emotive as the song " Passive " . The single " Passive " can also be heard in the 2005 movie Constantine when John Constantine ( Keanu Reeves ) enters Papa Midnite 's office in his club in the second half of the movie . The song " Counting Bodies Like Sheep to the Rhythm of the War Drums " is used in the teaser trailer for The Fantastic Four as well as the trailer for The Taking of Pelham 123 .
The album received mixed reviews . An AllMusic review stated the album " falls flat and fails to raise the bar set so high by the quality of their previous two releases " . Rolling Stone praised half the album while criticizing the other , as did The Guardian which stated " cover versions are often hobbled by the artist 's inability to step outside the original and find a fresh perspective , but some of these treatments verge on the visionary . " Ken Micallef of Yahoo ! Music wrote " the band builds on the power of the previous Thirteenth Step , applying hypnotic arrangements , brooding melodies , and droning rhythms to a collection that sounds absurd on its surface , but is woven together by A Perfect Circle 's heavy and dark @-@ lidded instrumental approach . "
On November 16 , 2004 , the CD @-@ DVD set entitled Amotion was released . The DVD contains music videos for six singles ; previously unreleased videos for other songs , including three contest runner @-@ up videos and the winning video for " Blue " ; and three trailers for Bikini Bandits . The CD is composed entirely of remixes of the singles from Mer de Noms and Thirteenth Step . The songs were retooled by Danny Lohner , Joshua Eustis , Massive Attack , and James Iha among others .
= = = Hiatus and other projects ( 2005 – 2009 ) = = =
The future of A Perfect Circle remained uncertain and wobbled between " done for now " and " alive and well . " The band became inactive after they played their last show in Denver , Colorado on June 13 , 2004 . Keenan left to work on Tool 's album 10 @,@ 000 Days while Howerdel began work on a side @-@ project with Josh Freese that flourished into Ashes Divide . In addition to Keenan 's work with Tool , his side @-@ project Puscifer released its first album , V is for Vagina on October 30 , 2007 . The rest of the band also went their separate ways . Freese once again took up the reins as drummer for Nine Inch Nails . White moved on to rejoin Marilyn Manson at guitar under his pseudonym Twiggy Ramirez , and while there was talk of Iha joining Billy Corgan for The Smashing Pumpkins reunion tour in 2007 , this idea was rebuffed and he instead began work on a solo record .
Both Howerdel and Keenan discussed the future of the band in various mediums from 2006 through 2008 . During a February 2006 interview with Rock Hard , Keenan remarked , " I think [ APC ] is over . ... We pushed this project as far as it could go , and I see ourselves playing again together only in a few years to make one or two songs , nothing more . " Howerdel 's thoughts on the reunion of the band were similar to those of Keenan in a May 2006 interview with MTV . In a November 2007 issue of Spin featuring Keenan , when asked " Will there ever be another APC album , " he reiterated his comments from 2006 replying , " Um , no . Maybe , someday , a song on a soundtrack . But an album ? No . " Despite these comments , in an interview with Revolver the following month , Keenan discussed the other members of A Perfect Circle 's recent activities and also hinted at the possibility of a reunion . During the interview , Keenan stated :
The real problem with running Tool and A Perfect Circle at the same time was they both operate the same way . They 're both live touring bands with a label , still working under the old contract mentality . So I thought it was time to let A Perfect Circle go for now and let Billy explore himself . It 's tough for a guy who went from being a guitar tech [ for Tool ] to being in a band with a pretentious , famous singer and having to live in that shadow . It was important for Billy to go and do his own thing and really explore his own sound and let people hear what he has to say and how he would do it on his own , and then we 'll get back and do some A Perfect Circle stuff .
Although the band 's official website had offered no insight as to whether or not the group would reunite , news continued to arrive through Keenan about the existence of the band . In Puscifer 's May 2008 newsletter , Keenan remarked on the status of A Perfect Circle : " As many of you may have heard , Billy and I are engaged in our own little projects for the moment . His is called Ashes Divide and mine is called Puscifer ... Please be advised that A Perfect Circle and Tool are still alive and well . This is simply more . "
= = = Return and touring ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = =
As early as December 2008 , Keenan had announced that he and Howerdel had been writing new music for A Perfect Circle , although it wasn 't until over year and a half later , mid @-@ 2010 , when various band members began teasing a return on respective Twitter accounts , that the band actually became active . This led up to a September announcement of tour dates in which they would be playing the entirety of each of their three albums at each concert , with one album being played per night . The new touring lineup was announced Maynard James Keenan , Billy Howerdel , Josh Freese , Matt McJunkins , and James Iha .
There have been conflicting reports as to what degree the band will be releasing new material . Keenan 's initial thoughts in 2008 referred to focusing on " one or two songs at a time " , which would most likely be released digitally via the internet , rather than a full album release on compact disc . Keenan jokingly mentioned that CDs have become " plastic discs that no one cares about anymore . " In June 2010 , Keenan stated that he was working on a fourth LP for A Perfect Circle . However , when asked about an album again in August , his response focused on single songs again , stating that he 's " ... not really into albums anymore . Might be more going back to the singles . The days of the singles market makes a lot more sense at this point . " and that " We have no label , so neither Billy nor I are really into kicking down hundreds of thousands of dollars to record a record and put it out . " Howerdel , in a September 2010 interview , said that he had been working on demos for the last three to four years , and he presents them to Keenan , who decides which he would like to develop into A Perfect Circle songs , or leave for Howerdel to develop into Ashes Divide songs . No new songs were played at the initial reunion concerts , as no songs were finished yet , and the band was still trying to " remind everybody " who they are at these concerts . The possibility of a live concert DVD was discussed , but ultimately not released .
In addition the initial 2010 concerts , the band also played a few songs on live television programs Jimmy Kimmel Live ! and Last Call with Carson Daly in October and November 2010 respectively .
The band continued touring into 2011 , stopping in 24 cities and performing at events such as Rock on the Range Festival in Columbus , Ohio on May 21 and 22 , 2011 , Boonstock Music Festival in Edmonton , Alberta on July 2 , 2011 , Edgefest in Toronto , Canada on July 9 , 2011 , Bluesfest in Ottawa , Canada on July 10 , 2011 . Kanrocksas Music Festival in Kansas City , KS on August 6 , 2011 @.@ and Lollapalooza in Chicago , IL , on August 5 – 7 , 2011 . Freese was unavailable for the 2011 touring due to a scheduling conflict with Weezer . Jeff Friedl , drummer for Ashes Divide , filled in for him .
The band continued to allude to working on new music throughout 2011 , referring to the process as " Slow but steady . " Howerdel also referred to " road testing " new songs during touring , that could ultimately be placed on a future album . On June 29 , 2011 , The sole new song , " By and Down " , was debuted in Portland , Oregon . After this , Howerdel reiterated the band 's stance on a new album , stating " Right now the intention is not to put out a ( full album ) but just to release some songs along the way , and then they might be re @-@ imagined and put together in some collection ... If you need to have an album then there will be something more like a photo album where you collect these things and you put them in . "
After the 2011 tour , Keenan said that new material still was not ready , and that for the time , he and Howerdel were turning back to their respective side projects , Puscifer and Ashes Divide . During this time , in October 2012 , Freese left the band without any intentions of returning .
The band returned to touring in 2013 , playing Soundwave Music Festival and Lollapalooza Chile in early 2013 . In February 2013 , Keenan again stated that a new album was still " currently off the table " , due to his continued work with Puscifer , and Howerdel 's commitment to working on a second yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ released Ashes Divide album . He shortly after appended that they are still working on new material , but it is still mostly just " jamming " and working on bits and pieces , not entire songs .
= = = Compilations and future releases ( 2013 – present ) = = =
In September 2013 , it was announced that the band would release two separate compilations in November 2013 . The first , a greatest hits album entitled Three Sixty , containing one new song , " By and Down " , the second , a box set entitled A Perfect Circle Live : Featuring Stone and Echo . The box set contains their three concerts in 2011 where they played one album in its entirety each night , and a performance of the band at Red Rocks .
In regards to future material from the band , Keenan stated " Of course , there 's always writing going on constantly . It 's just stuff that 's not quite sitting right yet , so you don 't know about it " . In November 2013 , Howerdel stated that " there are fully developed songs without lyrics and melody ... as far as the music end goes , I ’ ve got 75 % of the foundation of [ the next ] A Perfect Circle record ready to go . " He did concede that this could change depending on Keenan 's stance on music , and that Keenan prefers smaller releases , while Howerdel prefers the form of a full album . While the band was quiet over the course of 2014 and 2015 , in March 2016 , Keenan stated that he still hopes to make and release new music with the band .
= = Musical style = =
A Perfect Circle 's music has been described mainly as alternative rock , alternative metal , hard rock and nu metal . The band is also associated with various music styles , including art rock , art metal , progressive rock and progressive metal . Troy J. Augusto of Variety wrote that the band 's music combines equal parts of " ’ 80s Goth , contemporary alt metal and progressive art rock . "
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Mer de Noms ( 2000 )
Thirteenth Step ( 2003 )
Emotive ( 2004 )
|
= Nguyễn Chánh Thi =
Nguyễn Chánh Thi ( 23 February 1923 – 23 June 2007 ) was an officer in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) . He is best known for being involved in frequent coups in the 1960s and wielding substantial influence as a key member of various juntas that ruled South Vietnam from 1964 until 1966 , when he was overpowered by Vietnam Air Force chief and Prime Minister Nguyễn Cao Kỳ in a power struggle and exiled to the United States . Known for his flamboyant style and hostility to U.S. advice , Thi 's ouster was supported by the American leadership , who backed Kỳ 's pro @-@ U.S. regime . Thi joined the French Army at the age of 17 and was captured by Japan after they invaded French Indochina during World War II . After several months he escaped . He later transferred to the Vietnamese National Army of the French @-@ backed State of Vietnam , which , in October 1955 , became the ARVN and Republic of Vietnam ( South Vietnam ) , respectively . A paratrooper , he fought for then @-@ Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm against the Bình Xuyên organized crime syndicate in the 1955 Battle for Saigon . Impressed by Thi 's performance , Diệm referred to him as " my son " and put him in command of the Airborne Brigade .
In November 1960 , Thi led the paratroopers in a coup against Diệm , citing political interference in the military . The rebels gained the upper hand but Thi was reluctant to push for a complete victory , and the coup was defeated after Diệm falsely promised to make reforms in order to buy time for loyalists to rescue him . Thi fled into exile in Cambodia , but returned after Diệm was deposed and executed in November 1963 . He became the deputy commander of I Corps under Nguyễn Khánh , and helped his superior to overthrow Diệm 's subjugators three months later . Thi became the commander of the 1st Division , before taking control of I Corps later in the year .
During the year after Khánh 's rise to power , Thi helped Khánh stage or put down several coup attempts , making him a key player in South Vietnamese military politics . In September 1964 , he and Kỳ helped rescue Khánh from a coup attempt by two disgruntled Catholic Diệmist generals , Lâm Văn Phát and Dương Văn Đức . This gave Kỳ and Thi increased leverage in the junta . Two months later , he was prominent in shutting down a junta @-@ appointed civilian advisory body after they disapproved of a plan by younger officers to compulsorily retire old generals . In January 1965 , he helped Khánh depose the junta @-@ appointed civilian Prime Minister Trần Văn Hương , but by this time he had turned against Khánh . In February 1965 , he helped defeat a coup attempt by Phát and Phạm Ngọc Thảo , and helped to force Khánh 's resignation at the same time . Over the next year , Kỳ and Thi were the foremost officers in the junta , and in June 1965 , Thi declined an opportunity to serve as prime minister after being nominated by his fellow officers following the resignation of civilian Phan Huy Quát . Thi wanted to let a rival take the job and then step in after they had failed , but he never received a second opportunity .
Thi oversaw I Corps with a great deal of autonomy , and the other officers felt threatened , which was accentuated by Thi 's alignment with Buddhist activist movements in his region , traditionally a Buddhist stronghold . The Buddhists were opposed to expansion of the Vietnam War and the American leadership viewed Thi negatively . In early 1966 , feeling more confident about his hold on power , Kỳ orchestrated Thi 's removal , and announced that Thi would be going to the US for medical treatment , but in reality into exile . Thi refused to go along with Kỳ 's false story and wanted to stay in Vietnam , and this led to civil unrest in I Corps , where Thi was popular . The disquiet escalated into open rebellion by pro @-@ Thi military units , allied to Buddhist anti @-@ junta activists who were calling for civilian government and an end to the US @-@ driven war expansion policy . After three months of virtual secession , Kỳ 's forces quelled the dissidents , and Thi emigrated to the U.S. , where he lived for the rest of his life .
= = Early life = =
Thi was born on 23 February 1923 in Huế , then the capital of Vietnam and the seat of the Nguyễn dynasty . At the time , Vietnam was part of the colony of French Indochina and his father was a low @-@ level mandarin in the French @-@ controlled monarchy and had served in the French Army during World War I. Thi joined the French Army at 17 ; a few months later , Imperial Japan invaded Indochina during World War II , wresting control from France . Thi was a Japanese prisoner of war for several months until he escaped amidst the confusion of an Allied bombing raid on the Japanese military jail . According to family documents , Thi was captured and imprisoned by the communist Viet Minh of Ho Chi Minh for three months at the end of the war in 1945 as they declared independence during the August Revolution . At the time , a power vacuum emerged as the defeated Japanese withdrew from Vietnam . France attempted to reassert its colonial grip over Indochina , while various Vietnamese groups jockeyed for power at the head of an independent country . In 1946 , full @-@ scale conflict erupted between the Vietminh , who had declared the Democratic Republic of Vietnam ( DRV ) independent , and France . As part of their political effort , the French created the State of Vietnam ( SoV ) , an associated state in the French Union , and installed former Emperor Bảo Đại as the head of state . Thi served in the SoV 's Vietnamese National Army ( VNA ) , and rose steadily up the ranks .
= = Diệm era = =
In 1954 , the Vietminh defeated the French Union forces at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu and France decided to withdraw from Vietnam . Under the provisions of the Geneva Accords , the Vietminh 's DRV would take control of the northern half of the country , and the SoV the south , pending national reunification elections in 1956 . In the meantime , the State of Vietnam remained unstable . The Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo religious sects had their own private armies and de facto states in the Mekong Delta , while the Bình Xuyên organized crime syndicate controlled the national police , had their own military , and dominated the rampant drug trade , prostitution and illegal gambling in the southern capital Saigon . In April and May 1955 , Thi fought in VNA airborne units for Prime Minister Diệm against the Binh Xuyen in the Battle for Saigon after Diệm gave them an ultimatum to surrender . When they did not , the VNA attacked and decisively dispersed the Binh Xuyen after a few days of heavy street fighting . This performance so impressed the lifelong bachelor Diệm that he thereafter referred to Thi as " my son " . Diệm promoted Thi to the rank of colonel and put him in charge of the Airborne Brigade , which was expanded into a division a few years later . The Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) was not as impressed . One of their reports described Thi as " an opportunist and a man lacking strong convictions " . An American military advisor assessed Thi as " tough , unscrupulous , and fearless , but dumb " . In October 1955 , Diệm deposed Bảo Đại in a fraudulent referendum overseen by his brother Ngô Đình Nhu and declared himself President of the newly proclaimed Republic of Vietnam . The VNA thus became the Army of the Republic of Vietnam , and after Diệm canceled the reunification elections , the Vietnam War ensued .
= = Failed coup against Diệm = =
In 1960 , Thi led a revolt against Diệm after lobbying by his Airborne Division deputy commander , Lieutenant Colonel Vương Văn Đông . Đông had become discontented with Diệm 's arbitrary rule and constant meddling in military affairs . Diệm , who promoted officers on religion and loyalty , rather than skill , gave orders directly to individual commanders , and played senior officers against one another in order to weaken the military leadership and prevent them from becoming effective , lest they try to challenge his rule . Đông later claimed his sole objective was to force Diệm to improve the governance of the country . Đông was clandestinely supported by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Lieutenant Colonel Nguyễn Triệu Hồng , and Hong 's uncle , Hoang Co Thuy , members of the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng ( VNQDĐ , the Vietnamese Nationalist Party ) , which was an anti @-@ communist political organization whose members had been marginalized by Diệm . The coup was organized with the help of some VNQDĐ and Đại Việt Quốc Dân Đảng ( Nationalist Party of Greater Vietnam , known as Đại Việt ) members , civilians and officers alike.Đông enlisted the cooperation of an armored regiment , a marine unit and three paratrooper battalions . The operation was launched on November 11 at 05 : 00.The coup was executed ineffectually ; although the rebels captured the headquarters of the Joint General Staff at Tan Son Nhut Air Base , they failed to block the roads leading into Saigon and cut off loyalist reinforcements . Thi 's men also failed to disconnect phone lines into the palace , which allowed Diệm to appeal for aid from loyal units . After taking the key military points , the paratroopers headed towards Independence Palace . At first , they did not attack , believing that Diệm would capitulate . Most of Thi 's soldiers had been tricked into thinking that they were attacking in order to save Diệm from a Presidential Guard mutiny . When the attack finally started , Diệm was nearly killed in the opening salvoes when gunfire hit his bed , but he had arisen just a few minutes earlier . Despite their numerical advantage , the paratroopers ' first assault was repelled by the loyalists . Thi and Dong held fire ; they brought in reinforcements and attacked again , but the loyalists held firm . In the meantime , Thi 's rebels had captured the national police offices , the studios of Radio Saigon and the Presidential Guard barracks . They had also put most of the Saigon @-@ based generals under house arrest .
Apparently poised for a military victory , the rebels hesitated . Đông wanted to storm the palace and capture the president and his family . Thi was worried Diệm could be killed in an attack and thus felt that despite Diệm 's shortcomings , he was South Vietnam 's best available leader . Thi thought that enforced reform was the best outcome . The rebels wanted Nhu , Diệm 's younger brother and chief advisor , and his wife , Madame Nhu , who were widely regarded as the powers behind Diệm 's rule , out of the government , although they disagreed over whether to assassinate or deport the couple . Thi demanded that Diệm appoint an officer as Prime Minister and remove Madame Nhu from the palace . Saigon Radio broadcast a speech authorized by Thi 's Revolutionary Council , claiming that Diệm was being removed for corruption and suppression of liberty . Worried by the uprising , Diệm sent representatives to negotiate . After lengthy talks , the parties agreed to a ceasefire . In the meantime , loyalist forces headed towards the capital . Diệm promised to end press censorship , liberalize the economy , and hold free and fair elections . Diệm refused to sack Nhu , but agreed to dissolve the cabinet and form a new government which would accommodate members of the Revolutionary Council . In the early hours of 12 November , Diệm taped a speech detailing the concessions , and Thi broadcast the message on Saigon Radio .
When the loyalist reinforcements rolled into the capital aboard tanks and armored vehicles and began to wrest the initiative , the rebels began to break . After a brief , violent battle that killed around 400 people , the coup attempt was crushed . The casualties included a large number of anti @-@ Diệm civilians ; Thi exhorted them to bring down the Ngô family by charging the palace ; 13 were gunned down by the loyalist soldiers as they invaded the grounds . After the failed coup , Đông , Thi and other prominent officers fled to Tan Son Nhut and climbed aboard a C @-@ 47 . They fled to Cambodia , where they were given asylum by Prince Norodom Sihanouk , a long @-@ time Diệm opponent . Diệm promptly reneged on his promises , and intensified his authoritarian rule and crackdowns on dissidents . Almost three years after the incident , Diệm opened the trial for those involved in the coup on 8 July 1963 . Thi and his fellow exiled officers were found guilty and sentenced to death in absentia . In the meantime , Thi lived self @-@ sufficiently in Cambodia for three years .
= = 1964 coups with Khánh = =
Diệm was killed in a November 1963 coup , allowing Thi to return to South Vietnam and resume his military service . Soon after arriving home , Thi found himself involved in another coup plot , acting as the link between Khánh and Đỗ Mậu , two generals disgruntled with their position under the military junta of Minh , who oversaw the overthrow of Diệm . Mau was one of the principal tacticians in the 1963 coup ; although he did not command troops , he had a thorough knowledge of the backgrounds of the ARVN officers and their strengths , weaknesses and characteristics through his role as Diệm 's director of military security , and this understanding had allowed him to engineer the previous coup . Minh 's junta feared Mau 's shrewdness and tried to sideline him by making him the Minister of Information , a relatively unimportant position .
Disgruntled , Mau began recruiting for a coup , targeting Khánh , who had been moved to the I Corps in the far north of South Vietnam to keep him far away from Saigon . Khanh made no attempt to hide his annoyance at not being given a more important job , and had long been regarded as an ambitious and unscrupulous officer by his colleagues . Mau persuaded the junta to install Thi as Khanh 's deputy in I Corps . He tricked the junta by telling them that as Khánh had played a large part in putting down the 1960 coup attempt , Thi would still be harboring resentment . According to Mau , Thi would thus be an ideal mechanism for keeping the disliked Khánh in check . Privately , Mau predicted that Thi would act as a bridge between him in Saigon , and Khánh in Huế . He was correct in thinking the 1960 conflict would be irrelevant as allegiances shifted over time and that the pair would work together for their current aims .
The trio were joined by General Trần Thiện Khiêm , the disaffected commander of the III Corps that surrounded Saigon , and an assortment of Marine , Air Force and Special Forces officers and their units . Other notable recruits were Diem loyalist and former chief of the Civil Guard , Duong Ngoc Lam , who was under investigation for corruption , and General Đức , who had recently returned from exile in Paris . The cabal scheduled the coup for 04 : 00 , 30 January . On 29 January , Thi followed Khanh to the capital . The plotters and their agents met in obscure locations spots around town . On the night of 29 January , the rebel troops assumed their positions around Saigon . A number of American officers and embassy officials were alerted to be in their offices at 2 : 00 . At 03 : 00 , Khánh took over the Joint General Staff Headquarters at Tan Son Nhut , and by dawn , the coup had succeeded without a shot being fired as Minh 's junta was caught unaware . The popular Minh was allowed to stay on as a ceremonial but powerless head of state , but his colleagues were taken into custody . Nevertheless , Minh remained disgruntled and persistently tried to regain his influence through political means . On 2 February 1964 , Thi was appointed to be commander of the 1st Division based in Huế , as part of I Corps . He stayed in the post until 21 October and on 14 November , he took control of the entire corps . This corps oversaw the five northernmost provinces of central Vietnam and the 1st and 2nd Divisions .
= = = Defeating the September 1964 coup = = =
In August , Khánh gave himself more powers , provoking widespread riots and demonstrations across the nation , with Buddhist activists prominent in expressing opposition against Khánh . The anarchy forced Khánh to back down and make concessions , and he ended up in a weaker position than before . Among the concessions he made was to remove or demote some Catholic officials who had been close to Diệm 's religiously discriminatory rule , angering the minority Catholic community . Among those demoted were Generals Phát and Đức , both Catholic . They launched a coup attempt backed mainly by Catholic elements against Khánh before dawn on 13 September . They took over the city without firing a shot , and used the national radio station to proclaim the deposing of Khanh 's junta . There was little initial reaction from most of the military commanders , including Thi .
However , Phát and Đức could not apprehend Khánh , and the Americans decided to support the incumbent after concluding that the rebels did not have a satisfactory plan to rule . Thi and Air Force chief Kỳ were then prominent in helping to crush the coup . Kỳ and Thi 's role in putting down the coup attempt gave them more leverage in Saigon 's military politics . Indebted to Kỳ , Thi and their so @-@ called Young Turks for maintaining his hold on power , Khánh was now in a weaker position . This group of young officers were headlined by Thi , Kỳ , IV Corps commander General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu , and Admiral Chung Tấn Cang , the head of the Republic of Vietnam Navy . They publicly called on Khanh to remove " corrupt , dishonest and counterrevolutionary " officers , civil servants and exploitationists , and threatened to remove him if he did not enact their proposed reforms .
Some observers accused Kỳ and Thi of either allowing or deliberately orchestrating the plot to embarrass Khánh , portray themselves as heroes , and therefore gain prominence on the political stage . In later years , Cao Huy Thuan , a professor and Buddhist activist based in the city of Đà Nẵng in I Corps , claimed Kỳ and Thi met with him a few days before the coup , and had discussed their plans for joining a coup against Khánh . At the subsequent military trial of Phát and Đức 's faction , the plotters were acquitted . According to the historian George McTurnan Kahin , Khánh rigged the trial so that Đức and Phát were acquitted so they would be used as a Catholic counterweight to the Young Turks faction of Kỳ and Thi , who in Khánh 's eyes had become increasingly strong and ominous . Khánh decided to build an alliance with the generals from Minh 's junta by releasing them from house arrest and recalling them to active roles . However , Thi and Kỳ were aware of the motives for these moves and adjusted accordingly .
= = = Dissolution of the High National Council = = =
The Young Turks and Khánh wanted to forcibly retire officers with more than 25 years of service , ostensibly because they thought them to be lethargic , out of touch , and ineffective . However , the unspoken and most important reason was because they viewed the older generals as rivals for power . Specific targets of this proposed policy were Minh and other senior officers in his short @-@ lived junta , Trần Văn Đôn , Lê Văn Kim and Mai Hữu Xuân .
The signature of the military @-@ appointed civilian Chief of State Phan Khắc Sửu was required to pass the ruling , but Sửu referred the matter to the High National Council ( HNC ) , a junta @-@ appointed civilian advisory body , to get their opinion . The HNC turned down the request . This was speculated to be because many HNC members were old , and did not appreciate the generals ' negativity towards seniors . On 19 December , the generals dissolved the HNC . The operation was commanded by Thi — who had traveled into Saigon from I Corps — and Kỳ . The national police , which was under the control and command of the military , moved through the streets before dawn , arresting five HNC members and other politicians and student leaders they deemed to be an obstacle to military rule . Minh and the other aging generals were arrested and flown to Pleiku , a Central Highlands town in a Montagnard area and forcibly retired , while other officers were simply imprisoned in the capital . The junta 's forces also arrested around 100 members of the National Salvation Council ( NSC ) of the anti @-@ war Lê Khắc Quyến party . The NSC was a new political party active in the I Corps region that opposed the expansion of the war and was aligned with Thi and the Buddhist activist monk Thích Trí Quang . As Thi was active in the purge , it was believed that the Quyen had fallen out with Thi .
The deposal prompted US Ambassador Maxwell D. Taylor to angrily berate Thiệu , Thi , Kỳ and Cang in a private meeting and threaten to cut off aid if they did not reverse their decision . Although nettled by the outburst , Thi took a perverse pleasure in riling Taylor . He was seen by a CIA officer soon after , grinning . When asked why he was happy , Thi said " Because this is one of the happiest days of my life ... Today I told the American ambassador that he could not dictate to us . " The dispute escalated for a few days as the junta threatened to expel Taylor , and Khanh went on a media offensive . A CIA informant reported that the arguments with Taylor had incensed the volatile Thi so much he privately vowed to " blow up everything " and " kill Phan Khac Suu , Trần Văn Hương and Nguyen Khanh and put an end to all this . Then we will see what happens . " However , the dispute galvanized the officers ' nationalist sentiments and they rallied around the embattled Khánh for a time . They ignored Taylor 's threats without suffering repercussions because the Americans were too intent on defeating the communists to cut funding in an attempt to force policy change in Saigon . Thi became notorious for his involvement in infighting . A CIA dossier compiled in the 1960s said that Thi " is like a card player , placing his bets now on this leader , then on another ; he plays his subordinates in the same manner . His only real objective is to continue the game . " Time described him as " vain , ambitious , an inveterate intriguer " . The New York Times described him as " a coup specialist " .
In late January 1965 , Buddhist protests against junta @-@ appointed civilian Prime Minister Trần Văn Hương broke out across South Vietnam . The unrest came after Huong had unveiled plans to expand conscription and the war against the communists , and demonstrations were at their largest in I Corps , a Buddhist and anti @-@ war escalation stronghold . In Huế , matters degenerated into a riot as 5 @,@ 000 demonstrators attacked the United States Information Service Library and burned 8 @,@ 000 books . Khánh and Thi were thought to have turned a blind eye to the rioting in order to allow the disorder to ruin the Huong government and allow them to inherit power . Khánh decided to have the armed forces replace Huong , and on the morning of 27 January , Khánh staged a bloodless putsch with the support of Thi and Kỳ . However , many of the officers had agreed to Khánh 's plan in hopes he would fail and discredit himself .
= = 1965 coup against Nguyen Khanh = =
By this time , Taylor 's relationship with Khánh had already broken down irreparably over the issue of the HNC , and the US became increasingly intent on a regime change as Khánh was becoming increasingly reliant on Buddhist support , which they saw as an obstacle to their war expansion plans . In the first week of February , Taylor told the leading South Vietnamese officers that the US was " in no way propping up General Khánh or backing him in any fashion " . Despite their mutual alignment with Buddhist activists , Thi was known to have become personally hostile to Khánh by this time . During this time , many officers were organizing separate plots against Khánh .
Shortly before noon on 19 February , the undetected communist agent , Colonels Thảo and Phát used tanks and some infantry battalions to seize control of the national military headquarters , post office and the radio station of Saigon . The rebels failed to capture Kỳ , who fled to Tan Son Nhut , where he ran into Khánh , and the pair flew off together , while some junta figures were arrested there . Thao made a radio announcement stating his desire to get rid of Khánh , whom he described as a " dictator " , while some of his fellow rebels made comments eulogizing Diem and indicating that they would start a hardline Catholic regime . This alarmed Thi , as the tone of the comments indicated that the rebels might punish people who had fought against Diệm in the past , such as those involved in the 1960 and 1963 coups .
The Americans decided that while they wanted Khánh out , they did not approve of Thảo and Phát , and their polarizing policies , so they began to lobby Kỳ and Thi , the two most powerful officers apart from Khánh , to defeat both sides . While Kỳ used air power to stop the two sides from confrontation by threatening to bomb them if they opened fire , the Americans consulted with Thi and General Cao Văn Viên , the commander of III Corps surrounding Saigon . They wanted Thi and Vien to assemble units hostile to both Khánh and the rebels into a Capital Liberation Force . The Americans provided Thi with a plane so that he could fly in from his I Corps headquarters in Đà Nẵng to lead ground forces against both Khanh and the rebels .
Late in the night , Thảo and Phát met with Kỳ in a meeting organized by the Americans , and insisted that Khanh be removed from power . The coup collapsed when , between midnight and dawn , anti @-@ coup forces swept into the city ; it was generally thought that the rebels did not put up a fight after being assured that Khánh would be ousted . Early in the morning , Thi , who gained the support of Kỳ , proposed a motion within the junta to remove Khánh and force him into exile , and the final vote was unanimous — Khanh was absent from the meeting . Kỳ , Thi and Thiệu then became the key figures in a junta that continued with Sửu and Prime Minister Phan Huy Quát as a civilian front , although General Minh became the nominal commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces .
Thi was a senior member in the ten @-@ man ruling junta , which wanted to expand the military effort against the communists , something that was opposed by the Buddhist protestors . Thi performed a balancing act and accommodated the Buddhists , wanting them to see him as a friend . He allowed the students to publish a magazine that was highly critical of military rule . Thi also manoeuvred to have his trusted subordinate Colonel Pham Van Lieu installed as the head of the national police — a body controlled by the army and effectively a military unit — increasing his political power . Following his ascension , Lieu replaced most of the Saigon district police chiefs with Thi supporters , raising the ire of some other prominent officers . The Buddhist activist leader Thích Trí Quang said that " Thi is nominally a Buddhist , but does not really care about religion " . In June 1965 , Quat and Sửu resigned because of persistent disputes with the military and one another ; Thi had an opportunity to take power . Quat resigned and tried to directly hand over power to Thi , but this was not allowed by the generals . Nevertheless , Thi was offered the prime ministerial position by his colleagues . He was seen as having a similar level of political influence to Kỳ , and was voted in as prime minister by the ten @-@ man junta . However , he declined the job offer on the private advice of Lieu , who told him that the political conditions were not ideal and that he should let a rival take control and fail before stepping in himself . According to Kahin , " to his [ Thi 's ] own bitter disappointment , he was never given a second chance " . Thi 's blunder was a great relief to the Americans , who were aware of the fact that Thi — despite being anti @-@ communist — had a hostility towards American advice . Kỳ and Thiệu , both pro @-@ American and supportive of a drastic escalation in anti @-@ communist military activity , became prime minister and head of state respectively , the latter post being largely ceremonial . Regardless of who held the top jobs , no officer had firm control over his peers , and the respective corps commanders were effectively allowed to independently rule their own regions in return for ongoing support of the junta .
In the same year , U.S. ground forces were introduced into combat roles in large numbers , and the first US Marines came ashore at Da Nang in Thi 's I Corps . The flamboyant Thi organized for the American troops to be greeted by military bands , welcoming banners and teenage girls who garlanded them with flowers . This caused embarrassment to US military officials who felt the introduction of combat troops and resultant American casualties would not be received well by the public when contrasted with Thi 's celebratory fanfare . Soon after the Americans were in position , Thi tipped off Marine Lieutenant General Lewis W. Walt about a major movement of Việt Cộng insurgents near Chu Lai in Quảng Trị Province near the border with North Vietnam . This resulted in Operation Starlite , generally regarded as the first offensive action undertaken by the Americans in the Vietnam War . Occurring between 18 – 24 August , it resulted in the 1st Việt Cộng Regiment being pushed to the coast .
= = Buddhist Uprising of 1966 = =
Air Marshal Kỳ , the prime minister and the most powerful member of the junta feared Thi as a rival . Many political observers in Saigon thought Thi actively wanted to depose Kỳ , and regarded him as the biggest threat to the other officers ' factions and the junta 's stability . According to Kỳ 's memoirs , Thi was a " born intriguer " who had " left @-@ wing inclinations " . Time magazine published a piece in February 1966 claiming Thi was more dynamic than Kỳ and could seize power at any time . Historian Robert Topmiller thought Kỳ may have seen the article as destabilizing and therefore decided to move against Thi , who was known to have the " deep @-@ rooted " loyalty of his soldiers . A large part of the South Vietnamese military was the Regional and Popular Forces , militia that served in their native areas , and they appreciated a commander with whom they had a regionalistic rapport . The support from the Buddhists , his troops and the regionalistic tendencies gave Thi a strong power base and made it hard for the other generals and the Americans to move against him . The outspoken Thi was also known as the general most likely to question and speak out against US policy .
The historian Stanley Karnow said of Kỳ and Thi : " Both flamboyant characters who wore gaudy uniforms and sported sinister moustaches , the two young officers had been friends , and their rivalry seemed to typify the personal struggles for power that chronically afflicted South Vietnam . But their dispute mirrored more than individual ambition . " Both were also known for their colorful red berets . There were reports Thi was showing insubordination towards Kỳ . The US military commander in Vietnam , General William Westmoreland , said that Thi once refused to report to Kỳ in Saigon when requested . On one occasion , when Kỳ came to I Corps to remonstrate with him , Thi turned to address his staff and mockingly asked " Should we pay attention to this funny little man from Saigon or should we ignore him ? " Thi made this comment rather loudly , within earshot of Ky , and the Vietnamese politician Bùi Diễm thought that Kỳ viewed Thi 's comment as a direct and calculated challenge to his authority . Time said Thi " ran it [ I Corps ] like a warlord of yore , obeying those edicts of the central government that suited him and blithely disregarding the rest " . Of the four corps commanders , Thi was seen as the one with the most power and independence from Saigon . Kahin thought Kỳ may have feared that Thi would secede from Saigon and turn central Vietnam into an independent state . The CIA analyst Douglas Pike , who worked in Vietnam , speculated that this would have been a large part of Ky 's thinking , as Vietnamese people have often had strong regional tendencies .
Knowing that Westmoreland and the US Embassy were hostile to Thi and supportive of his leadership , Kỳ mustered the support of eight generals on the 10 @-@ man junta , meaning that along with his vote , there were nine officers in favor of Thi 's removal . With Thi the only non @-@ supporter , Kỳ and his colleagues removed Thi from the junta and his corps command on 10 March 1966 . Thi claimed that during this meeting , knowing the other generals ' antipathy to him , he nettled them by chastising their commitment to the country . He said the populace would never support the generals ' war effort as long as they lived so comfortably , and he mocked them for ostentatiously flying their wives and mistresses to Hong Kong for shopping expeditions . The junta put Thi under house arrest pending his deportation from the country , and appointed General Nguyễn Văn Chuân , the erstwhile commander of 1st Division and a Thi subordinate , as the new I Corps commander .
The Americans supported Thi 's removal as they regarded him as being soft on communism , and a " virtual warlord " . US Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge , Jr . , Westmoreland and the Defense Secretary Robert McNamara were supportive of the Kỳ @-@ Thiệu regime , their prosecution of the war against the communists and support of a US escalation , and they opposed Thi , regarding him as lacking firmness against communism . At a White House meeting after news of the dismissal came through , Taylor said that Thi was " a bad character and good riddance " . Lodge wrote in a report that Thi " cherished some resentment against the Americans in respect of what he considers political and military interference and infringement of sovereignty " , claiming he had contemplated " the possibility of establishing a government in the south which would be of such a character that the bulk of the population including the Vietcong would support it — and presumably neutralization of the country and possibly federation with the North would soon be possible " . The Americans wanted to ease Thi out of the corridors of power by offering him an economic future in the US and free education for his children , and Lodge and Westmoreland personally spoke to him in an attempt to convince him to accept , but they were unsuccessful . On the other hand , Thi had the support of Walt , who commanded American forces in I Corps and was the senior advisor to Thi 's forces . Unlike his countrymen , Walt thought highly of Thi , and his ability as an officer .
Kỳ claimed Thi was leaving the country to receive medical treatment for his nasal passages , as well as a general health examination . An official announcement said that the junta " had considered and accepted General Thi 's application for a vacation " . Thi retorted that " The only sinus condition I have is from the stink of corruption . " With the health story exposed as a sham , Kỳ gave a series of reasons for dismissing Thi , accusing him of being too left @-@ wing , ruling I Corps like a warlord , having a mistress who was suspected of being a communist , and being too conspiratorial . Kỳ knew that Thi supported negotiations with the communists as a means of ending the war , and had a history of consistently removing officials and military figures who promoted such a policy , but did not publicly mention this as a reason . Thi 's dismissal provoked the Buddhist Uprising , led by the " Struggle Movement " . Thi was immensely popular in the Buddhist stronghold of Huế , a city of approximately 120 @,@ 000 , and civil unrest erupted throughout the region . When he returned to the former imperial capital five days after being relieved of his command , around 20 @,@ 000 supporters mobbed him , shouting and trying to touch him . This was part of a gamble by Kỳ to allow Thi back to his home city in an attempt to placate the dismayed locals , but it did not work . A general strike incapacited 90 % of Da Nang , the second biggest city in South Vietnam and the main port in central Vietnam .
During a rally , a Buddhist student leader cried " Do you want the general to stay with us ? " to which the students and other protestors answered , " Yes ! Yes ! " Thi told the large crowd to " Think about our country , not about me " . During the tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek speech , he made sarcastic references about his need to go to the US for health treatment . He told a journalist that he would accept " any position which is useful for the country " , leading some to think that he wanted Kỳ or Thiệu 's job . According to Time magazine , Thi 's speeches showed he " was obviously torn between a desire to rally support for a comeback and his soldier 's distaste for adding to dissension " . Kahin said that " despite the circumspection of his public addresses , [ they ] undoubtedly helped encourage the Struggle Movement . "
The various dissidents formed a pro @-@ Thi , anti @-@ Kỳ organization called the Military @-@ Civilian Struggle Committee , better known as the Struggle Movement . Their message and influence quickly spread as they called for the end of military rule and took over radio stations and government buildings in I Corps . They intensified their calls for Kỳ to fulfil his promise to hold democratic elections . Some I Corps units supportive of Thi then decided to join the Struggle Movement and ceased military operations against the Vietcong , instead starting a stand @-@ off against Kỳ . Throughout April and May there were tense incidents as units loyal to the junta were flown in from Saigon , and the factions came close to warfare .
Thi publicly disassociated himself from the Struggle Movement . However , he remained in I Corps and was still regarded as a significant political influence and motivating factor for the Struggle Movement . Regardless of what he may have thought , the discontent against Kỳ was by then too much for him to control even if he had wanted to . By June , ARVN loyalists , with the help of the American forces , prevailed . Their superior numbers convinced many in the Struggle Movement to back down and realign with the government , and those who refused were militarily defeated , often in bitter street @-@ to @-@ street fighting . While the Struggle Movement was finally ebbing away , Thi agreed to meet with Kỳ at an American air base in Chu Lai to reach a settlement , seeing as the junta was going to prevail in any case . Thi agreed to the original offers of subsidies and the cover story of a medical trip .
= = Exile = =
After the uprising was crushed , Thi was deported to the USA , and lived in a small apartment on Connecticut Avenue on Dupont Circle , Washington , D.C. Although the apartment was small , Kahin , who interviewed Thi after his exile , described it as " handsome " . However , The New York Times called it " shabby " . Thi left his uniforms in his closet in Vietnam and disposed of all his medals . The only thing he kept from his military career was an army blanket . As part of his removal from South Vietnam , the American government gave him a substantial living allowance and paid for all his children 's education fees . Around 1973 , the payments were suddenly discontinued . In Washington , Thi spent much of his time at the Library of Congress , reading books about Asian history . Outspoken and still supported by many Buddhists , Thi tried to return to South Vietnam in February 1972 , but troops loyal to the Diệmist President Thiệu surrounded his plane on the tarmac and prevented him from disembarking ; the aircraft eventually took off and returned to the U.S.
Thi lived in the American capital until 1975 , when he moved to Arkansas . He lived in the southern state for a short period before settling in Lancaster , Pennsylvania . He worked in a variety of jobs and occasionally made speeches at universities and to Vietnamese American organizations and meetings . According to his relatives , Thi remained popular among the Vietnamese American community , most of whom had come to the US after the fall of Saigon and were stridently anti @-@ communist . His family said their refugee compatriots often recognized him , and usually refused to let him pay for meals at their restaurants . Thi 's second marriage , to Oanh Nguyen , ended in divorce . They had five children , four sons and a daughter . He later remarried , to Catherine Nguyen , who bore him a daughter . In all , Thi had six children and 12 grandchildren . He died at the Hospice of Lancaster County from heart ailments on 23 June 2007 .
|
Subsets and Splits
No saved queries yet
Save your SQL queries to embed, download, and access them later. Queries will appear here once saved.